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Umayyad CaliphateFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia"Banu Umayyad" redirects here. For the medieval Arabian clan, see Banu Umayya .

Umayyad Caliphate

و م ل ف ا خ ا

Al-Khilāfah al- Umawiyyahʾ (Arabic)

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The Umayyad Caliphate at its greatest extent.

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The Umayyad Caliphate ( Arabic: و م ل -tran$% Al-Khilāfat al ,ا #"! ا umawiyyaʾ & 'a$ the $econd of thefo r ma)or *$lamic caliphate$ e$tabli$hed after the death of + hammad % Thi$ caliphate 'a$ centeredon the mayyad dyna$ty ( Arabic: - و و م ل ,ا al- Umawiyyūnʾ , or /م . Banū Umayyaʾ,01و , 23on$of mayya2&, hailin4 from +ecca % The mayyad family had fir$t come to po'er nder the thirdcaliph, thman ibn Affan (r% 5667585&, b t the mayyad re4ime 'a$ fo nded by+ a'iya ibn Abi3 fyan, lon49time 4o ernor of3yria, after the end of the Fir$t + $lim ;i il War in 55< ;=>6< A? %3yria remained the mayyad$@ main po'er ba$e thereafter, and ama$c $ 'a$ their capital% Themayyad$ contin ed the + $lim conB e$t$, incorporatin4 the ;a ca$ $ , Tran$oCiana, 3indh,the +a4hreb and the*berian Denin$ la ( Al9Andal $& into the + $lim 'orld% At it$ 4reate$t eCtent, the

mayyad ;aliphate co ered <8 million kmE (8% G million $B are mile$&, makin4 it thelar4e$tempire (in term$ of area 9 not in term$ of pop lation& the 'orld had yet $een, and thefifth lar4e$te er to eCi$t%HIJ

At the time, the mayyad taCation and admini$trati e practice 'ere percei ed a$ n) $t by $ome+ $lim$% The non9+ $lim pop lation had a tonomyK their ) dicial matter$ 'ere dealt 'ith inaccordance 'ith their o'n la'$ and by their o'n reli4io $ head$ or their appointee$, altho 4h they

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did pay a poll taC for policin4 to the central $tate%HGJ+ hammad had $tated eCplicitly d rin4 hi$ lifetimethat each reli4io $ minority $ho ld be allo'ed to practice it$ o'n reli4ion and 4o ern it$elf, and thepolicy had on the 'hole contin ed% The'elfare $tate for both the + $lim and the non9+ $lim poor$tarted by mar ibn al Lhattab had al$o contin ed%HGJ + a'iya@$ 'ife +ay$ m (MaNid@$ mother& 'a$al$o a ;hri$tian% The relation$ bet'een the + $lim$ and the ;hri$tian$ in the $tate 'ere 4ood% The

mayyad$ 'ere in ol ed in freB ent battle$ 'ith the ;hri$tian OyNantine$ 'itho t bein4 concerned

'ith protectin4 them$el e$ in 3yria, 'hich had remained lar4ely ;hri$tian like many other part$ ofthe empire%HGJ Drominent po$ition$ 'ere held by ;hri$tian$ , $ome of 'hom belon4ed to familie$ thathad $er ed in OyNantine 4o ernment$% The employment of ;hri$tian$ 'a$ part of a broader policy ofreli4io $ tolerance that 'a$ nece$$itated by the pre$ence of lar4e ;hri$tian pop lation$ in theconB ered pro ince$, a$ in 3yria% Thi$ policy al$o boo$ted + a'iya@$ pop larity and $olidified 3yriaa$ hi$ po'er ba$e %H<PJH<<J

The ri alrie$ bet'een the Arab tribe$ had ca $ed nre$t in the pro ince$ o t$ide 3yria, mo$t notablyin the 3econd + $lim ;i il War of 5IP75GE ;= and the Oerber Qe olt of 6P7 6R ;=% rin4 the3econd ;i il War, leader$hip of the mayyad clan $hifted from the 3 fyanid branch of the family tothe +ar'anid branch% A$ the con$tant campai4nin4 eCha $ted the re$o rce$ and manpo'er of the$tate, the mayyad$, 'eakened by the Third + $lim ;i il War of 667 6 ;=, 'ere finally toppledby the Abba$id Qe ol tion in 8P ;=><RE A?% A branch of the family fled acro$$Sorth Africa to Al9

Andal $, 'here they e$tabli$hed the ;aliphate of ; rdoba , 'hich la$ted ntil <PR< before fallin4 d eto the Fitna of al9Undal $%

Contents

HhideJ

• < Vri4in$

• E ?i$tory

o E%< 3 fyanid$

o E%E Fir$t +ar'anid$

o E%R ?i$ham and the limit$ of military eCpan$ion

o E%6 Third Fitna

o E%8 Abba$id Qe ol tion

• R mayyad Admini$tration

o R%< Dro ince$

o R%E o ernment 'orker$

o R%R ; rrency

o R%6 ;entral di'an$

R%6%< i'an al9Lhara)

R%6%E i'an al9Qa$a@il

R%6%R i'an al9Lhatam

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R%6%6 i'an al9Oarid

R%6%8 i'an al9X dat

R%6%5 i'an al9Y nd

• 6 3ocial Vr4aniNation

o 6%< Son9+ $lim$

• 8 Ze4acy

o 8%< ?i$torical $i4nificance

o 8%E Theolo4ical opinion$ concernin4 the mayyad$

8%E%< 3 nni opinion$

• 5 =arly literat re

o 5%< 3hi@a opinion$

o 5%E Oah[@\ $tandpoint

• Zi$t of mayyad ;aliph$

• I 3ee al$o

• G Qeference$

• <P F rther readin4

• << =Cternal link$

Origins HeditJ

This secti n%eed* additi,%al citati,%* 2,r .eri2icati,%. 0lease help impr Ee this article )y adding citati ns t relias urces. Uns urced material may )e challenged and rem Eed.(July 2010)

Accordin4 to tradition, the mayyad family also !nown as the Banu Abd-hams # and + hammad both de$cended from a common ance$tor, Abd +anaf ibn X $ai, and they

ori4inally came from the city of+ecca % + hammad de$cended from Abd +an]f ia hi$ $on?a$him, 'hile the mayyad$ de$cended from Abd +anaf ia a different $on, Abd93ham$, 'ho$e $on'a$ mayya% The t'o familie$ are therefore con$idered to be different clan$ (tho$e of?a$him and of

mayya, re$pecti ely& of the $ame tribe (that of the X rai$h&% ?o'e er + $lim 3hia hi$torian$$ $pect that mayya 'a$ an adopted $on of Abd 3ham$ $o he 'a$ not a blood relati e of Abd+anaf ibn X $ai% mayya 'a$ later di$carded from the noble family%H<EJ

While the mayyad$ and the ?a$himite$ may ha e had bitterne$$ bet'een the t'o clan$before + hammad , the ri alry t rned into a $e ere ca$e of tribal animo$ity after the Oattle of Oadr %The battle $a' three top leader$ of the mayyad clan ( tba ibn Qabi@ah, Walid ibn tbah and3haybah& killed by ?a$himite$ ( Ali, ?amNa ibn ^Abd al9+ ttalib and baydah ibn al9?arith& in athree9on9three melee%H<RJ Thi$ f eled the oppo$ition of Ab 3 fyan ibn ?arb, the 4rand$on of mayya,to + hammad and to *$lam% Ab 3 fyan $o 4ht to eCterminate the adherent$ of the ne' reli4ion by

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'a4in4 another battle 'ith + $lim$ ba$ed in +edina only a year after the Oattle of Oadr % ?e did thi$to a en4e the defeat at Oadr% The Oattle of h d i$ 4enerally belie ed by $cholar$ to be the fir$tdefeat for the + $lim$, a$ they had inc rred 4reater lo$$e$ than the +eccan$% After the battle, Ab3 fyan@$ 'ife ?ind, 'ho 'a$ al$o the da 4hter of tba ibn Qabi@ah, i$ reported to ha e c t open thecorp$e of ?amNa, takin4 o t hi$ li er 'hich $he then attempted to eat%H<6J Within fi e year$ after hi$defeat in the Oattle of h d, ho'e er, + hammad took control of +ecca H<8J and anno nced a 4eneral

amne$ty for all% Ab 3 fyan and hi$ 'ife ?ind embraced*$lam on the e e of the conB e$t of +ecca,a$ did their $on (the f t re caliph+ a'iyah * &%

=Cpan$ion of the caliphate nder the mayyad$:

=Cpan$ion nder + hammad, 5EE75RE

=Cpan$ion d rin4 the Qa$hid n ;aliphate, 5RE755<

=Cpan$ion d rin4 the mayyad ;aliphate, 55<7 8P

+o$t hi$torian$Hwho$ J con$ider ;aliph + a'iyah (55<7IP& to ha e been the $econd r ler of themayyad dyna$ty, e en tho 4h he 'a$ the fir$t to a$$ert the mayyad$@ ri4ht to r le on a dyna$tic

principle% *t 'a$ really the caliphate of thman *bn Affan (5667585&, a member of mayyad clanhim$elf, that 'itne$$ed the re i al and then the a$cendancy of the mayyad clan to the corridor$ ofpo'er% thman placed $ome of the tr $ted member$ of hi$ clan at prominent and $tron4 po$ition$thro 4ho t the $tate% +o$t notable 'a$ the appointment of+ar'an ibn al9?akam , thman@$ fir$tco $in, a$ hi$ top ad i$or, 'hich created a $tir amon4 the ?a$himitecompanion$ of + hammad, a$+ar'an alon4 'ith hi$ father Al9?akam ibn Abi al9@A$ had been permanently eCiled from +edina by+ hammad d rin4 hi$ lifetime% thman al$o appointed a$ 4o ernor ofL fa hi$ half9brother,Walidibn Bba, 'ho 'a$ acc $ed by ?a$hmite$ of leadin4 prayer 'hile nder the infl ence of alcohol%H<5J thman al$o con$olidated + a'iyah@$ 4o ernor$hip of3yria by 4rantin4 him control o er a lar4erarea H< J and appointed hi$ fo$ter brother Abd llah ibn 3aad a$ the o ernor of =4ypt% ?o'e er, $ince

thman ne er named an heir, he cannot be con$idered the fo nder of a dyna$ty%*n 5RG,+ a'iyah * 'a$ appointed a$ the 4o ernor of 3yria after the pre io $ 4o ernor Ab baidahibn al9Yarrah died in a pla4 e alon4 'ith E8,PPP other people%H<IJH<GJ To $top the OyNantine hara$$mentfrom the $ea d rin4 the Arab9OyNantine War$, in 56G+ a'iyah * $et p a na y mannedby +onophy$ite ;hri$tian , ;opt and Yacobite 3yrian ;hri$tian $ailor$ and + $lim troop$% Thi$re$ lted in the defeat of the OyNantine na y at the Oattle of the +a$t$ in 588, openin4 p the+editerranean%HEPJHE<JHEEJHERJHE6J

+ a'iyah * 'a$ a ery $ cce$$f l 4o ernor and b ilt p a ery loyal and di$ciplined army from theold Qoman 3yrian army% ?e al$o befriended Amr ibn al9A$ 'ho had conB ered =4ypt b t 'a$remo ed by thman ibn al9Affan%The X ran and + hammad talked abo t racial eB ality and ) $tice a$ in theThe Fare'ell 3ermon %HE8J

HE5JHE JHEIJHEGJHRPJHR<J Tribal and nationali$tic difference$ 'ere di$co ra4ed% O t after + hammad@$ pa$$in4, theold tribal difference$ bet'een the Arab$ $tarted to re$ rface% Follo'in4 theQoman7Der$ianWar$ and theOyNantine73a$$anid War$, deep rooted difference$ bet'een *raB, formally nder theDer$ian 3a$$anid =mpire, and 3yria, formally nder theOyNantine =mpire, al$o eCi$ted% =ach'anted the capital of the ne'ly e$tabli$hed *$lamic 3tate to be in their area%HREJ Dre io $ly, the $econd

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caliph mar 'a$ ery firm on the 4o ernor$ and hi$ $pie$ kept an eye on them% *f he felt that a4o ernor or a commander 'a$ becomin4 attracted to 'ealth, he had him remo ed from hi$ po$ition%HRRJ

=arly + $lim armie$ $tayed in encampment$ a'ay from citie$ beca $e mar feared that they mi4ht4et attracted to 'ealth and l C ry% *n the proce$$, they mi4ht t rn a'ay from the 'or$hip of od and$tart acc m latin4 'ealth and e$tabli$hin4 dyna$tie$%HR6JHR8JHR5JHR J When thman ibn al9Affan became eryold, +ar'an * , a relati e of+ a'iyah * , $lipped into the ac m, became hi$ $ecretary, $lo'lya$$ med more control and relaCed $ome of the$e re$triction$%+ar'an * had pre io $ly beeneCcl ded from po$ition$ of re$pon$ibility% *n 585,+ hammad ibn Abi Oakr , the $on of Ab Oakr , theadopted $on of Ali ibn Abi Talib, and the 4reat 4randfather of Ya@far al93adiB, $ho'ed $ome=4yptian$ the ho $e of thman ibn al9Affan% Zater the =4yptian$ ended p killin4 thman ibn al9

Affan%HRIJ

After the a$$a$$ination of thman in 585, Ali, a member of the X ray$h tribe and the co $in and$on9in9la' of + hammad, 'a$ elected a$ the caliph% ?e $oon met 'ith re$i$tance from $e eralfaction$, o'in4 to hi$ relati e political ineCperience% Ali mo ed hi$ capital from +edina to L fa% There$ ltin4 conflict, 'hich la$ted from 585 ntil 55<, i$ kno'n a$ theFir$t Fitna (2ci il 'ar2&%+ a'iyah*, the 4o ernor of 3yria, a relati e of thman ibn al9Affan and +ar'an * , 'anted the c lprit$arre$ted% +ar'an * manip lated e eryone and created conflict% Ai$ha, the 'ife of + hammad,

and Talhah and Al9_ bayr , t'o of the companion$ of + hammad, 'ent to Oa$ra to tell Ali to arre$tthe c lprit$ 'ho m rdered thman% +ar'an * and other people 'ho 'anted conflict manip latede eryone to fi4ht% The t'o $ide$ cla$hed at theOattle of the ;amel in 585, 'here Ali 'on a deci$i e

ictory%Follo'in4 thi$ battle, Ali fo 4ht a battle a4ain$t + a'iyah, kno'n a$ the Oattle of 3iffin% The battle'a$ $topped before either $ide had achie ed ictory, and the t'o partie$ a4reed to arbitrate theirdi$p te% After the battle Amr ibn al9A$ 'a$ appointed by + a'iyah a$ an arbitrator, and Aliappointed Ab + $a A$haari% 3e en month$ later, in Febr ary 58I, the t'o arbitrator$ met at

Adhr h, abo t <P mile$ north 'e$t of +aan in Yordon% Amr ibn al9A$ con inced Ab + $a A$haari that both Ali and + a'iyah $ho ld $tep do'n and a ne' ;aliph be elected% Ali and hi$$ pporter$ 'ere $t nned by the deci$ion 'hich had lo'ered the ;aliph to the $tat $ of therebellio $+ a'iyah * % Ali 'a$ therefore o t'itted by + a'iyah and Amr% Ali ref $ed to accept the

erdict and fo nd him$elf technically in breach of hi$ pled4e to abide by the arbitration% Thi$ p t Ali ina 'eak po$ition e en amon4$t hi$ o'n $ pporter$% The mo$t ocifero $ opponent$ in Ali@$ camp'ere the ery $ame people 'ho had forced Ali into the cea$efire% They broke a'ay from Ali@$ force,rallyin4 nder the $lo4an, 2arbitration belon4$ to od alone%2 Thi$ 4ro p came to be kno'n a$the Lhari)ite$ (2tho$e 'ho lea e2&% *n 58G Ali@$ force$ and the Lhari)ite$ met in theOattle ofSahra'an % Altho 4h Ali 'on the battle, the con$tant conflict had be4 n to affect hi$ $tandin4, and inthe follo'in4 year$ $ome 3yrian$ $eem to ha e acclaimed + a'iyah a$ a ri al caliph%HRGJ

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mayyad ;aliphate in 8P

Ali 'a$ a$$a$$inated in 55< by a Lhari)ite parti$an% 3iC month$ later in the $ame year, in the intere$tof peace, ?a$an ibn Ali, hi4hly re4arded for hi$ 'i$dom and a$ a peacemaker, and the 3econd *mamfor the 3hia$, and the 4rand$on of + hammad, made a peace treaty 'ith + a'iyah * % *n the?a$an9+ a'iya treaty , ?a$an ibn Ali handed o er po'er to + a'iya on the condition that he be ) $t to thepeople and keep them $afe and $ec re, and after hi$ death he not e$tabli$h a dyna$ty%H6PJH6<J Thi$bro 4ht to an end the era of the Qi4htly ided ;aliph$ for the 3 nni$, and ?a$an ibn Ali 'a$ al$othe la$t *mam for the 3hia$ to be a ;aliph% Follo'in4 thi$,+ @a'iyah broke the condition$ of thea4reement and be4an the mayyad dyna$ty, 'ith it$ capital in ama$c $%H6EJ

After + @a'iyah@$ death in 5IP, conflict o er $ cce$$ion broke o t a4ain in a ci il 'ar kno'n a$ the23econd Fitna 2% After makin4 e ery one el$e fi4ht,H6RJ the mayyad dyna$ty later fell into the hand$of +ar'an * , 'ho 'a$ al$o an mayyad%3yria 'o ld remain the ba$e of mayyad po'er ntil the end of the dyna$ty in 8P% ?o'e er, thi$

yna$ty became reborn in ;ordoba (Al Andal $, today@$ Dort 4al and 3pain& in the form of an=mirate and then a ;aliphate, la$tin4 ntil <PR< A % + $lim r le contin ed in *beria for another 8PPyear$ in $e eral form$: Taifa$, Oerber kin4dom$, and nder the Lin4dom of ranada ntil the <5thcent ry%*n the year <E,+ hammad bin Xa$im, an mayyad 4eneral, $ailed from the Der$ian lf into3indh in Daki$tan and conB ered both the 3indh and the D n)ab re4ion$ alon4 the *nd $ ri er% TheconB e$t of 3indh and D n)ab, in modern day Daki$tan, altho 4h co$tly, 'ere ma)or 4ain$ for the

mayyad ;aliphate% ?o'e er, f rther 4ain$ 'ere halted by ?ind kin4dom$ in *ndia in the battle ofQa)a$than% The Arab$ tried to in ade *ndia b t they 'ere defeated by the north *ndian kin4Sa4abhata of the Dratihara yna$ty and by the $o th *ndian =mperor`ikramaditya ** ofthe ;hal kya dyna$ty in the early Ith cent ry% After thi$ the Arab chronicler$ admit that the ;aliph+ahdi 24a e p the pro)ect of conB erin4 any part of *ndia%2

rin4 the later period of it$ eCi$tence and partic larly from <PR< ;= nder the Ta@ifa $y$tem of*$lamic =mirate$ (Drincedom$& in the $o thern half of *beria, the =mirate>3 ltanateof ranada maintained it$ independence lar4ely d e to the payment of Trib te$ to the northern;hri$tian Lin4dom$, 'hich from <PR< be4an to 4rad ally eCpand $o th at it$ eCpen$e%+ $lim r le in *beria came to an end on Yan ary E, <6GE 'ith the conB e$t of the Sa$rid kin4dom of

ranada% The la$t + $lim r ler of ranada, + hammad **, better kno'n a$ Ooabdil, $ rrenderedhi$ kin4dom to Ferdinand ** of Ara4on and *$abella * of ;a$tile, the ;atholic +onarch$, lo$ Qeye$;at lico$%

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History HeditJSufyanids HeditJ

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+ a'iyah@$ per$onal dyna$ty, the 23 fyanid$2 (de$cendant$ of Ab 3 fyan&, rei4ned from 55< to5I6, ntil hi$ 4rand$on + a'iya **% The rei4n of + a'iyah * 'a$ marked by internal $ec rity andeCternal eCpan$ion% Vn the internal front, only one ma)or rebellion i$ recorded, that of? )r ibn Adi inL fa% ? )r ibn Adi $ pported the claim$ of the de$cendant$ of Ali to the caliphate, b t hi$ mo ement'a$ ea$ily $ ppre$$ed by the 4o ernor of *raB,_iyad ibn Abi 3 fyan%+ a'iyah al$o enco ra4ed peacef l coeCi$tence 'ith the ;hri$tian comm nitie$ of3yria, 4rantin4hi$ rei4n 'ith 2peace and pro$perity for ;hri$tian$ and Arab$ alike2,H66J and one of hi$ clo$e$t ad i$er$'a$ 3ar) n, the father of Yohn of ama$c $% At the $ame time, he 'a4ed ncea$in4 'ar a4ain$tthe OyNantine Qoman =mpire% rin4 hi$ rei4n,Qhode$ and ;rete 'ere occ pied, and $e erala$$a lt$ 'ere la nched a4ain$t ;on$tantinople % After their fail re, and faced 'ith a lar4e9$cale;hri$tian pri$in4 in the form of the+ardaite$ , + a'iyah concl ded a peace 'ith OyNanti m%+ a'iyah al$o o er$a' military eCpan$ion in Sorth Africa (the fo ndation ofLairo an& and in;entral A$ia (the conB e$t ofLab l, O khara, and 3amarkand &%Follo'in4 + a'iyah@$ death in 5IP, he 'a$ $ cceeded by hi$ $on, MaNid *% The hereditary acce$$ionof MaNid 'a$ oppo$ed by a n mber of prominent + $lim$, mo$t notably Abd9Allah ibn al9_ bayr , $onof one of the companion$ of + hammad, and ? $ayn ibn Ali, 4rand$on of + hammad and yo n4er$on of Ali% The re$ ltin4 conflict i$ kno'n a$ the3econd Fitna%*n 5IP *bn al9_ bayr fled +edina for+ecca % ?earin4 abo t ? $ayn@$ oppo$ition toMaNid *, thepeople of L fa $ent to ? $ayn a$kin4 him to take o er 'ith their $ pport% Al9? $ayn $ent hi$ co $in

+ $lim bin A4ail to erify if they 'o ld rally behind him% When the ne'$ reached MaNid *, he $entbayd9Allah bin _iyad, r ler of Oa$rah, 'ith the in$tr ction to pre ent the people of L fa rallyin4behind Al9? $ayn% bayd9Allah bin _iyad mana4ed to di$per$e the cro'd that 4athered aro nd+ $lim bin A4ail and capt red him% QealiNin4 bayd9Allah bin _iyad had been in$tr cted to pre ent? $ayn from e$tabli$hin4 $ pport in L fa, + $lim bin A4ail reB e$ted a me$$a4e to be $ent to? $ayn to pre ent hi$ immi4ration to L fa% The reB e$t 'a$ denied and bayd9Allah bin _iyad killed+ $lim bin A4ail% While *bn al9_ bayr 'o ld $tay in +ecca ntil hi$ death, ? $ayn decided to tra elon to L fa 'ith hi$ family, na'are of the lack of $ pport there% ? $ayn and hi$ family 'ereintercepted by MaNid *@$ force$ led by Amr bin 3aad, 3hamar bin Thi Al9Yo$han, and ? $$ain binTamim, 'ho fo 4ht Al9? $ayn and hi$ male family member$ ntil they 'ere killed% There 'ere EPPpeople in ? $ayn@$ cara an, many of 'hom 'ere 'omen, incl din4 hi$ $i$ter$, 'i e$, da 4hter$ andtheir children% The 'omen and children from ? $ayn@$ camp 'ere taken a$ pri$oner$ of 'ar and ledback to ama$c $ to be pre$ented to MaNid *% They remained impri$oned ntil p blic opinion t rneda4ain$t him a$ 'ord of ? $ayn@$ death and hi$ family@$ capt re $pread% They 'ere then 4rantedpa$$a4e back to +edina% The $ole ad lt male $ r i or from the cara an 'a$ Ali ibn ? $ayn 'ho 'a$'ith fe er too ill to fi4ht 'hen the cara an 'a$ attacked% H68J

Follo'in4 the death of ? $ayn, *bn al9_ bayr, altho 4h remainin4 in +ecca, 'a$ a$$ociated 'ith t'ooppo$ition mo ement$, one centered in +edina and the other aro nd Lhari)ite$ inOa$ra and Arabia%Oeca $e +edina had been home to + hammad and hi$ family, incl din4 ? $ayn, 'ord of hi$ deathand the impri$onment of hi$ family led to a lar4e oppo$ition mo ement% *n 5IR, MaNid di$patched anarmy to $ bd e both mo ement$% The army $ ppre$$ed the +edine$e oppo$ition at theOattle of al9

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?arrah % The rand+o$B e in +edina 'a$ $e erely dama4ed and 'ide$pread pilla4in4 ca $eddeep9$eated di$$ent% MaNid@$ army contin ed on and laid $ie4e to +ecca% At $ome point d rin4 the$ie4e, the Laaba 'a$ badly dama4ed in a fire% The de$tr ction of the Laaba and rand +o$B ebecame a ma)or ca $e for cen$ re of the mayyad$ in later hi$torie$ of the period%MaNid died 'hile the $ie4e 'a$ $till in pro4re$$, and the mayyad army ret rned to ama$c $,lea in4 *bn al9_ bayr in control of +ecca% MaNid@$ $on+ a'iya ** (5IR7I6& initially $ cceeded himb t $eem$ to ha e ne er been reco4niNed a$ caliph o t$ide of 3yria% T'o faction$ de eloped 'ithin3yria: the ;onfederation of Xay$, 'ho $ pported *bn al9_ bayr, and the X da@a, 'ho$ pported +ar'an , a de$cendant of mayya ia Wa@il ibn mayyah% The parti$an$ of +ar'antri mphed at a battle at +ar) Qahit, near ama$c $, in 5I6, and +ar'an became caliph $hortlythereafter%

First Marwanids HeditJThis secti n%eed* additi,%al citati,%* 2,r .eri2icati,%. 0lease helpimpr Ee this article )y adding citati ns t relias urces. Uns urced material may )e challenged and rem Eed.(July 2010)

+ar'an@$ fir$t ta$k 'a$ to a$$ert hi$ a thority a4ain$t the ri al claim$ of *bn al9_ bayr, 'ho 'a$ atthi$ time reco4niNed a$ caliph thro 4ho t mo$t of the *$lamic 'orld% +ar'an recapt red=4ypt for

the mayyad$, b t died in 5I8, ha in4 rei4ned for only nine month$%+ar'an 'a$ $ cceeded by hi$ $on, Abd al9+alik (5I87 P8&, 'ho recon$olidated mayyad control of the caliphate% The early rei4n of Abd al9+alik 'a$ marked by the re olt of Al9+ khtar , 'hich 'a$ba$ed in L fa% Al9+ khtar hoped to ele ate+ hammad ibn al9?anafiyyah, another $on of Ali, to thecaliphate, altho 4h *bn al9?anafiyyah him$elf may ha e had no connection to the re olt% The troop$of al9+ khtar en4a4ed in battle$ both 'ith the mayyad$ in 5I5, defeatin4 them at the ri er LhaNirnear +o$ l, and 'ith *bn al9_ bayr in 5I , at 'hich time the re olt of al9+ khtar 'a$ cr $hed% *n5G<, mayyad troop$ reconB ered *raB, and in 5GE the $ame army capt red +ecca% *bn al9_ bayr'a$ killed in the attack%

ome of the Qock in Yer $alem

The $econd ma)or e ent of the early rei4n of Abd al9+alik 'a$ the con$tr ction of the ome of theQock in Yer $alem% Altho 4h the chronolo4y remain$ $ome'hat ncertain, the b ildin4 $eem$ toha e been completed in 5GE, 'hich mean$ that it 'a$ nder con$tr ction d rin4 the conflict 'ith *bnal9_ bayr% Thi$ had led $ome hi$torian$, both medie al and modern, to $ 44e$t that the ome of theQock 'a$ b ilt a$ a de$tination for pil4rima4e to ri al the Laaba, 'hich 'a$ nder the control of *bnal9_ bayr%

Abd al9+alik i$ credited 'ith centraliNin4 the admini$tration of the ;aliphate and 'ithe$tabli$hin4 Arabic a$ it$ official lan4 a4e% ?e al$o introd ced a niB ely + $lim coina4e, markedby it$ aniconic decoration, 'hich $ pplanted the OyNantine and 3a$anian coin$ that had pre io $ly

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been in $e% Abd al9+alik al$o recommenced offen$i e 'arfare a4ain$t OyNanti m, defeatin4 theOyNantine$ at3eba$topoli$ and reco erin4 control o er Armenia and;a ca$ian *beria%Follo'in4 Abd al9+alik@$ death, hi$ $on, Al9Walid * ( P87<8&, became caliph% Al9Walid 'a$ al$o acti ea$ a b ilder, $pon$orin4 the con$tr ction of Al9+a$)id al9Saba'i in +edina and the reat +o$B e of

ama$c $%

A ma)or fi4 re d rin4 the rei4n$ of both al9Walid and Abd al9+alik 'a$ the mayyad 4o ernor of*raB, Al9?a))a) bin Mo $ef % +any *raBi$ remained re$i$tant to mayyad r le, and to maintain order al9?a))a) imported 3yrian troop$, 'hich he ho $ed in a ne' 4arri$on to'n, Wa$it% The$e troop$ becamecr cial in the $ ppre$$ion of a re olt led by an *raBi 4eneral,*bn al9A$h@ath, in the early ei4hthcent ry%

;oin of the mayyad ;aliphate, ba$ed on a 3a$$anian prototype% ;opper fal $, Aleppo, 3yria, circa 5G8%

Al9Walid 'a$ $ cceeded by hi$ brother,3 layman ( <87< &, 'ho$e rei4n 'a$ dominated bya protracted $ie4e of ;on$tantinople% The fail re of the $ie4e marked the end of $erio $ Arabambition$ a4ain$t the OyNantine capital% ?o'e er, the fir$t t'o decade$ of the ei4hth cent ry'itne$$ed the contin in4 eCpan$ion of the ;aliphate, 'hich p $hed into the *berian Denin$ la in the'e$t, and into Tran$oCiana ( nder X tayba ibn + $lim& and northern*ndia in the ea$t%3 layman 'a$ $ cceeded by hi$ co $in, mar ibn Abd al9ANiN ( < 7EP&, 'ho$e po$ition amon4 the

mayyad caliph$ i$ $ome'hat niB e% ?e i$ the only mayyad r ler to ha e been reco4niNed by$ b$eB ent *$lamic tradition a$ a 4en ine caliph (!halifa & and not merely a$ a 'orldly kin4 (mali! &%

mar i$ honored for hi$ attempt to re$ol e the fi$cal problem$ attendant pon con er$ion to *$lam%rin4 the mayyad period, the ma)ority of people li in4 'ithin the caliphate 'ere not + $lim,

b t ;hri$tian , Ye'i$h , _oroa$trian, or member$ of other $mall 4ro p$% The$e reli4io $ comm nitie$

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'ere not forced to con ert to *$lam, b t 'ere $ b)ect to a taC ( 'i(yah & 'hich 'a$ not impo$ed pon+ $lim$% Thi$ $it ation may act ally ha e made 'ide$pread con er$ion to *$lam nde$irable fromthe point of ie' of $tate re en e, and there are report$ that pro incial 4o ernor$ acti elydi$co ra4ed $ ch con er$ion$% *t i$ not clear ho' mar attempted to re$ol e thi$ $it ation, b t the$o rce$ portray him a$ ha in4 in$i$ted on like treatment of Arab and non9Arab (mawali & + $lim$,and on the remo al of ob$tacle$ to the con er$ion of non9Arab$ to *$lam%

After the death of mar, another $on of Abd al9+alik, MaNid ** ( EP7E6& became caliph% MaNid i$ be$tkno'n for hi$ 2iconocla$tic edict2, 'hich ordered the de$tr ction of ;hri$tian ima4e$ 'ithin theterritory of the ;aliphate% *n EP, another ma)or re olt aro$e in *raB, thi$ time led by MaNid ibn al9+ hallab%

Hisham and the limits of military expansion HeditJThe final $on of Abd al9+alik to become caliph 'a$ ?i$ham ( E676R&, 'ho$e lon4 and e entf l rei4n'a$ abo e all marked by the c rtailment of military eCpan$ion% ?i$ham e$tabli$hed hi$ co rtat Qe$afa in northern 3yria, 'hich 'a$ clo$er to the OyNantine border than ama$c $, and re$ medho$tilitie$ a4ain$t the OyNantine$, 'hich had lap$ed follo'in4 the fail re of the la$t $ie4e of;on$tantinople% The ne' campai4n$ re$ lted in a n mber of $ cce$$f l raid$ into Anatolia, b t al$oin a ma)or defeat (the Oattle of Akroinon&, and did not lead to any $i4nificant territorial eCpan$ion%

Sorth 4ate of the city of Qe$afa, $ite of ?i$ham@$ palace and co rt%

From the caliphate@$ north9'e$tern African ba$e$, a $erie$ of raid$ on coa$tal area$ of the `i$i4othicLin4dom pa ed the 'ay to the permanent occ pation of mo$t of *beria by the mayyad$ ($tartin4 in<<&, and on into $o th9ea$tern a l(la$t $tron4hold at Sarbonne in 8G&% ?i$ham@$ rei4n 'itne$$ed

the end of eCpan$ion in the 'e$t, follo'in4 the defeat of the Arab army by the Frank$ at the Oattle ofTo r$ in RE% *n RG a ma)orOerber Qe olt broke o t in Sorth Africa, 'hich 'a$ $ bd ed only 'ithdiffic lty, b t it 'a$ follo'ed by the collap$e of mayyad a thority in al9Andal $% *n *ndia the Arabarmie$ 'ere defeated by the $o th *ndian ;hal kya dyna$ty and by the north*ndian Dratihara$ yna$ty in the Ith cent ry and the Arab$ 'ere dri en o t of *ndia%H65JH6 JH6IJ *nthe ;a ca$ $ , the confrontation 'ith the LhaNar$ peaked nder ?i$ham: the Arab$e$tabli$hed erbent a$ a ma)or military ba$e and la nched $e eral in a$ion$ of the northern;a ca$ $, b t failed to $ bd e the nomadic LhaNar$% The conflict 'a$ ard o $ and bloody, and the

Arab army e en $ ffered a ma)or defeat at theOattle of +ar) Ardabil in RP% +ar'an ibn + hammad,the f t re +ar'an **, finally ended the 'ar in R 'ith a ma$$i e in a$ion that i$ reported to ha ereached a$ far a$ the `ol4a , b t the LhaNar$ remained n$ bd ed%?i$ham $ ffered $till 'or$e defeat$ in the ea$t, 'here hi$ armie$ attempted to $ bd eboth Tokhari$tan, 'ith it$ center at Oalkh, and Tran$oCiana, 'ith it$ center at 3amarkand % Ooth area$had already been partially conB ered, b t remained diffic lt to 4o ern% Vnce a4ain, a partic lardiffic lty concerned the B e$tion of the con er$ion of non9Arab$, e$pecially the3o4dian$ ofTran$oCiana% Follo'in4 the mayyad defeat in the 2ay of Thir$t2 in E6, A$hra$ ibn @Abd Allah al93 lami, 4o ernor ofLh ra$an, promi$ed taC relief to tho$e 3o4dian$ 'ho con erted to *$lam, b t'ent back on hi$ offer 'hen it pro ed too pop lar and threatened to red ce taC re en e$% i$content

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amon4 the Lh ra$ani Arab$ ro$e $harply after the lo$$e$ $ ffered in theOattle of the efile in R<,and in R6,al9?arith ibn 3 ray)led a re olt that recei ed broad backin4 from Arab$ and nati e$ alike,capt rin4 Oalkh b t failin4 to take +er % After thi$ defeat, al9?arith@$ mo ement $eem$ to ha e beendi$$ol ed, b t the problem of the ri4ht$ of non9Arab + $lim$ 'o ld contin e to pla4 e the

mayyad$%

Third Fitna HeditJ

Fre$co from the palace of X $ayr Amra, po$$ibly b ilt by Al9Walid **, depictin4 a conc bine% mayyad harem$ maintained conc bine$ trained in ocal

art$ and dance%

?i$ham 'a$ $ cceeded by Al9Walid ** ( 6R766&, the $on of MaNid **% Al9Walid i$ reported to ha ebeen more intere$ted in earthly plea$ re$ than in reli4ion, a rep tation that may be confirmed by thedecoration of the $o9called 2de$ert palace$2 (incl din4X $ayr Amra and Lhirbat al9+af)ar & that ha e

been attrib ted to him% ?e B ickly attracted the enmity of many, both by eCec tin4 a n mber of tho$e'ho had oppo$ed hi$ acce$$ion, and by per$ec tin4 the Xadariyya%*n 66,MaNid ***, a $on of al9Walid *, 'a$ proclaimed caliph in ama$c $, and hi$ army tracked do'nand killed al9Walid **% MaNid *** ha$ recei ed a certain rep tation for piety, and may ha e been$ympathetic to the Xadariyya% ?e died a mere $iC month$ into hi$ rei4n%MaNid had appointed hi$ brother,*brahim, a$ hi$ $ cce$$or, b t+ar'an ** ( 6678P&, the 4rand$on of+ar'an *, led an army from the northern frontier and entered ama$c $ in ecember 66, 'here he'a$ proclaimed caliph% +ar'an immediately mo ed the capital north to ?arran , in pre$ent9day T rkey% A rebellion $oon broke o t in 3yria, perhap$ d e to re$entment o er the relocation of thecapital, and in 65 +ar'an raNed the 'all$ of ?om$ and ama$c $ in retaliation%+ar'an al$o faced $i4nificant oppo$ition from Lhari)ite$ in *raB and *ran, 'ho p t forth fir$t ahhak

ibn Xay$ and then Ab laf a$ ri al caliph$% *n 6 , +ar'an mana4ed to ree$tabli$h control of *raB,b t by thi$ time a more $erio $ threat had ari$en inLhora$an%

Abbasid Revolution HeditJ)ain article% Abbasid *evolution

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The ;aliphate at the be4innin4 of the Abba$id re olt, before the Oattle of the _ab%

The ?a$himiyya mo ement (a $ b9$ect of theLay$anite$ 3hia&, led by the Abba$idf amily, o erthre'the mayyad caliphate% The Abba$id$ 'ere member$ of the?a$him clan, ri al$ of the mayyad$, b tthe 'ord 2?a$himiyya2 $eem$ to refer $pecifically to Ab ?a$him, a 4rand$on of Ali and $on of+ hammad ibn al9?anafiyya% Accordin4 to certain tradition$, Ab ?a$him died in < in ? meima inthe ho $e of + hammad ibn Ali, the head of the Abba$id family, and before dyin4 named+ hammad ibn Ali a$ hi$ $ cce$$or% Thi$ tradition allo'ed the Abba$id$ to rally the $ pporter$ of thefailed re olt of+ khtar , 'ho had repre$ented them$el e$ a$ the $ pporter$ of + hammad ibn al9

?anafiyya%Oe4innin4 aro nd <G, ?a$himiyya mi$$ion$ be4an to $eek adherent$ in Lh ra$an% Their campai4n'a$ framed a$ one of pro$elyti$m ( da'ah &% They $o 4ht $ pport for a 2member of the family2 of+ hammad, 'itho t makin4 eCplicit mention of the Abba$id$% The$e mi$$ion$ met 'ith $ cce$$ bothamon4 Arab$ and non9Arab$ (ma'ali &, the 'ord mean$ 2the $ed $la e$2 altho 4h the latter mayha e played a partic larly important role in the 4ro'th of the mo ement%

Aro nd 65, Ab + $lim a$$ med leader$hip of the ?a$himiyya in Lh ra$an% *n 6 , he$ cce$$f lly initiated an open re olt a4ain$t mayyad r le, 'hich 'a$ carried o t nder the $i4n ofthe black fla4% ?e $oon e$tabli$hed control of Lh ra$an, eCpellin4 it$ mayyad 4o ernor, Sa$r ibn3ayyar , and di$patched an army 'e$t'ard$% L fa fell to the ?a$himiyya in 6G, the la$t mayyad$tron4hold in *raB,Wa$it, 'a$ placed nder $ie4e, and in So ember of the $ame year Ab al9

Abba$'a$ reco4niNed a$ the ne' caliph in the mo$B e at L fa%Hcitation needed J At thi$ point +ar'an mobiliNedhi$ troop$ from ?arran and ad anced to'ard *raB% *n Yan ary 8P the t'o force$ met in the Oattle ofthe _ab , and the mayyad$ 'ere defeated% ama$c $ fell to the Abba$id$ in April, and in A 4 $t,+ar'an 'a$ killed in =4ypt%

The reat +o$B e of ; rdoba in 3pain, b ilt by Oan mayya

The ictor$ de$ecrated the tomb$ of the mayyad$ in 3yria, $parin4 only that of mar **, and mo$t of the remainin4 member$ of the mayyad family 'ere tracked do'n and killed% When Abba$id$declared amne$ty for member$ of the mayyad family, ei4hty 4athered to recei e pardon$, and all'ere ma$$acred% Vne 4rand$on of ?i$ham, Abd al9Qahman *, $ r i ed and e$tabli$hed a kin4domin Al9Andal $ (+oori$h *beria&, proclaimin4 hi$ family to be themayyad ;aliphate re i ed %

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Dre it 9Vrton ar4 e$ that the rea$on$ for the decline of the mayyad$ 'a$ the rapid eCpan$ion of*$lam% rin4 mayyad period, ma$$ con er$ion$ bro 4ht Der$ian$, Oerber$, ;opt$, and Aramaic$to *$lam% The$emawalis (en$la ed& 'ere often better ed cated and more ci ili$ed than their Arabin ader$% The ne' con ert$, on the ba$i$ of eB ality of all + $lim$, tran$formed the politicalland$cape% Dre it 9Vrton al$o ar4 e$ that the fe d bet'een 3yria and *raB f rther 'eakened theempire%H6GJ

Umayyad Administration HeditJVne of + a'iya@$ fir$t ta$k$ 'a$ to create a $table admini$tration for the empire% ?e follo'ed themain idea$ of the OyNantine =mpire 'hich had r led the $ame re4ion pre io $ly, and had three main4o ernmental branche$: political and military affair$, taC collection, and reli4io $ admini$tration%=ach of the$e 'a$ f rther $ bdi ided into more branche$, office$, and department$%

Provin es HeditJeo4raphically, the empire 'a$ di ided into $e eral pro ince$, the border$ of 'hich chan4ed

n mero $ time$ d rin4 the mayyad rei4n% =ach pro ince had a 4o ernor appointed by the khalifah%The 4o ernor 'a$ in char4e of the reli4io $ official$, army leader$, police, and ci il admini$trator$ inhi$ pro ince% Zocal eCpen$e$ 'ere paid for by taCe$ comin4 from that pro ince, 'ith the remaindereach year bein4 $ent to the central 4o ernment in ama$c $% A$ the central po'er of the mayyadr ler$ 'aned in the later year$ of the dyna$ty, $ome 4o ernor$ ne4lected to $end the eCtra taCre en e to ama$c $ and created 4reat per$onal fort ne$%H8PJ

!overnment wor"ers HeditJ A$ the empire 4re', the n mber of B alified Arab 'orker$ 'a$ too $mall to keep p 'ith the rapideCpan$ion of the empire% Therefore, + a'iya allo'ed many of the local 4o ernment 'orker$ inconB ered pro ince$ to keep their )ob$ nder the ne' mayyad 4o ernment% Th $, m ch of thelocal 4o ernment@$ 'ork 'a$ recorded in reek , ;optic , and Der$ian% *t 'a$ only d rin4 the rei4nof Abd al9+alik that 4o ernment 'ork be4an to be re4 larly recorded in Arabic%H8PJ

Curren y HeditJ

;oin of the mayyad ;aliphate, ba$ed on a 3a$$anian prototype, 5G8%

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A coin 'ei4ht from the mayyad yna$ty, dated 6R, made of 4la$$% Vne of the olde$t *$lamic ob)ect$ in an American m $e m, the Walter$ Art

+ $e m%

olden coin of the mayyad ;aliphate, *ran

The OyNantine and 3a$$anid =mpire$ relied on money economie$ before the + $lim conB e$t, andthat $y$tem remained in effect d rin4 the mayyad period% Dre9eCi$tin4 coin$ remained in $e, b t'ith phra$e$ from the X ran $tamped on them% *n addition to thi$, the mayyad 4o ernment be4anto mint it$ o'n coin$ in ama$c $ ('hich 'ere $imilar to pre9eCi$tin4 coin$&, the fir$t coin$ minted bya + $lim 4o ernment in hi$tory% old coin$ 'ere called dinar$ 'hile $il er coin$ 'ere calleddirham$%H8PJ

Central diwans HeditJTo a$$i$t the ;aliph in admini$tration there 'ere $iC Ooard$ at the ;entre: i'an al9Lhara) (theOoard of Qe en e&, i'an al9Qa$a@il (the Ooard of ;orre$pondence&, i'an al9Lhatam (the Ooard of 3i4net&, i'an al9Oarid (the Ooard of Do$t$&, i'an al9X dat (the Ooard of Y $tice& and i'an al9Y nd (the +ilitary Ooard&

#iwan al$%hara& HeditJThe ;entral Ooard of Qe en e admini$tered the entire finance$ of the empire% *t al$o impo$ed andcollected taCe$ and di$b r$ed re en e%

#iwan al$Rasa'il HeditJ A re4 lar Ooard of ;orre$pondence 'a$ e$tabli$hed nder the mayyad$% *t i$$ ed $tate mi$$i e$and circ lar$ to the ;entral and Dro incial Vfficer$% *t co9ordinated the 'ork of all Ooard$ and dealt'ith all corre$pondence a$ the chief $ecretariat%

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#iwan al$%hatam HeditJ*n order to check for4ery, i'an al9Lhatam (O rea of Qe4i$try&, a kind of $tate chancellery, 'a$in$tit ted by + @a'iyah% *t $ed to make and pre$er e a copy of each official doc ment before$ealin4 and de$patchin4 the ori4inal to it$ de$tination% Th $ in the co r$e of time a $tate archi ede eloped in ama$c $ by the mayyad$ nder Abd al9+alik% Thi$ department $ r i ed till themiddle of the Abba$id period%

#iwan al$(arid HeditJ)ain article% Barid cali+hate#

+ @a'iyah introd ced po$tal $er ice, Abd al9+alik eCtended it thro 4ho t hi$ empire, and Walidmade f ll $e of it% The mayyad ;aliph Abd al9+alik de eloped a re4 lar po$tal $er ice% mar bin

Abd l9ANiN de eloped it f rther by b ildin4 cara an$erai$ at $ta4e$ alon4 the Lh ra$an hi4h'ay%Qelay$ of hor$e$ 'ere $ed for the con eyance of di$patche$ bet'een the caliph and hi$ a4ent$and official$ po$ted in the pro ince$% The main hi4h'ay$ 'ere di ided into $ta4e$ of <E mile$(<G km& each and each $ta4e had hor$e$, donkey$ or camel$ ready to carry the po$t% Drimarily the$er ice met the need$ of o ernment official$, b t tra eller$ and their important di$patche$ 'ereal$o benefitted by the $y$tem% The po$tal carria4e$ 'ere al$o $ed for the $'ift tran$port of troop$%They 'ere able to carry fifty to a h ndred men at a time% nder o ernor M $ f bin mar, the po$taldepartment of *raB co$t 6,PPP,PPP dirham$ a year%#iwan al$)udat HeditJHcitation needed J

*n the early period of *$lam, ) $tice 'a$ admini$tered by + hammad and the orthodoC ;aliph$ inper$on% After the eCpan$ion of the *$lamic 3tate, mar al9Far B had to $eparate ) diciary from the4eneral admini$tration and appointed the fir$t Badi in =4ypt a$ early a$ ER?>56RA % After 55<A a$erie$ of ) d4e$ $ cceeded one after another in =4ypt nder the mayyad ;aliph$, ?i$ham andWalid **%

#iwan al$*und HeditJThe i'an of mar, a$$i4nin4 ann itie$ to all Arab$ and to the + $lim $oldier$ of other race$,

nder'ent a chan4e in the hand$ of the mayyad$% The mayyad$ meddled 'ith the re4i$ter andthe recipient$ re4arded pen$ion$ a$ the $ b$i$tence allo'ance e en 'itho t bein4 in acti e $er ice%?i$ham reformed it and paid only to tho$e 'ho participated in battle% Vn the pattern of the OyNantine$y$tem the mayyad$ reformed their army or4aniNation in 4eneral and di ided it into fi e corp$: thecentre, t'o 'in4$, an4 ard$ and rear4 ard$, follo'in4 the $ame formation 'hile on march or on abattle field% +ar'an ** ( 6P78P& abandoned the old di i$ion and introd ced L rd $ (cohort&, a $mallcompact body% The mayyad troop$ 'ere di ided into three di i$ion$: infantry, ca alry and artillery%

Arab troop$ 'ere dre$$ed and armed in reek fa$hion% The mayyad ca alry $ed plain and ro nd$addle$% The artillery $ed arradah (balli$ta&, man)aniB (the man4onel& and dabbabah or kab$h (thebatterin4 ram&% The hea y en4ine$, $ie4e machine$ and ba44a4e 'ere carried on camel$ behind thearmy%

Social OrganizationHeditJ

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* ory (circa Ith cent ry& di$co ered in the Abba$id home$tead in ? meima, Yordan% The $tyle indicate$ an ori4in in northea$tern *ran, the ba$e of

?a$himiyya military po'er %H8<J

The mayyad ;aliphate eChibited fo r main $ocial cla$$e$:

<% + $lim Arab$

E% + $lim non9Arab$ (client$ of the + $lim Arab$&

R% Son9+ $lim free per$on$ (;hri$tian$, Ye'$, and _oroa$trian$&

6% 3la e$The + $lim Arab$ 'ere at the top of the $ociety and $a' it a$ their d ty to r le o er the conB eredarea$% e$pite the fact that *$lam teache$ the eB ality of all + $lim$, the Arab + $lim$ heldthem$el e$ in hi4her e$teem than + $lim non9Arab$ and 4enerally did not miC 'ith other + $lim$%

The ineB ality of + $lim$ in the empire led to $ocial nre$t% A$ *$lam $pread, more and more of the+ $lim pop lation 'a$ con$tit ted of non9Arab$% Thi$ ca $ed ten$ion a$ the ne' con ert$ 'ere not4i en the $ame ri4ht$ a$ + $lim Arab$% Al$o, a$ con er$ion$ increa$ed, taC re en e$ from non9+ $lim$ decrea$ed to dan4ero $ lo'$% The$e i$$ e$ contin ed to 4ro' ntil they helped ca $ethe Abba$id Qe olt in the 6P$%H8EJ

+on$Muslims HeditJSon9+ $lim 4ro p$ in the mayyad ;aliphate, 'hich incl ded ;hri$tian$, Ye'$, _oroa$trian$, andpa4an Oerber$, 'ere called dhimmi$% They 'ere 4i en a le4ally protected $tat $ a$ $econd9cla$$citiNen$ a$ lon4 a$ they accepted and ackno'led4ed the political $ premacy of the r lin4 + $lim$%They 'ere allo'ed to ha e their o'n co rt$, and 'ere 4i en freedom of their reli4ion 'ithin theempire% Altho 4h they co ld not hold the hi4he$t p blic office$ in the empire, they had many

b rea cratic po$ition$ 'ithin the 4o ernment% ;hri$tian$ and Ye'$ $till contin ed to prod ce 4reattheolo4ical thinker$ 'ithin their comm nitie$, b t a$ time 'ore on, many of the intellect al$con erted to *$lam, leadin4 to a lack of 4reat thinker$ in the non9+ $lim comm nitie$%H8RJ

Legacy HeditJ; rrently many 3 nni $cholar$ a4ree that + a'iyah @$ family, incl din4 hi$ pro4enitor$, Ab 3 fyanibn ?arb and ?ind bint tbah , 'ere ori4inally opponent$ of *$lamand partic larly of+ hammad ntilthe ;onB e$t of +ecca %

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?o'e er many early hi$tory book$ like the *$lamic ;onB e$t of 3yria Fat h $ham by al9*mam al9WaBidi $tate that after the con er$ion to *$lam + a'iyah @$ father Ab 3 fyan ibn ?arb and hi$brother$ MaNid ibn Abi 3 fyan 'ere appointed a$ commander$ in the + $lim armie$ by+ hammad%+ a'iyah , Ab 3 fyan ibn ?arb,MaNid ibn Abi 3 fyan and ?ind bint tbah H86JH88JH88JH85JH8 J

H8IJ fo 4ht in theOattle of Marmo k% The defeat of the OyNantine =mperor ?eracli $ at the Oattle ofMarmo kopened the 'ay for the + $lim eCpan$ion into Yer $alem and 3yria%

*n 5RG, + a'iyah 'a$ appointed a$ the 4o ernor of 3yria by the $econd caliph mar after hi$brother the pre io $ 4o ernorMaNid ibn Abi 3 fyan and the 4o ernor before him Ab baidah ibn al9Yarrah died in a pla4 e alon4 'ith E8,PPP other people%H8GJH5PJ @Amr ibn al9@A$ 'a$ $ent to take on theQoman Army in =4ypt% Fearin4 an attack by the Qoman$, mar a$ked + a'iyah to defend a4ain$t aQoman attack%With limited re$o rce$ + a'iyah 'ent abo t creatin4 allie$% + a'iyah married +ay$ m theda 4hter of the chief of the Lalb tribe, that 'a$ a lar4e Yacobite ;hri$tian Arab tribe in 3yria% ?i$marria4e to +ay$ m 'a$ politically moti ated% The Lalb tribe had remained lar4ely ne tral 'hen the+ $lim$ fir$t 'ent into 3yria%H5<J After the pla4 e that killed m ch of the + $lim Army in 3yria, bymarryin4 +ay$ m, + a'iyah $tarted to $e the Yacobite ;hri$tian$, a4ain$t the Qoman$% + a'iya@$'ife +ay$ m (MaNid@$ mother& 'a$ al$o a Yacobite ;hri$tian%H5EJ With limited re$o rce$ and theOyNantine ) $t o er the border, + a'iyah 'orked in cooperation 'ith the local ;hri$tian pop lation%To $top OyNantine hara$$ment from the $ea d rin4 the Arab9OyNantine War$, in 56G + a'iyah $et

p a na yK manned by+onophy$iti$e ;hri$tian$, ;opt$ and Yacobite 3yrian ;hri$tian$ $ailor$ and+ $lim troop$%H5RJH56J

+ a'iya 'a$ one of the fir$t to realiNe the f ll importance of ha in4 a na yK a$ lon4 a$ the OyNantinefleet co ld $ail the +editerranean noppo$ed, the coa$t line of 3yria, Dale$tine and =4ypt 'o ldne er be $afe% + a'iyah alon4 'ith Adb llah ibn 3a@d the ne' 4o ernor of =4ypt $ cce$$f llyper$ aded thman to 4i e them permi$$ion to con$tr ct a lar4e fleet in the dockyard$ of =4ypt and3yria H5RJH56J

The fir$t real na al en4a4ement bet'een the + $lim and the OyNantine na y 'a$ the $o9called Oattle of the +a$t$ ( hat al9$a'ari& or battle of DhoeniC off the Zycian coa$t in 588%H58J Thi$re$ lted in the defeat of the OyNantine na y at the Oattle of the +a$t$ in 588, openin4 p the

+editerranean%H5RJH56JH55JH5 JH5IJH5GJH PJ

+ a'iyah came to po'er after the death of Ali and e$tabli$hed a dyna$ty%

Histori al si,nifi an e HeditJ/i*t,ry ,2 the 'e.a%t

9t,%e A e

• 5e)aran culture

• atu,ian culture

• $ala, culture

• hassulian culture

• Gerich

A%cie%t hi*t,ry

• :)la

• +//adian :mpire

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• Canaanites

• +m rites

• +rameans

• $ittites

• 7srael and Gudah• 0hilistines

• 0h enicians

• e +ssyrian :mpire

• e 3a)yl nian :mpire

• +chaemenid :mpire

Cla**ical a%ti4 ity

• Hars , +lexander the reat

• eleucid :mpire

• $asm nean dynasty

• a)ataeans

• 4 man :mpire

• $er dians

• 0almyra

• 3yIantine :mpire

• assanid :mpire

3iddle A e*

• 2uslim c n>uest

• :arly Caliphates

• Umayyad*

• +))asids

• Fatimids

• $amdanids

• elJu/s

• Crusades

• +yyu)ids

• 2amlu/s

3,der% hi*t,ry

• Ktt man yria

• 2 unt Le)an n

• Gerusalem

• 2andat ry yria and Le)an n

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• 2andat ry 0alestine

• TransJ rdan

• yria

• Le)an n

• G rdan• 7srael

• 0alestine

• aIa trip

•

• T

• :

The mayyad caliphate 'a$ marked both by territorial eCpan$ion and by the admini$trati e andc lt ral problem$ that $ ch eCpan$ion created% e$pite $ome notable eCception$, the mayyad$

tended to fa or the ri4ht$ of the old Arab familie$, and in partic lar their o'n, o er tho$e of ne'lycon erted + $lim$ (ma'ali&% Therefore, they held to a le$$ ni er$ali$t conception of *$lam than didmany of their ri al$% A$ %Q% ?a'tin4 ha$ 'ritten, 2*$lam 'a$ in fact re4arded a$ the property of theconB erin4 ari$tocracy%2H <J

rin4 the period of the mayyad$, Arabic became the admini$trati e lan4 a4e% 3tate doc ment$and c rrency 'ere i$$ ed in the lan4 a4e% +a$$ con er$ion$ bro 4ht a lar4e infl C of + $lim$ tothe caliphate% The mayyad$ al$o con$tr cted famo $ b ildin4$ $ ch a$ the ome of theQock at Yer $alem, and the mayyad +o$B e at ama$c $%H EJ

Accordin4 to one common ie', the mayyad$ tran$formed the caliphate from a reli4io $ in$tit tion(d rin4 thera$hid n& to a dyna$tic one%H EJ ?o'e er, the mayyad caliph$ do $eem to ha e

nder$tood them$el e$ a$ the repre$entati e$ of od on earth, and to ha e been re$pon$ible for the2definition and elaboration of od@$ ordinance$, or in other 'ord$ the definition or elaboration of*$lamic la'%2H RJ

The mayyad$ ha e met 'ith a lar4ely ne4ati e reception from later *$lamic hi$torian$, 'ho ha eacc $ed them of promotin4 a kin4$hip (mul! , a term 'ith connotation$ of tyranny& in$tead of a tr ecaliphate (!hilafa &% *n thi$ re$pect it i$ notable that the mayyad caliph$ referred to them$el e$ nota$ !halifat rasul Allah (2$ cce$$or of the me$$en4er of od2, the title preferred by the tradition&, b trather a$ !halifat Allah (2dep ty of od2&% The di$tinction $eem$ to indicate that the mayyad$2re4arded them$el e$ a$ od@$ repre$entati e$ at the head of the comm nity and $a' no need to$hare their reli4io $ po'er 'ith, or dele4ate it to, the emer4ent cla$$ of reli4io $ $cholar$%2H 6J *n fact,it 'a$ preci$ely thi$ cla$$ of $cholar$, ba$ed lar4ely in *raB, that 'a$ re$pon$ible for collectin4 andrecordin4 the tradition$ that form the primary $o rce material for the hi$tory of the mayyad period%*nrecon$tr ctin4 thi$ hi$tory, therefore, it i$ nece$$ary to rely mainly on $o rce$, $ ch a$ thehi$torie$ ofTabari and Oaladh ri, that 'ere 'ritten in the Abba$id co rt at Oa4hdad%+odern Arab nationali$m re4ard$ the period of the mayyad$ a$ part of the Arab olden A4e 'hichit $o 4ht to em late and re$tore%Hdubious discuss J Thi$ i$ partic larly tr e of 3yrian nationali$t$ and thepre$ent9day $tate of 3yria, centered like that of the mayyad$ on ama$c $%Hcitation needed J White, one of thefo rDan9Arab color$ 'hich appear in ario $ combination$ on the fla4$ of mo$t Arab co ntrie$, i$con$idered a$ repre$entin4 the mayyad$%Hcitation needed J

Theolo,i al opinions on ernin, the Umayyads HeditJSunni opinions HeditJ

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+any + $lim$ criticiNed the mayyad$ for ha in4 too many non9+ $lim, former Qomanadmini$trator$ in their 4o ernment% 3t Yohn of ama$c $ 'a$ al$o a hi4h admini$trator in the

mayyad admini$tration%H 8J A$ the + $lim$ took o er citie$, they left the people$ politicalrepre$entati e$ and the Qoman taC collector$ and the admini$trator$% The taCe$ to the central4o ernment 'ere calc lated and ne4otiated by the people$ political repre$entati e$% The ;entral4o ernment 4ot paid for the $er ice$ it pro ided and the local 4o ernment 4ot the money for the

$er ice$ it pro ided% +any ;hri$tian citie$ al$o $ed $ome of the taCe$ on maintain their ch rche$and r n their o'n or4aniNation$% Zater the mayyad$ 'ere criticiNed by $ome + $lim$ for notred cin4 the taCe$ of the people 'ho con erted to *$lam% The$e ne' con ert$ contin e$ to pay the$ame taCe$ that 'ere pre io $ly ne4otiated%H 5J

Zater 'hen mar ibn Abd al9ANiN came to po'er, he red ced the$e taCe$% ?e i$ therefore prai$ed a$one of the 4reate$t + $lim r ler$ after the fo rQi4htly ided ;aliph$% *mam Ab + hammad

Adb llah ibn Abd l ?akam 'ho li ed in IEG and 'rote a bio4raphy on mar *bn Adb l ANiNH J $tatedthat the red ction in the$e taCe$ $tim lated the economy and created 'ealth b t it al$o red ced the4o ernment b d4et and thi$ then led to a red ction in the defen$e b d4et%Vnly mayyad r ler (;aliph$ of ama$c $&, mar ibn Abd al9ANiN, i$ nanimo $ly prai$ed by 3 nni$o rce$ for hi$ de o t piety and ) $tice% *n hi$ effort$ to $pread*$lam he e$tabli$hed libertie$ forthe )awali by aboli$hin4 theYiNya taC for con ert$ to *$lam% *mam Ab + hammad Adb llah ibn

Abd l ?akam $tated that mar ibn Abd al9ANiN al$o $topped the per$onal allo'ance offered to hi$relati e$ $tatin4 that he co ld only 4i e them an allo'ance if he 4a e an allo'ance to e eryone el$ein the empire% mar ibn Abd al9ANiN 'a$ later poi$oned in the year EP% When $ cce$$i e4o ernment$ tried to re er$e mar ibn Abd al9ANiN@$ taC policie$ it created rebellion%

Early literature HeditJThe book Al + 'atta by *mam +alik@$ 'a$ 'ritten in the early Abba$id period in +adina% *t doe$ notcontain any anti mayyad content beca $e it 'a$ more concerned 'ith 'hat the X ran and 'hat+ hammad $aid and 'a$ not a hi$tory book on the mayyad$%= en the earlie$t pro93hia acco nt$ of al9+a$ di are more balanced% al9+a$ di in *bn ?i$ham i$ theearlie$t 3hia acco nt of + a'iyah and he reco nt that + a'iyah $pent a 4reat deal of time inprayer, in $pite of the b rden of mana4in4 a lar4e empire%H IJ

AN9_ hri $tated that + a'iya led the ?a)) Dil4rima4e 'ith the people t'ice d rin4 hi$ era a$ caliph%Oook$ 'ritten in the early Abba$id period like al9baladh ri 2The Vri4in$ of the *$lamic 3tate2 pro idea more acc rate and balanced hi$tory% *bn ?i$ham al$o 'rote abo t the$e e ent$%+ ch of the anti mayyad literat re $tarted to appear in the later Abba$id period in Der$ia%

After killin4 off mo$t of the mayyad$ and de$troyin4 the 4ra e$ of the mayyad r ler$ apart from+ a'iyah and mar *bn Adb l ANiN, the hi$tory book$ 'ritten d rin4 the later Abba$id period aremore anti mayyad H GJ The Abba$id$ ) $tified their r le by $ayin4 that their ance$tor Abd Allah ibn

Abba$ 'a$ a co $in of + hammad%The book$ 'ritten later in the Abba$id period in *ran are more anti mayyad% *ran 'a$ 3 nni at thetime% There 'a$ m ch anti Arab feelin4 in *ran after the fall of the Der$ian empire%HIPJ Thi$ anti Arabfeelin4 al$o infl enced the book$ on *$lamic hi$tory% Al9Tabri 'a$ al$o 'ritten in *ran d rin4 thatperiod% Al9Tabri 'a$ a h 4e collection incl din4 all the teCt that he co ld find, from all the $o rce$% *t'a$ a collection pre$er in4 e erythin4 for f t re 4eneration$ to codify and for f t re 4eneration$ to

) d4e if it 'a$ tr e or fal$e%

Shi'a opinions HeditJThe ne4ati e ie' of the mayyad$ by 3hia$ i$ briefly eCpre$$ed in the 3hi@a book 23 lh al9?a$an2%HI<JHIEJ Accordin4 to $ome $o rce$ Ali de$cribed them a$ the 'or$t Fitna%HIRJ

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(ah-'. standpoint HeditJ A$ked for an eCplanation of the prophecie$ in the Oook of Qe elation (<E:R&,Abd @l9Oah[ $ 44e$t$in 3ome An$'ered X e$tion$ that the 24reat red dra4on, ha in4 $e en head$ and ten horn$, and$e en cro'n$ pon hi$ head$ ,2 refer$ to the mayyad caliph$ 'ho 2ro$e a4ain$t the reli4ion ofDrophet + hammad and a4ain$t the reality of Ali2%HI6JHI8J

The $e en head$ of the dra4on i$ $ymbolic of the $e en pro ince$ of the land$ dominated by themayyad$K ama$c $, Der$ia, Arabia, =4ypt, Africa, Andal $ia, and Tran$oCania% The ten horn$repre$ent the ten name$ of the leader$ of the mayyad dyna$tyK Ab 3 fyan, + a'iya, MaNid,+ar'an, Abd al9+alik, Walid, 3 layman, mar, ?i$ham, and *brahim% 3ome name$ 'ere re9 $ed, a$in the ca$e of MaNid ** and MaNid ***, 'hich 'ere not co nted for thi$ interpretation%

List of Umayyad Caliphs HeditJ

enealo4ic tree of the mayyad family% *n bl e: ;aliph thman, one of the fo rQa$hid n ;aliph$% *n 4reen, the mayyad ;aliph$ of ama$c $% *n

yello', the mayyad emir$ of ; rdoba% *n oran4e, the mayyad ;aliph$ of ; rdoba% Abd Al9Qahman *** 'a$ an emir ntil GEG 'hen he proclaimed

him$elf ;aliph% + hammad i$ incl ded (in cap$& to $ho' the kin$hip of the mayyad$ 'ith him%

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+o$B e of ; rdoba, 3pain % )ih rāb

Caliph +ei %

Caliph* ,2 :ama*c *

2ua9iya 7 i)n +)u u,yan 661 68&

MaIid 7 i)n 2ua9iyah 68& 68*

2ua9iya 77 i)n MaIid 68* 68"

2ar9an 7 i)n al $a/am 68" 68%

+)d al 2ali/ i)n 2ar9an 68% !&%

al Halid 7 i)n +)d al 2ali/ !&% !1%

ulayman i)n +)d al 2ali/ !1% !1!

Umar i)n +)d al +IiI !1! !;&

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MaIid 77 i)n +)d al 2ali/ !;& !;"

$isham i)n +)d al 2ali/ !;" !"*

al Halid 77 i)n MaIid !"* !""

MaIid 777 i)n al Halid !""

7)rahim i)n al Halid !""

2ar9an 77 i)n 2uhammad (ruled ,r m $arran in the GaIira# !"" !%&

mir* ,2 C,rd,ba

+)d al 4ahman 7 !%6 !88

$isham 7 !88 !=6

al $a/am 7 !=6 8;;

+)d ar 4ahman 77 8;; 8%;

2uhammad 7 8%; 886

+l 2undhir 886 888

+)dallah i)n 2uhammad 888 =1;

+)d ar 4ahman 777 =1; =;=

Caliph* ,2 C,rd,ba

+)d ar 4ahman 777- as caliph =;= =61

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+l $a/am 77 =61 =!6

$isham 77 =!6 1&&8

2uhammad 77 1&&8 1&&=

ulayman i)n al $a/am 1&&= 1&1&

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ulayman i)n al $a/am- rest red 1&1; 1&1!

+)d ar 4ahman 7 1&;1 1&;;

+)d ar 4ahman 1&;; 1&;*

2uhammad 777 1&;* 1&;"

$isham 777 1&;! 1&*1

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• Timeline of the + $lim pre$ence in the *berian penin$ la

• Al9Andal $

• mayya ibn Abd 3ham$

• ;aliphate of ; rdoba

• ?i$tory of *$lam

• ;aliphate

• Zi$t of 3 nni + $lim dyna$tie$

• mayyad family tree

•

mayyad conB e$t of ?i$pania

References HeditJ

This articleha* a% %clear citati,% *tyle. The re,erences used may )e made clearer 9ith a di,,erent r c nsistent styl, citati n- , tn ting- r external lin/ing. (September 2009)

<% *ump up / 2The mayyad$ r led for ninety year$, takin4 'hite a$ their $ymbolic color a$ a reminder of the Drophet@$fir$t battle at Oadr, and to di$tin4 i$h them$el e$ from the Abba$id$, by $in4 'hite, rather than black, a$ their color of mo rnin4%2

Abd l ?adi, volution of the Arab Fla/ , <GI5% 2With it$ 'hite fla4, the ;hine$eTan4 yna$ty referred to it Hthe mayyad yna$tyJin hi$torical literat re a$ @Baiyi 0ashi ,@ the @White arment ;alip$%@2 Zi Xin4Cin,)aritime il! *oad , tran$% W% W% Wan4 (EPP5&, p%6 %

E% *ump up / 1he 2eo+les , 3ekene +ody ;i$$oko, History of Humanity0From the Seventh to the Sixteenth Century ,`ol% *`, ed% +%A% Al9Oakhit, Z% OaNin and 3%+% ;i$$oko, ( S=3;V, EPPI&, <<GP%H<J

R% *ump up / Yonathan +iran, *ed ea 3iti(ens% 3osmo+olitan ociety and 3ultural 3han/e in )assawa , (*ndianani er$ity Dre$$, EPPG&, <PP%HEJ

6% *ump up / Lhalid Mahya Olankin$hip,1he nd of the 4ihad tate% 1he *ei/n of &isham 5bn 6Abd al-)ali! and the3olla+se of the Umayyads , (3 SM Dre$$, <GG6&, EI5%HRJ

8% *ump up / Lhalid Mahya Olankin$hip,1he nd of the 4ihad tate% 1he *ei/n of &isham 5bn 6Abd al-)ali! and the3olla+se of the Umayyads , <6 %H6J

5% *ump up / 3tefan ood'in, Africas 7e/acies 8f Urbani(ation% Unfoldin/ a/a of a 3ontinent , (Qo'man Zittlefield,EPP5&, I8%H8J

% *ump up / 5slam in omali &istory%Fact and Fiction , +ohamed ?a)i + ktar, The 1nvention of Somalia , ed% Ali Yimale Ahmed, (The Qed 3ea Dre$$, *nc%, <GG8&, R%H5J

I% *ump up / Olankin$hip, Lhalid Mahya (<GG6&,1he nd of the 4ihad tate, the *ei/n of &isham 5bn 6Abd-al )ali! andthe colla+se of the Umayyads , 3tate ni er$ity of Se' Mork Dre$$, p% R , *3OS P9 G<69<IE 9I

G% Y mp p to: a b c A ;hronolo4y Vf *$lamic ?i$tory 8 P9<PPP ;=, Oy ?% % Qahman <GGG Da4e <EI

<P% *ump up / +iddle =a$t, We$tern A$ia, and Sorthern Africa Oy Ali Aldo$ari Da4e <I8H J

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<<% *ump up / The Tra4edy of the Templar$: The Qi$e and Fall of the ;r $ader 3tate$ Oy +ichael ?aa4 ;hapter RDale$tine nder the mayyad$ and the Arab Tribe HIJ

<E% *ump up / 2+ $lim ;on4re$$2% Qetrie ed EPPI9P59RP%

<R% *ump up / 3 nan Ab a' d: Oook <6, S mber E58G

<6% *ump up / *bn *$haB (<G88& RIP RII, cited in Deter$ (<GG6& p% E<I

<8% *ump up / Watt (<G85&, p% 55

<5% *ump up / *bn Taymiya, in hi$ A reat ;ompilation of Fat'a

< % *ump up / *bn Lathir : Al9Oidayah 'al9Sihayah, ̀ ol me I pa4e <56

<I% *ump up / Wilferd +adel n4, The 3 cce$$ion to + hammad: A 3t dy of the =arly ;aliphate, p%5<

<G% *ump up / Qahman (<GGG, p% 6P&

EP% *ump up / = ropean Sa al and +aritime ?i$tory, RPP9<8PP Oy Archibald Qo$$ Ze'i$, Timothy Y% Q nyan Da4e E6 HGJ

E<% *ump up / Zeonard +ichael Lroll, ?i$tory of the Yihad,p%<ER

EE% *ump up / Yim Oradb ry, The +edie al 3ie4e, A ?i$tory of OyNanti m Oy Timothy =% re4ory pa4e <IR

ER% *ump up / Drophet$ and Drince$: 3a di Arabia from + hammad to the Dre$ent Oy +ark We$ton Da4e 5< H<PJ

E6% *ump up / p%<<

E8% *ump up / The 3pread of *$lam: The ;ontrib tin4 Factor$ Oy Ab al9FaNl *NNati, A% =NNati Da4e RP<

E5% *ump up / *$lam For mmie$ Oy +alcolm ;lark Da4e

E % *ump up / 3pirit al ;larity Oy Yackie Wellman Da4e 8<

EI% *ump up / The Loran For mmie$ Oy 3ohaib 3 ltan Da4e

EG% *ump up / X ran: The 3 rah Al9Si$a, ;h6: E

RP% *ump up / X ran: 3 rat Al9? ) rat H6G:<RJ

R<% *ump up / X ran: 3 rat An9Si$a@ H6:<J

RE% *ump up / *raB a ;omplicated 3tate: *raB@$ Freedom War Oy Larim +% 3% Al9_ baidi Da4e RE

RR% *ump up / Arab 3ociali$m% Hal9*$htirakiyah Al9gArabiyahJ: A oc mentary 3 r ey Oy 3ami A% ?anna, eor4e ?%ardner Da4e E < H<<J

R6% *ump up / Arab 3ociali$m% Hal9*$htirakiyah Al9ArabiyahJ: A oc mentary 3 r ey Oy 3ami A% ?anna, eor4e ?% ardner Da4e E <H<EJ

R8% *ump up / +en Aro nd the +e$$en4er Oy Lhalid + hammad Lhalid, + hammad Lhali Lhalid Da4e << H<RJ

R5% *ump up / The ;ambrid4e ?i$tory of *$lam:, ̀ ol me E edited by D% +% ?olt, Ann L% 3% Zambton, Oernard Ze'i$ Da4e5P8 H<6J

R % *ump up / The =arly ;aliphate Oy +a lana + hammad Ali

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RI% *ump up / Qahman (<GGG, p% 8R&

RG% *ump up / A ;hronolo4y of *$lamic ?i$tory 8 P9<PPP ;= Oy ? Qahman Da4e 8G

6P% *ump up / The 3 cce$$ion to + hammad: A 3t dy of the =arly ;aliphate Oy Wilferd +adel n4 Da4e ERE H<8J

6<% *ump up / 3ahih Al O khari ̀ ol me R, Oook 6G (Deacemakin4&, S mber I5

6E% *ump up / ?olt (<G a, pp% 5 7 E&

6R% *ump up / 3ahih Al O khari ̀ ol me 5, Oook 5P, S mber R8E

66% *ump up / Q h o d e $, Oryan% 48&9 0A)A 3 9 59 3891 :1 An ;amination of "1he &eresy of the 5shmaelites"with s+ecial consideration /iven to the *eli/ious, 2oliti cal, and ocial 3onte;ts durin/ the eventh and i/hth 3entury Arab3on<uests (D F&% p% <P8%

68% *ump up / Kitab Al-5rshad by ?i$torian 3heikh + fid

65% *ump up / The ;ambrid4e 3horter ?i$tory of *ndia p%<R<9<RE

6 % *ump up / =arly *ndia: From the Vri4in$ to A% % <RPP by Qomila Thapar p%RRR

6I% *ump up / An Atla$ and 3 r ey of 3o th A$ian ?i$tory by Larl Y% 3chmidt p%R6

6G% *ump up / Dre it 9Vrton (<G <&, ol% <, p4% ERG

8P% Y mp p to: a b c Vch$en'ald, William (EPP6&%1he )iddle ast, A &istory % +c ra' ?ill% p% 8 %*3OS P9P 9E66ERR95%

8<% *ump up / Q%+% Footeet al. , Qeport on ? meima eCca ation$, in ̀ % =4an and D%+% Oikai, 2Archaeolo4y inYordan2, American 4ournal of Archaeolo/y <PR (<GGG&, p% 8<6%

8E% *ump up / Vch$en'ald, William (EPP6&%1he )iddle ast, A &istory % +c ra' ?ill% pp% 88785% *3OS P9P 9E66ERR95%

8R% *ump up / Vch$en'ald, William (EPP6&%1he )iddle ast, A &istory % +c ra' ?ill% p% 85% *3OS P9P 9E66ERR95%

86% *ump up / *$lamic ;onB e$t of 3yria A tran$lation of Fat h $ham by al9*mam al9WaBidi Tran$lated by +a'lana3 layman al9Lindi Da4e RE8H<5J Archi ed Vctober <E, EP<R at the Wayback +achine

88% Y mp p to: a b al9Oaladh ri IGE H<GJ +edie al 3o rcebook: Al9Oaladh ri: The Oattle Vf The Marm k(5R5& Archi ed Vctober <<, EP<R at theWayback +achine

85% *ump up / *$lamic ;onB e$t of 3yria A tran$lation of Fat h $ham by al9*mam al9WaBidi Tran$lated by +a'lana3 layman al9Lindi Da4e RR< to RR6 H< J Archi ed Vctober <E, EP<R at the Wayback +achine

8 % *ump up / *$lamic ;onB e$t of 3yria A tran$lation of Fat h $ham by al9*mam al9WaBidi Tran$lated by +a'lana3 layman al9Lindi Da4e R6R9R66H<IJ Archi ed Vctober <E, EP<R at the Wayback +achine

8I% *ump up / al9Oaladh ri IGE HEPJ from The Vri4in$ of the *$lamic 3tate, bein4 a tran$lation from the Arabic of the LitabF t h al9O ldha of Ahmad ibn9Yabir al9Oaladh ri, tran$% by D% L% ?itti and F% ;% + r4otten, 3t die$ in ?i$tory, =conomic$ and

D blic Za', Z `*** (Se' Mork, ;ol mbia ni er$ity Dre$$,<G<5 and <GE6&, *, EP 9E<<

8G% *ump up / +adel n4, Wilferd (<GGI&% 1he uccession to )uhammad A tudy of the arly 3ali+hate % ;ambrid4eni er$ity Dre$$%*3OS G I9P98E<9565G59R%

5P% *ump up / A ;hronolo4y Vf *$lamic ?i$tory 8 P9<PPP ;=, Oy ?% % Qahman <GGG Da4e 6P

5<% *ump up / =ncyclopedia of *$lam ̀ ol me ̀ **, pa4e E58, Oy Oo$'orth

5E% *ump up / A ;hronolo4y Vf *$lamic ?i$tory 8 P9<PPP ;=, Oy ?% % Qahman <GGG Da4e E

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5R% Y mp p to: a b c A ;hronolo4y Vf *$lamic ?i$tory 8 P9<PPP ;=, Oy ?% % Qahman <GGG Da4e 6I96G

56% Y mp p to: a b c The reat Arab ;onB e$t$ Oy ? 4h Lennedy, pa4e RE5

58% *ump up / The reat Arab ;onB e$t$ Oy ? 4h Lennedy, pa4e RE

55% *ump up / Ze'i$, Archibald Qo$$ (<GI8&% uro+ean 9aval and )aritime &istory, =>>-?@>> % *ndiana ni er$ity Dre$$%p% E6% *3OS G I9P9E8R9REPIE9%

5 % *ump up / Lroll, Zeonard +ichael (EPP8&% &istory of the 4ihad 5slam ersus 3ivili(ation % A thor?o $e%p% <ER% *3OS G I9<965R698 RP9R%

5I% *ump up / re4ory, Timothy =% (EP<<&% A &istory of By(antium % Yohn Wiley 3on$% p% <IR% *3OS G I9<9666R98GG 9I%

5G% *ump up / We$ton, +ark (EPPI&%2ro+hets and 2rinces audi Arabia from )uhammad to the 2resent % Yohn Wiley 3on$% p% 5<% *3OS G I9P96 P9<IE8 96%

P% *ump up / Oradb ry, Yim (<GGE&% 1he )edieval ie/e % Ooydell Ore'er% p% <<% *3OS G I9P9I8<<89R8 98%

<% *ump up / %Q% ?a'tin4,1he first dynasty of 5slam% the Umayyad cali+hate, A0 ? C@> (Zondon, EPPP&, 6%

E% Y mp p to: a b Dre it 9Vrton (<G <&, p4 ER5

R% *ump up / D% ;rone and +% ?ind$,Dod6s cali+h% reli/ious authority in the first centuries of 5slam (;ambrid4e, <GI5&, p%6R%

6% *ump up / %Q% ?a'tin4,1he first dynasty of 5slam% the Umayyad cali+hate, A0 ? C@> (Zondon, EPPP&, <R%

8% *ump up / A ;ompanion to the ?i$tory of the +iddle =a$t edited by Mo $$ef +% ;ho eiri, Da4e 6IH<GJ

5% *ump up / 3t dent Qe$o rce$, ;hapter <E: The Fir$t lobal ;i iliNation: The Qi$e and 3pread of *$lam, The Arab=mpire of the mayyad$ 9 ;on ert$ and 2Deople of the Oook2

% *ump up / mar *bn Adb l ANiN Oy *mam Ab + hammad Adb llah ibn Abd l ?akam died E<6 A? IEG ;%=% D bli$her_am _am D bli$her$ Larachi

I% *ump up / + a'iya Qe$torer of the + $lim Faith Oy Ai$ha Oe'ley Da4e 6<

G% *ump up / +cA liffe, Yane ammen (EPP5&% 1he 3ambrid/e 3om+anion to the Eur6an % ;ambrid4e ni er$ity Dre$$%p% <55% *3OS G I9P98E<98RGR69P%

IP% *ump up / OadioNamani, OadiK OadioNamani, haNal (EPP8&%5ran and America *e-Kind lGin/ a 7ove 7ost % =a$t We$tnder$tandin4 Dre$$% p% <<I% *3OS G I9P9G 6E< E9P9I%

I<% *ump up / 3 lh al9?a$an

IE% *ump up / HEPJ ;hapter E6

IR% *ump up / 3ermon GE

I6% *ump up / Abd @l9Oah[ (<GGP& H<GPIJ%ome Answered Euestions % Wilmette, *llinoi$: Oah[@\ D bli$hin4 Tr $t,%p% 5G% *3OS P9I 6R9<GP95%

I8% *ump up / Abd @l9Oah[ (<GGP& H<GPIJ%ome Answered Euestions % Wilmette, *llinoi$: Oah[@\ D bli$hin4 Tr $t,%p% 8<% *3OS P9I 6R9<GP95%

Further reading HeditJ

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• AZ9A)mi, Abd lhadi, The mayyad$, in)uhammad in &istory, 1hou/ht, and 3ulture% Anncyclo+edia of the 2ro+het of Dod (E ol$%&, =dited by ;% FitNpatrick and A% Walker, 3anta

Oarbara, AO;9;Z*V, EP<6% *3OS <5<P5G< 5

• A% Oe'ley,)u6awiya, *estorer of the )uslim Faith (Zondon, EPPE&

• Ooekhoff9 an der `oort, Sicolet, mayyad ;o rt, in )uhammad in &istory, 1hou/ht, and3ulture% An ncyclo+edia of the 2ro+het of Dod (E ol$%&, =dited by ;% FitNpatrick and A% Walker,3anta Oarbara, AO;9;Z*V, EP<6%*3OS <5<P5G< 5

• D% ;rone, laves on horses (;ambrid4e, <GIP&%

• D% ;rone and +%A% ;ook,&a/arism (;ambrid4e, <G &%

• F% +% onner , 1he early 5slamic con<uests (Drinceton, <GI<&%

• % Q% ?a'tin4, 1he first dynasty of 5slam% the Umayyad cali+hate, A0 ? C@> Q tled4e=d$% (Zondon, EPPP&

• Lennedy, ? 4h S% (EPP6&%1he 2ro+het and the A/e of the 3ali+hates% 1he 5slamic 9earast from the th to the ??th 3entury (3econd ed%&% ?arlo', L: Dear$on =d cation Ztd%*3OS P9

8IE96P8E896%

• Dre it 9Vrton, ;% W (<G <&%1he horter 3ambrid/e )edieval &istory % ;ambrid4e:;ambrid4e ni er$ity Dre$$%

• Y% Wellha $en, 1he Arab Kin/dom and its fall (Zondon, EPPP&%

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Umayya ibn Abd ShamsFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The clan of Oan mayyad a$ 'ell a$ the dyna$ty that r led the mayyad ;aliphate are namedafter Umayya ibn Abd Shams %

mayya 'a$ the adopted $on of Abd 3ham$ ibn Abd +anaf , and the father of ?arb ibn mayyaand Ab al9@A$%H<J

?i$ $on$ 'ere

• Ab al9@A$ ibn mayyah

• ?arb ibn mayyah

His close relati es and descendends HeditJ

= ray*h tribe

+)d 2ana, i)n Nusai

Oti/ah )int2urrah

P+)dhams

3arra 2ut Qt Qali ) $ala $ashim

alma )int +mr

Umayyai)n +)d

hams

P+)d al2uttali)

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al R+s Ominahʿ

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$ar) $a/am i)n +)ial R+s

:( Family tree )

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2u S9iyahʿ

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UmayyadCaliphate

Uthmani)n +)ual +as

$asan al2XJta)

$usayn )in +li( Family

tree )

al 2u/htSr i)n +)V PU)ayd +llah al

Tha>a,V (Abû‘Amra ̀Kaysan ’ îy

yah)

2uhammad>al$

5m?m>( Abbasis )

List of Sunni !uslim dynastiesFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The follo'in4 i$ a list of Sunni Muslim dynasties %

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Contents

HhideJ

• < Africa

o <%< Sorth Africa

o <%E ?orn of Africa

o <%R African reat Zake$

o <%6 ;entral and We$t Africa

• E = rope

o E%< 3icily

o E%E =a$tern = rope and Q $$ia

o E%R 3pain and Dort 4al

• R A$ia

o R%< Arabian Denin$ la

o R%E 3yria and *raB

o R%R A$ia +inor (+odern T rkey&

o R%6 *ran and ;a ca$ $

o R%8 ;entral A$ia

o R%5 3o th A$ia

o R% 3o th9=a$t A$ia

• 6 3ee al$o

Africa HeditJ+orth Afri a HeditJ

• 3alihid dyna$ty (Qif , <P7<P<G&

• + hallabid$ (*friBiya, <7 GR&

• A4hlabid$ (*friBiya, IPP7GPG&

• T l nid$ (=4ypt, I5I7GP8&

• *kh$i$id$ (=4ypt, GR87G5G&

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• _irid$ (*friBiya, G R7<<6I&

• ?ammadid$ (We$tern *friBiya, <PPI7<<8E&

• Almora id$ (+orocco and Al9Andal $, <P6P7<<6 &

• Almohad$ (+orocco and Al9Andal $, f% <<RP, r% <<6 7<E5G&

• Ayy bid$ (=4ypt, << <7<R6<&

• ?af$id dyna$ty (*friBiya, <EEG7<8 6&

• Sa$rid dyna$ty ( ranada , <ERE7<6GE&

• _iyyanid dyna$ty (Tlemcen, <ER87<885&

•

+arinid dyna$ty (+orocco , f% <E66, r% <E5G7<658&• Oahri dyna$ty (=4ypt, <E8P7<RIE&

• O r)i dyna$ty (=4ypt, <RIE7<8< &

• Watta$id dyna$ty (+orocco , <6 E7<886&

• 3aadi yna$ty (+orocco , f% <8PG, r% <8867<58G&

• Lin4dom of Ait Abba$ ( Al4eria, f% <8<P, r% <8<P7<I E&

• Alao ite yna$ty (+orocco , f% <5R<, r% <5557pre$ent&

• ? $ainid yna$ty (T ni$ia, < P87<G8 &

• Laramanli dyna$ty (Zibya, < <<7<IR8&

• + hammad Ali yna$ty (=4ypt, <IP87<G8E&

• 3ayyid + hammad Ahmad Al +ahdi dyna$ty (3 dan, <I687<II8&

• 3ayyid Abd Al Qahman +ahdi dyna$ty (3 dan, <II87<G5P&

Horn of Afri a HeditJ

• 3 ltanate of +o4adi$h (<Pth7<5th cent rie$&

• 3 ltanate of 3ho'a (<<IP7<E G&

• 3 ltanate of *fat (<Rth cent ry&

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• Wala$hma yna$ty (<Rth7<5th cent rie$&

• War$an4ali 3 ltanate (<EGI7pre$ent&

• Adal 3 ltanate (c% <6<87<888&

• A) ran 3 ltanate (<6th7< th cent rie$&

• + daito yna$ty (<5th cent ry7pre$ent&

• 3 ltanate of ?arar (<8E57<8 &

• *mamate of A $$a (<8 7<5 E&

• =mirate of ?arar (<56 7<II &

•

3 ltanate of eledi (<Ith7<Gth cent rie$&• +a)eerteen 3 ltanate (mid9<Ith cent ry7early EPth cent ry&

• Lin4dom of omma (early <Gth cent ry7<II5&

• Lin4dom of Yimma (<IRP7<GRE&

• Lin4dom of mma (<I6P7<GPE&

• 3 ltanate of ?obyo (<Gth cent ry7<GE8&

Afri an !reat 2a"es HeditJ• Date 3 ltanate (<EPR7<I P&

• 3ennar ($ ltanate& (<8ER7<IE<&

• 3 ltan$ on the ;omoro$

• Wit land (<I8I7<GER&

Central and 3est Afri a HeditJ

• _a yna$ty in ao (<<th cent ry7<E 8&

• 3ayfa'a dyna$ty (<P 87<I65&

• +ali =mpire (c% <ERP7c% <5PP&

• Leita yna$ty (<ER87c% <5 P&

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• 3on4hai =mpire (c% <R6P7<8G<&

• Oorn =mpire (<RG57<IGR&

• Lin4dom of Oa4 irmi (<8EE7<IG &

• endi Lin4dom (<8G<7<GP<&

• 3 ltanate of ama4aram (< R<7<I8<&

• 3okoto ;aliphate (<IP67<GPR&

• To co le r =mpire (<IR57<IGP&

Europe HeditJSi ily HeditJ

• A4hlabid 3icily (IE 7GPG&

4astern 4urope and Russia HeditJ

• `ol4a O l4aria ( th cent ry7<E6P$&

• =mirate of ;rete (IEP$7G5<&

• A ar Lhanate (early <Rth7<Gth cent ry&

• Lhanate of LaNan (<6RI7<88E&

• ;rimean Lhanate (<66<7< IR&

• So4ai ?orde (<66P$7<5R6&

• Xa$im Lhanate (<68E7<5I<&

• A$trakhan Lhanate (<6557<885&

• Lhanate of 3ibir (<6GP7<8GI&

• ?o $e of ;rno)e i (<8<87<8RP&

• Da$halik of 3c tari (< 8 7<IR<&

• Da$halik of Oerat (< 67<IPG&

• Da$halik of Manina (< II7<IEE&

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• ?o $e of _o4 (<GEI7<GRG&

Spain and Portu,al HeditJ

• ;aliphate of ; rdoba ( 857<P< , <PER7<PR<&

• Taifa of Alp ente (<PPG7<<P5&

• Taifa of Oada)oN (<PPG7<<8<&

• Taifa of +or n (<P<P7<P55&

• Taifa of Toledo (<P<P7<PI8&

• Taifa of Torto$a (<P<P7<PGG&

• Taifa of Arco$ (<P<<7<<68&

• Taifa of Almer\a (<P<P7<<6 &

• Taifa of enia (<P<P7<EE &

• Taifa of `alencia (<P<P7<ERI&

• Taifa of + rcia (<P<<7<E55&

• Taifa of Albarrac\n (<P<E7<<P6&

• Taifa of _ara4oNa (<P<R7<<<P&• Taifa of ranada (<P<R7<<68&

• Taifa of ;armona (<P<R7<<8P&

• Taifa of 3anta +ar\a de Al4ar e (<P<I7<P8<&

• Taifa of +allorca (<P<I7<EPR&

• Taifa of Zi$bon (<PEE7<PGR&

• Taifa of 3e ille (<PER7<PG<&

• Taifa of Siebla (<PER7<E5E&

• Taifa of ; rdoba (<PR<7<PG<&

• Taifa of + rtola (<PRR7<<8<&

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• Taifa of Al4ecira$ (<PR87<P8I&

• Taifa of Qonda (<PRG7<P58&

• Taifa of 3il e$ (<P6P7<<8<&

• Taifa of +[la4a (<P R7<ERG&

• Taifa of +olina (c% <PIP@$7<<PP&

• Taifa of Zorca (<EEI7<E8P&

• Taifa of +enorca (<EEI7<EI &

• =mirate of ranada (<EEI7<6GE&

Asia HeditJArabian Peninsula HeditJ

• _iyadid dyna$ty (I<G7<P<I&

• 3harif of +ecca (G5 7<GE8& 3ince <5R<

• y nid dyna$ty (<P 57<E6P&

• Qa$ lid (<EEG7<686&

• Lathiri (?adhrama t& (<RG87<G5 &

• Yabrid$ (<8th7<5th cent ry&

• Tahiride (<6867<8E5&

• Xa'a$im yna$ty (Qa$ al Lhaymah& (< E 7pre$ent&

• ?o $e of 3a d (< 667pre$ent&

• ?o $e of Al93abah (< 8E7pre$ent&

• Al Sahyan family (< 5<7pre$ent&

• A)man (<Ith ;ent ry7pre$ent&

• Xa'a$im yna$ty (3har)ah& (<Ith cent ry7pre$ent&

• mm al9X 'ain (< 87pre$ent&

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• Al Lhalifa family (< IR7pre$ent&

• +ahra 3 ltanate (<Ith cent ry7<G5 &

• ?o $e of Thani (<IE87pre$ent&

• Al +akto m (<IRR7pre$ent&

• Al Qa$hid (<IR57<GE<&

• pper Mafa (<Gth cent ry7<G5 &

• 3harBi yna$ty (<I 57pre$ent&

• X @aiti (<GPE7<G5 &

•

=mirate of Oeihan (<GPR7<G5 &Syria and 1ra5 HeditJ

• mayyad ;aliphate (55<7 8P&

• Abba$id ;aliphate ( 8P7<E8I&

• Art Bid$ (<<th7<Eth cent ry&

• O rid dyna$ty (<<P67<<86&

• _en4id dyna$ty (<<E 7<E8P&• Ayy bid dyna$ty (<< <7<R6<&

• Oaban (<56G7<I8P&

• ?a$hemite yna$ty of *raB (<GE<7<G8I&

• ?a$hemite yna$ty of Yordan (<GE<7pre$ent&

Asia Minor 6Modern Tur"ey7 HeditJ

• +en4 )ekid$ (<P <7<E &

• 3alt kid$ (<P E7<EPE&

• 3 ltanate of Q m (<P 7<RP &

• Ahlat$hah$ (<<PP7<EP &

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• ;hobanid$ (<EE 7<RPG&

• Laramanid$ (c% <E8P7<6I &

• Der neojl (<E5<7<REE&

• +ente e (c% <E5<7<6E6&

• Ahi$ (c% <RIP7<R5E&

• ?amidid$ (c% <EIP7<R 6&

• Vttoman =mpire (<EGG7<GER&

• Zadik (c% <RPP7<R5I&

•

*$fendiyarid$ (Yandarid$, c% <RPP7<65<&• Teke (<RP<7<6ER&

• 3ar khanid$ (<RPE7<6<P&

• Lara$id$ (<RPR7<R5P&

• Aydinid$ (<RP 7<6E8&

• Qamadanid$ (<R8E7<8<5&

1ran and Cau asus HeditJ• 3hir an$hah ( GG7<8 G&

• lafid dyna$ty (early Gth cent ry7IG &

• 3amanid dyna$ty (I<G7GGG&

• Tahirid dyna$ty (IE<7I R&

• 3affarid dyna$ty (I5<7<PPR&

• 3a)id$ (IIG7GEG&

• Fari4h nid (late Gth7early <<th cent rie$&

• +a@danid$ (late Gth7<<th cent rie$&

• Vrm $ (<Pth7< th cent rie$&

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• 3allarid (G6E7G G&

• 3haddadid (G8<7<<GG&

• Qa'adid (G887<P <&

• AnnaNid (GGP7<<<5&

• ?adhabani (<<th cent ry&

• 3el) B dyna$ty (<<th7<6th cent rie$&

• ?aNara$pid$ (<<6I7<6E6&

• Lhor$hidi dyna$ty (<<887<8G &

•

+ihrabanid$ (<ER57<8R &• + Naffarid$ (<RR87<RGR&

• *li$ $ ltanate (gggg <I66&

• 3haki Lhanate (< 6R7<I<G A &

Central Asia HeditJ

• Lara9Lhanid Lhanate (I6P7<E<E&

• Al + hta) (<Pth7early <<th cent rie$&• haNna id$ (G5R7<<I &

• Lh']raNm93h]h dyna$ty (<P 7<ER<&

• h rid$ (<<6I7<E<8&

• abare Yahan4iri yna$ty (<<GP7<8EP&

• Lartid$ (<ER<7<RIG&

• Tim rid =mpire (<R P7<8P & of the Tim rid dyna$ty

• LaNakh Lhanate (<6857<I6 &

• Lhanate of O khara (<8PP7< I8&

• Lhanate of Lhi a (<8<<7<GEP&

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• Lhanate of Lokand (< PG7<I 5&

• ?otaki dyna$ty (< PG7< RI&

• rrani =mpire (< 6 7<IE5&

• OarakNai yna$ty (<IE57<G R&

• White ?orde (<R5P7<6EI&

• =mirate of O khara (< I87<GEP&

South Asia HeditJ

• 3oomra yna$ty, 3oomra (<PE57<R8<&

• ?o $e of Theem 4e (<<557<RII&

• +aml k 3 ltanate ( elhi& (<EP57<EGP&

• Lhil)i dyna$ty (<EGP7<REP&

• T 4hlaB yna$ty (<RE<7<RGI&

• 3amma yna$ty (<RR87<8EP&

• Latoor yna$ty (<85P7<G5G&

• 3ayyid yna$ty (<RRG7<85<&• *lya$ 3hahi dyna$ty (<R6E7<6I &

• Far Bi dyna$ty (<RIE7<5P<&

• ?ilaalee dyna$ty (<RII7<88I&

• + Naffarid$ (<RG<7< R6&

• +al'a 3 ltanate (<6P<7<85<&

• 3ayyid dyna$ty (<6<67<68<&

• +alerkotla 3tate of 3her'ani$ (<6657<G6 &

• Zodi yna$ty or Zodhi yna$ty (<68<7<8E5&

• ? $$ain 3hahi Fatimid dyna$ty (<6G67<8RI&

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• Ar4h n yna$ty (late <8th7<5th cent rie$&

• + 4hal =mpire (<8E57<I8 &

• 3 ri yna$ty (<86P7<885&

• Arakkal (<8687<Ith cent ry&

• theem dyna$ty (<5RE7<5GE&

• Lhan of Lalat (<5557<G8I&

• Sa'ab of the ;arnatic (<5GP7<IP<&

• *$dhoo dyna$ty (<5GE7< P6&

•

hiyami4ili dyna$ty (< P67< 8G&• Sa'ab of Ohopal (< ER7<G6 &

• A$if Yah yna$ty, SiNam of ?yderabad (< E67<G6I&

• Oabi yna$ty (< R87<G6 &

• +y$ore Lin4dom (< 6G7< GG&

• ? raa dyna$ty (< 8G7<G5I&

• Tonk (princely $tate& (< GI7<G6 &

• Oaoni Sa'ab$ (< I67<G6I&

• 3idi dyna$ty of Yan)ira and Yafrabad (< 8G7<G6I&

• VrakNai dyna$ty of L r'ai, Oa$oda and +ohammad4arh (< <R7<G6I&

• +iyana dyna$ty of 3a an r (<5 E7<G6I&

• rrani =mpire (< 6 7<I6E&

South$4ast Asia HeditJ

• Ledah 3 ltanate (<<R57pre$ent&

• 3 ltan of Lelantan (<E5 7pre$ent&

• Da$ai (<E5 7<8th cent ry&

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• Or nei (<6th cent ry7pre$ent&

• 3 ltanate of +alacca (<6PE7<8<<&

• 3 ltan of Dahan4 (<6 P7pre$ent&

• 3 ltanate of 3 l (<68P7<GR5&

• 3 ltanate of Ternate (<6587pre$ent&

• 3 ltanate of emak (<6 87<8<I&

• Aceh 3 ltanate (<6G57<GPR&

• Lin4dom of +aynila (<8PP$7<8 <&

•

+ataram 3 ltanate (<8PP$7< PP$&• Dattani Lin4dom (<8<57< <&

• 3 ltanate of +a4 indanao (<8EP7c% <IPP&

• 3 ltanate of Oanten (<8E57<I<R&

• 3 ltan of Derak (<8EI7pre$ent&

• Yohor 3 ltanate (<8EI7pre$ent&

• Lin4dom of Da)an4 (<85I7<8I5&

• 3 ltanate of 3in4ora (<5P87<5IP&

• 3 ltanate of 3amba$ (<5 <7<G8P&

• 3 ltanate of Teren44an (< E87pre$ent&

• 3 ltanate of 3iak 3ri *ndrap ra (< E87<G65&

• 3 ltan of 3elan4or (mid9<Ith cent ry 7 pre$ent&

• 3 rakarta 3 nanate (< 687pre$ent&

• Mo4yakarta 3 ltanate (< 887pre$ent&

• Lin4dom of Aman (<6I87<IRE&

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• Dalemban4 (<88P7<IER&

• Qia 9Zin44a 3 ltanate (<IE67<G<<&

• 3 ltanate of o'a (<8GR7<G5P&

List of !uslim empires and dynastiesFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

3cholar$ debate 'hat eCactly con$tit te$ an 4mpire % enerally, they may define an empire a$a $tate that eCtend$ dominion o er area$ and pop lation$ di$tinctc lt rally and ethnically from thec lt re>ethnicity at the center of po'er%Thi$ li$t i$ intended to $ho' $ome of theStates , 4mpires , or #ynasties that 'ere r led by a + $limelite, or 'ere in $ome 'ay central to or a part of the =mpire% +any + $lim empire$ had $tron4infl ence$ on the i$ al art$, architect re, m $ic and food%

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Contents

HhideJ

• < ?i$tory

• E ;aliphate$

• R Qe4ional empire$

o R%< = rope Q $$ia

o R%E +iddle =a$t

o R%R ;entral A$ia

o R%6 Africa 3pain

o R%8 3o th A$ia

o R%5 3o thea$t A$ia

• 6 3o rce$

• 8 3ee al$o

History HeditJ*n the cent rie$ after the life of+ hammad , + $lim armie$ po red o t into all $ rro ndin4 area$,brin4in4 the land$ fromDer$ia to 3pain nder their control% With thi$ h 4e amo nt of land nder their control, the mayyad (and latter, the Abba$id& ;aliphate$ allo'ed merchant$ and $cholar$ to tra elea$ily thro 4h 'e$tern = ra$ia, brin4in4 4ood$ and kno'led4e 'hich the + $lim$ 4reatly eCpanded

pon thro 4h the ;aliphate and o t'ard to le$$ ad anced re4ion$, $ ch a$ We$tern = rope% *n

8<, papermakin4 from;hina made it$ 'ay to the We$t thro 4h + $lim$% Trade introd ced *$lam tothe African$% *n the +iddle =a$t, the $ cce$$ of *$lam meant that c lt re 'o ld be chan4ed fore er%= en after the decline of the Aba$$id ;aliphate, *$lam 'o ld remain a$ one of the ba$e in$tit tion$ of the re4ion% F t re $tate$ of the re4ion, $ ch a$ the 3afa id, 3el) k, and Vttoman and + 4hal=mpire$, 'ere all 2*$lamic =mpire$2%

Caliphates HeditJ

mayyad =mpire at it$ 4reate$t eCtent

• The Qa$hid n ;aliphate (5RE955<&

• The mayyad ;aliphate (55<9 8P& 9 3 cce$$or of the Qa$hid n ;aliphate

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• The mayyad ;aliphate of ;ordoba in *$lamic 3pain ( 859GEG9<PR<&

• The Abba$id ;aliphate ( 8P9<E8I& 9 3 cce$$or of the mayyad ;aliphate

• The Fatimid ;aliphate (G<P9<< <&

• The +aml k ;aliphate ( Oahri dyna$ty then preceded by O r)i dyna$ty& (<E8P7<8< &

• The L rdi$h Ayy bid dyna$ty& (<< <9<E5P&

• The Vttoman ;aliphate (<8< 7<GER&

Regional empires HeditJ

Oarbaro$$a ?ayreddin Da$ha

4urope 8 Russia HeditJ

• mayyad ;aliphate of ;ordoba in *$lamic 3pain (GEG9<PR<&

• The =mirate of 3icily (G589<P E&

• The `ol4a O l4aria (GEE9<ER5&

• The olden ?orde (<E8<7<8PE&

• The ;rimean Lhanate (<66<7< IR&

• The Oa$hkir$ and ;h a$h

Middle 4ast HeditJ

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3aladin

• The 3el) k 3 ltanate of Q m

• The Vttoman =mpire (<EGG7<GER&

• The Lh'areNm93h h yna$ty

• The Tahirid dyna$ty

• The Lh'areNmian =mpire

• The 3affarid dyna$ty

• The 3amanid yna$ty

• The 3el) k dyna$ty

• The iray dyna$ty

• The *lkhanate

• The Tim rid dyna$ty

• The Ayy bid yna$ty

• The Ak Loy nl

• The Lara Loy nl

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• The Der$ian =mpire, nder the3afa id dyna$ty (<8PE7< R5&, Af$harid dyna$ty, and Xa)ardyna$ty

• The + Naffarid$

• The 3hir an$hah

• The h rid$

• The haNna id =mpire

• The reat 3el) B =mpire

• The O yid dyna$ty

• The Qa$$id$ of Memen

• The Qa$ lid of Memen

• The T l nid$

Central Asia HeditJ

• The ;ha4atai Lhanate

?ar n al9Qa$hid

• The 3iberia Lhanate

• The 3tate of Markand

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• The 3haybanid$

Afri a 8 Spain HeditJ;cludin/ /y+t, which is considered +art of )iddle ast

• The Adal 3 ltanate (<6<87<888&

• The Almora id dyna$ty (<P6P7<<6 &

• The Almohad dyna$ty (<<E<7<E5G&

• The A) ran =mpire (<Rth cent ry7< th9cent ry&

• The F lani =mpire of 3okoto

• The F lani or F lbe =mpire of +acina of 3ek Amad

• The F lani or F lbe =mpire of =l ?a)) V mar Tall

• The F lani or F lbe =mpire of Oo ndo of +alick ao da 3y

• The +ali =mpire (<ERP$7<5PP$&

• The 3on4hai =mpire (<R6P7<8G<&

• The Lil'a 3 ltanate (<Pth cent ry9<8< &

• The 3 ltanate of Vman

• The A4hlabid dyna$ty of *friBiya T ni$ia, =a$t9Al4eria, We$t9Zibya and 3icily

• The mayyad of 3pain in Sorth9Africa d rin4 'ar 'ith the Fatimid@$

• Taifa dyna$tie$ of *$lamic 3pain

• The ?af$id dyna$ty (<EEG7<8 6&

• The Alao ite dyna$ty

• The +arinid dyna$ty

• The Q $tamid dyna$ty

• The 3a@did dyna$ty of +orocco (<8<<7<5EI&

• The er i$h 3tate (<IG57<GEP&

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South Asia HeditJ

+eNB ita

• The Ali Qa)a

• The 3 ltanate of +y$ore (< P67< GG&

•

The elhi 3 ltanate in Sorthern *ndia (<EP57<8E5&• The + 4hal =mpire in *ndia (<8E57<I8 &

• The Lhil)i yna$ty (<EGP7<REP&

• The Zodhi yna$ty (<68<7<8E5&

• The +aml k dyna$ty of elhi (<EP57<EGP&

• The rrani =mpire (< 6 7<IER&

• The 3 ri dyna$ty (<86P7<885&

• The A$af Yahi yna$ty (< EP7<G6I&

• The Sa'ab of A'adh (< RE7<I85&

• The Oahmani 3 ltanate in eccan (<R6 7<8E &

• The T 4hlaB dyna$ty (<RE<7<RGI&

•

The Oerar 3 ltanate in eccan (<6GP7<8 E&

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Ta) +ahal

• The Oidar 3 ltanate in eccan (<6GE7<5<G&

• The Ahmedna4ar 3 ltanate in eccan (<6GP7<5R5&

• The X tb 3hahi dyna$ty in eccan (<8<I7<5I &

• The Oi)ap r 3 ltanate in eccan (<6GP7<5I5&

• The 3ayyid dyna$ty (<6<67<68<&

• The 3 ltanate of Oen4al (<RR57<8 5&

• The 3 ltanate of Ya'np r (<RG67<6 G&

• The )arat 3 ltanate (<6P 7<8 R&

• The +al'a 3 ltanate (<6P<7<8R<&

• The 3 ltanate of La$hmir (<R657<8I5&

• The 3oomro yna$ty (<PE57<R8<&

• The 3amma yna$ty (<RR87<8EP&

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• The Talp r dyna$ty (< IR7<I6R&

• The Lalhora yna$ty (< P<7< IR&

• The Sa'ab of ;arnatic (<5GP till ate&

Southeast Asia HeditJ• The 3 ltanate of +alacca

• The 3 ltanate of Yohor

• The 3 ltanate of +a4 indanao

• The 3 ltanate of Lelantan

• The 3 ltanate of Teren44an

• The 3 ltanate of Derli$

• The Ledah 3 ltanate

• The 3 ltanate of Dahan4

• The 3 ltanate of Derak

• The 3 ltanate of Se4eri 3embilan

• The 3 ltanate of 3elan4or • The 3 l 3 ltanate

• The 3 ltanate of S4ayo4yakarta ?adinin4rat

• The Aceh 3 ltanate

• The 3 ltanate of eli

• The 3 ltanate of 3iak 3ri *ndrap ra

• The 3 ltanate of Qia

• The 3 ltanate of *ndra4iri

• The 3 ltanate of Yambi

• The 3 ltanate of Dalemban4 ar $$alam

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• The 3 ltanate of Oanten

• The 3 ltanate of ;irebon

• The 3 ltanate of emak

• The 3 ltanate of 3 rakarta

• The 3 ltanate of +ataram

• The 3 ltanate of Dontianak

• The 3 ltanate of Oan)arma$in

• The 3 ltanate of L tai

•

The 3 ltanate of O l n4an• The 3 ltanate of o'a

• The 3 ltanate of Ternate

• The 3 ltanate of Tidore

• The 3 ltanate of Oacan

• The 3 ltanate of Yailolo

• The 3 ltanate of O ton

Sources HeditJ

<% ?i$tory of the + $lim$ =mpire$ of *$lam H<J

E% All =mpire$ ?i$tory For m (Archi e&

See also HeditJ

•

;aliphate• ?i$torical po'er$

• =mpire$

• Timeline of +iddle =a$tern ?i$tory

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• + $lim conB e$t$

• + $lim hi$tory

• lobal =mpire

• Zi$t of 3 nni + $lim dyna$tie$

• + $lim World

• The Vttoman$: = rope@$ + $lim =mperor$

Umayyad family treeFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Thi$ i$ afamily tree of the mayyad dyna$ty, 'ho$e name deri e$ from mayya ibn Abd 3ham$% mayya@$ 4reat94rand$on+ a'iyah * fo nded the mayyad ;aliphate in 55<, and tran$ferred it$

capital to ama$c $, 3yria% The 3 fyanid branch to 'hich + a'iyah belon4ed cea$ed to eCerci$e

po'er follo'in4 the abdication of + a'iya ** in 5I6% Do'er $hifted to the +ar'anid branch, 'hichcontin ed to r le the caliphate ntil the mayyad$ 'ere di$placed and ma$$acred bythe Abba$id$ in 8P ($ee Oattle of the _ab&% Anmayyad prince named Abd ar9Qahman mana4ed toe$cape the ma$$acre, and fled to the *berian penin$ la ( Al-Andalus & 'here he e$tabli$hed anindependent emirate r led from the city of; rdoba % ?i$ de$cendant$ contin ed to r le the =mirateof ; rdoba , 'hich Abd9ar9Qahman *** ele ated to the $tat $ of caliphate in GEG% The ;aliphate of; rdoba di$inte4rated into $e eral independent taifa kin4dom$ in <PR<, th $ brin4in4 to a definiti eend the r le of the mayyad$%

Contents

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HhideJ

• < The de$cendant$ of mayya ibn Abd 3ham$ and Abd al9+ ttalibʿ

• E Family treeH<J

o E%< Ley

• R 3ee al$o

• 6 Qeference$

• 8 Oiblio4raphy

• 5 Sote$

"he descendants of Umayya ibn Abd Shams and ʿ Abd al#!uttalib HeditJ

)ain articles% Umayya ibn Abd hams and Abdul )uttalib

+)d 2ana, ʿ

+)d hamsʿ

2uttali) i)n+)d 2ana,

$ashim

Umayyaib% Abd9ham*

Abd al$ʿ

3 ttalib

/arb ib%Umayyah

Ab al$@A*

ib% Umayyah Zminahʿ

Abd Allahib% Abdʿ

al$

3 ttalib

Ab alib ib%

Abd l 3 ttalib

$amIa i)n P+)d al2uttali)

P+))as i)nP+)d al2uttali)

Ab9 2ya%

ib% /arb

Al$/a8amib% Abial$@A*

A22a%ib% Abial$@A*

3 hamma

d

5hadiJa )int

5hu9aylid

Ali el$3 rtadh? ( Fami

ly tree )

5ha9lah )int GaR,ar

+)d +ll h )inʿ

W+)) s

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3 aBiyah5

3arBa%

5

Uthma%ib%

A22a%

+ 44ayahbi%t

3 hammad

<atimah

ahra

2uhammad i)n al$ana,iyyah

+li )in +)dʿ ʿ

+ll h

Umayyad* Uthman i)n+)u al +as

/a*a% al$3 Dtab?

/ *ay%( Family

tree )

2u/htar al Tha>a,i(!bû‘!mre` Keys"n’îyy

e )

2uhammed>el$Em?m>

Family tree $%&HeditJ

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%ey HeditJ thman ibn Affan (Qa$hid n ;aliph , 5667585& mayyad ;aliph$ of ama$c $ (55<7 8P& mayyad =mir$ of ; rdoba ( 857GEG& mayyad ;aliph$ of ; rdoba (GEG7<PR<&

See also HeditJ

• mmayad$

• mayyad ;aliphate

• ;aliphate of ; rdoba

Abbasid Re olutionFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Abba*id +e.,l ti,%

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The caliphate at the )eginning , the reE luti n- )e, re

the 3attle , the Ya)

:ate Gune =- !"6 Guly- !%&',cati,% reater 5h rasan and present day7ranand 7ra>+e* lt

+))asid Eict ry

• +))asid appr priati n , m st, rmer Umayyad territ ry

• :Eentual esta)lishment ,the :mirate , C'rd )a

• :nd , priEileged status , r +ra)s

• :nd , ,,icial discriminati nagainst n n +ra)s

7elli ere%t*

+))asid Caliphate

9 pp,r t[sh 9]

Umayyad Caliphate

9 pp,r t[sh 9]

C,mma%der* a%d leader*

+)u 2uslim 5h rasani

Nahta)a i)n ha)i) al TaRi F

+l $asan i)n Nahta)a

+)dallah i)n +li

+)d al 4ahman 7

asr i)n ayyar F

2ar9an 77 F

MaIid i)n Umar al FaIari F

9tre% th

Gh,r,*a% pha*e

1&-&&& il/ 4 ad military

,,icers

Gh,r,*a% pha*e

6&-&&& Umayyad s ldiers

Ca* altie* a%d l,**e*

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\\ s ldiers \\ s ldiers

8& Umayyad r yals

[hide]

•

• T

• :

Ci.il Bar* ,2

the early Caliphate*

4idda 9ars

First Fitna

ec nd Fitna

4eE lt , 7)n al +shRath

4eE lt , MaIid i)n al 2uhalla)

4eE lt , $arith i)n urayJ

Yaydi 4eE lt

3er)er 4eE lt

Third Fitna

Abba*id +e.,l ti,%

+lid 4eE lt (!6; !6*#

+lid 4eE lt (!86#

2udhari 4eE lt

F urth Fitna

+narchy at amarra

5hariJite 4e)elli n (866 8=6#

The Abbasid Revolution refer$ to the o erthro' of the mayyad ;aliphate (55<7 8P ;=&, the$econd of the fo r ma)or;aliphate$ in early *$lamic hi$tory, by the third, the Abba$id ;aliphate ( 8P7<E8I ;=&% ;omin4 to po'er three decade$ after the death of the + $lim prophet + hammad andimmediately after the Qa$hid n ;aliphate , the mayyad$ 'ere a fe dal Arab empire r lin4 o er apop lation 'hich 'a$ o er'helmin4ly non9Arab a$ 'ell a$ primarily non9+ $lim% Son9Arab$ 'eretreated a$ $econd cla$$ citiNen$ re4ardle$$ of 'hether or not they con erted to *$lam, and thi$

di$content c ttin4 acro$$ faith$ and ethnicitie$ ltimately led to the mayyad@$ o erthro'%H<J

The re ol tion e$$entially marked the end of the Arab empire and the be4innin4 of a more incl $i e,m ltiethnic $tate in the +iddle =a$t%HEJ Qemembered a$ one of the mo$t 'ell9or4aniNed re ol tion$d rin4 it$ period in hi$tory, it reoriented the foc $ of the+ $lim 'orld to the ea$t%HRJ

Contents

HhideJ

• < Oack4ro nd

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• E ;a $e$

o E%< i$content amon4 3hia + $lim$

o E%E i$content amon4 3 nni + $lim$ 'ho 'ere non9Arab

E%E%< Qepre$$ion of Der$ian c lt re

o E%R i$content amon4 non9+ $lim$

• R = ent$

o R%< O ild p

R%<%< Qe olt of *bn 3 ray)

o R%E Lhora$an pha$e

o R%R +e$opotamia pha$e

• 6 Tactic$

o 6%< =thnic eB ality

o 6%E Dropa4anda

o 6%R 3ecrecy

• 8 Aftermath

• 5 Ze4acy

• ?i$torio4raphy

• I 3ee al$o

• G Qeference$

• <P F rther readin4

• << =Cternal link$

'ac(ground HeditJOy the 6P$, the mayyad =mpire fo nd it$elf in critical condition% A di$p te o er $ cce$$ion in 66

led to theThird + $lim ;i il War , 'hich ra4ed acro$$ the +iddle =a$t for t'o year$% The ery neCtyear, Al9 ahhak ibn Xay$ al93haybani initiated a Lhari)ite rebellion that 'o ld contin e ntil 65%;onc rrently to thi$, a rebellion broke o t in reaction to +ar'an ** @$ deci$ion to mo e the capitalfrom ama$c $ to ?arran , re$ ltin4 in the de$tr ction of?om$ 7 al$o in 65% *t 'a$n@t ntil 6 that+ar'an ** 'a$ able to pacify the pro ince$K the Abba$id Qe ol tion be4an 'ithin month$%H6J

Sa$r ibn 3ayyar 'a$ appointed 4o ernor of Lhoro$an by ?i$ham ibn Abd al9+alik in RI% ?e held onto hi$ po$t thro 4ho t the ci il 'ar, bein4 confirmed a$ 4o ernor by +ar'an ** in the aftermath%H6J

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Lhoro$an@$ eCpan$i e $iNe and lo' pop lation den$ity meant that the Arab deniNen$ 7 both militaryand ci ilian 7 li ed lar4ely o t$ide of the 4arri$on$ b ilt d rin4 the $pread of *$lam% Thi$ 'a$ incontra$t to the re$t of the mayyad pro ince$, 'here Arab$ tended to $ecl de them$el e$ infortre$$e$ and a oided interaction 'ith the local$%H8J Arab $ettler$ in Lhora$an left their traditionallife$tyle and $ettled amon4 the nati e*ranian people$%H6J While intermarria4e 'ith Arab$ el$e'here inthe =mpire 'a$ di$co ra4ed or e en banned, H5JH J it $lo'ly became a habit 'ithin ea$tern Lhora$anK a$

the Arab$ be4an adoptin4 Der$ian dre$$ and the t'o lan4 a4e$ infl enced one another, the ethnicbarrier$ came do'n%HIJ

Causes HeditJ3 pport for the Abba$id Qe ol tion came from people of di er$e back4ro nd$, 'ith almo$t all le el$of $ociety $ pportin4 armed oppo$ition to mayyad r le%HGJ Thi$ 'a$ e$pecially prono nced amon4+ $lim$ of non9Arab de$cent,H<PJH<<JH<EJ tho 4h e en Arab + $lim$ re$ented mayyad r le andcentraliNed a thority o er their nomadic life$tyle$%H<<JH<RJ Ooth3 nni$ and 3hia$ $ pported effort$ too erthro' the mayyad$, HGJH<PJH<EJH<6JH<8J a$ did non9+ $lim $ b)ect$ of the empire 'ho re$ented reli4io $di$crimination%H<5J

#is ontent amon, Shia Muslims HeditJ

Qemnant$ Xa$r Amra, a de$ert palace 'here mayyad prince$ 'ere notorio $ for ind l4ence and eCtra a4ance %H< J

Follo'in4 Oattle of Larbala 'hich led to ma$$acre of ? $ayn ibn Ali, the 4rand$on of + hammad ,and hi$ kin and companion$ by the mayyad army in 5IP ;=, the 3hia$ $ed thi$ e ent a$ a rallyin4cry of oppo$ition a4ain$t the mayyad$% The Abba$id$ al$o $ed the memory of Larbala eCten$i elyto 4ain pop lar $ pport a4ain$t the mayyad$%H<IJ

The ?a$himiyya mo ement (a $ b9$ect of theLay$anite$ 3hia& 'ere lar4ely re$pon$ible for $tartin4the final effort$ a4ain$t the mayyad dyna$ty,H6J initially 'ith the 4oal of replacin4 the mayyad$ 'ithan Alid r lin4 family%H<GJHEPJ To an eCtent, rebellion a4ain$t the mayyad$ bore an early a$$ociation 'ith3hi@ite idea$%H<RJHE<J A n mber of 3hi@ite re olt$ a4ain$t mayyad r le had already taken place, tho 4hthey 'ere open abo t their de$ire for an Alid r ler%_ayd ibn Ali fo 4ht the mayyad$ in *raB,'hile Abdallah ibn + @a'iya e en e$tabli$hed temporary r le o er Der$ia% Their m rder not onlyincrea$ed anti9 mayyad $entiment amon4 the 3hia, b t al$o 4a e both 3hia$ and 3 nni$ in *raB andDer$ia a common rallyin4 cry%H<8J At the $ame time, the capt re and m rder of the primary 3hi@iteoppo$ition fi4 re$ rendered the Abba$id$ a$ the only reali$tic contender$ for the oid that 'o ld beleft by the mayyad$%HEEJ

The Abba$id$ kept B iet abo t their identity, $imply $tatin4 that they 'anted a r ler from thede$cendant of + hammad pon 'ho$e choice a$ caliph the + $lim comm nity 'o ld a4ree%HERJ

HE6J +any 3hi@ite$ nat rally a$$ med that thi$ meant an Alid r ler, a belief 'hich the Abba$id$ tacitlyenco ra4ed to 4ain 3hi@ite $ pport%HE8J Tho 4h the Abba$id$ 'ere member$ of the Oan ?a$him clan,

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ri al$ of the mayyad$, the 'ord 2?a$himiyya2 $eem$ to refer $pecifically to Abd9Allah ibn+ hammad ibn al9?anafiyyah, a 4rand$on of Ali and $on of + hammad ibn al9?anafiyyah%

Accordin4 to certain tradition$, Abd9Allah died in < in ? meima in the ho $e of+ohammad ibn Ali Abba$i, the head of the Abba$id family, and before dyin4 named + hammad ibn Ali a$ hi$$ cce$$or %HE5J Altho 4h the anecdote i$ con$idered a fabrication,HEEJ at the time it allo'ed the Abba$id$to rally the $ pporter$ of the failed re olt of + khtar al9ThaBafi, 'ho had repre$ented them$el e$ a$the $ pporter$ of + hammad ibn al9?anafiyya% Oy the time the re ol tion 'a$ in f ll $'in4, mo$tLay$anite 3hia had either tran$ferred their alle4iance to the Abba$id dyna$ty (in the ca$e of the?a$himiyya&,HE JHEIJ or had con erted to other branche$ of 3hi@i$m and the Lay$anite$ cea$ed to eCi$t%HEGJ

#is ontent amon, Sunni Muslims who were non$Arab HeditJThe mayyad $tate i$ remembered a$ an Arab9centric $tate, bein4 r n by and for the benefit oftho$e 'ho 'ere ethnically Arab tho 4h + $lim in creed%H<<JHRPJ The non9Arab + $lim$ re$ented theirmar4inal $ocial po$ition and 'ere ea$ily dra'n into Abba$id oppo$ition to mayyad r le%H<RJH<6JHE5J Arab$dominated the b rea cracy and military, and 'ere ho $ed in fortre$$e$ $eparate from the localpop lation o t$ide of Arabia%H8J = en after con ertin4 to *$lam, non9Arab$ or)awali co ld not li e inthe$e 4arri$on citie$% The non9Arab$ 'ere not allo'ed to 'ork for the 4o ernment nor co ld theyhold officer po$ition$ in the mayyad military and they $till had to pay the )iNya taC for non9+ $lim$%HRPJ

HR<JHREJHRRJ Son9+ $lim$ nder mayyad r le 'ere $ b)ect to the$e $ame in) nction$%HR6J Qacialintermarria4e bet'een Arab$ and non Arab$ 'a$ rare% H5J When it did occ r, it 'a$ only allo'edbet'een an Arab man and a non9Arab 'oman 'hile non9Arab men 'ere 4enerally not free to marry

Arab 'omen%H J

;on er$ion to *$lam occ rred 4rad ally% *f a non9Arab 'i$hed to con ert to *$lam, they not only hadto 4i e p their o'n name$ b t al$o had to remain a $econd9cla$$ citiNen%H<EJHREJ The non9Arab 'o ld be2adopted2 by an Arab tribe,HRRJ tho 4h they 'o ld not act ally adopt the tribe@$ name a$ that 'o ld ri$kpoll tion of percei ed Arab racial p rity% Qather, the non9Arab 'o ld take the la$t name of2freedman of al9(tribe@$ name&,2 e en if they 'eren@t a $la e prior to con er$ion% Thi$ e$$entiallymeant they 'ere $ b$er ient to the tribe 'ho $pon$ored their con er$ion%H<EJHR8J

Altho 4h con ert$ to *$lam made p ro 4hly <P of the nati e pop lation 7 mo$t of the people li in4nder mayyad r le 'eren@t + $lim 7 thi$ percent 'a$ $i4nificant d e to the ery $mall n mber of

Arab$%H<<J rad ally, the non9Arab + $lim$ o tn mbered the Arab + $lim$, ca $in4 alarm amon4 the Arab nobility%HRPJ3ocially, thi$ po$ed a problem a$ the mayyad$ ie'ed *$lam a$ the property of theari$tocratic Arab familie$%HR5JHR J There 'a$ a rather lar4e financial problem po$ed to the mayyad$y$tem a$ 'ell% *f the ne' con ert$ to *$lam from non9Arab people$ $topped payin4 the )iNya taC$tip lated by the X r@an for non9+ $lim$, the empire 'o ld 4o bankr pt% Thi$ lack of ci il andpolitical ri4ht$ e ent ally led the non9Arab + $lim$ to $ pport the Abba$id$, de$pite the latter al$obein4 Arab%HRIJ

= en a$ the Arab 4o ernor$ adopted the more $ophi$ticated *ranian method$ of 4o ernmentaladmini$tration, non9Arab$ 'ere $till pre ented from holdin4 $ ch po$ition$%H5J Son9Arab$ 'ere note en allo'ed to 'ear Arabian $tyle clothin4, HRGJ $o $tron4 'ere the feelin4$ of Arab racial $ periorityc lti ated by the mayyad$% + ch of the di$content thi$ ca $ed led to the3h @ biyya mo ement, ana$$ertion of non9Arab racial and c lt ral eB ality 'ith Arab$% The mo ement 4ained $ pportamon4 =4yptian$, Aramean$ and Oerber people,H6PJ tho 4h thi$ mo ement 'a$ mo$t prono ncedamon4 Der$ian people%

Repression of Persian ulture HeditJ

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3a$$anid9$tyle coina4e depictin4 mayyad ;aliph Abd al9+alik ibn +ar'an %

The early + $lim conB e$t of Der$ia 'a$ co pled 'ith an anti9Der$ian ArabiNation policy 'hich ledto m ch di$content%H6<JThe contro er$ial mayyad 4o ernor Al9?a))a) ibn M $ f 'a$ p$et at the

$a4e of Der$ian a$ the co rt lan4 a4e in the ea$tern *$lamic empire, and ordered all 'ritten and$poken Der$ian to be $ ppre$$ed in both 4o ernment and e en amon4 the 4eneral p blic, by force if nece$$ary%H6EJH6RJ ;ontemporary hi$torian$ record that al9?a))a) contrib ted to the death oftheLh'areNmian lan4 a4e , clo$ely related to Der$ian% Vnce the mayyad$ eCpandedinto Lh'areNm , a $tron4hold of ea$t *ranian ci iliNation, al9?a))a) ordered the eCec tion of anyone'ho co ld read or 'rite the lan4 a4e, to the point that only the illiterate remained%H66J

#is ontent amon, non$Muslims HeditJ3 pport for the Abba$id Qe ol tion 'a$ an early eCample of people of different faith$ ali4nin4 'ith acommon ca $e% Thi$ 'a$ d e in lar4e part to policie$ of the mayyad$ 'hich 'ere re4arded a$partic larly oppre$$i e to anyone follo'in4 a faith other than *$lam% *n 6<, the mayyad$ decreedthat non9+ $lim$ co ld not $er e in 4o ernment po$t$%H68J The Abba$id$ 'ere a'are of thi$di$content, and made effort$ to balance both it$ + $lim character a$ 'ell a$ it$ partially non9+ $limcon$tit ency%H65J

Der$ec tion of _oroa$trian$ 'a$ part of $tate policy d rin4 the mayyad era% Al9?a))a) alle4edlykilled all _oroa$trian cler4y pon the conB e$t of ea$t *ranian land$, b rnin4 all _oroa$trian literat reand de$troyin4 mo$t reli4io $ b ildin4$%H66J The non9+ $lim ari$tocracy aro nd +er $ pported the

Abba$id$, and th $ retained their $tat $ a$ a pri ile4ed 4o ernin4 cla$$ re4ardle$$ of reli4io $ belief%H<RJ

E ents HeditJ(uildup HeditJOe4innin4 aro nd <G, ?a$himiyya mi$$ion$ be4an to $eek adherent$ inLh ra$an% Their campai4n'a$ framed a$ one of pro$elyti$m% They $o 4ht $ pport for a member of the ?o $e of the Drophet'ho $hall be plea$in4 to e eryone ,H6 J 'itho t makin4 eCplicit mention of the Abba$id$%HE8JH6IJ The$emi$$ion$ met 'ith $ cce$$ both amon4 Arab$ and non9Arab$, altho 4h the latter may ha e played apartic larly important role in the 4ro'th of the mo ement% A n mber of 3hi@ite rebellion$ 7 byLay$anite$, ?a$himiyya and main$tream 3hi@ite$ 7 took place in the final year$ of mayyad r le, ) $taro nd the $ame time that temper$ 'ere flarin4 amon4 the 3yrian contin4ent$ of the mayyad armyre4ardin4 alliance$ and 'ron4doin4$ d rin4 the 3econd HREJH6GJ and Third Fitna%H8PJ

At thi$ time L fa 'a$ the center for the mayyad oppo$ition$, partic larly Ali@$ $ pporter$ and 3hia$%*n 6<96E Ab + $lim made hi$ fir$t contact 'ith Abba$id a4ent$ there, and e ent ally he 'a$introd ced to the head of Abba$id$, *mam*brahim *bn +ohammed, in +ecca % Aro nd 65, Ab

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+ $lim a$$ med leader$hip of the ?a$himiyya in Lh ra$an%H8<J nlike the Alid re olt$ 'hich 'ereopen and $trai4htfor'ard abo t their demand$, the Abba$id$ alon4 'ith the ?a$himite allie$ $lo'lyb ilt p an nder4ro nd re$i$tance mo ement to mayyad r le% 3ecret net'ork$ 'ere $ed to b ilda po'er ba$e of $ pport in the ea$tern + $lim land$ to en$ re the re ol tion@$ $ cce$$%HE<JH6GJ Thi$b ild p not only took place ri4ht on the heel$ of the_aydi Qe olt in *raB, b t al$o conc rrently 'iththe Oerber Qe olt in*beria and +a4hreb , the *badi rebellion inMemen and ?i)aN,H8EJ and the Third

Fitna in the Ze ant and Anatoli, 'ith the re olt of Al9?arith ibn 3 ray) in Der$ia and;entral A$ia occ rrin4 conc rrently 'ith the re ol tion it$elf%H<<JH<EJ The Abba$id$ $pent their preparation time'atchin4 a$ the mayyad =mpire 'a$ be$ie4ed from 'ithin it$elf in all fo r cardinal direction$,H8RJ and 3chool of Vriental and African 3t die$ Drofe$$or =merit $ % Q% ?a'tin4 ha$ a$$erted thate en if the mayyad r ler$ had been a'are of the Abba$id$@ preparation$, it 'o ld not ha e beenpo$$ible to mobiliNe a4ain$t them%H6J

Revolt of 1bn Suray& HeditJ)ain article% Al-&arith ibn uray'

*n 65, *bn 3 ray) be4an hi$ re olt at +er 'itho t $ cce$$ at fir$t, e en lo$in4 hi$ $ecretaryYahmbin 3af'an %H86J After )oinin4 force$ 'ith other rebel faction$, *bn 3 ray) dro e *bn 3ayyar and the

mayyad force$ to Si$hap r K the t'o faction$ do ble9cro$$ed each other $hortly thereafter, 'ith *bn3 ray)@$ faction bein4 cr $hed% We$tern Lhora$an 'a$ controlled by Abdallah ibn + @a'iya at thetime, c ttin4 *bn 3ayyar in the ea$t off from +ar'an **% *n the $ mmer of 6 , *bn 3ayyar $ ed forpeace , 'hich 'a$ accepted by the remainin4 rebel$% The rebel leader 'a$ a$$a$$inated by a $on of*bn 3 ray) in a re en4e attack 'hile at the $ame time, another 3hi@ite re olt had be4 n in the

illa4e$% The $on of the remainin4 rebel$ $i4ned the peace accord and *bn 3ayyar ret rned to hi$po$t in +er in A 4 $t of 6H86J 7 ) $t after Ab + $lim initiated a re olt of hi$ o'n%

%horasan phase HeditJVn Y ne G, 6 (Qamadan E8, <EGA?&, Ab + $lim $ cce$$f lly initiated an open re olt a4ain$t

mayyad r le,H<<JH88J 'hich 'a$ carried o t nder the $i4n of the Olack 3tandard%H8<JH85JH8 J ;lo$e to <P,PPP$oldier$ 'ere nder Ab + $lim@$ command 'hen the ho$tilitie$ officially be4an in+er %HRJ VnFebr ary <6, 6I he e$tabli$hed control of +er ,H86J eCpellin4 mayyad 4o ernor Sa$r ibn 3ayyar le$$than a year after the latter had p t do'n *bn 3 ray)@$ re olt, and di$patched an army 'e$t'ard$%H8<JH85JH8IJ

Se'ly commi$$ioned Abba$id officer Xahtaba ibn 3habib al9Ta@i, alon4 'ith hi$ $on$ Al9?a$an ibnXahtaba and ? mayd ibn Xahtaba , p r$ ed *bn 3ayyar toSi$hap r and then p $hed him f rther'e$t to X mi$, in 'e$tern *ran%H8GJ That A 4 $t, al9Ta@i defeated an mayyad force of <P,PPPat or4an% *bn 3ayyar re4ro ped 'ith reinforcement$ from the ;aliph atQey, only for that city to falla$ 'ell a$ the ;aliph@$ commanderK once a4ain, *bn 3ayyar fled 'e$t and died on ecember G, 6I'hile tryin4 to reach ?amedan %H8GJ Al9Ta@i rolled 'e$t thro 4h Lhoro$an, defeatin4 a 8P,PPP $tron4

mayyad force at *$fahan in +arch 6G% At Saha and , the mayyad$ attempted to make their la$t $tand in Lhoro$an% mayyad force$fleein4 ?amedan and the remainder of *bn 3ayyar@$ men )oined 'ith tho$e already 4arri$oned%H8GJ Xahtaba defeated an mayyad relief contin4ent from 3yria 'hile hi$ $on al9?a$an laid $ie4e toSaha and for more than t'o month$% The mayyad military nit$ from 3yria 'ithin the 4arri$on c t adeal 'ith the Abba$id$, $a in4 their o'n li e$ by $ellin4 o t the mayyad nit$ from Lhoro$an 'ho'ere all p t to death %H8GJ After almo$t ninety year$, mayyad r le in Lhoro$an had finally come to anend%

At the $ame time that al9Ta@i took Si$hap r, Ab + $lim 'a$ $tren4thenin4 the Abba$id 4rip on the+ $lim far ea$t% Abba$id 4o ernor$ 'ere appointed o er Tran$oCiana and Oactria, 'hile the rebel$'ho had $i4ned a peace accord 'ith Sa$r ibn 3ayyar 'ere al$o offered a peace deal by Ab + $limonly to be do ble cro$$ed and 'iped o t%H8GJ With the pacification of any rebel element$ in the ea$tand the $ rrender of Saha and in the 'e$t, the Abba$id$ 'ere the ndi$p ted r ler$ of Lhoro$an%

Mesopotamia phase HeditJ

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Folio from the record$ ofOalami depictin4 A$93affah a$ he recei e$ pled4e$ of alle4iance in L fa%

The Abba$id$ 'a$ted no time in contin in4 from Lhoro$an into +e$opotamia% *n A 4 $t 6G,mayyad commander MaNid ibn mar al9FaNari attempted to meet the force$ of al9Ta@i before they

co ld reach L fa% Sot to be o tdone, the Abba$id$ la nched a ni4httime raid on al9FaNari@$ force$before they had a chance to prepare% rin4 the raid, al9Ta@i him$elf 'a$ finally killed in battle%

e$pite the lo$$, al9FaNari 'a$ ro ted and fled 'ith hi$ force$ to Wa$it%H5PJ The 3ie4e of Wa$it tookplace from that A 4 $t ntil Y ly 8P% Altho 4h a re$pected military commander had been lo$t, alar4e portion of the mayyad force$ 'ere e$$entially trapped in$ide Wa$it and co ld be left in their

irt al pri$on 'hile more offen$i e military action$ 'ere made%H5<J

;onc rrently 'ith the $ie4e in 6G, the Abba$id$ cro$$ed the = phrate$ and took L fa%HREJH85J The $onof Lhalid al9Xa$ri 7 a di$4raced mayyad official 'ho had been tort red to death a fe' year$ prior 7be4an a pro9Abba$id riot $tartin4 at the city@$ citadel% Vn 3eptember E, 6G, al9?a$an bin Xahtabae$$entially ) $t 'alked ri4ht in to the city and $et p $hop%H5<J 3ome conf $ion follo'ed 'ith Ab3alama, an Abba$id officer, p $hed for an Alid leader% Ab + $lim@$ confidante Ab Yahm reported'hat 'a$ happenin4, and the Abba$id$ acted preempti ely% Vn Friday, So ember EI, 6G, beforethe $ie4e of Wa$it had e en fini$hed, A$93affah, the 4reat94rand$on of + hammad@$ ncle,al9

Abba$, 'a$ reco4niNed a$ the ne' caliph in the mo$B e at L fa%H8<JH5EJ Ab 3alama, 'ho 'itne$$ed

t'el e military commander$ from the re ol tion pled4in4 alle4iance, 'a$ embarra$$ed into follo'in4$ it%H5<J

Y $t a$ B ickly a$ Xahtaba@$ force$ marched from Lhoro$an to L fa, $o did the force$ of Abdallahibn Ali and Ab A'n Abd al9+alik ibn MaNid marched on +o$ l%H5<J At thi$ point +ar'an ** mobiliNed hi$troop$ from?arran and ad anced to'ard +e$opotamia% Vn Yan ary <5, 8P the t'o force$ met onthe left bank of a trib tary of the Ti4ri$ in theOattle of the _ab, and nine day$ later +ar'an ** 'a$defeated and hi$ army 'a$ completely de$troyed%H<EJHREJH5<JH5RJ The battle i$ re4arded a$ 'hat finally $ealedthe fate of the mayyad$% All +ar'an ** co ld do 'a$ flee thro 4h 3yria and into =4ypt, 'ith each

mayyad to'n $ rrenderin4 to the Abba$id$ a$ they $'ept thro 4h in p r$ it%H5<J

ama$c $ fell to the Abba$id$ in April, and in A 4 $t +ar'an ** and hi$ family 'ere tracked do'n bya $mall force led by Ab A'n and 3alih ibn Ali (the brother of Abdallah ibn Ali& and killed in =4ypt%H<EJHREJ

H8<JH8 JH5RJ Al9FaNari, the mayyad commander at Wa$it, held o t e en after the defeat of +ar'an ** inYan ary% The Abba$id$ promi$ed him amne$ty in Y ly, b t immediately after he eCited the fortre$$they eCec ted him in$tead% After almo$t eCactly three year$ of rebellion, the mayyad $tate came toan end%H<<JHEPJ

"actics HeditJ4thni e5uality HeditJ+ilitarily, the nit or4aniNation of the Abba$id$ 'a$ de$i4ned 'ith the 4oal of ethnic and racialeB ality amon4 $ pporter$% When Ab + $lim recr ited miCed Arab and *ranian officer$ alon4 the3ilk Qoad, he re4i$tered them ba$ed not on their tribal or ethno9national affiliation$ b t on theirc rrent place$ of re$idence%H88J Thi$ 4reatly dimini$hed tribal and ethnic $olidarity and replaced bothconcept$ 'ith a $en$e of $hared intere$t$ amon4 indi id al$%H88J

Propa,anda HeditJThe Abba$id Qe ol tion pro ide$ an early medie al eCample of the effecti ene$$ of propa4anda%The Olack 3tandard nf rled at the $tart of the re ol tion@$ open pha$e carried me$$ianic o ertone$d e to pa$t failed rebellion$ by member$ of + hammad@$ family, 'ith marked e$chatolo4ical andmillennial $lant$%HRJ The Abba$id$ 7 their leader$ de$cended from + hammad@$ ncle Al9^Abba$ ibn^Abd al9+ ttalib 7 held i id hi$torical reenactment$ of the m rder of + hammad@$ 4rand$on? $aynibn Ali by the army of the $econd mayyad r lerMaNid *, follo'ed by promi$e$ of retrib tion%HRJ Foc $'a$ caref lly placed on the le4acy of + hammad@$ family 'hile detail$ of ho' the Abba$id$ act ally

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intended to r le 'ere not mentioned%H56J While the mayyad$ had primarily $pend their ener4y on'ipin4 o t the Alid line of the prophetic family, the Abba$id$ caref lly re i$ed + $lim chronicle$ top t a hea ier empha$i$ on the relation$hip bet'een + hammad and hi$ ncle%H56J

The Abba$id$ $pent more than a year preparin4 their propa4anda dri e a4ain$t the mayyad$%There 'ere a total of $e enty propa4andi$t$ thro 4ho t the pro ince of Lhora$an, operatin4 ndert'el e central official$%H58J

Se re y HeditJThe Abba$id Qe ol tion 'a$ di$tin4 i$hed by a n mber of tactic$ 'hich 'ere ab$ent in the other,

n$ cce$$f l anti9 mayyad rebellion$ at the time% ;hief amon4 them 'a$ $ecrecy% While the 3hi@iteand other rebellion$ at the time 'ere all led by p blicly kno'n leader$ makin4 clear and 'ell9defineddemand$, the Abba$id$ hid not only their identitie$ b t al$o their preparation and mere eCi$tence%H6GJ

H55J A$93affah 'o ld 4o on to become the fir$t Abba$id caliph, b t he did not come for'ard to recei ethe pled4e of alle4iance from the people ntil after the mayyad caliph and a lar4e n mber of hi$prince$ 'ere already killed%HGJ

Ab + $lim al9Lhora$ani, 'ho 'a$ the primary Abba$id military commander, 'a$ e$peciallymy$terio $K e en hi$ name, 'hich literally mean$ 2father of a + $lim from the lar4e, flat area of theea$tern + $lim empire2 4a e no meanin4f l information abo t him per$onally%H58J = en today,altho 4h $cholar$ are $ re he 'a$ one real, con$i$tent indi id al, there i$ broad a4reement that allconcrete $ 44e$tion$ of hi$ act al identity are do btf l%H8<J Ab + $lim him$elf di$co ra4ed inB irie$abo t hi$ ori4in$, empha$iNin4 that hi$ reli4ion and place of re$idence 'ere all that mattered%H58J

Whoe er he 'a$, Ab + $lim b ilt a $ecret net'ork of pro9Abba$id $entiment ba$ed amon4 themiCed Arab and Der$ian military officer$ alon4 the3ilk Qoad4arri$on citie$% Thro 4h thi$ net'orkin4,

Ab + $lim en$ red armed $ pport for the Abba$id$ from a m lti9ethnic force year$ before there ol tion e en came o t in the open%HE<J The$e net'ork$ pro ed e$$ential, a$ the officer$ 4arri$onedalon4 the 3ilk Qoad had $pent year$ fi4htin4 the ferocio $ T rkic tribe$ of ;entral A$ia and 'ereeCperienced and re$pected tactician$ and 'arrior$%H8IJ

Aftermath HeditJ

Sational border$ in the re4ion by IPPA %

The ictor$ de$ecrated the tomb$ of the mayyad$ in3yria, $parin4 only that of mar **, and mo$t of the remainin4 member$ of the mayyad family 'ere tracked do'n and killed% HGJHREJ When Abba$id$declared amne$ty for member$ of the mayyad family, ei4hty 4athered inYaffa to recei e pardon$and all 'ere ma$$acred%H5 J

*n the immediate aftermath, the Abba$id$ mo ed to con$olidate their po'er a4ain$t former allie$ no'$een a$ ri al$%HGJFi e year$ after the re ol tion $ cceeded, Ab + $lim 'a$ acc $ed of here$y and

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trea$on by the $econd Abba$id caliphal9+an$ r % Ab + $lim 'a$ eCec ted at the palace in 88de$pite hi$ remindin4 al9+an$ r that it 'a$ he (Ab + $lim& 'ho 4ot the Abba$id$ into po'er,H<5JHEPJ

H8IJ and hi$ tra el companion$ 'ere bribed into $ilence% i$plea$ re o er the caliph@$ br tality a$ 'ella$ admiration for Ab + $lim led to rebellion$ a4ain$t the Abba$id yna$ty it$elf thro 4ho tLhora$an and L rdi$tan%HEPJH5IJ

Altho 4h 3hi@ite$ 'ere key to the re ol tion@$ $ cce$$, Abba$id attempt$ to claim orthodoCy in li4htof mayyad material eCce$$ led to contin ed per$ec tion of 3hi@ite$%H<PJH<RJ Vn the other hand, non9+ $lim$ re4ained the 4o ernment po$t$ they had lo$t nder the mayyad$%H<PJ Ye'$, Se$torian;hri$tian$ , _oroa$trian$ and e en O ddhi$t$ 'ere re9inte4rated into a more co$mopolitan empirecentered aro nd the ne', ethnically and reli4io $ly di er$e city of Oa4hdad%HRJHRRJH65J

The Abba$id$ 'ere e$$entially p ppet$ of $ec lar r ler$ $tartin4 from G8P,HGJH<6J tho 4h their linea4e a$nominal caliph$ contin ed ntil <E8I 'hen the +on4ol horde$ killed the la$t Abba$id caliph inOa4hdad%H<<JH<6J The period of act al, direct r le by the Abba$id$ la$ted almo$t eCactly t'o9h ndredyear$%H5GJ

Vne 4rand$on of ?i$ham ibn Abd al9+alik, Abd ar9Qahman *, $ r i ed and e$tabli$hed a kin4domin Al9Andal $ (+oori$h *beria& after fi e year$ of tra el 'e$t'ard%H<<JH<EJHREJ V er the co r$e of thirty year$,he o $ted the r lin4Fihrid$ and re$i$ted Abba$id inc r$ion$ to e$tabli$h the=mirate of ; rdoba %H PJ

H <J

Thi$ i$ con$idered an eCten$ion of the mayyad yna$ty, and r led from ;ordoba from 85 ntil<PR<%H<PJHRPJ

Legacy HeditJThe Abba$id Qe ol tion ha$ been of 4reat intere$t to both We$tern and + $lim hi$torian$%H85J Accordin4 to 3tate ni er$ity of Se' Mork profe$$or of $ociolo4y3a d Amir Ar)omand, analyticalinterpretation$ of the re ol tion are rare, 'ith mo$t di$c $$ion$ $imply linin4 p behind either the*ranic or Arabic interpretation of e ent$%HEJ FreB ently, early = ropean hi$torian$ ie'ed the conflict$olely a$ a non9Arab pri$in4 a4ain$t Arab$%Oernard Ze'i$ , profe$$or emerit $ of Sear =a$tern3t die$ at Drinceton ni er$ity, point$ o t that 'hile the re ol tion ha$ often been characteriNed a$a Der$ian ictory and Arab defeat, the caliph 'a$ $till Arab, the lan4 a4e of admini$tration 'a$ $till

Arabic and Arab nobility 'a$ not forced to 4i e p it$ land holdin4$K rather, the Arab$ 'ere merelyforced to $hare the fr it$ of the empire eB ally 'ith other race$%H85J

Al9 khaidir Fortre$$, an early eCample of Abba$id architect re%

;%W% Dre it 9Vrton ar4 e$ that the rea$on$ for the decline of the mayyad$ 'a$ the rapideCpan$ion of *$lam% rin4 the mayyad period, ma$$ con er$ion$bro 4ht Der$ian$, Oerber$, ;opt$ , and A$$yrian$ to *$lam% The$e 2client$,2 a$ the Arab$ referred tothem, 'ere often better ed cated and more ci ili$ed than their Arab ma$ter$% The ne' con ert$, on

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the ba$i$ of eB ality of all + $lim$, tran$formed the political land$cape% Dre it 9Vrton al$o ar4 e$that the fe d bet'een 3yria and *raB f rther 'eakened the empire% H EJ

The re ol tion led to the enfranchi$ement of non9Arab people 'ho had con erted to *$lam, 4rantin4them $ocial and $pirit al eB ality 'ith Arab$%H RJ With $ocial re$triction$ remo ed, *$lam chan4ed froman Arab ethnic empire to a ni er$al 'orld reli4ion%HRRJ Thi$ led to a 4reat c lt ral and $cientificeCchan4e kno'n a$ the *$lamic olden A4e, 'ith mo$t achie ement$ takin4 place nder the

Abba$id$% What 'a$ later kno'n a$ *$lamic ci iliNation and c lt re 'a$ defined by the Abba$id$,rather than the earlier Qa$hid n and mayyad caliphate$%H<6JHRRJH65J Se' idea$ in all area$ of $ociety 'ereaccepted re4ardle$$ of their 4eo4raphic ori4in, and the emer4ence of $ocietal in$tit tion$ that 'ere*$lamic rather than Arab be4an% Tho 4h a cla$$ of + $lim cler4y 'a$ ab$ent for the fir$t cent ry of*$lam, it 'a$ 'ith the Abba$id Qe ol tion and after that the lama appeared a$ a force in $ociety,po$itionin4 them$el e$ a$ the arbitor$ of ) $tice and orthodoCy%H RJ

With the ea$t'ard mo ement of the capital from ama$c $ to Oa4hdad, the Abba$id =mpiree ent ally took on a de$tinctly Der$ian character, a$ oppo$ed to the Arab character of the

mayyad$%H<RJ Q ler$ became increa$in4ly a tocratic, at time$ claimin4di ine ri4ht in defen$e of theiraction$%H<RJ

Historiography HeditJ An acc rate and comprehen$i e hi$tory of the re ol tion ha$ pro en diffic lt to compile for a n mber of rea$on$% There are no contemporary acco nt$, and mo$t $o rce$ 'ere 'ritten more than acent ry after the re ol tion%H 6JH8J Oeca $e mo$t hi$torical $o rce$ 'ere 'ritten nder Abba$id r le, thede$cription of the mayyad$ m $t be taken 'ith a 4rain of $altKH 6JH 5J $ ch $o rce$ de$cribe the

mayyad$, at be$t, a$ merely placeholder$ bet'een the Qa$hid n and Abba$id ;aliphate$%H J

The hi$torio4raphy of the re ol tion i$ e$pecially $i4nificant d e to Abba$id dominance of mo$t early+ $lim hi$torical narrati e$KH 8JHIJ it 'a$ d rin4 their r le that hi$tory 'a$ e$tabli$hed in the + $lim'orld a$ an independent field $eparate from 'ritin4 in 4eneral%H GJ The initial t'o9h ndred year period'hen the Abba$id$ act ally held de facto po'er o er the + $lim 'orld coincided 'ith the fir$tcompo$ition of + $lim hi$tory%H5GJ Another point of note i$ that 'hile the Abba$id Qe ol tion carriedreli4io $ ndertone$ a4ain$t the irreli4io $ and almo$t $ec lar mayyad$, a $eparation of mo$B eand $tate occ rred nder the Abba$id$ a$ 'ell% ?i$torio4raphical $ r ey$ often foc $ on the$olidifyin4 of + $lim tho 4ht and rite$ nder the Abba$id$, 'ith the conflict$ bet'een $eparatedcla$$e$ of r ler$ and cleric$ 4i in4 ri$e to the empire@$ e ent al $eparation of reli4ion and politic$%HIPJ

See also HeditJ

• Arab7OyNantine 'ar$

• + $lim conB e$t of the +a4hreb

• + $lim conB e$t of Der$ia

References HeditJ

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E% Y mp p to: a b 3a d Amir Ar)omand, Abd Allah *bn al9+ Baffa and the Abba$id Qe ol tion% *ranian 3t die$, ol% E , q<96%Zondon: Qo tled4e, <GG6%

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R% Y mp p to: a b c d e ?ala + ndhir Fattah, A Orief ?i$tory of *raB, p% % Se' Mork: *nfoba$e D bli$hin4, EPPG%*3OSG IPI<5P8 5 E

6% Y mp p to: a b c d e % Q% ?a'tin4, The Fir$t yna$ty of *$lam: The mayyad ;aliphate A 55<9 8P, p% <P8% Zondon:Qo tled4e, EPPE%*3OS G I<<R688P8I5

8% Y mp p to: a b Deter 3tearn$, +ichael Ada$, 3t art 3ch'artN and +arc Ya$on ilbert%2The mayyad *mperi m%2Taken from Horld 3ivili(ations%1he Dlobal ;+erience , combined ol me% th ed% _ 4: Dear$on =d cation, EP<6% *3OSG IPEP8GI5RPG

5% Y mp p to: a b c Datrick ;la'$on , ternal 5ran , p% < %Oa$in4$toke: Dal4ra e +acmillan, EPP8% *3OS <96PRG95E 595

% Y mp p to: a b Al9Oaladh ri, F t h al9O ldan, p% 6< %

I% *ump up / %Q% ?a'tin4,1he First 0ynasty of 5slam , pp% <P8 <<R%

G% Y mp p to: a b c d e f The VCford ?i$tory of *$lam, p% E8% =d% Yohn =$po$ito% VCford: VCford ni er$ity Dre$$,<GGG% *3OS G IP<GGIIP6<5

<P% Y mp p to: a b c d e onald Zee Oerry, 2ictures of 5slam , p% IP%+acon : +ercer ni er$ity Dre$$, EPP % *3OSG IPII<65PI58

<<% Y mp p to: a b c d e f g h i Qichard O lliet, Damela Lyle ;ro$$ley, aniel ?eadrick, 3te en ?ir$ch and ZymanYohn$on, The =arth and *t$ Deople$: A lobal ?i$tory, ol% A, p% E8<%Oo$ton: ;en4a4e Zearnin4 , EP<6% *3OS G I<EI8GIRP6E

<E% Y mp p to: a b c d e f g h Yame$ Wynbrandt, A Orief ?i$tory of 3a di Arabia, p% 8I% Se' Mork:*nfoba$e D bli$hin4, EP<P% *3OS G IPI<5P I 5G

<R% Y mp p to: a b c d e f g Oryan 3% T rner , Heber and 5slam , ol% , p% I5% Zondon: Qo tled4e, <GGI%*3OS G IP6<8< 68IG

<6% Y mp p to: a b c d e *$lamic Art, p% EP%;ambrid4e, +a$$ach $ett$ : ?ar ard ni er$ity Dre$$, <GG<% *3OSG IP5 665I558

<8% Y mp p to: a b %Q% ?a'tin4,1he First 0ynasty of 5slam , p% <P5%

<5% Y mp p to: a b Qichard FoltN, Qeli4ion$ of *ran: From Drehi$tory to the Dre$ent, p% <5P% Zondon: Vne'orld

D blication$, EP<R%*3OS G I< IP 6RPG

< % *ump up / Datricia Oaker, The Fre$coe$ of Amra% 3a di Aramco World, ol% R<, q6, pp% EE9E8% Y ly7A 4 $t, <GIP%Qetrie ed < Y ne EP<6%

<I% *ump up / ;ornell, ̀ incent Y%K Lamran 3cot A4haie (EPP &% oices of 5slam % We$tport, ;onn%: Drae4er D bli$her$%pp% << and <<I%*3OS G IPE 8GI REG% Qetrie ed 6 So emberEP<6%

<G% *ump up / Farhad aftary, *$maili Ziterat re: A Oiblio4raphy of 3o rce$ and 3t die$, p% 6% Zondon: *%O% Ta ri$ andthe *n$tit te of *$maili 3t die$, EPP6% *3OS G I<I8P6R6RGG

EP% Y mp p to: a b c d ?% iNad)i, Yo rney from Tehran to ;hica4o: +y Zife in *ran and the nited 3tate$, and a Orief ?i$toryof *ran, p% 8P%Oloomin4ton: Trafford D bli$hin4, EP<P% *3OS G I<6E5GEG<IE

E<% Y mp p to: a b c +atthe' ordon, The Qi$e of *$lam, p% 65% We$tport: reen'ood D bli$hin4 ro p , EPP8%*3OSG IPR<RRE8EEG

EE% Y mp p to: a b %Q% ?a'tin4,1he First 0ynasty of 5slam , p% <<R%

ER% *ump up / s x م v wا u م z{#

E6% *ump up / AZ| AZ9Q=}~, *rannicaʿ

E8% Y mp p to: a b 1he 8;ford &istory of 5slam , pp% E69E8%

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E5% Y mp p to: a b ?ala + ndhir Fattah, A Brief &istory of 5ra< , p% 5%

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EI% *ump up / +oo)an +omen, An 5ntroduction to hi6i 5slam , pp% 6 96I% Se' ?a en : Male ni er$ity Dre$$, <GI8% *3OSG IPRPPPR8R<8

EG% *ump up / ?einN ?alm, 3hi@i$m, p% <I%=dinb r4h: =dinb r4h ni er$ity Dre$$, EPP6%*3OS G IP 6I5<IIIP

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Further reading HeditJ

• Olankin$hip, Lhalid Mahya (<GG6&% 1he nd of the 4ih d tate% 1he *ei/n of &ishām ibn LAbd

al-)ali! and the 3olla+se of the Umayyads % Albany, SM: 3tate ni er$ity of Se' MorkDre$$%*3OS G I9P9 G<69<IE 9%

• aniel, =lton Z% (<G G&%1he 2olitical and ocial &istory of Khurasan under Abbasid *ule,CMC NO> % +inneapoli$ and ;hica4o: Oibliotheca *$lamica, *nc%*3OS P9IIEG 9PE89G%

• ?o rani, Albert, ?i$tory of the Arab Deople$

• Lennedy, ? 4h S% (EPP6&%1he 2ro+het and the A/e of the 3ali+hates% 1he 5slamic 9earast from the th to the ??th 3entury (3econd ed%&% ?arlo', L: Dear$on =d cation Ztd%*3OS P9

8IE96P8E896%

• 3haban, +% A% (<G G&%1he Abbāsid *evolutionʿ % ;ambrid4e: ;ambrid4e ni er$ityDre$$%*3OS P98E<9EG8R69R%

• 3haron, +o$he (<GGP&%*evolt% the social and military as+ects of the Abbāsid revolutionʿ %Yer $alem: raph Dre$$ Ztd%*3OS G589EER9RII9G%