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A. SOCIETAL/CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Political Framework

2. Economic Framework

3. Cultrual Framework

4. Religious Framework

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5. Scientific/Technological Framework

B. URBAN FORM

1. General Locational Requirements

2. Layout

3. Construction Systems

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C. INFLUENCES ON CONTEMPORARY CULTURE (results of such development)

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1 Urban Origins and Ancient Civilizations

Pre-7000 B.C

NOMADIC SOCIETIES (PRE-URBAN SETTLEMENTS)

Hunters and gatherers; minimal division of labor

Tribal organization consisting of families or clans and headed by a democratically selected chieftain.

Animistic--belief in "spirits" within animate and inanimate objects and phenomena

Primitive wooden, bone, and stone tools

None, by definition. Lived in portable/temporary shelters following animal migrations and seasonal plant development

1 Urban Origins and Ancient Civilizations

7000-2500 B.C

VILLAGE SOCIETIES (PRE-URBAN SETTLEMENTS)

Similar to earlier societies, but greater division of labor. Hence, families known for certain crafts or services which they provided to the community. Chieftain democratically selected or hereditarily connected to a ruling family

Primitive agriculture and animal husbandry, i.e., domesticated plants and animals. Division of labor and specialization usually along family lines

 Animistic. Specific persons, "shamans" interpreted spiritual signs and administered primitive medicinal cures

Invention of clay pottery and advanced basket weaving allowed for storage of surplus grains. Utilization of sophisticated stone and crude metal implements

Permanent settlements organized into small, loosely knit collection of buildings, impoundments (confined) and plots

1 Urban Origins and Ancient Civilizations

2500 B.C.+

ANCIENT TOWNS AND CITIES (URBAN "CIVILIZED" SOCIETIES)

a. Class: society ruled by god/king, hereditarily selected from a "ruling family." Military class maintained internal order (police) and external order (army)b. Rights: No individual rights per se, rights related to position and status and law imbued in god/king. This allowed rationalization of slavery and human sacrifice.

a. Division of laborCraftspersons; Artists; Master Builders; Farmersb. Systematic agricultural practices based on use of calendar to predict seasons, river flooding, etc. Creation of food surplusesc. Trade: mercantilism with other cities creating heterogeneity within cities (versus homogeneity of village societies) allowing for (1) cross-fertilization of ideas and technology(2) competition for excellence/progress

a. God/king represented "god on earth"b. Priest class conducted rituals and ceremonies (sometimes human sacrifice) to appease the gods. This included keeping the secrets of the stars and seasons

ANCIENT URBAN FORM

a. Use of iron, copper and bronze implementsb. Invention of writing (to "store" information), numbering systems, calendarsc. Wheel and draught animals in Old World (Near East, North Africa, etc.)

a. Defense--islands, hillsb. Waterc. Agricultural land

a. Perimeter wall or some other form of defense/containment (e.g., river bank)b. Precincts ("Neighborhoods")Religious--temples, pyramidsGovernment/military--"the citadel" or last point of defenseHousing--"wards"Marketplacec. "Commercial" and "industrial" activities dispersed throughout housing areas

a. Wood and masonry (stone/fired-clay brick) technologiesb. Primarily trabeated (post and beam) structures

2 Classic Periods of Greece and Rome

200 B.C.- 300 A.DGolden Age 500 B.C.

ANCIENT GREECE

a. A loose collection of city-statesb. Laws created through democratic representation, i.e., senatec. Invented concepts of "polis" and "citizen." (NOTE: Women, foreigners and slaves could not be citizens.)

a. As island societies, city-states were dependent on trade/mercantilismb. For economic and political reasons, when cities became too large (generally over 30,000), new Greek colonies were established

a. Pantheistic. Elaborate mythology of gods in human form. Gods not infallible. Greek drama showed gods acting out the comedy and tragedy of the human condition, basis for the humanitiesb. Greeks strove for a balance of mind (philosophy), spirit (religion), and body (physical conditioning)

CITY FORM

a. Similar in all ways to ancient citiesb. Building restricted to trabeated (post and beam) construction

1. Basic form similar to "Ancient Cities" with the following exceptions: a. Perimeter walls minimized due to island locations. b. No citadel per se, but each city had an acropolis at the high point which contained the temple district ("homes of the gods"). c. Each city had a central marketplace, called the agora, which contained government as well as commercial buildings. Generally, the agora was an open, irregular square bounded by buildings. Some of these buildings were called stoa, which were long, open, arcaded structures to accommodate merchants' stalls. d. Greek cities grew organically. Athens,for example, first established a winding roadway from its gates to the acropolis. Buildings, precincts and the agora were established along this roadway. It was called the Panathenaic Way and became the principal parade route during city celebrations.2. Colonization a. To stabilize city size, the Greeks committed to a concept of colonization. The Greeks felt the optimum city population to carry out their form of political democracy was 30,000. When a "mother" city began to approach this size, they would establish a new, completely autonomous colony, or city at another location. b. Greek colonies were based on systematic urban planning. The best known colony plans are those for Miletus and Pirene created in 500 B.C. by Hippodamus, usually referred to as the first "urban planner." These colonies were laid out on a grid or gridiron street plan. They include locations for an acropolis and agora. Major streets were laid out east-west to give each private home optimum solar (southern) exposure. c. The Greeks believed that all citizens should have homes of equal quality, including optimum access to space ventilation, light, and sun. Each home was a series of rooms organized around a courtyard. Homes of the rich were not necessarily larger or more elaborate, but would have higher quality furnishings and interior finishes and a larger cadre of slaves

2 Classic Periods of Greece and Rome

KINGS 753-510 BC; REPUBLIC 509-527 BC; EMPIRE 527-330 ADGolden Age 96-180 AD

ANCIENT ROME

a. Highly centralized authority emanating from the city of Rome. Caesars often equated to god/kingsb. Government dominated by military

a. Trade economyb. New trade areas opened up through military conquest, e.g., England in 40 AD

a. Romans reinterpreted Greek mythology, e.g., Hermes became Mercury, etcb. Less spiritual and philosophical than the Greeks; Romans more practical and pragmatic (sensible & realistic)

URBAN FORM

a. Perfection of the arcuated (arched) construction system allowed for great engineering achievements(1) Arch (one dimensional) gateways, bridges and aqueducts and buildings (e.g., Coliseum)(2) Barrel Vault (two dimensional) water/sewer systems(3) Dome (three dimensional) great spaces (e.g., Pantheon)b. Use of arcuated construction systems combined with military organization resulted in(1) Rome becoming largest city in the ancient world--over 1 million persons(2) The spread of civilization (cities) throughout the Roman Empire: North Africa, Near East, Western Europe and England

1. Ancient Rome a. Largest city in the ancient world--over 1 million inhabitants. b. Underground water and sewer. c. Forum Romanum (civic center) replaced Greek agora (marketplace). d. Housing tenaments (walk-up apartments) limited to 7 stories. e. Monumental buildings, e.g., Coliseum replaced Greek theater as civic gathering place. (Opera invented to cope with projecting voices across larger spaces.)2. Roman military encampments became the planned cities of the civilized world (527 BC to 330 AD). a. Military encampments were "planned" towns. They were created by establishing a perimeter wall approximately one mile square. Four gates were established at the center of each wall and main streets were created to connect them. The government buildings and main market were established at the intersection of these streets. Other properties and streets were then filled in to make a completely autonomous new town. b. Roman roads were absolutely straight. They were paved with stones to accommodate principally foot and horse traffic. Bridges were built over streams and valleys. Aqueducts were created to carry water into the newly created cities.

3 Middle Ages Through the Renaissance

400-1000 AD

Dissolution of Roman rule; establishment of fiefdoms

Rural/agricultural--minimal trade

Proliferation of Christian monastic orders

DARK AGES 

Minimal advancement/discovery

URBAN FORM

1. Decline of urban centers/cities/trade.2. Walled settlements organized around monasteries--"Heavenly Cities." 3. Primitive rural villages.

1. Decline of urban centers/cities/trade.2. Walled settlements organized around monasteries--"Heavenly Cities." 3. Primitive rural villages.

1. Legacy of the monasteries.a. Scholarly recording of classic culture: Literature Medicine Law Latin/Greek languages Agricultureb. Refinement of community/human values: Inner discipline: spiritual vs. material development. Restraint, order, honesty

3 Middle Ages Through the Renaissance

1000-1400 AD

MIDDLE AGES

Establishment of feudalism; a period which tied personal power to land ownership: kingship and feudal lords

Resumption of trade; establishment of craft guilds

Heavy Christian influence (period of the Crusades); Gothic cathedral centerpiece of the city and society; separation of church and state

URBAN FORM

a. Refined stonework, the Gothic arch.b. No other great advances in building engineering beyond the accomplishments of the Romans

1. Walled for the purposes of defense and regulation of trade.2. Pedestrian streets--organic.3. Market Places--widened streets and squares.4. Church Square5. General Typologies a. Towns of Roman origin. b. Burgs--fortified military bases. c. Organic growth and new towns

1. Walled for the purposes of defense and regulation of trade.2. Pedestrian streets--organic.3. Market Places--widened streets and squares.4. Church Square5. General Typologies a. Towns of Roman origin. b. Burgs--fortified military bases. c. Organic growth and new towns

1. Guilds a. Elevated status of workers/craftsmen. b. Institutionalized communal ("socialized") education and welfare for workers. c. Established a middle class.2. University form of education--law, medicine, the arts.3. Period when great cities were established--Venice, Florence, Paris, London, Vienna, Munich--the formative period of most European cities.

3 Middle Ages Through the Renaissance

1400 - 1700 AD"Rebirth" of classic cultures - Greeks and Romans

THE RENAISSANCE 

 Landed aristocracy and successful merchants/bankers--city/states

Consolidation of wealth from rents, taxes, piracy; Age of Discovery - world exploration/trade

Unprecedented patronage of the arts; painting, sculpture, architecture - Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Michelangelo (1475-1564), etc

Declined in government influence; clear separation of church and state--"conscience" of society

URBAN FORM

Experimentation with military science (gun powder, tanks, flying machines); perfection of sailing ships and mapping

1. Essentially a refinement of the medieval legacy2. Did not significantly change the elements of the medieval city : walled; elaborate, organic street system (pedestrian); and market squares.3. Exception: Plazas given monumental scale and classical dignity--St. Peter's in Rome and St. Mark's in Venice.

4 Baroque Period & Monumental City Precedents

1700-1800 AD

THE BAROQUE PERIOD

Consolidation of wealth in monarchies; development of great armies and new ways of waging war based on use of gunpowder

Establishment of kingship/monarchies and nation-states.

Heavy taxation; colonial exploitation; the "Age of Revolution"--spawned new democracies

Institutionalized; aligned with oppressive (inflicting harsh and authoritarian treatment) governments

URBAN FORM

 Limited achievements due to focus on military conquest/revolution

1. Cities opened up; extended beyond walls--relieved overcrowding.2. Great boulevards. a. To accommodate troop movements; reduction in street defense. b. Creation of vistas to show off wealth (palaces). c. Avenues developed at expense of neighborhoods. d. Imposed elite values onto masses:(1) Subordinated urban life (free social and economic intercourse) to outward form (ostentatious display of wealth and rigid artistic expression based on geometric principles), and(2) New geometric order imposed to "control" nature and people.

1. Baroque culture based on king-centered, military-minded political/economic system requiring LAW, ORDER, UNIFORMITY to sustain it--a "closed" system.a. Analogous to Roman Empire.b. Embraced by Nazis and Fascists in 20th Century.2. Overvaluation of geometric form as basis for "universal" artistic principles.a. Ultimately led to social and artistic elitism and arrogance in architecture and the arts--the "Beaux Arts" (pronunciation - bouz)b. Organic/Ecological (contextual) and Beaux Arts (metaphysical) philosophies compared: i. ORGANIC/ECOLOGICAL - Acknowledges the existing context--materials, land forms, history and culture --as design determinants to be enriched and responded to. ii. BEAUX ARTS - Simplifies the facts "of life for an "artful" system of concepts (known only to the initiated).

4 Baroque Period & Monumental City Precedents

MONUMENTAL CITY PRECEDENTS

1500 - 1800 AD

A. 16TH CENTURY PRECEDENTS1. Michelangelo's redesign of the Capitoline Hill, Rome (c. 1540).a. Axiality as organizing element.b. Use of perspective.2. Sixtus V's strategy for organizing street systems of Rome (c. 1585-1590).a. Connected "points in space"--obelisks in front of churches and cathedrals.b. Formalized religious processionals.c. Perspective vistas and movement sequence; Example: Piazza del Popolo, principal gateway into Rome.B. 17TH CENTURY PRECEDENTS1. Christopher Wren's plan for restructuring London (1666 after the Great Fire).a. Based on planning principles established by Sixtus V. Used ideas from Italy and France published in books (due to widespread availability of printing).b. Not implemented due to difficulties with land assembly; merchants/building owners did not want to give up loss of income from rebuilding period. Also, Wren's Plan violated the "parish" system of local government by tying previously separate parishes (districts) together.2. Louis XIV-- Versailles (outside Paris).C. 18TH CENTURY PRECEDENTS.1. The Royal Crescent and Circus at Bath, England.a. Bath--a resort town named for a Roman Bath dating to the 1st Century AD.b. Designers used row houses as organizers.c. Royal Circus(1) Designed by John Wood, the Elder (c. 1727).(2) Used Roman classical orders: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian.(3) "Circus" composed of 33 row houses in a circle surrounding a public space and broken by three intersecting streets.d. Royal Crescent(1) Designed by John Wood, the Younger.(2) Also utilized classical imagery influenced by Alberti.(3) Row houses provided a spectacular view: "the middle class equivalent of avenue and vista [of royalty]" (Lewsis Mumford).2. The Capitol at Washington, DC (c. 1791).a. Designed by Pierre L'Enfantb. Linked Capitol and White House to the Potomac River with grand boulevards/vistas.D. 19TH CENTURY PRECEDENTS1. Regents' Street, London, England (c. 1811)a. Designer: John Nashb. Links Regents' Park with Picadilly Circus.c. Buildings organized to dramatize sense of movement, entry and arrival. Uses similar cornice heights, column and pilaster arcading.2. Restructuring of Paris by Haussman (c. 1850s).a. Louis Napoleon exiled to London and admired Regents Street; later became Napoleon III and accelerated process of redevelopment of Paris begun by previous generations.b. Hired Baron Eugene Haussman to carry out design and work.(1) Design based on a concept of connections of principal destinations (esp. new railroad stations).(2) Objectives: Riot Control Slum Clearance Traffic Improvementsc. Transportation took 17 years and included: New boulevards, water supply, sewers/parks. Use of "excess condemnation" (exproporation of private property by government. Buildings included shops on ground floors, 3 floors of apartments above. Strong horizontals composed of belt courses, balconies, cornices. Boulevards derivative of Nash and Versailles.d. Lingering issue of land acquisition and destruction of neighborhoods.

5 Industrial Revolution and the City Beautiful Movement

1800-1900

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

The establishment of representative democracies (constitutional) based on a system of law; replaced monarchies of 18th Century

The emergence of capitalism.a. In 1776 "The Wealth of Nations" by Adam Smith urged free enterprise as the ideal vehicle for personal/individual development under a system of "laisse-faire" government. (Doctrine that a government should not interfere with business and economic affairs)b. Money economy controlled by banks--"the cathedrals of the modern age."c. Wealth could be generated by controlling the "means of production"--property, technology, capital.d. Soon workers came to be seen as simple extensions of mechanization--"cogs in the wheel."e. Decline of the guilds.f. Two classes resulting in an adversarial relationship between employer and employee. (1) Owners/Management--"bourgeosie," and (2) workersg. Employees lost all benefits--education, hospitalization: (1) 14-16 hour days (2) meager wages (3) child labor (4) dangerous/unhealthy working conditionsh. Employers became the "barons of the modern age"--oil, rail roads and banks.i. Pursuit of profit over all other social obligations.

URBAN FORM

a. 1765 invention of the steam engine resulting in the mechanization of labor.b. New technologies created new wealth.

1. Industrialism resulted in unprecedented urbanization--the city became another extension of mechanization--another means of production.2. Ideology of capitalism endorsed by all societal institutions, including government--hence, business given unprecedented free¬dom for development.3. The "Industrial City" can be characterized by the factory, the railroad, and the slum.a. The Factory(1) Factory production subordinated every other detail of life; art, religion and government became mere embel¬lishments.(2) Early factory towns made no provisions for police, fire protection, water and food inspection, hospitals or education.(3) Factories claimed the best sites: Valley Land Rivers (for dumping and transport) Waterfronts Our present urban legacy.b. The Railroad (1) Allowed to penetrate to the heart of cities. (2) Large tracts of land for yards. (3) Became barriers--separated neighborhoods--"across the tracks."c. The Slum (1) Worker housing. (2) Tenements (3) No provision for refuse disposal. (4) Lack of sunlight: Bred bacteria; Psychological depression (5) Overcrowding (6) Pestilence--rats, infectious insects.

1. Industrialism resulted in unprecedented urbanization--the city became another extension of mechanization--another means of production.2. Ideology of capitalism endorsed by all societal institutions, including government--hence, business given unprecedented free¬dom for development.3. The "Industrial City" can be characterized by the factory, the railroad, and the slum.a. The Factory(1) Factory production subordinated every other detail of life; art, religion and government became mere embel¬lishments.(2) Early factory towns made no provisions for police, fire protection, water and food inspection, hospitals or education.(3) Factories claimed the best sites: Valley Land Rivers (for dumping and transport) Waterfronts Our present urban legacy.b. The Railroad (1) Allowed to penetrate to the heart of cities. (2) Large tracts of land for yards. (3) Became barriers--separated neighborhoods--"across the tracks."c. The Slum (1) Worker housing. (2) Tenements (3) No provision for refuse disposal. (4) Lack of sunlight: Bred bacteria; Psychological depression (5) Overcrowding (6) Pestilence--rats, infectious insects.

1. Conditions of the industrial city became so bad that reactiontioaries led the way to modern city hygiene and safety improvements.2. Social commentary reform: Upton Sinclair Charles Dickens Jane Addams The Salvation Army3. Sanitary Reform a. Systematic sewer development. b. Urban park development. c. Building codes established to regulate light, air, and fire protection in buildings.

5 Industrial Revolution and the City Beautiful Movement

THE CITY BEAUTIFUL MOVEMENT

A. 1893 COLUMBIA WORLD'S EXPOSITION--THE "WHITE CITY"1. Daniel Burnham "Make no little plans."2. Launched "classic revival" in architecture.B. REINTERPRETATIONS OF URBAN DESIGN1. Plans created for "civic centers": patterned after Baroque planning--influenced axes, great plazas, broad avenues, etc.2. Influenced San Francisco, Chicago and Manila; and many State capitols, e.g., Olympia, WA.C. INFLUENCES1. Positive a. Renewed public awareness in civic design. b. Encouraged other movements, i.e., urban parks, civic beauti¬fication, etc.2. Negative a. Falsely assumed planning and style could be transferred from another age (ignored culture, materials, technology). b. Emphasized "classic monumentality"--ultimately hollow and unnatural.

6 The Garden City and New Town Movements

THE GARDEN CITY OF EBENEZER HOWARD

A. CONDITIONS IN THE 19TH CENTURY1. Uncontrolled growth.2. Environmental degradation--pollution.3. Unhealthy conditions.4. Produced a generation of reformists--novelists, social workers and the first modern "city planners": Patrick Geddes and Ebenezer Howard of Great Britain.a. Geddes known for the concept of applying "scientific" principles to analyzing and controlling development--"regional planning."b. Howard known for concept of "garden cities": self-supporting communities of limited size to provide an alternative lifestyle to large, overcrowded cities.B. EBENEZER HOWARD1. English-born in London 1850, died 19282. Became a clerk at age 15.3. Couldn't stand London so moved to Nebraska at age 21 to become a farmer--failed after 1 year.4. Moved to Chicago and became a court reporter, then moved back to London for rest of his life.5. As a sideline, he became interested with people protesting uncontrolled speculation:a. Concerned with over-population of city and destitution of rural areas.b. But was not anti-urban, anti-industrial, nor did he advocate "going back to the land."C. THE "GARDEN CITY" CONCEPT1. First published in 1898 under the title: "Tomorrow--a Peaceful Path to Reform."2. In 1902, republished as "Garden Cities of Tomorrow."3. Described the "Ideal Town."a. A socialist community, modified with ideas of private enterprise on publicly-owned land--"best of both systems."b. The "3 Magnets"c. Conceived the idea of planned dispersal Diagram No. 5(actually employed by ancient Greeks to maintain stable population in principal cities like Athens).d. Basic layout consisted of single family houses distributed around a central nuclear--civic and commercial center.Diagrams No. 2 and No. 3(1) Industry on outskirts.(2) Strictly zoned.(3) Walking distance to center and work.e. 3 Basic Principles(1) Controlled Growth City surrounded by agricultural land or forest to prevent sprawl--"green belt." 30,000 population in city; 2,000 population in "green belt." 5,000 acres total; 1,000 acres for city.(2) Economically Self-Sufficient Has its own industry as well as housing/commercial. Also, a characteristic of ancient Greek colonization.(3) Community Ownership Ownership and governance of town by community. Properties leased to individual residents on 99-year basis. Limited dividends; profits used to maintain city.D. HOWARD WAS ABLE TO GET TWO TOWNS BUILT1. Formed "Garden City Association" in 1899.2. Bought 4,500 acres, 24 miles from London.3. Built Letchworth, 1903 Designed for 35,000 (reached 15,000 after 30 years.)4. Built Welwyn Garden City north of London in 1920 Designed for 40,000 (reached 10,000 after 10 years).5. Both cities still viable--have become "gentrified" because of good planning. Status to live there.E. CRITICISM AND ATTRIBUTES1. Public outcry--communistic, anti-city, utopian.2. Separated urban functions; did not allow overlap--discouraged the social and cultural interaction found in cities.3. But had an immense influence as a planning idea--treated urban and rural improvement as a single idea.

6 The Garden City and New Town Movements

THE NEW TOWN MOVEMENT

Definition--a self-contained, self-sufficient city unit consisting of housing, work places, industry, shopping areas, schools, parks, etc. (Not suburban "bedroom communities" consisting of housing and shopping only!)A. ENGLAND1. Abercrombie's "London Plan, 1946"2. New Town Planning Act, 1946a. Allowed government to designate any area as a site for a new town (including existing towns) and to appoint development commissions.b. 3 Generations(1) Pre-1950's--14 new towns with strong Garden City influence (Harlow).(2) 1950-60's-- compact cities (Runicorn, Hook, Cumbernaud, Scot.) Thamesmead--"New Town in Town."(3) 1970's--American Model based on accommodating the automobile (Milton Keynes).3. Influences/Results of New Town Developmenta. A successful policy (not tied to changes in government).b. Did not stem tide of urban growth: "conurbation" has occurred on both sides of the green belt with new towns being established further from London.B. NEW TOWNS IN THE U.S.1. Early "New Towns"a. Planned Cities Williamsburg, VA 1633 New Amsterdam (New York City) 1660 Philadelphia, PA 1682 Savannah, GA 1733 Washington, DC 1791 Chicago 1833b. Company Towns Pullman, Illinois 1881 Longview, WA 19232. "Modern" New Townsa. Radburn, NJ 1928 "New Town of the Motor Age" followed concepts of Clarence Stein and Henry Wright.(1) "Superblocks" 30-50 acres; no through traffic.(2) Traffic surrounded, but did not intrude into neighborhoods.(3) Cul-de-sac access streets to housing.(4) Underpasses separated pedestrians from traffic.(5) Concept of the "neighborhood unit" based on distribution of housing, shopping and schools according to walking distances (1/4 - 1/2 mile from home to school).b. Resettlement Administration Communities 1930's(1) Greenbelt, MD(2) Greendale, WI(3) Greenhills, OHc. Privately-Developed New Towns(1) Irvine, CA 1972(2) Reston, VA(3) Columbia, MD(4) Difficulties: Land Assembly US New Towns never developed into anything more than upper class suburban "bedroom communities." US has no tradition in large-scale land purchase/lease by government.

THE "NEIGHBORHOOD UNIT" CONCEPT

Clarence Perry--Housing for the Machine Age, 1929. Clarence Stein and Henry Wright--Radburn New Town, ("Superblock"), 1942

7 The Modern City, Megastructure City and U.S. Suburban Movements

1900-1975

THE CITY OF THE FIRST THREE-QUARTERS OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

Multi-nationalism. World War I (1914-1917) fought on horseback and in the trenches; symbolic of demise of the old aristocratic order. World War II (1939-1945) involved the modern armies of almost every nation in the world; ended with the defeat of fascism (Benito Mussolini in Italy and Adolf Hitler in Nazi Germany) and installation of two primary ideologies: democracy and communism "Cold War" (1950-1989)

Capitalism tied to democratic regimes and socialism tied to communistic regimes. Money economy based on gold standard; multi-national trading. Highly complex economic forces resulting in periods of depressions, recessions and inflation. Oil the most sought after world commodity; oil prices impact energy costs which in turn influence land use patterns, highway construction, building design, etc

a. Combustion Engine--The Automobile (1) Completely changed the pattern of human settlements. (2) Most notable change came in the U.S. with the development of vast suburban "bedroom" communities spread out around central cities--"urban sprawl." (expansion of human populations away from central urban areas into previously remote and rural areas) (3) By 1970, a national highway system linked all parts of the U.S. (4) U.S. became a car culture: drive-in-movies, restaurants and the shopping center. (5) "The American Dream" became a single family house (surrounded by a white picket fence) located in the suburbs--"individualism" coupled with "owning a piece of nature."b. Steel and Ferro-Concrete Construction (1) "Skyscraper" invented in Chicago in 1880's. (2) Within 30 years, the "American skyline" appeared, creating highly dense urban centers composed of high-rise structures, continuing banking, retail and "whit collar" office functions. (3) 1950's and 1960's--High rise "housing" begins to appear in U.S. (from ideas imported from Europe by members of the "International School"--Le Corbusier, Mies Van der Rohe, Marcel Breuer, Walter Gropius, etc.

7 The Modern City, Megastructure City and U.S. Suburban Movements

1887-1965

LE CORBUSIER AND THE ORIGINS OF THE MODERN MOVEMENT

A. LE CORBUSIER A.K.A."CORBU" (nee CHARLES-EDUOARD JEANNERET)1. The most influential architect and urban designer of the 20th Century.2. Born in Switzerland, but practiced in France.3. An artist: abstract impressionist.4. Most recognized architecture: Villa Savoie, Unite d'Habitacion, and Church of Ronchamps.B. "MODERN CITY" THEORY OF LE CORBUSIER1. Contexta. Post World War I Europe Overpopulation--shortage of housing and office/business buildings. Traffic congestion due to outmoded transportation system. Air pollution Tuberculoses and slums Social miseries/decadenceb. Bourgeois Attitudes/Conventions Example: an exhibition of urban "beautification" projects meant benches, kiosks, street lights, sign posts, billboards. Corbu agreed to design a fountain, but, with a city of 3 million behind it!2. Corbu's Ideal City Plansa. 1922 "Ville Contemporaine" Separated buildings from the ground on "pilotis" 2 goals:(1) Increase density and reestablish business center.(2) Bring "greenness" into urban life.b. 1925 Plan Voisin Towers: To achieve maximum penetration of light and density (premise for cultural progress) his plan showed 60 storey towers, 800' apart in cruciform plans. Nature and Space: Because of his belief in parks as the "lungs of the city," he created 95% park space in business areas and 85% in residential. Axes and Speed: He believed that the city that has "speed has success." He called the street a "machine for circulation." He also believed in the straight line, broad expanse, monumental boulevards and axial geometry of the Baroque planners. Therefore, his plan included a super highway linked by two monumental arches. Multi-Layered Transportation: He separated vehicles and pedestrians and created various layers/levels of trans¬portation according to function, range and speed: The Airport Arterials for Automobiles Pedestrian Walks Subways Suburban Roadways Interstate Roadwaysc. 1933 "Ville Radieuse"--RADIANT CITY Incorporated ideas of earlier schemes. Best known for urban form of continuous rows of tall buildings woven zig-zag across landscaped space. Plans created for Algiers, Antwerp and Stockholm 3. The Charter of Athensa. Many of Corbu's urban concepts were incorporated into the discussions of CIAM (The International Congress of Modern Architecture--an international group of architects who espoused the ideas of the "International School").b. In 1943, CIAM published "The Charter of Athens," which was a manifesto describing the goals of the "modern city," including: Balance of individual and communal requirements. Dominance of the landscape over buildings; green areas for living and recreational functions, in the city as well as in the country. Consideration of climatic conditions; insulation and ventilation. Maintenance of historic buildings. Unraveling, separation and organization of the four main urban functions (living, working, recreation, and transport); housing to be given priority among the problems of urban planning; humane working conditions; generous recreational facilities; separation of vehicular and pedestrian traffic; long-distance and access traffic, etc. Legislation for the enforcement of these demands.C. LEGACIES OF THE MODERN MOVEMENT1. Few of Corbu's city plans were built. Exceptions:a. Chandigarh, capitol of the Province of the Punjab in India--designed by Corbu in the 1950's; very monumental/expressionist architecture--lacking in human scale.b. Corbu influenced the design of Brasilia, the new interior capitol of Brasil in the 1960's.2. Many of Corbu's ideas were followed blindly and created instant slums, especially during the "urban renewal "period in the U.S. (1960's) when vast "blocks" of housing were built that people hated living in. Most notorious was the Pruitt-Igoe Housing Blocks in St. Louis, which had to be demolished only two years after they were built; this became a symbol of the failure of the Modern Movement and Corbu's ideas.D. THE MEGASTRUCTURE CITY MOVEMENT1. Use of technology to create dense, compact communities combining work, living and play under one roof.2. Concepts:a. Fantasies of "the metropolis" in the 1880's: high-rise buildings interconnected with pedestrian bridges, separated from vehicular traffic (Hugh Ferris, Harvey Corbett, et al.).b. Walking Cities--Archigram, 1960'sc. Plug-in-City--Archigram, 1960'sd. Freeway City--Paul Rudolfe. Flying Cities/Space Stationsf. Covered City--Buckminister Fuller3. Realitiesa. Aircraft Carriersb. Oil drilling rigs--North Seac. "Habitat"--by Moshe Safdie, Montreal, 1967.d. Skywalk systems--Minneapolis, St. Paul, Calgary, Spokane.e. Cumbernauld, Scottish New Town.

7 The Modern City, Megastructure City and U.S. Suburban Movements

1867-1959

FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT AND THE ORIGINS OF THE "AMERICAN LOVE AFFAIR WITH SPRAWL

A. FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT1. The most influential American architect.2. Established "The Prairie School" of architecture based on principles of "organic architecture," i.e., design with nature; for example Wright would describe his houses as being "of the hill rather than on the hill."B. THE IDEAL AMERICAN CITY ACCORDING TO WRIGHT1. Contexta. Post World War I America Untouched (physically) by the War Land Rich Burgeoning highway system--access No socialist traditionb. Wright had been practicing for 40 years by 1930 Organic architecture--"of the land" Equated land ownership with sovereignty of the individual citizen practicing in a democratic nation.2. Wright's Response--"Broadacre City" a. At least one acre of land for every family. b. Decentralization--access by auto. c. "Usonian" ideal--agrarian democracy.

7 The Modern City, Megastructure City and U.S. Suburban Movements

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