1. SIDIKY DIARASSOUBA, Ph. D Universite F. H. Boigny Department dAnglais, LAA 2012-2013, L3, Semester 5

2. Theories & Models What is a theory? What is a model? What is a hypothesis What is construct?

3. What is a Theory? A theory does a couple of things: - explains or account for natural phenomena - ought to make predictions - tend to unify a series of generalizations/observations about the world Kuhn (1996) theories help solve puzzles - germ theory of disease (Louis Pasteur) - Theory of relativity (Einstein) - Theory of individual differences in working memory (Cognitive psychology)

4. What is a model? A model basically describes processes of phenomena It is thus concerned with the how, a theory accounts for the why. Unlike a theory a model does not predict based on generalizations However, there is huge confusion about them

5. What is a hypothesis? A hypothesis derives from a theory It is an idea of about a single phenomenon A valuable hypothesis can be tested Theory help generate hypotheses - EX: give a couple of hypotheses from the theory of individual differences in working memory +Hypo 1: +Hypo 2: * caution: do not use them interchangeably

6. What is a construct?+ They are features /characteristics of theories They are built-in definable identifying quality of theories Theories rest on constructs + Give a construct from the germ theory, theory of relativity, working memory, or Second Language Acquisition.

7. Second Language Acquisition What is it? Central query that encompasses issues in SLA: Who learns how much of what language under what conditions? * Answers to the above will capture the essence of SLA - Who learns? - How much of what language? - Under what conditions?

8. Central issues in SLA who - characteristics of individual learner (differences) How much & what - 1. what is learnt: what language skills/how success is gauged - 2. what type of language, i.e., dialect. Under what conditions - Influence of learning situation/context

9. An overview of SLA Theories Two major classes of theories (tentative) - Mainstream SLA theories - Sociocultural theories (Vygotskyan school)

10. Mainstream SLA A wide range of theories to SLA Behaviorism (Skinner) Mentalist theory (Chomsky) Current theories: intervening in between, i.e., - Universal Grammar; Autonomous induction theory; Associative Cognitive CREED Framework; Skill Acquisition theory; input processing theory; processibility Theory; concept-Oriented approach and Interaction Framework

11. BEHAVIORISM Originate from behavioral psychology Heavily hinges on Pavlovs experiment with dogs - meat powder (stimulus)= salivate (response) - then a tone is added as stimulus is presented - tone alone = dog salivate Operant / behavioral conditioning

12. BEHAVIORISM (CONTD) An organism may be conditioned to behave in a certain way even when the stimulus is not there Central to behaviorism is that ASSOCIATION OF EVENTS helps explain behaviors SRR (Stimulus, Response, & Reinforcement) Human much like animal behavior is regarded as a set of responses to external stimuli

13. BEHAVIORISM (Contd) Learning consists in acquiring new behaviors/habits no mental processing Learning a language is habit formation: active participation of Lners Feedback (positive reinforcement or correction) is central to the theory Implications for L2 and classroom practice

14. Mentalism (Noam Chomsky) Casts doubt on behaviorist theory: learning cannot solely be habit formation Human beings are pre-wired to learn languages - Language Acquisition Device (LAD) Language is not only surface patterns & habits Language also consists of deep structure There is an innate knowledge of grammar - Rules underlying individual lang. competence are abstract

15. DOMINANT SLA THEORIES 1950s -1990s Behaviorism Structural linguistics The monitor Theory (Stephen Krashen)

16. BEHAVIORISM & STRUCTRUAL LINGUISTICS Recall: behaviorists view on learning: Acquisition of a set of behaviors/habits * modeled and highly controlled behaviors * under operant conditioning Structural Linguistics that knew its hay days at the same time posited similar view on learning - lng consists acquisition of a set of discrete and finite patterns

17. BEHAVIORISM & STRUCTURAL LINGUISTICS (Contd) Together Behav. And Struc. L. provided major approaches to language education Structural approach which has several methods under its umbrella (e.g., grammar translation, audiolingual) * items are presented in chunks * patterns are regarded as finite * highly structured exercises * high control from teacher

18. THE MONITOR THEORY (S. Krashen) Forerunner of theories developed to address SLA Broad in scope Supposedly suggests language specific models of learning It has strong connections with Chomskian views on Lg and Lng - children are biologically endowed with language - this innate knowledge just needs to be triggered by appropriate data in the input

19. THE MONITOR THEORY (Contd) Core views in the theory * comprehensible and meaningful messages * interaction of linguistic information in the messages with the innate language acquisition faculty (ILAF) It proved to be very popular among teachers and learners The MT rests on five (5) HYPOTHESES Hypotheses which consist of a number of constructs

20. CORE HYPOTHESES OF THE MT The Acquisition Learning Hypothesis The monitor Hypothesis The natural Order Hypothesis The input Hypothesis The Affective Filter Hypothesis

21. THE ACQUISITION-LEARNING HYPOTHESIS ACQUISITION OCCURS NATURALLY LEARNING RESULTS FROM CONSCIOUS, DELIBERATE AND EFFORTFUL PROCESS ACQUISITION & LEARNING ARE TWO SEPARATE KNOWLEDGE BASES ONLY ACQUISITION IS USED IN SPONTANEOUS & MEANINGFUL INTERACTIONS IT SEEMS VERY INTICING OM MANY COUNTS, i.e., * spontaneous & accurate use, yet rule may not be known * Rules learned but may not be used in spontaneous conversations

22. THE MONITOR HYPOTHESIS Status bearing of Learned Lg Limited role in real spontaneous and meaningful interactions May play an editing role when accuracy is sought Unimportant in overall language use Learned language is negligible Implications for L2 classes!

23. THE NATURAL ORDER HYPOTHESIS Some specific forms follow a natural route - some morphemes: ing; ed; s - grammatical structures: questions, negation, relative clauses There seems a predictable order of acquisition Instruction does not alter the order At the right time and order the ILAF will trigger acquisition Innate Lg Acquisition Faculty

24. THE INPUT HYPOTHESIS Only Comprehensible input will result in acquisition It must be slightly above the learners current level (i+1) Input which is i+1 is central data to SLA Meaning rather than form should be emphasized Copious and rich input in a tandem with ILAF leads to acquisition

25. THE AFFECTIVE FILTER HYPOTHESIS (STOP 21.06.2013) Rich and comfortable environment forwards acquisition: * low affective filter allows for optimal processing of input * higher affective is an impediment to input processing Acquisition-rich environments are those that are not stressful

26. OBSERVATIONS EXPLAINED OR NEED EXPLAINING BY SLA THEORIES (cf. VanPatten, 2008) 1. Exposure to input is necessary for SLA to happen 2. A good deal of SLA happens incidentally 3. learners come to know more than what they have been - exposed to in the input 4. Learners output (speech) often follows predictable paths with predictable stages in the acquisition of a given, i.e., structure Stage 1: no + phrase: no want that Stage 2: subject + no + phrase: he no want that Stage 3: dont, cant, not may alternate with no: he dont no want that Stage 4: negation is attached to modal verbs: she cant do that Stage 5: negation is attached to auxiliaries: he doesnt want that

27. OBSERVATIONS EXPLAINED OR NEED EXPLAINING BY SLA THEORIES (cf. VanPatten, 2008) 5. SLLearning is variable in its outcome 6. SLLearning is variable across linguistic subsystems 7. There are limits on the effects of frequency on SLA 8. there are limits on the effects of L1 on SLA 9. There are limits on the effect of instruction on SLA 10. There are limits on the effects of output (learners production) on language acquisition

28. THE 10 OBSERVATION COMBINED INTO 5 MAJOR AREAS (Ortega, 2008) Any SLA theory seems to be concerned with these 5 areas: The nature of SL knowledge The nature of interlanguage development The contribution of knowledge of a first language The linguistic environment The role of instruction SLA theories, current ones included often have a different take on the above areas. However, some overlap is observed here and there.

29. OTHER OBSERVATIONS PREVALENT IN SLA Interlanguage: the route travel by every learner toward - the target language L1 influence: the role of L1 in SLA Transfer: L1 buttresses L2 in a number of ways Interference : Contrastive rhetoric (Kaplan): discourse organization & thought patterns Language universals: common to all languages Languages are systems (organized and predictable in a certain way)

30. CURRENT MSLA THEORIES Universal Grammar Autonomous induction theory (Reading assignment, pp. 225-250, VanPatten, 2008) Associative Cognitive CREED Framework Skill Acquisition theory input processing theory processibility Theory concept-Oriented approach, and Interaction Framework

31. UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR (UG) What is it? Its nature and content coincide with the realm of linguistic theory It stems from generative linguistic It is dynamic theory: proposal alter over time But its CENTRAL assumptions run across all versions * government & Binding (GB) (Chomsky, 1981), or * Minimalism (Chomsky, 1995 )

32. UG (contd) It is concerned with the logical problem of language acquisition(the poverty of stimulus) L1 acquirer production and comprehension cannot be explained solely by input effect L1 and L2 learners understand or say things they have never exposed to

33. UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR (Contd) There is unconscious knowledge Lners derived from UG * native speaker grammars * interlanguage grammars For L2 learners get stronger influence from L1 grammar (e.g., Bley-Vroman, 1989; Schachter, 1990) The debate is ongoing: the distance between L1 & L2 may be brought to bear

34. UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR (Contd) UG rests on PRINCIPLES & PARAMETERS Principles: * guide form of grammar and rules operation * Lners do not have to learn them * they are built in UG Parameters: * they are language specific linguistic characteristic encoded in UG * data in a given system will trigger particular parametric choice available in UG * learning a new language is about resetting parameters

35. S0CI0CULTURAL THEORIES Originates from Lev Vygotskys works; a Russian (1896-1934) From the school of cognitive psychology Cognitive psychology, a term coined by Ulric Neisser CP is about understanding mental processes CP here is concerned with mental process allowing for learning

36. SCT (Contd): VYGOTSKY Vygotsky became prominent in the 1930 Some of his theories are regarded as unfinished His theories are often referred to a Social Development Theory His theories emphasize the role of social interaction in the development of cognition Making meaning, central to the process of learning is social

37. SCT (CONTD): VYGOTSKY Learning comes before development (vs. J. Piaget) Cultural and psychological function in human societies are dependent on learning Cultural and historical contexts within which people are situated help understand their development Higher mental function originate from social processes

38. SCT (CONTD) MENTAL FUNCTIONS (ATTENTION, SENSATION, PERCEPTION, AND MEMORY) ARE SOCIAL THROUGH SOCIAL INTERACTION THE ABOVE DEVELOP INTO HIGHER FUNCTION COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IS DEPENDENT ON CULTURE LANGUAGE, A CULTURAL ARTIFACT, IS A SEMIOTIC TOOL LANGUAGE PLAYS A CENTRAL ROLE IN COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

39. CENTRAL CONSTRUCTS MEDIATION - USE OF INTERFACE REGULATION - HAVING CONTROL SYMBOLIC ARTIFACTS (e.g., LG) - SOCIAL TOOLS WITH SPECIFIC ROLES

40. CENTRAL CONSTRUCTS OF SCT (CONTED) INTERNALIZATION - LEARNING OCCURS AT TWO LEVELS + AT THE INTERPSYCHOLOGICAL LEVEL + AT THE INTRAPSYCHOLOGICAL LEVEL IMITATION (LUDIC PLAYS) - A RECAST OF SOCIAL DRAMA

41. SCT:TENETS OF VYGOTSKYAN THEORY Central tenet of Vygotsky theory of learning - The MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE OWM (MKO) + expert + novice - The ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMEMT (ZPD)

42. ZPD Primarily it is a metaphor for assistance in learning The zone is located between what is known and what is aimed at From what you know the MKO provides assistance to get what you dont know It is about what a learner (e.g., a child) can do on their own and what they need help with

43. ZPD It is the most sensitive SPACE for guidance and instruction The ZPD is about interaction as it lead to DEVELOPMENT The concept of the ZPD has major implications for SLA - scaffolding - apprenticeship - reciprocal teaching