Tva and Geographers

8/6/2019 Tva and Geographers

1/21

American Geographical Society

Geographers and the Tennessee Valley AuthorityAuthor(s): Ronald Reed BoyceSource: Geographical Review, Vol. 94, No. 1 (Jan., 2004), pp. 23-42Published by: American Geographical SocietyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/30033951 .

Accessed: 24/05/2011 15:30

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at .http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless

you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you

may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.

Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at .http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=ags. .

Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed

page of such transmission.

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of

content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms

of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

American Geographical Society is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to

Geographical Review.

http://www.jstor.org
http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=agshttp://www.jstor.org/stable/30033951?origin=JSTOR-pdfhttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=agshttp://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=agshttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsphttp://www.jstor.org/stable/30033951?origin=JSTOR-pdfhttp://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=ags


2/21

GEOGRAPHERSNDTHETENNESSEEALLEYUTHORITY*RONALD REED BOYCE

ABSTRACT.he TennesseeValleyAuthority TvA) was the largest,most comprehensive,andmost controversial egional developmentand planning project n U.S.history.Geographerswere involved from its inception and made impressivecontributions.Aside from the unitareamethod of datagatheringandmapping, ittle is known abouttheircontributions, omeof which were trulyaheadof their time. Althoughtheir work and recommendationswereoften discardedand unheededbecause of politicalturbulence, he geographers arelycom-plainedor entered nto the politicalarena.Their work in the TVA as generallygone unher-aldedand evenunappreciatedwithin the geographyprofession.Theprimarypurposeof thisarticle is to document their contributions.Keywords:eographical ynthesis,TennesseeValleyAuthority, radeareaanalysis,unitareamethod.

On 19 April 933, after ess than one month n office,President ranklinDelanoRoosevelteloquentlyarguedbefore the U.S.Congress hat the comprehensivede-velopmentandplanningof the entireTennesseeValleydrainagebasin would be animportantantidotefor the GreatDepression.He insisted that the project"tran-scends merepower development: t enters the wide fields of flood control,refores-tation, elimination from agriculturaluse of marginal ands,and the distributionand diversification of industry" (quoted in Rosenman 1933,123). In fact, the projectwould require he plannedand coordinateddevelopmentof all the resources n aseven-statearea(Clapp 1956, 6). When PresidentRooseveltsigned the TennesseeValley Authority (TVA)Act on 18May 1933,he launched the largest, most ambitious,and unquestionablymost controversial egional development planning projectinU.S.history-and the only such projectever undertaken n the nation.

The TVAwas organized nto about a dozen divisions and severaloffices,eachwith a number of subsections.Eachunitwouldhaveconsiderableauthority,and itsleaders were to be encouragedto offer suggestionsfor achievingthe generalTVAgoals.An active and involved three-manboard would make finalpolicy.Allhiringandfiringwas to be nonpolitical,and advancementwas to be by merit andperfor-mance only.Mostnovel,andverycontroversial,was how the TVAwould take overthe functionsof half a dozen governmentbureausand agencies n the TVAwater-shed (Lilienthal 1953).

The general goalsof the TVAwereto improve agriculture, ndustry,and com-merceand to elevate he generalstandardof living in the region. Farming, he pri-I wish o thankMarion .Marts,Gilbert .White,Chauncy .Harris,ndGeoffreyMartinorcritical uidancein theearly tages f thestudy. alsoowea special ebt o themanypeoplewhoprovidednformationnlettersand nterviews,swellas o Edwin .Best, eferenceibrarianftheTennesseealley uthority,orverifyingll hewritingsf geographershileat theTvA. wish othank articularlyhethree nonymouseviewersfthisarticlefor theirhelpfuladvice.Thanks lso to DominicWilliamson nd AndrewRodman,nstructionalechnologyServices,eattle acific niversity,orpreparinghe llustrationsorpublication.inally,would ike o thank heeditors f theGeographicaleview, ouglas ohnson ndViolaHaarmann,oralltheirassistance.At- DR. BOYCEsa professoremeritusof geographyat SeattlePacificUniversity,Seattle,Washington98119.

The Geographical Review 94 (1): 23-42, January 2004Copyright 2005bythe AmericanGeographical ocietyof New York


3/21

THE

TENNESSEE

VALLEY

VA- 5BristolSo.'HOLSTON"WATAUGA

rCHER.OKEE

N.C. Asheville

NORRIS

PADUCAH

23miles

above

mouth

PROFILE

OFTHETENNESSEE

RIVER

602650

KNOXVI

LLE

207

259275

349

431

471

530

41830037507.8

74529.356.3595.485.4

heightofgates

abovesea

815

FORTLOUDOUN

WATTSBAR

HALESBARCHICKAMAUGA

WHEELER

GUNTERSVILLE

WILSON

HIWASSEE

CHEROKEEUQUCLAS

FONTANA

NORRIS

S t o r a q e

OnfributaryStreamsDams

GLENVILLE,

,NANTAH)LArNOTTELY

BLUEIDGEGA.

,CHATUGEONTANAFORTLOUDOU.NIOUGLAS

FKnoxvilej.CALDERWOOD

CHEOAHSANTEETLAHIHIWASSEEiAPALACHIA

NO.1OCOEESNO.1

NO.1

Chattanooga

KY.River GREAT

FALLSWATTSBAR

WATTSBAR

LS

STEAMPLANT

CHICKAMAUOAHALESBAR,and

cumberlNashvilleTENN GUNTERSVILLEWIA.

WILSONSTEAMPLANT

PICKWICK

E E L E R M

IjILSO4N

KENTUCKY

PICKWICK

MISS

.

Memphis

r i v e r see tennes

rississippi

riverPaducah

KENTUCKY'hiorkCairo,

FIG.1-TheTennessee

Valley

inthe1930sandtheplanfordamandreservoir

construction.

Notetheextensive

reservoir

inundations

thatwere

planned.

(Reproduced

courtesy

oftheTennessee

ValleyAuthority)

24 THE GEOGRAPHICALEVIEW


4/21

GEOGRAPHERS AND THE TVA 25

maryactivity,wasespecially epressed,ndTVA egislationequiredhatfertilizerandpowerbe available o farmersat the lowestpossible prices.Thelegislationalsospecifiedthat some farmland hat had been heavilyerodedby the growingof rowcrops-especiallycotton, tobacco,and corn-on steep slopesbe takenout of pro-duction and reforested.Another issue was the need to aid existingbusinessesandattractnew industry.Toaccomplish hesegoalsthe TVAwasto seek state and localcooperation hroughthe democraticprocessthattodayis referred o as"grassrootsdemocracy."To its many critics,"grassrootsdemocracy" imply meant that localpower groupssuchas the FarmBureauFederationand the AgriculturalExtensionServicehad to bow to TVA demands,particularly hose that would benefit largelandholders,such as white planters(Leuchtenburg 963,86-87). The primarygoalwas the generationof powerfrom the dams to provideruralelectrification.

Theimmediate asksof the TVAwereto inventoryandpurchase he land neededforbuildingdams and reservoirs,o begin constructionof the Norris Dam on theupperTennesseeby October1933,and to alternateconstructingan upriverflood-controlstoragedam with constructinga multipurpose(flood control,navigation,andpower) dam on the lowerTennessee,herebycreatinga 650-mile-longnaviga-tion channel fromPaducah,Kentuckyo Knoxville,Tennessee.Workon the WheelerDam in Alabama, he first downrivermultipurposedam and reservoir,began on21 December 1933 (Sayford 1935) (Figure 1).The regionaldevelopment aspectsof the TVAproject required mmediate datagatheringndanalysisn a massivecale, articularlynagriculture,orestry,ndtowndevelopment.heDivision f LandPlanningndHousing, ith he and-scaperchitectarl .Drapersdirector,as reatedoaccomplishhat ask.Draperwas interested n town planning,conservation,andgeneralefficiency Black2000,85). The Universityof Chicagourbanand regional geographerCharles C. Colby(1934-1944) was retained as a consultant. The division comprised five sections:land classification,which included most of the geographerswho workedfor theTVAn its earlyyears;architectural nd aestheticmatters; own planning;conser-vation and recreation;and service and drafting,which was laterchangedto mapsand mapping and eventuallyobtaineddivisional status (Massa1995). G. DonaldHudson (1934-1939), who had just completed his doctoral dissertation at the Uni-versityof Chicago 1934), wasappointedchiefgeographer f the LandClassificationSection. Othergeographers,primarilyfrom the Universityof Chicago,includedMalcolm J. Proudfoot (1934-1935), Bernard H. Schockel (1934-1935), RobertM. Glendinning (1934-1936), Victor Roterus (1935-1940), Allan A. Twitchell (1935),and Howard V. Miller (1934-1944). Most of the geographers remained with theTVA or only a few years.They left becausejobs became plentifulelsewhereandperhapsbecause much of their earlyexpectationof large-scaleregional planningdid not develop.

The geographersn the Divisionof LandPlanningandHousingundertookfivemajortasks:datagatheringandmapmaking, egionalanalysesandsyntheses, arm-ing and farmsteadanalyses, own economic-baseand trade-areaanalyses,and rec-


5/21

26 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

reationalstudies.Theymade substantialcontributions o developingthe complexdata-gathering methods necessary to cover an area as vast as the Tennessee Valleydrainage system. They wrote dozens of reports, ranging from regional syntheses torigorous farm- and town-impact analyses. However, they were neither policymakersnor strong advocates for particular development goals. Instead, they served largelyas scholar-servants, even as "hewers of facts and makers of maps" (Ullman 1960).'In the eyes of the geography profession, this was not a particularly noble undertak-ing, merely an opportunityfor geographers o gain employment during difficulttimes and to "earntheir stripes"as geographers (Hudson 1976).Moreover, the workwas in appliedgeography, n area of endeavorwhich at that time was consideredsecondaryto the more elegantuniversityresearch,publication,and teaching.

For this article,allreportsandstudiesin the archivesof the TVAmadeby geog-raphersbetween 1933and 1940 were examined. The article is also based on inter-views with peoplewho had contact with geographerswho workedat the TVA.I amparticularly fortunate to have engaged in countless conversations with G. DonaldHudson, my colleague and mentor, over several decades about the role of geogra-phers in the TVAandto have been eventuallyentrustedwithhis privatepapers.Thepapersprovide instructiveinsights into Hudson'sTVA experience, ncluding, forexample,his transmittal ettersto his superior,DirectorDraper,which werepartofall reports.

THE NATURE OF GEOGRAPHY IN 1934It is importantto understandhow geographersat the time perceivedthemselvesamongacademicdisciplines, he tools theypossessed,and theirgeneralphilosophyas to the natureof geography Entrikinand Brunn1989).Suchperspectivesprovideconsiderable nsight into how the geographersn the TVAthoughtthey should re-port to the professionand how the professionmightview their work.

By 1934geographyhad experiencedyearsof bitterand divisivediscussion,aswell as criticismfromthose in otherdisciplines,particularly ver the issue of envi-ronmentaldeterminism, a concept well demonstratedby EllsworthHuntington(Martin 1973).Overlyenthusiasticadvocatesof environmentaldeterminism wereoften accused of making broad generalizationsabout man-land relationships,wherebythe physicalenvironmentwas presumedto generallydetermine the cul-turalresponse.As appliedby some, the conceptlackedsystematicanalysis.To counteractthis, some geographers nsisted that very careful,detailed,andrigorousfield studieswere the remedyfor broadspatialgeneralizations.This "newgeography"ntroduced he famous field studies and contained echniques hat wereto some degreecarriedover into the initialTVAfield studies.The new geographyphilosophy,at least implicitly,was that one could not gatherand map too manydata(Jonesand Finch1925;Finch1933). Covariationof data was presumedto sug-gest powerful relationships or understandingand solving problems.The generalbelief was that suchfacts,when mapped,would suggest o aknowledgeable eogra-phernot onlywhat couldbe done but also whatshouldbe done. "Itwas concluded


6/21


that if the essential acts wereknown,certainabusesmightbe abatedor prevented,andlines of properdevelopmentactivitymightbe instituted" McMurry1936,95).It was also the assumptionof geographershatthey should be the greatsynthesiz-ers,therebyprovidingguidanceand leadership o those in more "narrow" rofes-sions.

Cartographerswere consideredprimarilyas an important adjunctto the aca-demicprofession"Cartography... was tolerated n universitydepartmentsof theday mainlyto the extent that an ablegraduatestudent,handywith pen and ink,couldmakemapsfor the professors'papersfor theAAG,or basemapsfor the classroom" Wray1996).Mapmakingwas not considered hehighest orm of geographicalpractice.Town and regionalplanning,an appliedarea,also was not fully appreciated

within the geographyprofession.Applied geographywas viewed with suspicion,and its practitionershad only second-classcitizenship n the profession.2Geogra-phersstudiedthe placementof cities and their economy,but their internalstruc-ture was rarelyanalyzed; ociologistsand town plannerswere the primaryexpertson such matters.Consequently,he internalspatialstructure of citieswas largelyleft to planners, andscapearchitects,and appliedgeographers.CharlesColbywasone of the few academicgeographerswho had a high regard or planningand ap-plied geographyand encouragedmany of his students to pursuea career n plan-ning (Starr 1995, 570).

DATA GATHERING AND MAPMAKINGThe immediatetask of the geographersn the Land ClassificationSectionwas tomake an inventoryof all lands under the TVA.Althoughthe detailedcontourmapsneeded for dam and reservoir construction were preparedby the U.S. Corps ofEngineers(Sayford1935), and to be inundatedby reservoirs,as well as land adja-cent to the proposedreservoirs, equiredpromptattentionby geographers.Farm-lands needed to be inventoriedpriorto purchase,roads and cemeterieshad to beplannedforrelocation,arm-ownership atternsneeded to be determined,and con-siderableotherinformationhad to be mapped.However, here were no good basemapson which to plot such information.3

TheTVAgeographersonductedpilotstudies nthreeseparateareasof 550squaremiles each and tried to use the fractionalcode method developed by WellingtonJonesand VernonFinch(Hudson1935c, ) byapplyingnumeric coded datadirectlyon maps.It soon becameclear,however, hatalthoughthe fractionalcode methodhad been appliedsuccessfullyo smallareas,such as fields,it was not suited to themassive nventoryof land requiredby the TVA.It was too slow,too costly,and tootailoredto the microscaleof the farm field. To overcomethese limitations the TVAgeographersdesigned he unit areamethod of land classification Figure2). Unlikemost other techniquesused by geographersn the TVA,this method became wellknownbecause t wasdescribed n anAnnalsof theAssociation f AmericanGeogra-phersarticle(Hudson 1936c).


7/21


By applying he unitareamethod to the newlyavailableplanimetricaerialpho-tographsthat had been contractedby the TVA,some 16,oo000quaremiles of terri-tory-about one-thirdof the TennesseeRiverwaterbasin-were inventoried n justtwo years.This maywell have been the most data collected on such a vastarea nsuch a short time. It was an amazingachievement,and,as Hudson emphasized, trequired"doggedperseverance,ong hours,andjustplainhardwork" 1976). n hisreportto Draper,Hudson stated thatby employingthe unit areamethod "roughly20 square miles can be covered per man-day as compared to 300 to 400 acres"byusingthe fractionalcode method (1935b).

To a considerable xtentthe speedwithwhich the inventorywas conductedwasmadepossible by the largeunit area(200 acresor more) usedfor eachparcelentry.Numerous datawereentered n alphabeticand numeric code directlyon the unitareachosen.For eachunitarea,at leastfifteendetailedcategoriesof data,each withabout half a dozen choices,were entered on the aerialphotograph,either in the"numerator"r in the "denominator"artof a short or long"fraction." ieldjudg-ment was required or eachentry,makingit somewhatsubjective.4n the first twoyearsmore than to million entries were made on photographic ieldmaps.

Thegeographersdidnot explain specificallyhow the unitsof 200 acresor morewere determined. The units were too largefor much farmsteadanalysis,becausemost farmscomprisedioo acres or less and contained considerable ield and cropdiversity. t is alsodifficult o understandwhyso manydatawererequired.Hudsonreasoned that the "objective f the LandClassificationProgram s to providelandplanningwith a base of operationmuch like that providedthe engineer throughcontour and geological maps and that providedthe cost accountantthroughex-penditurerecords"1935a).The criticaldataneed,in lightof TVA legislation,was toidentify and determine "theproperuse of marginallands"(U.S. Congress 1933,S23, 69).In the end, thesedetailedfield-generateddata were never used.A fiercedebateamong TVAdirectorseruptedover planning policy and the use of such datawithrespectto the TVAAct (U.S.Congress1933).A. E.Morgan,chairmanof the three-man Board of Directors,argued hat suchanalyses hould be used forcomprehen-siveplanning.Otherdirectors easoned hattheTennesseeValley hould be plannedfrom the bottom up in a voluntaryand "grassroots-democracy"ashion.Morganlost,PresidentRoosevelt iredhim forcontumacy,and the gatheringof field data nthis manner was discontinued. How the TVAgeographers viewed the controversyand its consequencesis not clear.They chose not to publish information abouttheirwork,so theirposition remainsoff the record.

REGIONAL SYNTHESIS AND FARMSTEAD ANALYSESThe TVA geographersdid, however,preparea number of reportson the generalstate of the farmeconomyas revealedby the 1930 Census of Agriculture. soplethmaps compiled on a county-unitbasis documented the regionaldiversityof theTennesseebasin.Upon submissionof the RheaCounty data,Hudson defined the


8/21


Unit-AreaLandClasses Notation,TVATypesof AgriculturalLand:Short Fraction:SummaryAppraisalOne Roman NumeralFive Problem Classes

Numerator:Use QualityOne Digit.............5classesDenom:LandQualityOne Digit.............5classes

Sample PolygonsonMaporAirphotoBase200-AcreMinimum

IV3/41N333/41321144122114

436

204

Acres

LongFraction:Detailed ConditionsNumerator: and UseFirst Digit..........5classesSecond Digit...14classesThirdDigit.........4classesFourthDigit......5 classesFifthDigit..........5classesDenom:Land ConditionFirstDigit.........6classesSecond Digit....5classesThirdDigit........5classesFourthDigit.....4 classesFifthDigit........5 classesSixth Digit........4classesSeventh Digit...5classes

Types of Non-AgriculturalLand:Numerator-OneDigit,EightClasses,;Denominator Seven Diits, same classes as forAgriculturalandFIG. 2-An exampleof the unit-area and classesnotationdevelopedby geographers t the Tennes-seeValleyAuthority orthepurposeof rapid, arge-scaledatagathering.Note the voluminous amountof datathat could be coded in the field.(Draftedby JamesR.Wray)

nature and purpose of these studies as aiming "to furnish a perspective in whichmore intensive studies may be viewed, and to which land planning policies andspecific judgments of the Division [of Land Planning and Housing] may be related.... The present study-drafted by Allan A. Twitchell-illustrates the type of generalconclusions which can be established by the synthesis of available materials.... Thiskind of synthesis can rapidly be extended, by counties or groups of counties, toother portions of the Valley"(1936b).Regional synthesis was considered the highestskill of the geographer, bringing together all aspects of an area-physical, cultural,historical-in order to gain comprehensive spatial understanding.

Although these attempts at regional synthesis were cursory, pragmatic in scope,and limited to readily available data, they should not be minimized, for they maywell have been one of the TVA geographers' greatest contributions. By identifyingsubregions within the TVA hey demonstrated the fallacy of the common assump-tion that "one suit fits all"(Garrison 1996),and they showed that different approacheswere needed in different parts of the Tennessee Valley.

Studies were based on county data available from the Department of Agricul-ture. The entire Tennessee River basin was examined, and maps for each censusyear were generated. Forty-seven maps from the 193o Census of Population andHousing data were submitted between 1936and 1937alone (Figure 3). These mapsfeatured critical row crops, such as corn, tobacco, or cotton, as well as general crop-


9/21

30 THE GEOGRAPHICALREVIEW

DISTPIBUTION OF C1OPI FAILUIEDERCENT OF LAND IN FARMS, IASED ON g030 CENSUS DATA BY COUNTIES

INTENNESSEE VALLEY f SURROUNDING AREASCALEINMILES10 0 10 70 30 40 50PREPAREDAYTENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHOPITY

DIVIS.ON OF LAND PLANNING b HOUSING

FIG. -Geographerscompileddozens of mapsof the TennesseeValley,demonstrating he regionaldiversityof the areaandhighlighting armingproblems.Source:TVA1936a, ig.7. (Reproduced our-tesyof the TennesseeValleyAuthority)

FIGUREIHUSTBURG-DUCKIVER REAGENERALIZEDIAGRAMOF LANDANDLANDUSE

CORN

BUCKR.

:FORESTRESIDENCEPASTUREGARDENSIDLELESPEDEZLSOYEANSWLHE

IDLE TERRACEAND

UPPERANDLOWERENCHESFIRSTBOTTOMS

FIG. -Dozens of farmswere examined n the TennesseeValleydrainagearea,resulting n variousgeneralizeddiagramsof farmlanduse. In most instances,a long-lot farmpatternexisted.Source:Gray1938, ig. II. (Reproduced ourtesyof the TennesseeValleyAuthority)


10/21


yielddata for each.Thestudiesclearlydemonstrated he seriousnessof soil erosionin the basin anddocumented the diversityof such problemswithin the TennesseeValley.Theregionalmapsallowedthe geographerso focuson the problemof erosion.They documented the reasons for wholesale field abandonmentby examiningindetaila dozen farms n variouspartsof the valley (Figure4), therebyobtainingacomprehensiveunderstanding f the natureof the farmproblem.This wasparticu-larly nsightful n the formulationof policiesfor"taking"purchasing)entirefarm-steads located near reservoirs.In most cases, the reservoirwould flood criticalbottomlandand render he entire farmmarginal.The TVA eographersunderstoodwell that,Because f theerosive haracterf thesoils,only hefairlyevelportions f uplandare suited orcultivation. ossof thebottomlands,romwhichmost of the farmincome sderived,anonlyresultnmore ntensive ultivation f theupland nlesssources fincome ther han arming reavailable....Hillsideshroughhesectionaregashedwithgullies,mpartingoitanappearancef desolation ndsterility....Inmostofthearea,hereareno bottomlandsvailableoragriculturalseandcon-sequentlyheuplandsmustbe cultivated. or hewhole,at least60percent f thecleared and is idle or abandoned. GrayandCarringer 939,15-17,20)

In a report by E. N. Torbert, a geographer (1935-1939), a plan for action is articu-latedin that "seriousdisturbance o theeconomyof individual armsobviouslywillbe causedby the flooding of croplands n the Tennesseeand tributarycreek bot-toms.Unquestionably, moreintensiveuseof unpurchaseduplandwill follow.Theconsequences,n terms of erosion and siltation,mayconstitute a serious hazard otheAuthority's rogram"Torbert 938,9). Althoughstrongremedialmeasureswererecommended n a numberof studies,such as those by Torbert, ew wereadopted.The generalattitudewas that this kind of destructionwas inevitable:Farmers' s-sumptionsthattheyhad a rightto produceany crop theywished on their and wereat completevariancewith city planningandzoninglawsat the time.

Seizingthe golden opportunityto trulyapplycity planningzoning law to re-gional planning might well haveprevented he disasters hat continued to plaguefarming n somepartsof the valleyfor decades(Crosswhite 963,155). nterestingly,PresidentRoosevelthad made it clearthatapplyingurban-planningprocedures nruralareaswould be beneficial:"Manyhard essons havetaughtus the human wastethat results from lack of planning.Here and there a few wise cities and countieshave looked aheadandplanned.But our nationhas'just grown.' t is time to extendplanning to a wider field" (New York Times 1933, 1).5On the other hand, Hudsonsurelyknew that the Board of Directorswould not approvethe applicationof ur-ban-planningprinciplesto ruralareas.The directorof TVA'sDivision of ForestryRelationshadpreviouslyrecommended o the boardthatmarginal ands be subjectto regulationand that half of those lands be placedin the publicdomain and man-aged ike ForestService ands.Not onlydid theboarddisapproveof the proposal, t


11/21


replacedthe division's chief foresterand adopted a formalpolicy of cooperativearrangementswith otheragenciesas "anexperiment n education"or the farmers(Artman 1956, 177).

To theirlastingcredit,the TVA eographers ecommended,and put into effect,"a iberaltaking-landpolicyas appliedto farmoperators,dependingon both bot-tom and upland holdings" Torbert 938, 11).They effectivelyarguedthat,if takingpart of a farm rendered he remaindernonviable,the entirefarmshouldbe pur-chased.Many of the farmsfollowed a long-lot pattern:Bottomlands near riverswere farmers'choice acreage,and farmsteads hemselveswere located on higher,hilly ground.In addition,many farmershad purchased ome nearbybottomland,even if it was not contiguous to their main operation.Therefore, f bottomlandwere lost by inundation,an entire farmmight be made marginal.Consequently,more farms were purchasedoutrightthan would havebeen necessary simplyforreservoir mpoundmentand shoreline runoff or land-restorationpurposes.6

As might have been expected,this liberalland-takingpolicy was widely criti-cized.The "overpurchase"f lands, especiallyaround the Norris Reservoir,ed toheatedpublicdebate.Geographers, owever,deliberatelydid not engagein the ar-gument.7The issue became so public and so fierce that the TVA changedits land-purchaseolicy ndretainedublic ccesso the akes nly n certaineyplaces.Eventuallyhat andwas urned ver o ocalurisdictionsnd tatesorrecreationalmanagementurposesNash1956,137-145).Onceagain he recommendationsfthe TVA eographerswere not actedupon.TOWN ECONOMIC BASE AND TRADE AREA ANALYSES

Extensiveand impressivestudieswere also conducted on the economic basesandtrade areasof towns, particularly s they might be impactedby reservoirdevelop-ment. Businesses n towns wereinventoried,and calculationswere made as to thelikely mpactof reservoirs n total salesand services Figure5).Likewise,hepoten-tial for new towns and their best locations receivedclose attention.The trade-areastudies were classicspatial nteractionstudies and predecessorso the more rigor-ous models of centralplace theory.HaroldBrodsky'snsightfularticle on "RetailAreaOverlap"2003) is an exampleof such appliedgeography oday.The La Follettewholesale trade-area tudyis an instructivecase and indicativeof the seminal natureof these studies and theirpossible lasting impacton profes-sional geography.Hudson outlined it thus:

TheWholesale radeAreaof LaFollettewasdelimited ylocating etailunits hatdopartor allof theirwholesale usinesswithLaFolletteirms.Theseunits ncludeddealersngasoline, roceriesndsugar, ardwarend armmplements, rygoods,andfertilizer. ataon the sourceandvolumeofwholesale oodshandled ytheseretail units were obtainedby interviewingowners or managersof retailestablish-ments.The finalboundaryof the WholesaleTradeArea of La Folletterepresentsacompromise n wholesaletrade boundariesfor the fivetypesof commodities indi-cated.(1936a)


12/21


SODDY, TENNESSEETENNESSEE VALLEY AUTI4OIITYDIVISIONFLANDPLANNINGOUSING

1936

CHART 9DISTRIBUTIONFDETAILTDADE 1935

PERSONS

ONRELIEF

46.1%

UNEMPLOVEDFARME

FORESTWORKERS

MINE WORKERSSOTHERS

TRANSIENTS

CLASSESOFBUYERSALL CLASSESFARM4FOQESTORKERSMINE ORKERSOTWERSTRANSIENTSPERSONS NRELIEFF

ANNUALSALES

224,36279,74550,8584,900103,377

'S OFTOTAL100.035.522.72.246.1

ItMCLUDESOMEWORKKERSMPLOYEDINCHATTANOOGA.tINCLUDESOME ERSONSOBTAINIHGARTOFTHIEIRINCOMEROM ARMI$N.THERE REHOFACTORYORKERSMPLOYEDI SODDY.CHART 10MAXIMUMPPOBABLEOSS N PETAIL RADETHDOUGfI ESEPVOII SEVEANCE*

LOSS FROMFARMWORKERS-

LOSS ROMSERVICEOIPKEI

CLASSES OFBUYERSALL CLASSESFARMWORKERSOTI-IERS

ESTIMATEDOSSANNUALALES %OFTOTALAHII'L.ALES193535,85023,.600 16.010.5

UNCLASSIFIEDRBANSERVICEWORKERSS"mNDIRFECTO'S

i10,0002,250* 4.51.0LOSSFROM NCLASSIFIEDURBANRESIDENTS

BASED ON FIELDINVESTIGATIONFIG. 5-Example of the retailtrade areaanalysisdevelopedbygeographersat the TennesseeVal-

ley Authorityfor the purpose of assessingthe impact of reservoirdevelopmenton urban areas.Note the tabulationof retail-trade ourcesfor each town and the probable oss in retailtrade be-cause of reservoircurtailmentof the tradearea. Source:TVA 936c,charts9 and to. (Reproducedcourtesyof the TennesseeValleyAuthority)


13/21

34 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEWTENNESSEE VALLEYAUTHORITYDIVISIONOFANDPLANNINGNDHOUSING

CHICKAMAUGARESERVOIR AREATRADE CENTERS AND TRADE AREASWEST OF TENNESSEE RIVER

TRADECENTEROUNDARYOFTRADEAREACALEOFILES0 1 2 3 4DEC963

'ROCKWOOo

SPRINGCITYA

IP'NEV.LE

DAYTON

GIRAYSVILLE

OECATriL

ATHEN

CHARLESTON

9SAULA6E1-NAKFMAISODDY

AISY

BARHAMAYDAMCHATTANOOGA

HYSOM

LEGENDDaytonTrade Area

Valley Plateau (WaldenRidge)SoddyTradeArea

]Valley Plateau (WaldenRidge)Sale CreekTradeArea

Valley Plateau (WaldenRidge)FIG. 6-Trade centers n the ChickamaugaReservoir rea n south-centralTennessee.The shapesofthe various trade areas for these contiguous towns are instructive.Each nodal region is elongatedtangential o the main highwaybecause of a paucityof town competition in the tangentialareas aswell as the closenessof the competitionof other towns beadedalong Highway27.Source:TVA 936c,frontispiece. Reproduced ourtesyof the TennesseeValleyAuthority)


14/21


Ahierarchy f goodsand serviceareaswasdelimited,and what we now call a"nodalarea"was identified.8The Soddy,Tennesseerade-area tudyprovidesanother excellentcaseexample(Figure5). It was estimatedthat Soddywould lose 16 percentof its retail salesbe-causeof theexpectedonstruction f theChickamaugaeservoir ithin tstradearea.This oss wascalculated n thebasisof diminished umbers f farmworkers,non-farmworkers,ndserviceworkersn the tradearea.The oss of servicework-ers was considered n "indirectoss."Comparablerade-areampact tudieswereconducted or the communities f Daisy,SaleCreek,Graysville, ayton,SpringCity, ndothers hatwere mpacted ytheChickamaugaeservoirnsouth-centralTennesseeFigure ).Thesestudies ontain omevisionaryextwithregardo thegrowing racticeof communitynticement f industry. s Twitchell oted:Theseplants mploymostlywomen,pay owwagesascompared ith extileplantselsewhere .. andhaveclearly ailed to compensatefor the decline of the county'sextractivendustries. ayton,f notthe other ownsof thecounty,s offering ewindustriallantshe nducement f taxexemption-aurewhichhasbeenaccompa-nied elsewheren the stateby other ormsof industrial arasitism,nd which scoming o beviewed ypublicofficials s aboomerangetrimento the communi-tiesoffering t. (1936,B-lo)It is mostunfortunatehat hiswisewarningwasnot heeded n themanydecliningcommunities in other areas(Ullman,Boyce,and Volk1961).

Thequestionof new town developmentwas alsoexamined,and somenew com-munities were built (TVA1937). The town of Norris,designed by Draper,was themost famous,andthe nationalpressshowcasedt as a model town (Sample1935). tcontained curved streets and culs-de-sacand was servedby a parkwaydubbed a"freeway"(Creese 1990, 242-251). Feasibility studies for other communities weremade,but the planto useNorrisas theprototypeformanyothertowns,like almostallof the plansforregionaldevelopment,was abandoned. n 1948Norriswaspriva-tized and purchasedby a groupof investorsfrom Philadelphia.What role,if any,the TVA eographersplayed n town development s not clear.

RECREATION STUDIESNor is it known how much the TVAeographers ontributed o recreationand tour-ism studies. Severalreports,for which Hudson wrote letters of transmittal,wereissuedbythe Divisionof LandPlanningandHousing.Recreationandtourismwerementionedin anumberof otherreportsaswell,butprimarilyn the contextof howreservoir evelopmentmightbenefit hem in the future.Appropriately,he mainfoci of attentionn the studiesundertakeny geographers erefarming nd theland"taking"ssue, ndustry,obs,andcommunitympact.Perhapsnot surprisingly,he TVA ad no recreationor tourismpolicy.One ofthe statedgoalsof its recreationplanfor the WheelerReservoirwasdevelopmentof


15/21

36 THE GEOGRAPHICALEVIEWinformation so that a recreationand tourismpolicy could be recommended andapprovedby the TVA (Howes1938, 8). The reportstates that "Itmaybe assumed,however, hatTVA, inceit is a governmental orporation inancedby publicfundsand committed to a programfor the publicwelfare,will adopt a policy favorabletoward recreationaluse of its reservoirproperties" p. 9).

The Division of LandPlanningand Housing issued a detailedreporton theGilbertsvilleKentuckyDam) Reservoir ndits shorelinewithrespectto recreation.The reportwas most visionary, given the fact that it appearedduring the GreatDepression,when recreationwas a remotepromise:The ake s expectedo beoutstandingorfishing ndwaterfowlhooting. ts argeexpanse f stillwaterwillbe ideal orsailingandmotorboating withor withoutsurfboardiding)....Woodedhores nd nletswillbeinvitingorcanoesandrowboats.... It islikelyhat herewillbe a considerableemandorswimmingacilities.... Picnicking illprobablye the mostpopular se of riparianands, ollowed yhiking, amping ut,groupgames,useofovernightrvacation abins rinns,andlast,but notleast,oafing,withor withoutafishpole nhand. TVA1936b, 4)The recreation studies generallyincluded an inventory of likely visitors toreservoirs--basedn distance, ncome,and otherfactors--butacked he dollarmea-surement of benefit/costcalculationsexpected today.Nor did the reports attemptto weigh the benefits of recreationas comparedwith other beneficial uses of thereservoirs.Recreational ttendanceat the TVA lakes was used severaldecades ater,

however,to help developthe spatial analogmodel for recreationbenefit calcula-tions in the Meramec Basin study in Saint Louis (Ullman,Boyce,and Volk 1961;Ullman 1980).WHY DID THE GEOGRAPHERS PUBLISH SO LITTLE ABOUT THE TVA?

With the exceptionof HowardMiller,who remainedwith the TVA for ten years(until 1944), geographers left within a few years of the TVA's establishment. Thisabbreviatedservicemay explainwhy geographerspublishedso little about theirTVA fforts.Certainly, he work they undertook was not broughtto practical rui-tion.Regionalplanningand developmentwere droppedfrom the TVAprioritiesin1938, and most of the regional-planning unit was eliminated (Martin 1956, 265).WilliamLeuchtenburg ointedout that the "TVAnever fulfilled tselfasan experi-ment in regionalplanning.... After1938, he TVAsqueamishlyavoided even usingthe word 'plan'" (1963,165).The finalhope for regionalplanning throughouttheUnited Stateswasdashed n 1948when the National ResourcesPlanningBoardwasvoided (Creese 1990o, 30).

Except or the unit areamappingmethod,little waspublishedabout the TVAbyits geographers.This is amazing, nasmuch as both Malcolm Proudfootand VictorRoteruspublishedprolifically n townplanningand industrialdevelopment.More-over, very few doctoral dissertations on the TVA nd only three master'stheses


16/21

GEOGRAPHERSAND THE TVA 37

(Hodgson 1936;Martin 1941;Otte 1941) about issues within the Tennessee Valleywere written.Surprisingly, roudfootwrote his dissertationon the major outlyingbusinesscentersof Chicago(1936).Consequently,here is also apaucityof published nformationabout the roleofgeographers n the TVAand about the TVA tself written by geographers.This isdoublysurprisinggiven that much of the TVA'Swork was of great public interestandthat,more particularly,ome of the work undertakenby the TVAgeographerswould have been most valuableto the profession.J. RussellWhitakerpointed outthat geographersare "not noted for blowing their own horns" (1996).WilliamL. Garrisonsuggested hat WorldWarII was the primarycauseof changedpriori-ties of both the nation and the geographyprofession (1996).MarionMarts,whoworkedfor the Bureauof LandManagement, mphasized hatemployeeswere ex-

pectedto clear all of theirpublicationswith theiragencies,whichmayhave been adeterrent o publication Marts1996).Allreportswithin the TVAweremarked"Thisreportis for usewithin the TVAonly.Not for publication."Unlikeother socialscientists,geographers enerallyavoidedpubliccontroversy,policymaking ssues,and politics, perhaps n order to remaindetachedandobjec-tive. Theresult,GeorgeDemkoobserved,hasbeenthat "toomuch of our work is oflittle significanceand will be of no significance"1988,577).

SPIN-OFFS FROMTHE TVAAlthough no further arge-scaleprojects ike the TVA,whereinthe federalgovern-ment undertookcomprehensive egionaldevelopment,emerged, he idea of river-basin analysisand especiallythe multipurpose use of rivers and reservoirshavebecome standardoperatingprocedure.The multiple-useconcept set off seriouscompetition among the various options for reservoirdevelopment(Marts 1964).WilliamC.Ackerman ndJ.H. Dawesconcluded hat "from he greatsuccesswhichTVAwas,andis,weaccepted he conceptof multipurposeriverbasindevelopment.It was amply demonstratedby TVA that such purposes as power,flood control,navigation,watersupply,and recreationcan be incorporated nto a single water-shed plan;the governmental orm of a federalcorporation,however,has been re-jected by this country" (Ackerman and Dawes 1964,173).And even though the "TVA'sroleeventuallyveered rom the original deasthat fueled its founding, ts truelegacyset the historicprecedentof federal nvolvement n environmentalregulationandpolicy making" Black2000, 74).

A "nearmiss" n regional developmentand planningakinto the TVAalso oc-curred in the ColumbiaRiversystem.In 1927 he FederalRiversand HarborsActrecommended a system of dams on the Columbia. In 1934President Rooseveltstressed he regionaldevelopment aspectsof the Columbiaby declaring hatThisvastwater ower anbe of incalculablealue n thiswhole ectionofthecoun-try.It means heapmanufacturingroduction,conomy ndcomfort n the farmand nthehousehold.... Overayearago,whenwe firstestablishedheprinciplef


17/21


commencinggreatpublicworksprojects n everypartof theUnion,I becamefirmlyconvinced that the FederalGovernmentought immediately o undertake he con-structionof the BonnevilleDam and the GrandCouleeDam,and so we started ..Sincethen,two otheryardstickshavebeen undertaken, ne in the TennesseeValley,one here on the ColumbiaRiver. Quotedin Schwarz1993, 99)As might be expected,a cadreof geographerswasemployed n the developmentofthe ColumbiaRivervalley,amongthemJeromeAnderson,HarlanBarrows,MarionMarts,JamesMcBroom,HerbSimison,VincentThroop,E.N. Torbert movedfromthe TVA), andperhapsothers. Their work hasnot been fully investigated.

EdwardA.Ackerman, ssistantgeneralmanager orprogramanalysis n the TVAfrom 1952 to 1955, argued that several great river-basin projects around the worldweremodeledon the TVA (1956): the NigerRivernearTimbuktu; he VictoriaNilenear LakeVictoria; he Damodartributaryof the Ganges; he Snow,Murray,andMurrumbidgeeRivers n Australia;and the PapaloapanRiver in Mexico. But al-though the multiple-useconcept of river-basindevelopmentbecame standard nthe United States,the comprehensivecoordination and planningmodel of river-basin developmentwas abandoned.

UNANSWEREDUESTIONSThe studies of TVAgeographersdemonstratea greatgapbetweenplanning aw as itpertainsto cities and to rural areas.Urbanplanningand zoning had been firmlyestablishedn 1926 bythefamousEuclidv.AmblerRealtycase.Thesmallmunicipal-ityof Euclid, suburb f Cleveland, hio,passedazoningordinancehatprohib-ited he ndustrialseof vacantand n apartof Euclidnorderoprotect esidentialproperty. hezoningwasupheldn theU.S.SupremeCourt,herebymaking on-inga policepowerwhereby,or the welfare f a community,ightscouldbe takenfrom andownerswithoutcompensation.n contrast, griculturaland-use ightswere almost sacred.Thegeographersn the TVAmade some stridentrecommenda-tions with respectto rural andand the takingof farms hatmightbe impactedandmade marginalby reservoirdevelopment-for which theywereroundlycriticized.No similarrecommendationswere made for urban businesses hat would be mademarginalby reservoirconstruction n their tradeareas.In hindsight,it is apparentthat an opportunitymayhavebeen missed n theapplicationf urban and-useplanningandzoning aw to rural and use.Unfortunately,hisplanning onceptwas not directlytransferred o the TVAlegislation.

Considerabledifferencesstill exist between police control of urban land andthat of rural and. Rural and-userightsare still treatedgenerously,whereasurbanland-useplanningis much more restricted.Moreover, uchzoning controlsin cit-ies are exercisedwithout compensation.Farmland n the TennesseeValley,as else-where, s still occasionallyabusedby farmers, houghland erosionhas been muchreduced.The precedentset by the TVA,wherebyeroded and idle land wasrestoredwithoutpenalty r costto thefarmer,sno longerapplied.Thatpolicy ocusedonremediesor and-use buse,noton its causesandcures.


18/21


Theworldof the professionalgeographerhasgone throughseveralstagessincethegrandexperiment n extensive ield-datagatheringandregionalplanningof the1930s.The"quantitative-statistical"evolutionreplacedwhatwasderisivelydescribedas "mere description" nd datagathering(Ullman 1980). Model-buildingand be-havioralanalysesalsohavecome in vogue.The old invincibilityof the hidden handof the marketplace s creatinga better and more efficientworld,firstchallengedbythe TVAgeographers,s again being questioned.

The frequentchurningand turningof geographyhas also led to forgetfulnessof--if not alackof appreciationor-the contributionsofbygone geographers.Manyquestions askedtoday were posed by TVA geographerssome seven decadesago.With the hindsightnow affordedus, we see that they were surprisinglyclose tomakingsomemajorbreakthroughs-in regional ynthesis,n nodalregions, n quan-titativeanalysisof spatialdata,and in recreationbenefits.But for variouspolitical,practical,or philosophicalreasons their efforts were not passedon to the profes-sion. Thiswasthegreatconcern xpressed yGilbertF.Whiteas to whythe TVA"geographers'nnovations in land classificationand local planningoutreachwerenot continued and expanded" 1996).

Today the TVA undertaking of the 1930s remains wrapped in too much emo-tionalbaggage o examinein a detached,objectivemanner.Tosome, it was a grandexperimentin resourcemanagement by the federalgovernmentthat, thankfully,failed;to others,it was a grand opportunityfor regional planningon a large,re-gionalscale.Thesignificanceof the work of the TVAgeographersn advancing hefield of geographyhas been lost in the shuffle.However,several hingsare certain:Those geographers ervedgallantlyand filed many insightfulreportsin the TVA,were most modest in heraldingtheir accomplishments,avoidedpoliticalcontro-versyboth within and without the geographyprofession,and have not receivedproperrecognitionandappreciation rom theprofession or the contributions heymade.

NOTES1. EdwardL. Ullman explainedto me in 1960that he based his quip about the TVA nit areamethod on Joshua9:27,wherein the Gibeonites made a covenant with the Israelites o be their ser-vants as "hewersof wood and drawersof water."Ullman'smain criticism of this kind of datagather-ing and mappingwas that it was static (site oriented and vertical)ratherthan spatially nteractive(situationoriented andhorizontal).Becauseof the massiveamounts of datagathered,he insisted hatsuch a procedurecommonlycounted trees insteadof forests.2. Appliedgeographersweregenerallymembersof the AmericanSocietyof ProfessionalGeogra-phers (ASPG).Membershipn theAssociationof AmericanGeographersAAG) aslimitedto academicgeographers ndwasby invitationonly.At the AAGmeetings n Madison,Wisconsin n 1948,G. DonaldHudson,RobertPlatt,and Cotton Matherwere instrumentaln merging he AAGnd the ASPG.3. The U.S. GeologicalSurveyonly had a few mapsof the area,and there was no time to makemore. The contour maps needed for areasto be inundated were madeby a combinationof transitpoints in conjunctionwith stereoscopicaerialphotographs akenbythe U.S.Corpsof Engineers.The

geographersused these aerialphotographs or theirmap plots.4. Hudson statedthat "the field men must have had at least one year of graduatetraining ingeography, ncludingdetailedfield mapping,and from two to four months of closely supervisedde-tailed field mappingof the sort carriedon by the Land ClassificationSection. Beforeapplying and


19/21


classification echniques ndependently, ield men must have six to eightweeks'work under the rigiddirection of an experienced supervisor" (1935c,13).5. In city planning, zoninghad been declareda police function,requiringno compensationforanyprohibiteduse. Thispossiblycould have been appliedto the field-erosionproblemin the TVAn

such a manner as to protectthe land from erosion in the future.Politically, owever, hat was impos-sible (New York Times 1933).6. Hudson was very pleasedwith this liberaltaking policy, and he frequentlyspoke about it.However,despitethe criticismsof "overpurchase"hat laterchangedTVA olicy,he neverpublishedanydefenseof the originalpolicy;nor,to my knowledge,did anyof the otherTVA eographers.7. I.RussellWhitaker mphasized hat he wasquitecriticalof some of the TVA olicies,but whenAtlanticmagazineaskedhim to write about them, he declined because he did not want to becomeinvolved n the controversy 1996).This attitude seems to have beenprevalentamong geographers tthe time.8. In Hudson'sprivatepapersa note inserted nto the La Follettestudyreads:"Studyof thiskindwould be interestingas a field problem for training camps-perhaps for master'sdegree." nterest-

ingly,Ullman's1945dissertationon the wholesaletradearea of Mobile,Alabama,written at the Uni-versityof ChicagounderColby'ssupervision,was in manyregards he prototypeof such studies.REFERENCES

Ackerman,E. A. 1956. TVA n ItsLargerSetting.In TVA:TheFirstTwentyYears; StaffReport,ditedby R. C. Martin,244-256.University:Universityof AlabamaPress.Ackerman,W. C., and J.H. Dawes. 1964. WaterManagementand the Wabash Basin. In RegionalDevelopment nd the WabashBasin,editedby R. R.Boyce,171-181.Urbana:Universityof IllinoisPress.Artman,J.O. 1956. Forestry. n TVA:TheFirstTwentyYears; StaffReport, ditedby R. C. Martin,177-192. University: University of Alabama Press.Black,B. 2000. OrganicPlanning:Ecologyand Designin the Landscape f the TennesseeValleyAu-thority, 1933-1945. In Environmentalism in Landscape Architecture, edited by M. Conan, 71-95.Washington,D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks ResearchLibraryand Collection.Brodsky,H. 2003. RetailAreaOverlap:A Case n ForensicGeography. rofessionalGeographer5 (2):

250-258.Clapp,G. R. 1956. TheMeaningof TVA. n TVA:TheFirstTwentyYears; StaffReport, ditedbyR. C.Martin,1-15.University:Universityof AlabamaPress.Creese,W.L. 1990. TVA's ublicPlanning:TheVisionand theReality.Knoxville:Universityof Tennes-see Press.Crosswhite,W. M. 1963. Part-timeFarming;Part-time Jobs.In A Place toLive,146-151.Yearbook fAgriculture.Washington,D.C.: U.S. GovernmentPrintingOffice.Demko,G.J. 1988. Geography eyondthe IvoryTower.Annalsof theAssociation fAmericanGeogra-phers78 (4): 575-579.Entrikin,J.N., and S. D. Brunn. 1989. Reflectionsn RichardHartshorne's he Nature of Geography.Occasional Publicationsof the Associationof AmericanGeographers.Washington,D.C.: Asso-ciation of AmericanGeographers.Finch,V. C. 1933.Momfort-A Study n LandscapeTypes n SouthwesternWisconsin.In GeographicSurveys,edited by C. C. Colby,6-40. GeographicSociety of ChicagoBulletin No. 9. Chicago:Universityof ChicagoPress.Garrison,W. L. [Nativeof Tennessee,colleagueof G. Donald Hudson]. 1996. Telephone nterviewwith the author.14 February.Gray,A. J. 1938. Economic Life and Some MajorReservoirProblems n the GroupV Regionof theGilbertsvilleReservoirArea.UnpublishedTVA ocument.Gray,A.J.,andP.Carringer.1939.EconomicLifeand SomeMajorReservoirProblems n the Linden-Lexington(Tennessee)Portion of the GilbertsvilleReservoirArea.UnpublishedTVA ocument.Hodgson,J. 1936.A Comparisonof ThreeTennesseeUrbanCenters:Goodlettsville,Franklin,Clarks-ville. Master's hesis,GeorgePeabodyCollegefor Teachers.Howes,R. H. 1938.A RecreationalLand Use Plan-Wheeler ReservoirProperties.UnpublishedTVAreport.


20/21

GEOGRAPHERSND THE TVA 41Hudson,G. D. 1934.AugustaCounty,Virginia: Studyn Patterns. h.D.diss.,Universityf Chi-cago.. 1935a.Lettero E.S.DraperDirector,ivision f LandPlanningndHousing,TVA].6No-vember.

. 1935b.LetteroE.S.DraperDirector,ivision f LandPlanningndHousing,TVA].5De-cember.. 1935c.TheRuralLandClassificationrogram: Summaryf Techniquesnd Uses.Un-publishedTVAocument.- . 1936a.Lettero E.S.DraperDirector,ivision f LandPlanningndHousing, VA].May.- . 1936b.LetteroE.S.DraperDirector, ivision f LandPlanningndHousing, VA].5De-cember.- . 1936c.TheUnitAreaMethod f LandClassification.nnals ftheAssociationfAmericanGeographers6 (2): 99-112.- [Formerhief,LandClassificationection, hen chief of the Divisionof LandPlanning,TVA].1976. Interviewswith the author.Seattle,Wash.,September-December.Jones,W.D.,andV.C.Finch.1925.Detailed ieldMappingntheStudy f theEconomicGeographyof anAgriculturalrea.Annals ftheAssociationfAmerican eographers5 3): 48-157.Leuchtenburg,.E. 1963.Franklin .Rooseveltnd heNewDeal: 932-1940.NewYork:HarperndRow.Lilienthal, .E. 1953.TVA: emocracyn theMarch.Chicago: uadrangleooks.Martin,G.J. 1973.EllsworthHuntington:His Lifeand Thought. Hamden,Conn.]:Archon Books.Martin,R.C. 1956. RetrospectndProspect.n TVA: heFirstTwenty ears;StaffReport,ditedbyR. C.Martin, 57-273. niversity:niversityfAlabama ress.Martin,R.L. 1941.TheSequatchiaalley, ennessee:StudynLandUtilization. h.D.diss.,Nash-ville,Tenn.Marts,M.E.[Geographer,ureau f LandManagement].964.ConflictsnWaterUseandRegionalPlanning mplication.nRegional evelopmentftheWabashasin, ditedbyR.R.Boyce, 45-156.Urbana: niversityf IllinoisPress.

. 1996.Telephonenterviews iththeauthor. anuary-February.Massa,W.S. [Formerhiefcartographer,apsandSurveyBranch, VA]. 995.Telephonenterviewwith the author. 5January.McMurry, .C. 1936.Geographicontributionso Land-Use lanning. nnals ftheAssociationfAmericanGeographers6 (2):91-98.Nash,C. W. 1956. ReservoirLandManagement. n TVA:TheFirstTwentyYears; StaffReport, ditedbyR. C.Martin,37-151.niversity: niversityf Alabama ress.NewYorkTimes.1938.Roosevelt's essagenMuscle hoals.NewYork imes,1April, A,1,3-4.Otte,H.F. 1941.Industrial pportunityn the Tennessee alley f Northwesternlabama.Master'sthesis,Columbia niversity.Proudfoot,M.J. 1936.TheMajorOutlyingBusinessCenters f Chicago. h.D.diss.,UniversityfChicago.Rosenman,S. I., comp. 1938. ThePublicPapersand Addresses fFranklinD. Roosevelt,with a SpecialIntroduction ndExplanatory otesbyPresidentRoosevelt.Vol.2, TheYear fCrisis, 933.NewYork:RandomHouse.Sample, P. S. 1935. Work in Progress: Norris Dam. Fortune 11(5): 92-97, 140-153.Sayford,N. H. 1935.SurveyingandMapping n the TennesseeValley.CivilEngineering (12):784-788.Schwarz, .A. 1993. TheNew Dealers:PowerPolitics n theAgeofRoosevelt.New York:AlfredA.Knopf.Starr,J. T. 1995. In Memoriam:HaroldMelvinMayer,1916-1994.Annalsof the Association fAmeri-can Geographers85 (3): 569-580.Torbert, .N. 1938.EconomicLifeandSomeMajorReservoir roblemsntheKentuckyortion ftheGilbertsville eservoir rea.UnpublishedVA ocument.TVA TennesseealleyAuthority], ivisionof LandPlanning ndHousing.1936a.A CartographicSummaryf U.S.CensusData,1930: ennessee alley ndSurroundingrea.UnpublishedVAreport.- . 1936b.Preliminaryeport nRecreationalevelopmentf Gilbertsvilleeservoir.npub-lishedTVAeport.- . 1936c.Probabledverse ffects f Reservoireverancen theRetailTrade fDayton, oddy,and Sale Creek, Tennessee. Unpublished TVAreport.


21/21


-. 1937. Feasibilityof a PermanentCommunity at GilbertsvilleDam Site. UnpublishedTVAreport.Twitchell,A. A. 1936. RheaCounty:Its RecentDevelopment,PresentMaladjustments, nd FutureProspectsas Influencedby the RiverDevelopmentand OtherProgramsof the TennesseeValleyAuthority.UnpublishedTVA ocument.Ullman,E. L. 1945. Mobile:IndustrialSeaportand TradeCenter.Ph.D.diss.,Universityof Chicago.- [Principalinvestigator,Meramec Basin ResearchProject, Washington University]. 1960-1961. Interviewswith the author,SaintLouis,Missouri.- . 1980. Geographys SpatialInteraction.Editedby R. R. Boyce.Seattle,Wash.:UniversityofWashingtonPress.Ullman,E.L.,R. R.Boyce,and D.J.Volk. 1961. TheMeramecBasinWater ndEconomicDevelopment.Vol.2, TheEconomy nd Characteristicsf theMeramecBasin. SaintLouis,Mo.:WashingtonUni-versity,MeramecBasin ResearchProject.U.S.Congress. 1933.73rdCongr.,vol. 48. U.S.Statutes, hap.32,S22and S23.Whitaker,J.R. [TVAexpert, Universityof Kentucky].1996. Telephone nterviewwith the author.15February.

White,G. E 1996. Letter o the author.15April.Wray,J.R. [FormerUniversityof Chicagocartographer; new manyTVA eographers].1996. Letterto the author.27January.

Date post:	08-Apr-2018
Category:	Documents
Upload:	rafiul-ahmed
View:	222 times
Download:	0 times

Tva and Geographers

Documents