UN Human Rights Training

OFFICE OF THE HIGH COMMISSIONER FOR HUMAN RIGHTS

PROFESSIONAL TRAINING SERIES No. 7

Training Manual onHuman Rights Monitoring

UNITED NATIONSNew York and Geneva, 2001

NOTE

The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publicationdo not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of itsauthorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

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Material contained in this series may be freely quoted or reprinted, provided credit is given and a copy of the publication containing the reprinted material is sent to the Officeof the High Commissioner for Human Rights, United Nations, 1211 Geneva 10,Switzerland.

HR/P/PT/7

UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION

Sales No. E.01.XIV.2ISBN 92-1-154137-9

ISSN 1020-1688

NOTE TOMANUAL USERS ................

This manual is one component of a two-part package of materials for trainingon human rights monitoring for UN human rights officers and other human rightsmonitors. The human rights monitoring package also includes a loose-leaf trainer=sguide. The two components of the package are designed to complement each otherand, taken together, provide the basis for the conduct of programmes for human rightsofficers in field operations and for other human rights monitors, under the approachdeveloped by the United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights.

This Training Manual (Component One of the package) provides practicalguidance principally for the conduct of human rights monitoring in United Nationsfield operations, but it may also be useful to other human rights monitors.

The Trainer=s Guide (Component Two of the package) provides elements oftraining methodology, instructions and tips for trainers, additional exercises, andsample training tools, such as overhead transparencies, to be used in combination withthe Manual in conducting training courses for human rights monitors.

Manual users interested in obtaining copies of the Trainer=s Guide shouldcontact the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights.

Training Manual on Human Rights Monitoring iii

FOREWORD........................

Recent years have witnessed a considerable increase in the number of UnitedNations presence in the field, either for post-conflict reconstruction, or with preventive and confidence-building functions, and a corresponding increase in the number ofUnited Nations personnel employed in the field.

A growing number of United Nations field operations established in recentyears, under either the coordination of the Office of the High Commissioner forHuman Rights (OHCHR) or other United Nations auspices, have included a humanrights mandate (in Angola, Burundi, Cambodia, Colombia, El Salvador, FormerYugoslavia, Guatemala, Haiti, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, and elsewhere). Thisintensification of field work is one of the most significant developments in the area ofhuman rights protection and promotion in the last decade of the twentieth century.While the mandate of these field operations has varied, a major task they have beenrequired to perform has been monitoring the human rights situation in the country ofoperation.

Human rights work — whether of a monitoring or a promotional nature — hasbecome a specialized profession which requires adequate preparation, specifictechnical skills, and significant substantive knowledge in order to be effectivelyconducted. Human rights officers are being employed in the field on an unprecedentedscale as a result of the recognition that human rights components provide aconstructive contribution to the work of field operations.

It is in this context that OHCHR has been seeking ways to contribute tostrengthening and professionalizing United Nations action for the advancement ofhuman rights through field operations, an area to which I attach the highest priority asHigh Commissioner. The development of methodology for the effective conduct ofhuman rights monitoring has been a central focus of work of OHCHR for several years. This Manual is offered as the culmination of OHCHR=s efforts to consolidate theUnited Nations experience in the area of human rights monitoring. It is hoped thatofficials in charge of human rights monitoring, especially within field operationsestablished by the United Nations or regional organizations, but also fromgovernments, national human rights institutions and non-governmental organizations,will find it a useful contribution to their work.

As part of a wider programme being conducted by OHCHR in the context ofthe United Nations Decade for Human Rights Education (1995-2004), the Manual isalso offered as a tool to foster human rights promotion and protection throughout theworld.

Mary RobinsonHigh Commissioner for Human Rights

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TABLE OF CONTENTS........

Note to Manual Users.......................................................................................iii

Foreword .............................................................................................................v

Preface .............................................................................................................xxv

Part One: Introduction to the Training Manual.................1

Chapter I: Introduction.............................................3A. Need for the Training Manual ................................................................3

B. Target beneficiaries ...................................................................................6

C. Objectives...................................................................................................7

D. Definition of key terms ............................................................................71. “Human rights” and “international humanitarian law”........................72. “Monitoring”...............................................................................................93. “Fact-finding” .............................................................................................94. “Observation”.............................................................................................95. “Human rights violations“ and ”human rights abuses”.....................106. “Human rights officer” ...........................................................................10

Part Two: Local Context and International Standards.......13

Chapter II: The Local Context..................................15Appendix I to Chapter II — OHCHR Country Framework ......................19

Chapter III: Applicable International HumanRights and Humanitarian Law: The Framework ...........29A. Introduction.............................................................................................29

B. Legal force of human rights and humanitarian lawinstruments...............................................................................................30

C. Relevance of international standards ...................................................301. Defining the mandate through the UN Charter,

other treaties, and relevant norms .........................................................31

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a. UN Charter ...................................................................................................31b. International Bill of Human Rights .................................................................31c. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights........................................32d. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ....................32e. Specialized treaties...........................................................................................32f. Treaty bodies ...................................................................................................33g. Related UN non-treaty instruments .................................................................33h. Other United Nations treaties and instruments ................................................34I. Geneva Conventions and Protocols ...................................................................34j. Limitations on rights .......................................................................................35k. States of emergency and derogations ..................................................................36l. Applicability of international human rights and humanitarian law...................36m. Most protective standard ..................................................................................38n. Regional protection of human rights ..................................................................38

2. Relevance of international standards to the identity of thehuman rights field operation and its effectiveness..............................39a. International character of the operation .............................................................39b. Usefulness of international standards................................................................39

Chapter IV: Overview of International HumanRights and Humanitarian Law Standards.....................41A. Introduction.............................................................................................41

B. Right not to be arbitrarily deprived of life ..........................................421. International standards............................................................................42

a. International human rights law ........................................................................42b. International humanitarian law .......................................................................43

2. Violations of the right not to be arbitrarily deprived of life ..............43a. Arbitrary execution .........................................................................................43b. Investigation of arbitrary executions..................................................................44c. Limits on the use of force by government officials to prevent

arbitrary executions .........................................................................................45d. Genocide..........................................................................................................48e. Attempted arbitrary execution..........................................................................49f. Death threats ..................................................................................................49

C. Right to personal integrity .....................................................................501. International standards............................................................................50

a. International human rights law ........................................................................50b. International humanitarian law .......................................................................51

2. Violations of the right to personal integrity .........................................52a. Torture............................................................................................................52b. Cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment......................................53

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D. Right to liberty and security of person ................................................531. International standards ............................................................................532. Violations of the right to liberty and security of person ....................54

a. Arbitrary detention..........................................................................................54b. Forced disappearance .......................................................................................55

E. Rights in the administration of justice .................................................561. Courts.........................................................................................................562. Prosecutors................................................................................................583. Lawyers ......................................................................................................584. Law enforcement officials.......................................................................585. Human rights during criminal investigations, arrest and

detention....................................................................................................596. Right to a fair trial ....................................................................................597. Standards for the protection of prisoners ............................................608. Non-custodial measures ..........................................................................609. Administration of juvenile justice ..........................................................6010. Rights of minorities, non-nationals and refugees................................6111. The human rights of women in the administration of justice...........6212. Protection and redress for victims of crime and abuses

of power.....................................................................................................6313. The administration of justice under states of emergency ..................6314. The right to habeas corpus, amparo or similar remedy......................6315. Role of the courts in protecting economic and social rights .............65

F. Freedom of opinion and expression ....................................................66

G. Freedom of association and assembly .................................................67

H. Freedom of movement and residence .................................................68

I. Right to property.....................................................................................69

J. Right to housing and other economic, social andcultural rights ...........................................................................................69

K. Rights of refugees and internally displaced persons ..........................721. Refugees.....................................................................................................722. Internally displaced persons ...................................................................74

L. The human rights of women.................................................................75

M. Rights of minorities ................................................................................76

N. Rights of the child...................................................................................77

O. Right to non-discriminatory treatment ................................................78

P. Right to development.............................................................................81

Q. Impunity principles.................................................................................82

R. Other international human rights law standards................................84

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Part Three: The Monitoring Function ............................85

Chapter V: Basic Principles of Monitoring ..................87A. Introduction.............................................................................................87

B. Monitoring as method of improving the protection ofhuman rights ............................................................................................87

C. Do no harm .............................................................................................88

D. Respect the mandate...............................................................................88

E. Know the standards................................................................................89

F. Exercise good judgement.......................................................................89

G. Seek consultation ....................................................................................89

H. Respect the authorities ...........................................................................89

I. Credibility .................................................................................................90

J. Confidentiality .........................................................................................90

K. Security .....................................................................................................90

L. Understand the country .........................................................................91

M. Need for consistency, persistence and patience.................................91

N. Accuracy and precision ..........................................................................91

O. Impartiality ...............................................................................................92

P. Objectivity................................................................................................92

Q. Sensitivity .................................................................................................92

R. Integrity ....................................................................................................92

S. Professionalism .......................................................................................93

T. Visibility....................................................................................................93

Chapter VI: Identification and Prioritization ofEfforts Regarding Human Rights Violations.................95A. Process of determining what rights have been violated....................95

B. Process of deciding which rights to target ..........................................95

Chapter VII: Information Gathering..........................99A. The information-gathering process......................................................99

B. Developing contacts and establishing a presencein the community..................................................................................101

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C. Collecting testimony.............................................................................102

D. Receiving complaints............................................................................103

E. Verification of information .................................................................104

F. Analysis of information .......................................................................104

G. Evaluating direct testimony.................................................................105

H. Other forms of information................................................................106

I. Evidence for criminal prosecution.....................................................107

Chapter VIII: Interviewing.....................................109A. Introduction...........................................................................................109

B. Identifying individuals for interviewing.............................................1101. Identification of witnesses ....................................................................1102. Protection of witnesses .........................................................................110

C. Preparing for an interview...................................................................1121. Who will conduct the interview...........................................................112

a. Number of interviewers ..................................................................................112b. Language skills .............................................................................................112c. Cross-cultural differences ................................................................................112

2. Interpreters..............................................................................................1133. Location and privacy .............................................................................1144. Recording the interview ........................................................................1145. Preparatory research ..............................................................................115

D. Initiating the interview .........................................................................115

E. Interview ................................................................................................1161. Narrative statement................................................................................1162. Specific questioning ...............................................................................118

F. Concluding the interview and keeping in contact............................119

G. Interview report ....................................................................................1201. Reconstructing the interview................................................................1202. Assessing credibility ...............................................................................120

H. Further inquiry ......................................................................................1211. Verification and cross-checking of information and

documentation........................................................................................1212. Follow-up cases ......................................................................................122

I. Interviewing “special groups” or individuals with particularcharacteristics ........................................................................................1221. Victims of torture...................................................................................1222. Women ....................................................................................................123

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3. Refugees and other displaced persons ................................................1244. Children ...................................................................................................1245. Rural populations ...................................................................................1256. Indigenous communities.......................................................................1257. Lower-income groups ...........................................................................1258. Government officials and suspected perpetrators ............................126

Chapter IX: Visits to Persons in Detention................127A. Introduction and definitions ...............................................................128

B. International standards relating to detention and treatmentof detainees ............................................................................................1291. Generally applicable standards.............................................................129

a. Non-discrimination .......................................................................................129b. Prohibition of torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment

or punishment................................................................................................129c. Physical conditions of detention.......................................................................130d. Religion, culture, education.............................................................................130e. Supervision of places of detention ....................................................................131

2. Standards particularly applicable to pre-trail detainees ....................131a. Presumption of innocence................................................................................132b. Segregation ....................................................................................................132c. Prohibition of arbitrary arrest ........................................................................132d. Notification of reasons for arrest and charges ..................................................132e. Judicial access ................................................................................................133f. Detention places.............................................................................................133g. Access to legal counsel ....................................................................................133h. Access to outside world ..................................................................................133i. Right not to be compelled to testify against oneself ...........................................133j. Right to fair trial...........................................................................................134

3. Standards particularly applicable to administrative detention .........1344. Standards applicable to women ...........................................................1345. Standards applicable to juveniles .........................................................135

C. Global detention facility visits ............................................................1351. Defining pre-conditions and objectives..............................................1342. Selection of HROs to visit places of detention .................................1373. Entering the detention facility and announcing the visit

in advance................................................................................................1384. Seeing the director of detention facility for initial discussion .........1385. Interviewing other officials...................................................................1406. List of detainees and the roster............................................................1407. Visiting the entire facility ......................................................................1418. Interviewing detainees ...........................................................................141

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9. Departing meeting with the director...................................................14310. Follow-up and reporting .......................................................................14411. Follow-up visits ......................................................................................144

D. Focused detention facility visits..........................................................1451. Defining objectives ................................................................................1452. Variations from the global visit............................................................146

E. Coordination with ICRC .....................................................................146

F. Further reference ..................................................................................147

Appendix 1 to Chapter IX — Summary Report After Visitto Detention Facility .......................................................................151

Appendix 2 to Chapter IX — Report After Visit to Detention Facility ....155

Appendix 3 to Chapter IX — Guidelines for Coordination in the Fieldbetween International Committee of the Red Cross Delegates and FieldOfficers of the Human Rights Field Operation in Rwanda with Regardto Visits to Persons Deprived of their Freedom in Rwanda.....................163

Chapter X: Monitoring and Protecting the HumanRights of Refugees and/or Internally DisplacedPersons Living in Camps ........................................167A. Introduction...........................................................................................168

B. Overview of the human rights situation of refugees andinternally displaced persons in camps................................................1681. Some key factors which determine the human rights situation

in camps...................................................................................................1692. Key human rights at risk .......................................................................1703. Living in a refugee or IDP camp .........................................................1704. Characteristics specific to monitoring and protecting human

rights in camps........................................................................................171

C. Role, objectives and limits of a human rights operation withregard to refugees and IDPs in camps ..............................................1721. Addressing the human rights situation of the refugees

and IDPs..................................................................................................173a. Monitoring ....................................................................................................173b. Taking action................................................................................................173

2. Addressing human rights issues outside of the camps aboutwhich the refugees and IDPs can provide useful information .......174

3. Methodology for visiting camps ..........................................................174

D. International standards and the protection of refugees ..................1761. Definition of refugee .............................................................................1762. Determining refugee status...................................................................177

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3. The right to seek asylum and the principle of non-refoulement...........1774. Minimum standards of treatment for refugees..................................1775. Using the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights to protect

refugees ....................................................................................................178

E. International standards relating to internally displaced persons....1801. Definition ................................................................................................1802. General human rights and humanitarian law protection .................1803. The Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement ...........................181

F. Coordination with UNHCR and other relevant agencies ..............182

G. Collecting background information ...................................................182

H. Visit to the camp: identifying and interviewing individuals ...........183

I. Monitoring conditions in the camp ...................................................1841. Distribution systems ..............................................................................1852. Physical location and nature of the camp...........................................1853. Health facilities .......................................................................................1864. Vulnerable groups and problems of sexual abuse.............................1865. Psychological assistance and social welfare........................................1876. Access to education ...............................................................................187

J. Conclusion .............................................................................................187

Appendix 1 to Chapter X — Brief Introduction to United NationsHigh Commissioner for Refugees.......................................................189

Appendix 2 to Chapter X — Guiding Principles on InternalDisplacement .................................................................................193

Chapter XI: Monitoring and Protecting theHuman Rights of Returnees and InternallyDisplaced Persons.................................................203A. Introduction...........................................................................................203

B. Overview of the human rights situation of returneesand IDPs ................................................................................................2041. Definition of terms ................................................................................204

a. Refugee..........................................................................................................204b. Returnee........................................................................................................205c. Internally displaced persons ............................................................................205

2. Problems facing returnees and IDPs ..................................................206a. Returnees.......................................................................................................206b. Internally displaced persons ............................................................................206c. Factors affecting the human rights of returnees and IDPs................................206

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3. Legal protection of the human rights of returnees and IDPs.........207a. International human rights instruments..........................................................207b. Refugee law ...................................................................................................208c. The Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement ..........................................208

4. Objectives and role of a human rights field operation inprotecting the human rights of returnees and IDPs.........................209

C. Particular threats to returnees and the internationallaw response...........................................................................................2111. Discrimination ........................................................................................2112. Life and personal security .....................................................................212

a. Threats to life ................................................................................................212b. Forced disappearances ....................................................................................213c. Missing and dead persons ..............................................................................214d. The use of land mines and similar devices .......................................................215e. Other acts of violence and ill-treatment, including torture.................................215

3. Personal liberty .......................................................................................2164. Social and economic rights ...................................................................217

a. Food, water and housing ................................................................................217b. Health services...............................................................................................219c. Access to property ..........................................................................................219d. Employment..................................................................................................220e. Right to education..........................................................................................220

5. Restrictions on movement....................................................................220a. Moving within one’s own country....................................................................221b. Leaving one’s own country and seeking asylum ...............................................222

6. Requirement of identification documents..........................................2227. Keeping a family together.....................................................................2238. Language and culture.............................................................................2249. Freedom of assembly.............................................................................22410. Participation in governmental and public affairs ..............................225

D. Vulnerable groups.................................................................................2251. Women ....................................................................................................2262. Children ...................................................................................................2273. The elderly and disabled........................................................................228

E. Human rights field operation: preparing for the return..................2291. Information gathering ...........................................................................230

a. Information on the returnees and IDPs ..........................................................230b. Information on the region of return .................................................................230c. Building a profile ...........................................................................................231

2. Working within special agreements.....................................................2313. Consultation with the Government, UNHCR and others ..............2314. Other preparation activities for the return.........................................232

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F. Human rights field operation: activities during the returnof displaced persons .............................................................................2321. The right to return, “non-refoulement” and voluntary return ..............233

a. The “right to return” in international human rights law .................................233b. “Non-refoulement” and “voluntary return” ....................................................233

2. Types of return .......................................................................................2343. Situation in the home country/region within which the

return occurs ...........................................................................................2354. Activities during the return...................................................................235

G. Human rights field operation: activities after the return ................2361. Monitoring the mechanisms that contribute to the

returnee/IDP’s protection....................................................................2362. Monitoring reintegration.......................................................................2373. Effective monitoring involves regular contacts with sources in

the community........................................................................................2384. Taking action ..........................................................................................2385. When does a returnee/IDP stop being the subject of

particular monitoring? ...........................................................................239a. Situation .......................................................................................................239b. Time .............................................................................................................239

H. Human rights field operation: structure of work withreturnees and IDPs...............................................................................2391. Returnee/IDP unit or focal point .......................................................2402. Area offices and staff.............................................................................2403. Logistical preparations...........................................................................2414. Coordinating and collaborating with other organizations ...............241

a. Sharing information.......................................................................................242b. Choosing who does what ................................................................................242c. Setting up joint structures...............................................................................242

I. Conclusions ...........................................................................................242

Appendix 1 to Chapter XI — Memorandum of Understanding N. 5between HRFOR and UNHCR Rwanda on Returnee Monitoring............245

Chapter XII: Children's Rights................................249A. Why do children have a set of human rights specific to them?.....249

1. Children are the subjects of rights.......................................................2502. Children can be affected differently from adults by

the same violations.................................................................................2503. The rights of children as individuals are closely linked to

the rights of other persons....................................................................2504. Children’s vulnerability..........................................................................251

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B. The protection of children under international human rightsand humanitarian law ...........................................................................2521. The Convention on the Rights of the Child ......................................252

a. The Convention in general .............................................................................253b. The Convention’s provisions...........................................................................254c. The Committee on the Rights of the Child......................................................256d. Applicability .................................................................................................256

2. Optional Protocols to the Convention on the Rights ofthe Child ..................................................................................................256a. Optional Protocol on the involvement of children in armed conflict ..................257b. Optional Protocol on the sale of children, child prostitution and

child pornography...........................................................................................257

3. The protection of children under the Geneva Conventionsand their Additional Protocols.............................................................258

4. Other human rights instruments specific to children.......................259a. Juvenile justice instruments.............................................................................259b. ILO Convention 182 concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action

for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour...............................260c. African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (1990) ....................260d. Security Council resolutions............................................................................260e. Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC) ........................................261f. The Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement ..........................................261

5. Some useful UN mechanisms ..............................................................261a. Conventional mechanisms: treaty monitoring bodies ........................................262b. Extra-conventional mechanisms: special procedures.........................................262

C. Integrating children’s rights into human rights field operationsand developing a strategy.....................................................................2651. Some management decisions concerning an operation’s

child rights work.....................................................................................265a. Interpreting the mandate of the operation ........................................................265b. (Methodological) structure ..............................................................................266

2. Basic terms of reference........................................................................2663. Child rights checklist for human rights officers — developing

a strategy ..................................................................................................267

D. Some examples of broad child rights strategies ...............................2681. Strengthening the child rights impact of the operation’s

current activities .....................................................................................2692. Supporting the work of partners .........................................................2693. Building upon the CRC reporting process.........................................270

E. Monitoring and reporting on respect for children’s rights.............2711. Monitoring — identifying priorities in a child rights situation .......271

a. What child rights criteria? .............................................................................271b. Recognizing the importance of “time” and “vulnerability”...............................272

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c. Using the CRC reporting guidelines as a support for monitoring andanalysis .........................................................................................................272

2. Reporting on respect for children’s rights..........................................274

F. Working with children .........................................................................2751. How is communicating with children different from

communicating with adults? .................................................................2752. Cultural issues in communicating with children................................2763. Language and the use of interpreters ..................................................2764. Communication in the context of displacement ...............................2765. Providing an appropriate location and environment........................2776. Attitude and approach...........................................................................2777. Helping children to express themselves .............................................2788. When children become distressed ......................................................279

Appendix 1 to Chapter XII — Sources of further information ...............281

Chapter XIII: Trial Observation and Monitoringthe Administration of Justice .................................283A. Introduction...........................................................................................284

B. International standards for fair trials .................................................284

C. Objectives of trial observation and monitoring theadministration of justice.......................................................................285

D. Selection of trials...................................................................................286

E. Selection of HROs to serve as trial observers andqualifications..........................................................................................287

F. Informing the authorities about the observation.............................287

G. Briefing and research prior to observation .......................................287

H. Translators/interpreters.......................................................................288

I. Public statements before, during and after the observation ..........288

J. Travel and living arrangements...........................................................289

K. Contacts and interviews after arrival at the place of trial ...............289

L. Access to trial file (dossier)..................................................................289

M. Seating in the courtroom, introduction in court andtaking notes............................................................................................290

N. Timing, preparation and substance of the observer’s report .........290

O. Trial observation combined with other monitoring........................291

Appendix 1 to Chapter XIII — Checklist: The Elements of Fair Trial ......295

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Chapter XIV: Election Observation.........................297A. Introduction...........................................................................................297

B. International standards for free and fair elections...........................2991. Participation in Government and non-discrimination .....................2992. Pre-requisite rights .................................................................................300

C. Objectives of election observation.....................................................301

D. Selecting HROs to serve as election observers ................................301

E. Length of observation..........................................................................302

F. Informing the authorities about the observation.............................302

G. Contacts and interviews.......................................................................3031. Key human rights issues........................................................................3032. Interested groups ...................................................................................3033. National infrastructure ..........................................................................304

H. Travel ......................................................................................................304

I. Monitoring elections.............................................................................3041. Monitoring the pre-election preparations and campaign period ....305

a. The development of election law and procedures ...............................................305b. Monitoring the electoral administration ..........................................................305c. Monitoring registration ..................................................................................305d. Monitoring civic education..............................................................................306e. Monitoring the media.....................................................................................306

2. Monitoring the vote...............................................................................3073. Monitoring the count ............................................................................3084. Monitoring results and follow-up........................................................308

Appendix 1 to Chapter XIV — Guidelines for Electoral Assistance,Monitoring and Observation ............................................................309

Chapter XV: Monitoring Demonstrations andPublic Meetings ...................................................319A. Introduction...........................................................................................320

B. International standards for free assembly, association andexpression ..............................................................................................320

C. Standards for use of force by law enforcement officials ................321

D. Challenges in monitoring demonstrations ........................................3221. Purpose of monitoring demonstrations .............................................3222. Before the demonstration .....................................................................3233. During the demonstration ....................................................................3244. After the demonstration........................................................................325

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Chapter XVI: Monitoring During Periods of ArmedConflict ..............................................................327A. Introduction...........................................................................................328

B. Determining the existence and classification of anarmed conflict........................................................................................3281. Human rights and humanitarian law in periods of armed

conflict .....................................................................................................3282. Categories of armed conflict ................................................................329

a. International armed conflict............................................................................330b. Non-international armed conflict....................................................................330

C. Factors affecting monitoring in periods of armed conflict ............332

D. Monitoring human rights abuses by and contacting armedopposition groups.................................................................................3361. Avoiding giving recognition to armed opposition groups...............3362. Transparency...........................................................................................3373. Preserving impartiality ...........................................................................3374. Assessing security concerns..................................................................3385. Avoiding interference with other humanitarian organizations .......3386. Understanding the structure of non-State actors ..............................3387. Explaining the mandates and objectives ............................................3398. Engaging in promotion activities.........................................................3399. Determining persuasive arguments .....................................................33910. Reconciling monitoring and other efforts..........................................34111. Mediating.................................................................................................341

Appendix 1 to Chapter XVI — Agreement on Ground Rules betweenthe Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A) andOperation Lifeline Sudan (OLS) (UNICEF) ........................................343

Chapter XVII: Monitoring Economic, Social andCultural Rights.....................................................349A. Introduction...........................................................................................349

B. Summary of economic, social and cultural rights ............................3501. UN Charter .............................................................................................3502. Universal Declaration of Human Rights ............................................3503. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural

Rights .......................................................................................................351a. Nature of State obligations under the Covenant..............................................351b. Rights guaranteed by the Covenant.................................................................351

4. Declaration on the Right to Development ........................................353

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C. An approach to monitoring economic, social and culturalrights in field operations ......................................................................3531. Consequences of violations of economic, social and

cultural rights ..........................................................................................3542. Possible measures by the human rights field operation ...................3543. Assisting the Government to assess and meet needs .......................3554. Test cases.................................................................................................3555. Common misconceptions about economic and social rights..........356

Chapter XVIII: Background of United NationsMonitoring Standards ...........................................359A. Introduction...........................................................................................360

B. Evolution of United Nations monitoring standards .......................360

C. Non-United Nations monitoring standards .....................................362

Part Four: Following-Up and Reporting .......................363

Chapter XIX: Following-Up and SeekingCorrective Action ................................................365A. Introduction...........................................................................................366

B. Preparing for follow-up at local and national levels........................366

C. Initial steps at the local level ...............................................................3671. Selecting the right authority to address...............................................3672. Coordinating follow-up with other organizations.............................367

a. Peace-keeping operations ................................................................................368b. UN Resident Coordinator.............................................................................371c. UNHCR.....................................................................................................371d. UNICEF ....................................................................................................371e. UNDP.........................................................................................................371f. IOM.............................................................................................................372g. WFP............................................................................................................372h. WHO ..........................................................................................................372i. ILO..............................................................................................................372j. Regional organizations...................................................................................373k. Non-governmental organizations ....................................................................373

3. Deciding what information may be given to the authorities...........3744. Planning the meeting with a particular authority ..............................3745. Conducting the meeting itself ..............................................................375

a. Introductions .................................................................................................375b. Addressing the main reason for the visit .........................................................375

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6. Addressing the problem through a written communication ...........376

D. Taking the problem to a higher level .................................................376

E. Contacts with the media ......................................................................377

F. Longer-term follow-up ........................................................................378

G. More long-term follow-up: truth commissions and tribunals........3801. International tribunals ...........................................................................3802. Truth commissions ................................................................................381

H. Addressing the human rights situation through UNmechanisms............................................................................................3811. The Security Council .............................................................................3822. The General Assembly ..........................................................................3833. The Economic and Social Council ......................................................3844. The Commission on Human Rights ...................................................384

a. Country rapporteurs ......................................................................................385b. Thematic procedures.......................................................................................385

5. The Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discriminationand Protection of Minorities ................................................................386

6. The Commission on the Status of Women........................................3867. Treaty bodies...........................................................................................386

a. Reporting obligations .....................................................................................387b. Individual complaints procedures ....................................................................387

8. High Commissioner for Human Rights .............................................388

Chapter XX: Human Rights Reporting .....................389A. Introduction...........................................................................................389

B. General principles on human rights reporting .................................3901. Accuracy and precision .........................................................................3902. Promptness .............................................................................................3903. Action-oriented ......................................................................................391

C. Reporting within the Human Rights Field Operation ....................3911. Periodic reports ......................................................................................3912. Emergency reports.................................................................................3933. Interview reports ....................................................................................393

a. Use of the interview form................................................................................393b. Contents of the interview report ......................................................................394

4. Incident reports ......................................................................................395

D. External reports ....................................................................................3951. Reporting to Headquarters ...................................................................3952. Reporting to other UN bodies and mechanisms ..............................396

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a. UN bodies ....................................................................................................396b. UN mechanisms ...........................................................................................397

3. Reporting to the Government .............................................................3974. Writing reports, using report forms ....................................................398

Appendix 1 to Chapter XX — Questionnaire — Interview Form............401

Appendix 2 to Chapter XX — Periodic Report Form ...........................413

Appendix 3 to Chapter XX — Emergency Report Form .......................417

Appendix 4 to Chapter XX — Incident Report Form ...........................421

Appendix 5 to Chapter XX — Special Rapporteurs, SpecialRepresentatives, Working Groups and Other Special Procedures ............435

Chapter XXI: Conciliation and Mediation inthe Field .............................................................441A. Introduction...........................................................................................441

B. Basic elements of the mediation process ..........................................442

Part Five: The Human Rights Officer...........................447

Chapter XXII: Norms Applicable to UN HumanRights Officers and Other Staff ..............................449A. Introduction...........................................................................................450

B. Previous UN codes of conduct for its on-site staff.........................451

C. Code of conduct for human rights officers ......................................4591. Respect for human rights standards....................................................4592. Respect for principles of human rights monitoring..........................4593. Respect for local population and customs .........................................4604. Inter-office relations ..............................................................................4615. OHCHR Code of Conduct ..................................................................462

Chapter XXIII: Stress, Vicarious Trauma andBurn-Out............................................................465A. Introduction...........................................................................................465

B. Secondary traumatization ....................................................................4661. Symptoms................................................................................................4662. Contributing factors...............................................................................4663. Prevention ...............................................................................................467

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Chapter XXIV: Security ........................................469A. Introduction...........................................................................................470

B. Legal guarantees ....................................................................................470

C. Security within a human rights field operation ................................4711. General security situation .....................................................................4712. Appointment of security officers.........................................................4723. Security guidelines..................................................................................4724. Identification and visibility of HROs..................................................4735. Radio communications..........................................................................4736. Office and home security......................................................................4747. Road blocks and other contacts with armed groups ........................4758. Mines........................................................................................................4759. Vehicle maintenance..............................................................................47610. Driving.....................................................................................................47611. General dress and behaviour restrictions ...........................................47712. Travel restrictions...................................................................................47713. Emergency plans, knowing where to go.............................................47714. Health.......................................................................................................47815. Property ...................................................................................................478

a. Personal property ...........................................................................................478b. UN property .................................................................................................479

16. Concluding comment ............................................................................479

Appendix 1 to Chapter XXIV — United Nations Personal Data Form.....481

Appendix 2 to Chapter XXIV — United Nations Human RightsField Operation Inventory of Personal Belongings ................................483

Bibliography ....................................................................................................485

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PREFACE ............................

Through its increased involvement in field work in recent years, the UnitedNations agencies and programmes as well as the United Nations Secretariat havecollectively developed a great deal of experience in both organizational andmethodological aspects of field operations. Human rights monitoring has been a majorand recurrent — although not the only — function of United Nations field operations.This Manual is part of OHCHR effort to consolidate and record the collectiveexperience of the United Nations — with specific regard to human rights monitoring— in a way that it could be usefully incorporated into future United Nations efforts.

OHCHR has long been involved in developing methodology for the effectiveconduct of human rights monitoring. This is both in recognition of the importance ofthe human rights monitoring function as a tool to improve protection of human rights,as well as to stimulate dialogue with governments and contribute to the development of national capacities in this regard.

In particular, OHCHR has been engaged in several training initiatives forUnited Nations field personnel with human rights monitoring functions — in Bosniaand Herzegovina, Croatia, Rwanda, as well as in numerous pre-deployment traininginitiatives. It has also developed methodological materials for use by human rightsmonitors, including but not limited to those officers employed in United Nationsoperations, which are now incorporated in this Manual.

This Manual is intended to be a further contribution to these ongoing efforts.Undoubtedly, owing to the specificity of the country of operation, the mandate, thepolitical context, and other factors, each field operation has its particularities whichmust be carefully taken into consideration when dealing with all policy andmanagement matters related to the operation. The Manual will nonetheless be useful toprovide a general framework for the methodological aspects of such operations, withparticular regard to human rights monitoring.

The Manual seeks to integrate and consolidate existing expertise on the subjectof human rights monitoring. It is mainly based on the experience developed by theUnited Nations in recent years, through the work of various human rights fieldoperations, including, for example, the HRFOR Field Guidance prepared in 1996 bythe Human Rights Field Operation in Rwanda, the Manuel d’Haïti developed in 1993 bythe International Civilian Mission in Haiti — UN/OAS (MICIVIH), the Manuel deVérification produced in 1994 by the United Nations Mission in Guatemala(MINUGUA), and La Guia metodológica para el trabajo de la division de derechos humanos de laMisión de observadores de las Naciones Unidas para El Salvador developed by the UnitedNations Observation Mission in El Salvador (ONUSAL) in 1992.

The Manual also incorporates the experience and materials developed by theOffice of the High Commissioner for Human Rights in providing training on humanrights monitoring to United Nations and other international staff (including UNCRO,UNPREDEP and UNPROFOR staff in the Former Yugoslavia in 1995, OSCE staff inBosnia and Herzegovina in 1996, and the training programmes for peace-keeping

Training Manual on Human Rights Monitoring xxv

personnel organized by OHCHR since 1996 at the UN Staff College), as well as theexperience of the various field offices established under the High Commissioner’sresponsibility and entrusted with a monitoring mandate, including Cambodia, theDemocratic Republic of Congo, Burundi, Colombia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, theFederal Republic of Yugoslavia, and Croatia.

In addition, the Manual draws upon the experience in human rights monitoringand field work of many non-governmental organizations, individuals and humanitarianorganizations.

It is complemented by a Trainer’s Guide which is intended to assist trainers inpreparing human rights officers to effectively and professionally perform human rightsmonitoring functions, and to apply the methodology contained in the Manual to theirspecific tasks.

The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights wishes to conveythanks to Professor David Weissbrodt, who took principal responsibility fordeveloping the first and second draft of this Manual, but also to Jennifer Prestholdt,Ben Majekodunmi, and The McKnight Foundation for their assistance to ProfessorWeissbrodt in preparing the manuscript, as well as to many other individuals forproviding useful comments, suggestions, and information, including Patrick Ball, Claire Bellmann, Agnès Callamard, Andrew Clapham, Sandra Coliver, Pascal Daudin,Jean-François Durieux, Jon Ebersole, Jean-François Gareau, Shinobu Garrigues,Caroline Hunt, Dietrich Kappeler, Scott Leckie, Iain Levine, Leanne MacMillan, JohnMcConnell, Hernán Reyes, Patricia Schaffer, Jacques Stroun, Michel Veuthey,Margaret Weigers, Kirsten Young, members of the staff of the United Nations HighCommissioner for Human Rights, and many whose writings are cited in thebibliography. In addition, Adama Dieng, Leonardo Franco, Kristin Høgdahl, IanMartin, Dennis McNamara, William G. O’Neill, several heads of present UnitedNations human rights field operations and others have reviewed the Training Manualand given very helpful guidance.

This Manual reflects many recognized principles of human rights monitoringwhich should be respected by United Nations human rights field operations, and — assuch — is meant to be a contribution to increased effectiveness of human rights fieldwork. Although primarily addressed to United Nations human rights monitors, it ishoped that it will prove equally useful for human rights monitors of otherorganizations, whether of an inter-governmental or non-governmental nature.

As experience evolves in this relatively new endeavour of human rights fieldoperations, the numerous suggestions and ideas in the Manual will no doubt need to beimproved and applied in revised form to different situations. For this reason, theManual is also made available in electronic format, so that it can more easily bemodified, applied, and split into teaching modules as required by particular operations.All those who consult and use this Manual are encouraged to suggest ways in which itcan be improved.

xxvi Training Manual on Human Rights Monitoring

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Part One

...........................................

INTRODUCTION TO THETRAINING MANUAL

.........Chapter IINTRODUCTION ................

Key concepts

The developing experience, doctrine and methodology in human rights field operations,including human rights monitoring, should be made accessible to future human rightsofficers and should be supplemented in light of the specific mandate, circumstances andjudgement of the operation’s leadership.

“Monitoring” is the active collection, verification and immediate use of information to improve human rights protection.

A. Need for the Training Manual1. The United Nations has mounted human rights field operations in suchcountries as Bosnia-Herzegovina, Burundi, Cambodia, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haitiand Rwanda. A key function of all such operations has been monitoring the humanrights situation in the country of operation. Each of them have largely developed theirown methodology and structure for conducting field work, including human rightsmonitoring. This process is slow and increases the time needed for a human rightsoperation to become effective — six months, a year or longer. By the time the decisionis taken to establish an operation, the human rights situation in the country is usuallycritical. Further delay must be avoided.

2. Increasingly, the United Nations has been developing considerable experiencein human rights field operations and gathering a group of individuals who have servedin the field. This Training Manual seeks to draw together that expertise — withparticular regard to the performance of human rights monitoring duties –and make itaccessible to future human rights officers (HROs) so that they can be more effectivelytrained for systematic and professional work.

3. The need to send staff into the field is usually so urgent that there is no time forthoroughly training HROs in advance of deployment. Also, factors such as particularlanguage requirements, willingness to accept physical risk, and need for countryexpertise have sometimes resulted in the recruitment of HROs who have had disparatelevels of experience with the various tasks they will pursue. For these reasons, there is agreat need for the on-site training of HROs. It is critical that HROs receive comprehensivetraining that goes beyond education about human rights norms and procedures, and

Training Manual on Human Rights Monitoring 3

includes guidance about techniques and practical work — including human rightsmonitoring work.

4. Accordingly, this Training Manual provides an overview of the doctrine andmethodology of human rights monitoring, primarily as developed through the work of, and tobe applied by United Nations human rights field operations. It sets forth applicableinternational human rights and humanitarian law; approaches to identifying humanrights violations, information-gathering, interviewing, visits to persons in detention,visits to displaced persons in camps, monitoring the return of refugees and internallydisplaced persons, trial observation, election observation, monitoring demonstrations,monitoring economic rights, preparation of reports, interventions with local authorities and other follow-up; history of United Nations monitoring standards; etc. In addition,the Manual provides suggestions for norms applicable to the work of HROs in fieldoperations and how they can handle the challenges of stress and security they willencounter.

5. This Training Manual is intended to be used for generic pre-deploymenttraining of human rights monitors or as a basis to develop country-specific manuals. Inthis latter case, it needs to be supplemented and reviewed in the light of the mandate,factual situation, and other contexts of future human rights operations. The presentTraining Manual incorporates many broadly accepted principles of monitoring, whichshould be observed by all United Nations field operations. Each operation, however,will have a different mandate, different resources, and will be confronted by differenthuman rights problems in a wide variety of contexts. The present Manual, in attempting to provide a methodological and training tool for such a wide range of operations,remains generic and, accordingly, needs to be supplemented for use in each human rights fieldoperation in light of its specific mandate and circumstances as well as the judgement of its leadership.Indeed, many aspects of this Manual incorporate policy judgements which should becarefully reviewed by the head of the human rights operation to make sure that they fitthe needs of the operation. Similarly, HROs should seek policy guidance from theleadership of the human rights operation on such questions.

6. Each human rights field operation receives its terms of reference or mandatefrom the authorizing United Nations institution — e.g., the Security Council or theEconomic and Social Council (ECOSOC) — or on the basis of an agreement betweenthe United Nations and the host country. Those mandates are often similar from oneoperation to another, but there are differences. Accordingly, the focus and the extent of a human rights monitoring mandate may vary considerably in each operation. While the present Manual can provide advice as to how such mandates can be interpreted and asto the international legal norms underlying the principal aspects of typical monitoringmandates from past operations, authoritative guidance can only be developed once themandate of the specific operation has been determined. Hence, as soon as a fieldoperation is authorized, work must begin to supplement this Manual by addingmaterials specifically relevant to the new operation.

7. The present generic Manual is intended for use in different situations and,accordingly, it does not contain country-specific data; it does, however, outline thekinds of country-specific materials which should be provided for training of HROs to effectivelyperform their monitoring tasks, including information about geography, history,economy, population, governmental system, religions, languages, ethnic conflicts, thestatus of refugees and internally displaced persons, culture and customs, ratifications of

4 Training Manual on Human Rights Monitoring

Chapter I • Introduction

human rights treaties, other international organizations present in the country,non-governmental organizations, and other information about the human rightssituation. Hence, this Manual provides advice as to how it can be supplemented for usein particular country situations. In this regard, supplementary material should take intoaccount the needs assessment which usually precedes the authorization of a humanrights field operation. As soon as the operation is actually initiated, the relevantcontextual materials need to be assembled. (See Chapter II: “The Local Context”.)

8. This Training Manual contains some chapters which may need to besupplemented and others which need not be used because they are not relevant to themandate of the particular field operation. For example, some chapters, such as Chapter IX: “Visits to Persons in Detention” or Chapter XI: “Monitoring and Protectingthe Human Rights of Returnees and/or Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs)”,may be supplemented through addition of country specific information. At the sametime, the mandate of each field operation will be different; it is unlikely that any singleoperation will include within its mandate all of the different chapters of Part III “TheMonitoring Function”. Hence, for example, the final Field Training Manual for aparticular operation may not need several sections on such subjects as Chapter X:“Monitoring and Protecting the Human Rights of Refugees and/or InternallyDisplaced Persons Living in Camps” or Chapter XIV: “Election Observation”.

9. The chief for the field operation should be identified as early as possible, so thats/he can make the policy and organizational decisions which should be used tosupplement and apply this Manual to the particular operation. Indeed, the chief ofoperations should promptly select an individual who can do the critical work ofsupplementing this Manual. The person who eventually takes responsibility for training inthe human rights operation should ideally be given responsibility for adapting theManual.

10. This “training officer” should work in close consultation with the chief of theoperation, and with other start-up staff. Work on updating the Manual can begin at theGeneva/New York Headquarters if the training officer has access to copies of the newmandate and to information on the country of operation — including details on thehuman rights and political situation, as well as the local working conditions. Particularattention should be given to the needs assessment which should, and often does,precede the authorization of a human rights field operation.

11. As soon as possible, the training officer should be deployed to the country ofoperation. Using the chapters of the Manual as a base, and under the direction of thechief of operation, supplementary material can be developed in a few weeks. A numberof contextual materials will need to be assembled. (See Chapter II: “The LocalContext”.)

12. The supplementary material for the Training Manual need not be complete.Priority should be on making the most essential information available for training of newstaff members as they arrive, and to use the Training Manual with the supplementaryinformation as a means of orienting new HROs and also defining the operation’smethodology and policy relative to the particular situation.



13. Subsequently, the supplementary training material should be updated as thesituation evolves in the country and as the field operation itself develops. Chapters mayneed to be updated in response to a particular event. For example, the imminent returnof 100,000 refugees may require an update of training, operations policy andmethodology for monitoring the human rights of returnees.

14. In updated versions of the supplementary training materials the training officershould work closely with other HROs on each chapter. Accordingly, for example, theHRO(s) responsible for monitoring detention conditions (if any) can assist indeveloping further the methodology and training materials for Chapter IX: “Visits toPersons in Detention”. As far as possible, HROs within the operation should beprovided with an opportunity to participate in the regular updating and evolution of the supplementary training material. Every officer will have a contribution to make and theinvolvement of all staff members helps to ensure that the manual with itssupplementary training material are a reflection of wide experience, and also thateveryone is involved in improving and defining the work they do.

B. Target beneficiaries15. This Training Manual is intended for several direct beneficiaries and a largerindirect audience. The Training Manual is addressed first to those responsible fortraining HROs in the performance of human rights monitoring functions inUnited Nations field operations. The training can be conducted prior to thedeployment of the HROs to the country of operation, or on-site. Secondly, theTraining Manual is addressed to the HRO of a field operation who is selected tosupplement and adjust it in the light of the mandate, circumstances and policies ofthe particular operation — in other words to produce a country/operation-specificversion of the Manual — so that it can be used for guidance to all HROs. The TrainingManual should also be useful to the chief of each human rights field operation indeveloping policies for the particular operation. Further, this Training Manual with itsrelated Trainer’s Guide will be useful to the officers responsible for providing initialor follow-up training to HROs in the country of operation. The Training Manualwith contextual supplementary materials will be useful to the those HROs who willreceive their orientation and instruction, either prior to or following deployment.

16. The Training Manual may also be beneficial to partner organizations — suchas the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), the UnitedNations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the International Committee of the Red Cross(ICRC), the Organization of American States (OAS) and the Organization for Securityand Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) — that wish to train their staff on human rightsmonitoring.

17. In addition, the manual may assist other intergovernmental ornon-governmental organizations engaged in human rights work to develop theirown methodologies and train their staff.



18. The ultimate beneficiaries of the manual will be the individuals andcommunities whose human rights are threatened or violated and who can depend uponthe assistance that may be offered through human rights field operations.

C. Objectives19. The overall objective of the Manual is to improve the efficiency, professionalism andimpact of human rights field operations in implementing their monitoring mandates. Thespecific objectives of the Manual are:

a) to provide information on international human standards relevant to UnitedNations field operations;

b) to provide information on techniques for human rights monitoring andencourage the development of the relevant skills by United Nations humanrights officers and other human rights professionals.

20. The Manual is principally intended for training of staff in human rights fieldoperations, which are on-site for a significant period of time (e.g., at least six months) with aconsiderable staff (e.g., at least ten and usually more) to perform primarily a monitoringfunction. Most of the chapters of the Manual, however, deal with techniques whichmay also apply to smaller, shorter and narrower human rights activities.

21. Manual users should keep in mind that the Manual is not specific to any onefield operation or single country. Every field operation will be different from itspredecessors, because mandates are different, and so are the human rights problemsand circumstances of each country. Also, the Manual focuses on one possible functionof field operations only, i.e. monitoring of human rights violations.

22. Finally, the Manual and human rights field operations do not provide a panacea forviolations or conflict. HROs should remember that they often cannot change events,and should not feel responsible for things they cannot change. The actions of HROsare also limited by the international human rights norms they are seeking to implementand by basic principles of monitoring (do no harm, respect the mandate, exercise goodjudgement, etc.) For further elaboration of these principles, see Part V: “The HumanRights Officer” and Chapter V: “Basic Principles of Monitoring”.

D. Definition of key terms

1. Human rights” and “internationalhumanitarian law”

23. Human rights are universal legal guarantees protecting individuals and groupsagainst actions by governments which interfere with fundamental freedoms and human dignity. Human rights law obliges governments to do some things, and prevents them



from doing others. Some of the most frequently cited characteristics of human rightsare as follow:

v focus on dignity of the human being

v legally protected

v internationally guaranteed

v protect the individual and groups

v oblige States and State actors

v cannot be waived/taken away

v equal and interdependent

v universal

24. Earlier in this century, the term “human rights” was defined as those rightsguaranteed by the International Bill of Human Rights (comprised of the UniversalDeclaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social andCultural Rights, and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights with itsOptional Protocols). Over the years, however, international and regional human rightsinstruments have made more explicit the rights set forth in the International Bill ofHuman Rights. “Human rights” are now defined with far more detail and specificity.International human rights law is, therefore, more protective of vulnerable individualsand groups, including children, indigenous groups, refugees and displaced persons andwomen. In addition, some human rights instruments have expanded the definition byelaborating new rights.1

25. “International humanitarian law” can be defined as that part of international law which is designed to ensure respect for general principles of humanity in situationsof international armed conflict, and (to a lesser extent) to internal armed conflict.Growing from customary international law, early efforts at codification, and treatiesadopted at the Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907, international humanitarianlaw has its principal sources in the four Geneva Conventions of 1949 and the two 1977Protocols Additional to those Conventions.

26. While most human rights are perceived as individual rights vis-à-vis theGovernment, human rights norms may also apply to non-State actors (such as armedopposition groups, corporations, international financial institutions and individuals whoperpetrate domestic violence) who commit human rights abuses. The campaign toabolish slavery, one of the oldest efforts to protect human rights, was an attempt toprevent private actors from keeping or trading in slaves.2 By Common Article 3 of the1949 Geneva Conventions and their 1977 Protocols, international humanitarian lawapplies to armed opposition groups. Further, a series of treaties exist relating tohijackers, kidnappers of diplomats, etc. More recently, international human rightsnorms have been addressing the responsibility of governments to restrain individualsfrom committing human rights abuses in the areas of domestic violence, female genitalmutilation, etc. The Maastricht Guidelines on Violations of Economic, Social and



1See, for example, the Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons, G.A. res. 3447 (XXX), 30 UN GAOR Supp. (No. 34)at 88, UN Doc. A/10034 (1975); and the Declaration on the Right to Development, G.A. res. 41/128, Annex, 41, UN GAORSupp. (No. 53) at 186, UN Doc. A/41/53 (1986).

2See General Act and Declaration of Brussels of 1890, Convention of Saint-Germain-en-Laye of 1919, and the SlaveryConvention of 1926, 60 L.N.T.S. 253, entered into force March 9, 1927.

Cultural Rights (adopted 26 January 1997 by a group of 30 international legal experts3)state:

... The obligation to protect requires states to prevent violations of suchrights by third parties. Thus, the failure to ensure that private employerscomply with basic labour standards may amount to a violation of the rightsto work or the right to just and favourable conditions of work ...(guideline 6)

27. In sum, currently the term “human rights” should be viewed, for the purposes ofthis Manual, as incorporating both the rights traditionally defined by the International Bill ofHuman Rights, as well as the expansion of that definition to include rights guaranteed byinternational humanitarian law. Further, human rights norms are now perceived to be enforceableagainst some non-State actors, or at least to make governments responsible for preventingcertain abuses by individuals.4 It is important to note, however, that the mandate ofmany UN human rights monitoring operations may and should be defined in terms ofthe human rights most critical in a particular country and most capable of beingaddressed by a limited number of HROs.

2. “Monitoring”

28. “Monitoring” is a broad term describing the active collection, verification and immediateuse of information to address human rights problems. Human rights monitoringincludes gathering information about incidents, observing events (elections, trials,demonstrations, etc.), visiting sites such as places of detention and refugee camps,discussions with Government authorities to obtain information and to pursue remedies and other immediate follow-up. The term includes evaluative activities at the UNheadquarters or operation’s central office as well as first hand fact-gathering and otherwork in the field. In addition, monitoring has a temporal quality in that it generally takes place over a protracted period of time.

3. “Fact-finding”

29. “Fact-finding” describes a process of drawing conclusions of fact frommonitoring activities. Hence, “fact-finding” is necessarily a narrower term than“monitoring”. Fact-finding entails a great deal of information gathering in order to establishand verify the facts surrounding an alleged human rights violation. Moreover, fact-findingmeans pursuing reliability through the use of generally accepted procedures and byestablishing a reputation for fairness and impartiality.

4. “Observation”

30. “Observation” usually refers to the more passive process of watching events such asassemblies, trials, elections and demonstrations. It is an aspect of human rightsmonitoring which requires an on-site presence.



3Published in HRQ, Feb. 1997, vol. 20, no. 1.4See Andrew Clapham, Human Rights in the Private Sphere 95-133 (1993).

5. “Human rights violations” and “human rightsabuses”

31. “Human rights violations” include governmental transgressions of the rights guaranteed bynational, regional and international human rights law and acts and omissions directlyattributable to the State involving the failure to implement legal obligations derivedfrom human rights standards. Violations occur when a law, policy or practicedeliberately contravenes or ignores obligations held by the State concerned or when the State fails to achieve a required standard of conduct or result. Additional violationsoccur when a State withdraws or removes existing human rights protections.

32. All human rights — civil, cultural, economic, political and social — imposethree distinct types of obligations on governments: obligations to respect, protect andfulfil. The failure of a government to perform any of these obligations constitutes aviolation of human rights.

33. Although the full realization of some aspects of certain rights might only beachievable in a progressive manner, this does not alter the nature of the legal obligations of States, nor does it mean that all rights possess some components which are alwayssubject to immediate implementation.

34. With specific regard to economic, social and cultural rights, violations can alsooccur when a State fails to satisfy “minimum essential levels of the rights” found in theICESCR, and thus a State in which “any significant number of individuals is deprived of essential foodstuffs, of essential primary health care, of basic shelter and housing, or ofthe most basic forms of education, is, prima facie, violating the ICESCR”. Suchminimum core obligations apply irrespective of the availability of resources in thecountry concerned or any other actors and difficulties.

35. Any discrimination on grounds of race, colour, sex, language, religion, politicalor other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status with thepurpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the equal enjoyment or exercise of anyhuman rights constitutes a violation of human rights.

36. The phrase “human rights abuses” is used in this Manual as a broader term than“violations”, and includes violative conduct committed by non-State actors.

6. “Human rights officer”

37. A “human rights officer” is a member of the staff of a United Nations humanrights organization or field operation, who performs monitoring, reporting, technicalassistance, promotion, or any other professional function. As previously mentioned,this Manual focuses on only one of the possible functions of a human rights officer in afield operation, that of monitoring the human rights situation. It is in this context thatthe term “ human rights officer (HRO)” is to be intended in the Manual. In a UN fieldoperation, HROs may work in area offices (away from the central office) or in thecentral office analysing information, writing reports, conducting various activities, etc.



38. The principal work of an HRO is not generally secretarial or to providecomputer, logistical or other backup assistance to the field operation. Such functionsare performed by support staff. To preserve the international character of the fieldoperation, nationals of the country in which the operation is located do not usuallyserve as HROs, but national staff may perform many other functions for the operation.



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