PERPUSTAKAAN UMP

U 110 I11 I0 I0 I I 111 1 0 OIU 0000072596

EFFECTS OF PALM -, CRETE TOWARDS

CHLORIDE RESISTANCE

SITI MASARAH BINTI MOHD SAID

A report submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of

Bachelor of Civil Engineering with Environment

Faculty of Civil Engineering & Earth Resources

Universiti Malaysia Pahang

PERPUSTAKAAN 3(/ UMVEPSm MALAYS i A PAANG

JUNE 2012

by^gftNoPanUan

1A rarkh

2 9 MAR 2013 )012

ABSTRACT

Nowadays, high durability concrete and environmental friendly approach

toward building, structure and other concrete construction is in demand. The used of

Portland cement also increase CO 2 to environment. In other hand, there are also

issues on excess side product from palm oil production which is palm oil fuel ash

(POFA) which also can contribute to environmental problem. POFA is a waste

consist of fibers, shells and empty fruit bunches being incinerate. POFA need to be

fully utilized in more benefit ways and since properties of POFA slightly the same

with Portland cement, this give an idea to use it as replacement of cement. Besides

that, composition of POFA could resist toward chloride reaction. So, by using POFA

as replacement for Portland cement, it expected that there will be reduction of CO2

and excess POFA in our environment and more durability concrete can be produced.

Chloride ingression inside the concrete structure and cause steel structure and rebar

to become rust and weaken the structure as a whole. In this research, there will be

test on chloride resistance and porosity as indicator of chloride ingression towards

the concrete. Preparation of sample including batching, mixing and casting was

earlier prepared before testing being conduct. 24 cubical concrete samples and 24

cylindrical concrete samples being prepared and cured for 28 days. Chloride

resistance test including salt ponding, open circuit potential (OCP) and impress

voltage while porosity test involving vacuum saturation method. Result from this test

will be indicator of POFA effectiveness towards chloride resistance.

ABSTRAK

Kini, konkrit berketahanan tinggi dan penggunaan kaedah mesra alam untuk

penghasilan konkrit untuk struktur bangunan mendapat permintaan yang tinggi.

Penggunaan simen Portland semakin meningkat turut mempengaruhi peningkatan

pengeluaran CO2 ke alam sekitar. Selain itu, isu produk sampingan yang berlebihan

daripada pengeluaran minyak kelapa sawit iaitu abu bahan api minyak sawit (POFA)

juga boleh menyumbang kepada masalah alam sekitar. POFA adalah hasil

pembakaran sisa daripada gentian, cengkerang dan tandan. POFA boleh digunakan

sebagai alternatif dalam penghasilan konkrit kerana kandungan POFA mempunyai

persamaan yang hampir sama dengan simen Portland. mi merupakan alternatif

sebagai pengganti simen dan komposisi POFA dapat menahan kesan ion kiorida. mi

dapat mengurangkan penghasilan CO2 yang berlebihan kepada persekitaran kita dan

menghasilkan konkrit yang lebih berketahanan tinggi. Kemasukan ion klorida di

dalam struktur konkrit menyebabkan keluli dan rebar menjadi karat dan melemahkan

struktur secara keseluruhan. Dalam kajian mi, beberapa ujian ke atas ketahanan

kiorida dan keliangan konkrit dijalankan. Penyediaan sampel termasuk campuran

konirit dan pembentukan dilakukan sebelum ujian. 24 sampel konkrit berbentuk

kubus dan 24 sampel konkrit berbentuk silinder disediakan dan diawet selama 28

han. Ujian terhadap kesan ion kioroda termasuk ujian rintangan dalam air garam (salt

ponding), ujian potensi dalam litar terbuka (OCP) dan kesan voltan manakala ujian

keliangan yang melibatkan kaedah vakum tepu. Keputusan daripada ujian mi akan

menjadi penentu keberkesanan POFA terhadap kesan kionida.

VI

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

TITLE PAGE i

DECLARATION DEDICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv

ABSTRACT v

ABSTRAK vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

LIST OF TABLES x

LIST OF FIGURES xi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xiii I

INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of Study 1

1.2 Problems Statement 3

1.3 Objectives 4

1.4 Scope of Study 4

1.5 Significant of Study 5

1.6 Gantt Chart 6

kill

viii

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7

2.1 Concrete 7

2.2 Cement 8

2.3 Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA) 11

2.4 POFA as Cement Replacement Material 12

2.5 . Pozzolanic Reaction 14

2.6 Chloride Resistance 14

2.6.1 Mechanism of Chloride Ingress In

Concrete 16

2.6.2 Corrosion Due To Chloride Ions 16

2.6.3 Form of Chloride Ions 18

2.6.4 Factors of Chloride Attack 19

2.7 Porosity of Concrete 20

3 METHODOLOGY 23

3.1 Introduction 23

3.2 Experimental Program 24

3.3 Material Selection 25

3.3.1 Cement 25

3.3.2 Coarse Aggregate 26

3.3.3 Fine Aggregate 27

3.3.4 Water 27

3.3.5 Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA) 28

3.4 Preparation of Specimen 29

3.4.1 Concrete Mix Design 29

3.4.2 Batching, Mixing and Casting 31

3.4.3 Curing 32

3.4.4 Number of Specimen 33

3.4.5 Size of Specimen 33

3.5 Mould of Specimen 34

3.6 Chloride Resistance Testing 34

3.6.1 Salt Ponding 34

3.6.1.1 Apparatus 35

3.6.1.2 Procedure 35

Ix

3.6.2 Open Circuit Potential (OCP) 36

3.6.2.1 Apparatus 36

3.6.2.2 Procedure 38

3.6.3 Impress Voltage 38

3.6.3.1 Apparatus 39

3.6.3.1 Procedure 39

3.7 Porosity Testing 40

3.7.1 Vacuum Saturation Method 40

3.7.1.1 Apparatus 40

3.7.1.2 Procedure 40

4 RESULT & DISCUSSION 42

4.1 General 42

4.2 Porosity Test of POFA Concrete 43

4.3 Salt Ponding Test of POFA Concrete 46

4.4 Impress Voltage Test of POFA Concrete 51

4.5 Open Circuit Potential (OCP) Test 54

5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 57

5.1 Introduction 57

5.2 Conclusion 58

5.3 Recommendation 59

REFERENCES 60

APPENDICES 63

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 Basic component of Portland cement (Muhammad Sohail) 9

2.2 Main Constituents in a Typical Portland cement

(Mindess and Young, 1981) 9

2.3 Types of Portland cement and area used 10

2.4 Physical Properties of OPC and Palm Oil Fuel Ash 14

2.5 Chemical Constituents of OPC and Palm Oil Fuel Ash 14

3.1 Chemical composition of Ordinary Portland Cement 25

3.2 Chemical composition of POFA 28

3.3 Detail of concrete mix 30

3.4 Mass for concrete mix 30

3.5 Corrosion condition related with Half-cell Potential

measurement 36

4.1 Permeable porosity at 28 days of concrete 43

4.2 Permeable porosity at 60 days of concrete 44

4.3 Layering of test specimen for salt ponding test 47

4.4 Potential level for 12 week sample curing in

3% NaCl solution 54

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 Scanning electron microscopy of palm oil fuel ash 13

2.2 Process of Pitting Corrosion (Abu Salleh, 2008) 18

2.3 Variation of porosity with depth of concrete slabs

cured using different methods (Gowripalan et a! 5) 21

2.4 Scanning electron microscopy of sample concrete 22

3.1 Experimental process flow 24

3.2 Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) 26

3.3 Coarse aggregate 26

3.4 Fine aggregate 27

3.5 Palm oil fuel ash (POFA) 29

3.6 Concrete mixer 31

3.7 Concrete casting into the mould 32

3.8 Curing tank 32

3.9 Size of sample for cube and cylinder 33

3.10 AASHTO T259 (salt ponding) test setup 35

3.11 Digital Half Cell apparatus 37

3.12 Schematic representation of OCP measurement 38

3.13 Set-up for impressed voltage test 39

3.14 Porosity apparatus 41

3.15 Schematic of vacuum saturation technique 41

4.1 Porosity test for 28 days 43

4.2 Porosity test for 60 days 44

4.3 Porosity test for 28 days versus 60 days 45

4.4 Chloride ion content at 5 mm depth 47

4•5 Chloride ion content at 10 mm depth 48

4.6 Chloride ion content at 15 mm depth 48

4.7 Chloride ion content at 20 mm depth 49

4.8 Chloride content of salt ponding test 50

4.9 Impress voltage result, mA 52

4.10 Stage of corrosion in POFA concrete 53

4.11 Corrode specimen 53

4.12 Result open circuit potential (OCP) test 55

xl'

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

POFA Palm Oil Fuel Ash

OPC Ordinary Portland cement

OCP Open circuit potential

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of study

Malaysia is one of largest palm oil's producers which conquered about 39

percent of world palm oil production and 44 percent of world export. Currently, 4.49

million hectares of land in Malaysia is under palm cultivation which estimated

producing 17.73 million tons of palm oil according to statistic from Malaysian Palm Oil

Board (MPOB). In palm oil production, there are also side product and solid waste

materials that being produced. Solid waste materials is in the form of fibers, shells, and

empty fruit bunches which mostly being incinerate until become an ash that call palm oil

fuel ash (POFA). POFA can contribute to an environmental pollution once it

unmanageable, so utilization of POFA required in achieving zero emission of palm oil

production and save our world from being polluted.

As a solution to the disposal problem of the ash derived from oil-palm shells,

fibers, and bunches, research studies have been carried out to examine the feasibility of

using the ash as cement replacement materials. Previous researchers (Tay, 1990; Awal

and Hussin, 1996; Awal and Hussin, 1997; Sukuntapree et al., 2002) found that POFA

2

had pozZOlaflic properties and could be used as a replacement of Portland cement in

concrete.

Chemically, POFA is one of the agro-waste consist of high percentage of silica

and this will be high- advantage as alternative replacement or reducing consumption of

Portland cement (Tangchirapat et al., 2003). Portland cement normally used for concrete

in civil structure especially in building construction.

Research was being done and focusing on reducing the consumption of Portland

cement by using POFA as additional mixture in concrete production rather than replace

it totally. There are many researches which concentrate on different ratio of POFA and

Portland cement and test on durability, strength, corrosion effect and other related, to

normal concrete being conduct in order to get the best combination that meets standard

requirement of concrete. In most of research, usage of POFA as a concrete mixture

improved the corrosion effect from chloride and sulphide to steel structure in concrete

(Saleh Bamaga et al., 2011).

This will be very promising result for civil engineering field in term of reducing

consumption of Portland cement that directly reduce cost of project and also improve

quality of concrete to be more resistance to corrosion effect. This also give added

advantage to preserve good and healthy environment in general because POFA being

manageable in better way.

3

1.2 Problem statement

In Malaysia, palm oil industry is one of biggest sector of industry in Malaysia.

Demand of palm oil in world market are keeping increasing every years and

proportionally contribute to increasing of palm oil fuel ash (POFA). POFA is by-product

produce from incineration of fibers, shells, and empty fruit bunches. Unfortunately most

of the POFA were disposed as a waste in landfill which causing environmental problem

if not fully utilize to alternative used.

In other hand, construction and development project required usage of high

amount of concrete. The main raw material for conrete is portland cement. The

production of portland cement release carbon dioxide to environment because this

cement was produce from combustion of lime either using the coal or petrol as a fuel.

CO2 could pollute our environment and cause greenhouse effect especially when high

amount of concrete being produce. In another perspective, since the demand of concrete

was high, there also a consideration on high resistance concrete ability towards chloride

resistance which really important and vital to preserve building and structure to be

durable towards environmental effect.

As previous research, POFA contains high silica and low pozzolanic properties

which slightly similar to Portland cement. POFA might have edge advantage in order to

give concrete either with similar resistance towards chloride or even better which

research needs to be carrying out. This will become massive findings in order to replace

high used of Portland cement which can pollute environment as well as high resistance

concrete towards chloride.

4

1.3 Objectives

The main objective of this research is to study on the chloride resistance of

concrete with POFA as a replacement material. By referring the main objective, other

objectives are to be determined as below:

1. To find optimum POFA as cement replacement in concrete.

2. To determine the effect of POFA as cement replacement towards chloride

resistance.

3. To determine the effect of POFA as cement replacement towards concrete

porosity.

1.4 Scope of study

The main scope of this research is to study on POFA as cement replacement for

concrete and effect towards chloride resistance. The scope of study also including as

below:

1. Focusing on chloride attack in concrete structure.

2. The mixtures of modified concrete are only using palm oil fuel ash

(POFA) as a partial replacement in cement content.

3. Test on different sample that consist of control sample, 10 %, 20% and

30% of POFA.

4. Samples were cured in water for 28 days.

5. The samples were tested on the Open Circuit Potential (OPC), Salt

Ponding, Impress Voltage and Vacuum Saturation.

6. Test is complete at FKASA laboratory, UMP.

5

1.5 Significant of study

This study expected to give clearer view on the effectiveness of concrete with

POFA towards chloride resistance. POFA highly rated as one of material to replace

current Portland cement due to its chemical and physical composition which is slightly

similar to Portland cement. This study could be a stepping stone to find right ratio of

POFA in concrete structure to resist towards chloride resistance. In other hand, the

success of this study will be contributed to promote POFA as best alternative for

concrete mixture and the reduction of Portland cement used will be a massive solution to

preserve good environment.

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Concrete

Concrete is a composite construction material which composed of cement that

commonly used Portland cement and other cementations materials such as fly

ash and slag cement, aggregate generally a coarse aggregate made of gravel or crushed

rocks such as limestone, or granite, plus a fine aggregate such

as sand, water and chemical admixtures. Communities around the world rely on concrete

as a safe, strong and simple building material. Concrete widely used in construction of

building and facilities including domestic, commercial, recreational, rural and

educational construction. Nowadays, there are more concern in designing the high

quality concrete, strong and durable which in same time preserve environment especially

in term of material usage.

Generally, concrete has relatively high compressive strength but has much

lower tensile strength. This is because concrete usually reinforced by steel which

stronger in tension and give tensile strength towards concrete. The elasticity of concrete

LM

8

is relatively constant at low stress levels but a start decreasing at higher stress levels as

matrix cracking develops. Concrete has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion and

shrinks as it matures. At some extent, concrete structures will crack due to shrinkage and

tension while exposure to long-duration forces will cause concrete to deformation.

There have three types of concrete where normally use in Construction such as:

i) Reinforced concrete

Concrete strengthened by the inclusion of metal bars, which increase the tensile

strength of concrete. Both unreinforced and reinforced concrete can be either cast

in place or precast.

ii) Cast-in-place concrete

Poured onsite into a previously erected form that is removed after the concrete

has set. Lighthouses are typically constructed using cast-in-place construction

methods.

iii) Precast concrete

Molded offsite and bring to building components. This method of construction is

seldom used for lighthouses. Precast concrete normally used at mega project and

bridge construction.

2.2 Cement

Cement is main material in concrete design and construction. Cement can be

defined as the bonding material that has cohesive & adhesive properties which makes it

capable as basic material for concrete construction. Ordinary/Normal Portland cement is

one of the most widely used types of Portland cement. Generally, Portland cement has a fine powder produced by grinding Portland cement clinker (more than 90%), a limited amount of calcium sulfate (which controls the set time) and up to 5% minor.

9

The chief chemical components of ordinary Portland cement are such as

Calcium, Silica, Alumina and Iron. Calcium is usually derived from limestone, marl or

chalk while silica, alumina and iron come from the sands, clays & iron ores. Other raw

materials may include shale, shells and industrial byproducts (Muhammad Sohail). Basic

component of Portland cement are shown in Table 2.1 and Table 2.2 below.

Table 2.1: Basic component of Portland cement (Muhammad Sohail)

Contents Percent (%)

CaO 60-67

Si02 17-25

Al203 3-8

Fe203 0.5-6.0

MgO 0.5-4.0

Alkalis 0.3-1.2

S03 2.0-3.5

Table 2.2: Main Constituents in a Typical Portland Cement (Mindess and Young, 1981)

Chemical Shorthand Percent by Chemical Name

Formula Notation Weight

Tricalcium Silicate 3CaOSiO2 C3S 50

Dicalcjum Silicate 2CaOSiO2 C2S 25

Tricalcium Aluminate 3CaOAl203 C3A 12

Tetracalcium

Alummoferrite4CaOAl203Fe2O3 C4AF 8

Gypsum CaSO41-120 CSI-12 3.5

10

Different types of Portland cement are manufactured to meet different physical

and chemical requirements for specific purposes, such as durability and high-early

strength. Eight types of cement are covered inASTM C 150 and AASHTO M 85. These

types and brief descriptions of their uses are listed in Table 2.3 below:

Table 2.3: Types of Portland cement and area used.

Cement type Use

General purpose cement, when there are no extenuating conditions

Aids in providing moderate resistance to sulfate attack

When high-early strength is required

Tv3 When a low heat of hydration is desired (in massive structures)

v4 When high sulfate resistance is required

- IA A type I cement containing an integral air-entraining agent

hA4 A type II cement containing an integral air-entraining agent

lilA4 A type III cement containing an integral air-entraining agent

Notes:

1. Cements that simultaneously meet requirements of Type I and Type II

are also widely available.

2. Type II low alkali (total alkali as Na20 <0.6%) is often specified in

regions where aggregates susceptible to alkali-silica reactivity are

employed.

3. Type IV cements is only available on special request.

4. These cements are in limited production and not widely available.

Cement is defined chemical entity formed from predetermined ratios of reactants

at a fairly precise temperature. Ordinary Portland cement results from the calcinations of

limestone and silica in flowing reaction

Limestone + silica (1450 °C) = Portland cement + Carbon dioxide 5 CaCO3 + 2SiO2 = (3CaO, Si02) (2CaO, Si02) + 5CO2

I The production of 1 tons of cement produces 0.55 tons of chemical CO 2 in a

reaction that takes place at 1450 °C. An additional 0.4 tones of CO 2 is given off as result

of the burning of carbon fuel to provide this heat (Davidovits,J.)

2.3 Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA)

Palm oil fuel ash is by product produced from mass production of palm oil.

POFA form from incineration of palm oil solid waste such as empty bunches fiber and

shell. POFA can be use source to generate electricity at certain oleochemical industry.

However, the increasing in palm oil production yearly cause the excess existent of

POFA while demand to generate electricity is not as much as being produced.

Unmanageable of POFA will pollute the environment and also cause serious damage to

inhalation system either to human or animal.

Therefore, utilization of POFA for other application that environmental friendly

were required instead of discharge to landfill or use as a fuel. So far, there was discovery

to use POFA as partial cement replacement in concrete structure at it was limited to

production of normal concrete (Hussin and Abdul Awal 1 996)and high strength concrete

(Sata et al. 2004). Roughly, POFA consist of high silica content and low pozzolanic

properties due to large particle and porous structure which would be ideal replacement

for Portland cement (Tangchirapat et al., 2003). Pozzolanic properties in POFA also

Increase strength and durable concrete towards chloride and sulphate attack (Awal,

1997).

12

2.4 pOFA as cement replacement material

POFA was highly rated as potential cement replacement and will minimize the

effect to environment due to excess disposal either to landfill or direct towards

environment (Salihuddin and Hussin, 1993). In early research, there are findings shows

that partial replacement of POFA by 30% weight of cement manage to achieve the

strength and durability aspects of plain concrete that using Portland cement (Abdul Awal

and Hussin, 1997). Researcher also claimed that partial replacement of POFA also

improved the normal concrete in term of strength and durability due to pozzolanic

materials of this fly ash (Sivasundaram and Alexander, 1999). Pozzolanic materials

cause reaction which large particle of fly ash physically because refinement of pore

structures and resulting the structure of concrete become highly impermeable and denser

than original. It gives more compressive strength and durability to the concrete

(Feldman, 1990). Researcher also believe that POFA will effect to the internal structure

of concrete and will be subject to further investigation which they believe this could be

massive discovery of real ability of POFA as replacement for Portland cement (Mohd

Wand Hussin, Khairunisa Muthusamy and Fadhadli Zakaria, 2010) POFA also has high

silica content, Si02, which chemically quite similar to current Portland cement give it as

one of the best option to replace the used of Portland cement (Hussin MW and

Tangchirapat, 2007).

The particle size distributions of materials are shown in Figure 2.1. It was found

that OP (original size POFA) had large particles with a median particle size of 1 83pm

and most particles were rather of porous texture (Figure 2.1 (a)). After POFA was

sieved, MP (medium particle sizes - 15.9tm) and SP (small particle sizes - 7.4tm) had

particles with irregular and crushed shapes (Figure 2.1 (b) and (c)), and the median

particle sizes were reduced to 15.9j.xm and 7.4gm, respectively

Figure 2.1 (a): Original size palm oil fuel ash (OP)

Figure 2.1 (b): Medium size palm oil fuel ash (MP)

Figure 2.1 (C): Small size of palm oil fuel ash (SP)

Figure 2.1 (a), (b), (C): Scanning electron microscopy of palm oil fuel ash.

13

14

The physical properties of POFA are shown in Table 2.4 and the chemical

composition of POFA is shown in Table 2.5

Table 2.4: Physical properties of OPC and palm oil fuel ash

Physical properties OPC POFA

Specific gravity 3.15 2.18

Retained on sieve number 325 (%) - 1

BET surface area (m2 /g) 475 14.4

Table 2.5: Chemical constituents of OPC and palm oil fuel ash

Chemical constituents (%) OPC POFA

Silicon dioxide (Si02) 28.2 53.82

Aluminum oxide (AL203) 4.9 5.66

Ferric oxide (Fe203 ) 2.5 4.54

Calcium oxide (CaO) 50.4 4.24

Magnesium oxide (MgO) 3.1 3.19

Sodium oxide (Na2O) 0.2 0.1

Potassium oxide (1(20) 0.4 4.47

Sulfur oxide (S03) 2.3 2.25

Phosphorus oxide (P202) <0.9 3.01

LOT 2.4 10.49

2.5 Pozzolanjc reaction

Pozzolan material influence the usage of cement because high pozzolan concrete

Will required less cement to obtain specified strength. The amount of cement reduction Will vary depending upon the reactivity of the pozzolan. Pozzolan material with high