of 12
7/30/2019 Understand Life 2004
1/12
ThePhysiologicalSociety
Understanding Life -from single cells...
to systems...
to whole humans
7/30/2019 Understand Life 2004
2/12
What is Physiology?
What does a Physiologist do?
Physiology is the science of
how the body works. You can
think of anatomy as where
it all is and physiology
as how it all
works. These two
subjects together
form the basis of medicine
and veterinary science.
Physiologists can be foundin a great variety of working
environments. In order
to understand what has
gone wrong with the body
during disease, the normal
functioning must first be
understood.
Therefore physiologists are
often to be found at the
forefront of biomedical
research.
Similarly the benefits of taking a
drug to cure a disease or illness must
be weighed against the potential
side effects, and so the need for
physiologists by drug companies
is never ending.
But not all physiologists are to
be found in laboratories.
Many work in the area
of sports physiology, working
alongside athletes and
sportsmen to try and bettertheir performance, or spend
their lives globe-trotting,
travelling around conferences
reporting on the work of others for
papers and journals.
As scientists become more and
more answerable to the public,
many graduates are now engaged in
digesting and communicating complex
work either for government ministers
or for the public themselves. Others
may be found in schools, inspiring the
next generation, or in courts of law,
arguing over complex patent cases.
Whichever style of work you would like
to have, there will be a career out there
for you once you have your degree in
Physiology!
What is Physiology?
1
7/30/2019 Understand Life 2004
3/12
Nutrition and nutritional supplements
are of vital importance to top class
athletes. Many football managers like
Alex Ferguson monitor the diets of their
players carefully, working with dieticians
and physiologists to maintain correct
nutrient intake. Ingesting complex
carbohydrates such as pasta and rice
allows players to maintain their energy
levels, and not lose performance or
pace towards the end of a gruelling 90
minutes game.
Expert opinion is divided about the
never-ending ability of athletes to break
world records. Is this the result simply of
hard slog and better training techniques,
or the use of drugs? Drug abuse in sport
began as early as the 1950s, when
weightlifters began injecting themselves
with testosterone. Since then, the
synthetic anabolic steroid Dianabol,
human growth hormone (HGH) and
human chorionic gonadotrophin have
all been abused. Use of these drugs is
now illegal, for the very good
reason that long-term use ofthese would be damaging to
their health. However, sporting
authorities have been slow
to react to these chemical
challenges. When completely
legal dietary supplements are
broken down in the body,
they can produce the same
substances as when drugs
such as nandrolone are broken
down, thus allowing for dispute
over test results. The battle to
maximise performance but
avoid prosecution is tough and
bloody. Every top athlete now
has a team of scientists and
coaches working alongside them, trying
to find the balance between exploiting
their potential to the full and not testing
positive for a banned substance. If you
are keen on both sports and science, this
could be you!
Sports Physiology
picture courtesy of Susan Shireffs
2
7/30/2019 Understand Life 2004
4/12
Understanding the workings of the brain
is one of the major challenges facing
scientists this century. Physiologists
working in this area are taking on a variety
of approaches, from studying movements
of ions in and out of single nerve cells
to working with patients suffering with
mental illnesses such as schizophrenia
and Alzheimers. And the aim is not only
to cure disease. The use of illegal drugs,
such as Ecstasy (E), is rising dramatically.
Ecstasy increases the natural release of
serotonin, a neurotransmitter in the brain,
and also prevents it being inactivated.High levels of serotonin in the brain are
thought to be responsible for the loved
up feeling MDMA (the active component
of E) produces. Overuse of this pathway
causes desensitisation, meaning that
less pleasure will be gained from normal
activity. This can result in mood swings,
the reported mid-week blues following
a weekends indulgence.
However, if this were the only
disadvantage of the drug, it would be
unlikely to deter clubbers.
The horrifying deaths of Lorna Spinks and
Leah Betts brought the dangers of taking
Ecstasy very much into the public eye.They died from different causes - Lorna
from heatstroke and Leah from ingesting
too much water which caused her brain
to swell and now many more young
people understand the need to regulate
water intake when using the drug.
However, even measures such as these
cannot negate the effect that causes most
worry long-term mental
damage.
The long-term effects of Ecstasy on
the brain are very contentious. Some
physiological studies have shown
neuronal damage in heavy users, but
others have refuted these findings.
The studies tend to have very
small sample sizes, and many
subjects who use E also use other
substances thus confounding
results. The poverty of the data
in this area is alarming on
the one hand lseots of young
people may be permanently
damaging their brains, andon the other our Government
may be spending unnecessary
money to police the use of
the drug. The answer surely
is for good scientific research,
on which the public and
police can rely. Wouldnt
you like to be involved in
solving this mystery?
Neurophysiology - Use of Ecstasy
3
7/30/2019 Understand Life 2004
5/12
Curing disease
Cholera kills more than 150,000 peoplein developing countries each year. The
majority of these deaths occur among
young children. The dehydration
produced by acute diarrhoea results in a
high fever, which if not treated can lead
to death. Often the cost of treatment
for disease in developing countries
is prohibitive, however, in this case
understanding the physiology of fluid
regulation within the body provides a
cheap and effective method of dealing
with this deadly disease. Oral rehydration
therapy is based on administering
cocktails of household sugars and salts.
First, the patient receives a rehydrating
solution containing salt, sugar, baking
soda and potassium chloride. This
replaces lost electrolytes, and lowers the
osmotic potential of cells and interstitial
fluid. Next, a maintenance solution
is given. This solution contains the
same salts, but at lower concentration.
This means that the patient is able
to reabsorb more water from the
maintenance solution, and in addition
will not lose the absorbed electrolytes.
Where properly administered, this
therapy can provide a complete cure for
cholera and other diseases whose major
symptom is diarrhoea.
The key to the development ofsuccessful rehydration therapy lay in
understanding the transporters that
take glucose into cells. These cannot
work without sodium hence the need
for both sugar and salt in the mixture.
Huge numbers of physiologists work on
the movement of substances in and out
of cells, as problems with ion channels
are responsible for a range of diseases.
Cystic fibrosis is one of the most common
channelopathies, and many potential
therapies are based around correcting
the faulty chloride channel responsiblefor this deadly disease. So far, although
some avenues look promising, a cure
still remains elusive. Would you like to be
responsible for developing a successful
treatment?
Laura Cowell (pictured, left) looks like
any normal teenager. However, she
suffers from cystic fibrosis and must take
over 50 tablets a day and 4 injections
to combat the disabling symptoms. Her
life expectancy at the moment is only
around 30 years. Only a new treatment
can save her. Wouldnt you like to be
responsible for finding one?
picture courtesy of UNICEF India
4
7/30/2019 Understand Life 2004
6/12
Over 80,000 people in the UK have
multiple sclerosis and an estimated
2,500 people are diagnosed with MS
every year. Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a
chronic, debilitating disease that affects
your central and peripheral nervous
system.
It is thought to be an autoimmune
disease. Antibodies and white blood cells
attack the myelin sheaths surrounding
nerves, leading to inflammation and
injury to the sheath and finally to the
nerves themselves. The damage slowsor blocks muscle coordination, visual
sensation and other nerve signals.
Symptoms may include weakness or
paralysis in one or more limbs, impaired
vision, fatigue, muscle spasms and
slurred speech. The majority of sufferers
experience muscular pain, tingling and
electric shock sensations.
A cure or vaccine for MS is still eluding
researchers. Current treatments combat
individual symptoms, and of these
dealing with chronic and acute pain is
a priority. The pain relieving qualities
of cannabis have been exploited for
centuries.
However, as an illegal drug in this
country, research into its properties
is controversial and funding difficult
to secure. Opponents would say that
it is possibly addictive and leads to
other drug use, but patient groups
are campaigning for its widespread
prescription. Do you think we should be
researching in this area?
Multiple sclerosis and cannabinoids
5
7/30/2019 Understand Life 2004
7/12
Post-genomic physiologySequencing the human genome has
been compared with splitting the
atom, going to the moon and even
the works of Shakespeare. It is certainly
long over 750,000 pages would be
filled if it was typed on A4 paper. Gene
technology holds the key to science
and medicine in the 21st century, with
predictions of designer drugs, designer
babies and even immortality!
So wheres the catch? Well, much
as we have a fairly good idea of the
sequence of the 30,000 or so genes,we have little idea what proteins the
majority of these produce or how these
interact with each other in the body.
In order to understand a disease such
as Alzheimers, we will not only need
to know which genes and therefore
proteins are involved, but also how
their healthy counterparts work. And
not all of the work will be targeted
towards understanding disease.
In Japan, a research group is sequencing
the entire genome of humankinds
nearest relative, the chimpanzee, in the
hope of shedding light on the origins
of language, logic and thinking. Once
again, understanding the interactions
of proteins will be crucial.
Most scientists agree that this next
step trying to use all the information
gathered, will be much harder than
the last. Which discipline will have
the correct knowledge of how the
whole body works, and be able to
put together the work of biochemists,
geneticists and molecular biologists?
Which group of scientists will be at the
forefront of this new era for science,
and will you be a part of it?
6
7/30/2019 Understand Life 2004
8/12
Alcohol is the worlds favourite
recreational drug. In the UK an average
man drinks over 550 pints of beer a year,
a figure that has been rising steadily over
the last decade. However, in one way
or another alcohol is responsible for 20-
50,000 deaths a year. We are all familiar
with the risks of attempting to drive
while drunk, but what about simply
enjoying a few glasses of wine a day?
Can that really be a problem?
Unfortunately, it can.
Cirrhosis, a deadly disease
of the liver, has been linked
with drinking as few as 2
units a day for a woman
and 3-4 for a man (a unit is equivalent
to a half pint of normal strength beer).
The liver, the largest organ in the
body, is essential in keeping the body
functioning properly. It performs a host
of functions from neutralising poisons
(such as the breakdown products
of alcohol) to making proteins that
regulate blood clotting. You cannot live
without a functioning liver.
For years, the only complete cure was
to have a transplant. Owing to a better
understanding of the immune system,
and improved drugs and surgical
techniques, many more people survive
transplants than they used to. However,
a liver transplant is a major operation
and even if the patient is fit enough tosurvive there are never enough donor
organs to go around. Stem cell research
offers new hope in this area. A stem
cell is a cell
that can give
rise to many
others that is
its pluripotent.
The most
obvious source
of these cells is
from embryos,
but parts of the
body such as the bone marrow are also
a possibility. Some lines of research are
looking at applying cloning technology,
and transferring a nucleus of a patients
liver cell into a de-nucleated embryo,
in the hope that this will divide and
make more liver cells. These would
be identical to the persons own liver,
and could therefore be transplanted
back in with no fear of rejection. Other
researchers have found that some stem
cells are effectively hidden from the
immune system, and could therefore
be transplanted between people with
ease. Either way, this hope of growing
new organs has the potential to help all
those in need of a new liver, heart or any
other organ.
Research like this requires clinicians,
physiologists, immunologists
and many other
scientists working
side by side in the
fight against
disease.
If you like
working in a
team, and want to
work at the cutting
edge of medical
science, why not
consider a career in
physiology!
Liver physiology and alcohol abuse
7
7/30/2019 Understand Life 2004
9/12
Tim Davis, Research Assistant, Drug
Discovery, Pfizer Ltd
Tim graduated from Newcastle
University in July 2000 with a BSc (Hons)
in Physiological Sciences. After that
he spent a year doing temporary jobs
including working as a lab technician
and an admin job at Pfizer.
What does he do?
I am currently working on an AIDS
project. I am responsible for screening the
library of potential drugs (compounds)
here at Pfizer to see if we have any that
are effective against the AIDS virus. I work
with leading-edge technology and have
learned so much since I started. A good
scientific background is important but
you dont have to be a genius. Most of
my everyday understanding of my work, I
have picked up since I joined the company
enthusiasm and flexibility are very
important.
The application and interview
process for Pfizer is pretty tough.
Was it worth it?
Pfizer is currently the worlds leading
Pharmaceutical company and is now
the 4th biggest company in the world!
As such, they do look after you and it is
a very exciting place to work. I wanted
a job where I could use my science degree
and also a job where my work was going
to be meaningful. Each day I have to
think for myself, plan experiments and
present my results to the projectteam. Ultimately my findings
could lead to discovering
a drug which could
enhance the lives of
thousands of people. Im
really enjoying it so far
and would recommend a
career in the industry. Its an
excellent starting point for anyone
considering a career in science.
Tims advice for prospective
students?
Always choose a degree that truly
interests you. Dont be put off by careers
that you think will be too hard to get
into. You dont know unless you try and
enthusiasm gets you a long way!
John Reid, Senior House Officer,
Aberdeen Royal Infirmary
Rather than go straight to medical school,
John chose to do a first degree in BiologicalSciences specialising in neuroscience at
Edinburgh University.
Fascinated by diseases of the brain, he
then went on to do a PhD at Oxford
looking at the role of potassium channels
in the brain in Parkinsons disease. Having
obtained his PhD, he then studied for
a further 3 years at Southampton to
become a doctor of medicine.
My science background made exams
easier during the training. I want to
specialise in neurology and my degrees
in neuroscience definitely help when
applying for jobs. In the end, I want to
combine research and medicine and the
doctorate will be invaluable then.
Being a senior house officer is hard work.
John is on call overnight one night a week,
and has to work a lot of weekends.
So why does he do it?
I enjoy getting to know the patients, and
working in a challenging environment
where Im always learning new things.
What advice would you give
someone considering their career
options?
Follow your interests! Physiology can
lead to many different careers, and even if
you are just fascinated by biology thats a
good enough reason.
Real stories of real physiologists...
8
7/30/2019 Understand Life 2004
10/12
Real stories of real physiologists...John Macgill
John Macgill is the
Director of a Scottish
firm of political
consultants, a role
he moved to at the
beginning of 2002
after seventeen years
as a journalist.
John graduated from Dundee University
in 1985 with a BSc (Hons.; 2.1) in
Physiology. Although he enjoyed hisdegree, John was clear that he wanted to
follow a career as a broadcast journalist.
Having gained voluntary work experience
on local radio stations, John was accepted
onto the BBCs Local Radio Journalist
Training Scheme.
My physiology degree helped,
says John, not least because
it made me different from
the hundreds of graduates
with degrees in English or
Media Studies. The skills I
developed studying for a BSc
were almost identical to those
required of a journalist: time
management, research, presenting
and summarising facts and being
able to defend your work under scrutiny.
Journalists have to be able to communicate
in a way that is appropriate for their
particular audience. They need to have
enquiring minds, and must not be afraid
to ask questions or disagree with accepted
wisdom. These are skills which should be
second nature to any scientist.
John has worked across radio and
television including posts as a reporter and
correspondent, and later as a magazine
editor before being lured away to political
consultancy.
I suspect my time in the Physiology
Department at Dundee is to blame for
the many arguments over science and
medicine stories that I had with editors
while I was a reporter.
It certainly influenced my approach, as an
editor, to consumer scares and apparent
medical breakthroughs.
Even in my present job, which is all about
research and the presentation of facts on
behalf of clients, the skills and disciplines
acquired as a science undergraduate
continue to play an important part.
Zai Ahmad, MPhil student and
research assistant, University of
Leeds
Zai has a variety of qualifications,
including an HNC in applied biologyand a BSc in Marine studies. However,
she now knows she wants to pursue
an academic career in neuroscience.
She is currently taking an MPhil using
immunohistochemistry to determine
how the brain regulates blood pressure,
which will form an excellent basis for a
PhD and academic career.
Why has Zai chosen to stay in
academia?
Research in academia allows you to
work independently. I have always
been interested in medical research,
but was not sure which field to pursue
until I started studying neuroscience. Im
enjoying taking the MPhil and it will give
me a greater understanding and hands-
on experience which I will need to develop
my own research project. Although my
supervisor is normally on hand to discuss
ideas, you are encouraged to drive your
own research, which makes the project
feel like your own.
Travelling to conferences is excellent,
as you get to present and discuss your
research with a broad spectrum of
people, some of whom may present
you with ideas you hadnt considered
before.
Is it all a bed of roses?
I wish! Its easy to become disillusioned
when the project isnt progressing as a
result of failed experiments. Sometimes
lab work can be a little repetitive, and
hours can be long. However, your time
is your own, so you can work when and
how you want.
If you had your time over again,
would you do anything different?
I think getting good careers advice
is really important! A degree in
physiology will definitely open up a lot
of possibilities.
9
7/30/2019 Understand Life 2004
11/12
Careers in PhysiologyThe case studies will have given you
a taste of what some of the career
possibilities are if you choose to do a
degree in physiology. There is a wealth
of different possibilities for students
interested in studying in research,
from the commercially driven, cutting
edge world of industry to the blue skies
creativity of a university laboratory.
Working for a pharmaceutical company
often opens up possibilities of moving
into management, marketing or sales
rather than staying on the bench. Good
with words and science?
Why not consider a career in scientific
journalism or publishing, going
around the world to report on
discoveries and ensuring the correct
and effective communication of ideas.
The leisure industryis one of the fastest
growing areas, employing many sports
physiologists. You could even be working
alongside one of our top athletes.
Many A level or Higher students are
interested in medicine or veterinary
sciencebut are intimidated by entrance
grades and long periods of study.
Graduate entry into these courses is
becoming more and more common,
and allows you to both keep your options
open and increase your chances of
securing a place. Physiology is a perfect
grounding for either of these careers. In
fact many physiology graduates go on
to do a postgraduate course in other
subjects allied to medicine, such as
radiotherapy, optometry or speech
science.
There are many other possible career
choices available to you, such as
patent law, science communication,
teaching and technology transfer.
A percentage of physiology graduatesdo not stay in science but choose careers
instead in other areas such as finance,
marketing or the media.
Employers know that science degrees
are rigorous and that science graduates
will have excellent transferable skills.
A degree in business studies will only
prepare you for careers in business,
whereas a physiology degree will keep
all doors open to you. Which would you
rather choose?
Only you will know what is the best
career for you, and make sure you make
an informed a choice as possible. The
Life Science Careers Fairs organised
by a group of societies including the
Physiological Society are the only
careers fairs targeted at biological
science students. They run each year
in November at Universities around
the country. Be sure to attend one in
your 2nd or 3rd year, and also to check
out some of the sources of further
information given below. Remember
there are loads of possible careers out
there waiting for you, it is up to you to
make it happen!
Getting there
OK, so you have decided you want to
do a degree in physiology or a related
science, so what next? Where should
you go? Almost every university offers
a degree of some kind in a physiological
science. Most will want post sixteen
qualificationsinbiologyandchemistry.
Exactly what grades are required varies
hugely and it is best to check individual
universities on the UCAS website for
details. Make sure that whichever course
you go for you get lots of choice for
which modules to take every year, and
that there is a large practical component.
Also if you have a burning interest in the
brain, sports science or bio-informatics
look at University websites for groups
of scientists specialising in these
areas. Dont be scared of contacting a
department you are interested in and
asking for graduate recruitment statistics
or third year project topics.
The choices you are about to make will
affect the rest of your life. Make your
own decisions and make sure they are
the right ones for you!
For further information please contact:
Education Officer
The Physiological SocietyPO Box 11319
London WC1X 8WQ
Email [email protected]
Tel 020 7269 5710
Website www.physoc.org
Other useful websites include:
www.biology4all.com
www.ucas.ac.uk
www.biocareers.org.uk
www.nextwave.org
www.pfizer.co.uk
10
7/30/2019 Understand Life 2004
12/12
The Physiological Society, PO Box 11319, London WC1X 8WQ
Website www.physoc.org
The Physiological Society is a registered charity, no 211585.
This booklet was produced by The Physiological Society, with the help
of Dr David Pepper and Year 12 students Cassandra Cooke, Susie Flexer
and James Hunt from Newcastle Under Lyme School. The Physiological
Society gratefully acknowledges the support of Pfizer Ltd.
Graphic Design by Terry Bambrook - [email protected]
ThePhysiologicalSociety