Understanding and Managing Organizational...

International Journal of Recent Advances in Organizational Behaviour and Decision Sciences (IJRAOB)

An Online International Research Journal (ISSN: 2311-3197)

2016 Vol: 2 Issue: 1

697 www.globalbizresearch.org

Understanding and Managing Organizational Politics

Robert C. Schneider,

The College at Brockport,

State University of New York, USA.

E-mail: [email protected]

___________________________________________________________________________________

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to present a basis for an understanding of organizational politics and

provide various approaches to decreasing its presence and generally negative effects on the

organization. Self-interest is a common component of organizational politics and is represented

by members’ interests to preserve one’s career (Vigoda, 2000) and to advance one’s career

(Randall, Cropanzano, Borman, & Birjulin, 1999). The negative effects of organizational

politics can ultimately undermine the overall goals of the organization and include: the playing

of favorites (Malik, Danish, & Ghafoor, 2009); poor organizational citizenship behaviors

(Chang, et al., 2009); the decline in job satisfaction and increases of job stress (Miller,

Rutherford, & Kolodinsky, 2008; an indifferent employee attitude, and poor job performance

(Witt, Andrews, & Kacmar, 2000); disruption of return on employee investment (Hochwarter,

Kacmar, Perrewe, & Johnson, 2003); and lower morale (Chang et al., 2009). Strategies found

effective in reducing organizational politics include but are not limited to: involving employees

in decision making, fostering teamwork, building trust and social support, hiring politically

under-skilled employees, and basing personnel and program decisions on objective criteria.

Politics’ omnipresence across organizations presents a challenge for managers in that it will

never be eradicated but must be consistently addressed if organizational outcomes are to be

achieved and maximized.

___________________________________________________________________________

Key Words: organizational support, work environment, job satisfaction, personnel actions

mailto:[email protected]





1. Introduction

Politics is a part of most, if not all, organizations in some form (Brouer, Harris, & Kacmar,

2011). Its omnipresent nature requires that it not only be understood but also be addressed by

managers. Generally negative, organizational politics stands to minimize the production of an

organization and potentially undermine an organization’s ability to function at the most basic

levels. Managers can mitigate the detrimental effects of politics by not only executing specific

measures that address organizational politics, but also by implementing sound overall

management approaches as indirect deterrents to prevent its negative influence on the

organization.

A common component included in the many definitions of organizational politics, is

members’ placement of self-interests ahead of organizational interests (Chang, Rosen, & Levy,

2009; Mintzberg, 1983; Parker, Dipboye, & Jackson, 1995; Randall, Cropanzano, Borman, &

Birjulin, 1999; Valle & Witt, 2001). The disregard for organizational protocol is also a common

element of organizational politics (Randall et al., 1999). Members of an organization,

supervisors as well as subordinates, who behave in a manner that places self-interest ahead of

the organizational goals are engaging in organizational politics, which can compromise

productivity.

Whether it be an aspiration for individual power, personal awards, promotions for oneself,

or other areas of self-interest that do not support the broad production oriented goals of an

organization, acting to achieve these personal agendas is destructive to healthy organizational

outcomes. Expending energies on personal agendas such as power are quite common and to be

expected; unfortunately though, it leaves those without power disinterested in contributing to

the organization (Vigoda-Gadot & Talmud, 2010). Given that one’s personal agendas can be

maintained through politics, politics is often practiced to ensure that structures remain, so as to

allow the status quo to also remain, and thus protecting one’s self-interest, e.g., power (Parker

et al., 1995).

2. Organizational Politics Literature

The on-going presence of organizational politics despite management’s efforts to eliminate

it, is evidence that members of the organization consistently engage in politics. To not engage

in organizational politics could compromise the work-place well-being of the employee. In fact,

employees were found to be less likely to lose their job if they were engaged in political

behaviors at work (Vigoda, 2000). Not engaging politically, even if only in a minimal manner,

could leave one without a support base, regardless of the negative influences of organizational

politics. To be politically inept and/or choosing not to engage in organizational politics as an

employee could lead to employee marginalization and exploitation. Choosing to not enter the

political fracas could be damaging to an employee’s ability to prosper in the organization.





2.1 Organizational Politics’ Effect on Productivity

Driven heavily by self-interest, organizational politics can result in myriad negative

organizational outcomes that can lead to the ultimate demise of the organization by lowering

productivity and profits (Miller, Rutherford, & Kolodinsky, 2008; Vigoda-Gadot & Talmud,

2010). Organizational politics sets the stage for a negative work environment (Cropanzano,

Howes, Grandey, & Toth, 1997), which does not support production. Fear and lower employee

confidence are byproducts of organizational politics that support a disruptive organization,

making goal achievement difficult (Cropanzano et al., 1997). Employee perceptions of

organizational politics can also negatively impact job related outcomes and does so when

employees perceive their work environment to be political (Vigoda-Gadot & Talmud, 2010).

Overall, organizational politics impacts employees negatively because they feel like they have

no control within the organization, in addition to a lack of trust of those in power positions

(Malik, Danish, & Ghafoor, 2009).

The negative influences of organizational politics that, over time, can render the

organization dysfunctional are many and somewhat subjective; thus, those presented here are

not to be considered an exhaustive list. Included as negative influences of organizational

politics are: the playing of favorites (Malik, et al., 2009); poor organizational citizenship

behaviors such as backstabbing among employees (Chang, et al., 2009); the decline in job

satisfaction and increases of job stress (Miller, et al., 2008); an indifferent employee attitude

shown in decreases in commitment to the organization and its goals, and poor job performance

(Witt, Andrews, & Kacmar, 2000); negligent behaviors (Vigoda, 2000); disruption of return on

employee investment (Hochwarter, Kacmar, Perrewe, & Johnson, 2003); lower morale (Chang

et al., 2009); and higher rates of employee turnover ( Randall, et al., 1999). Selected negative

influences of organizational politics are deserving of additional discussion.

2.2 Decline in Employee Job Satisfaction

An organization staffed with dissatisfied employees will experience difficulty achieving its

goals (Breaux, Munyon, Hochwarter, & Ferris, 2009; Vallen & Witt, 2001). Generally, job

satisfaction was found to be lower across demographics, when organizational politics were

perceived to be present in an organization (Parker et al., 1995). Interestingly, though, the job

satisfaction of younger, less experienced employees were found to be less effected when

organizational politics was high in comparison to older employees who have been in an

organization longer (Malik et al., 2009). Irrespective of employee age, it is important to

understand the detrimental potential of decreases in job satisfaction across employees that is

brought on by organizational politics.





2.3 Unsettled Work Environment

The perception of organizational politics heavily influences how employees come to

understand the work environment (Parker et al., 1995). Found to negatively influence the work

environment, organizational politics creates an environment in which employees question their

value, skills, and contributions to the organization; thus, lowering their overall confidence

(Hochwarter et al., 2003). Another concern is the contagious effects that negativity can create

in the work environment. Organizations that are highly political fail to reward organizational

goal based performances, but instead, recognize factors such as membership in a group or

amount of power held in the company (Chang, Rosen, & Siemieniec, 2012). When management

deemphasizes behaviors that support organizational goals, in favor of politically based

behaviors, the work environment becomes unsettled and employees become insecure, making

for an environment that sees employees spending time securing their political well-being

instead of focusing on goals.

2.4 Indifferent Employee Attitude

Employees are invested in organizations in which they are employed. Whether the

employee investments are time, effort, or work related skills, employees expect something in

return, e.g., money, and career advancement for their work-place investments (Randall, et al.,

1999). Organizational politics has the potential to disrupt returns that employees expect to

receive from the organization for their work-related investments. When employees are under

the perception that decisions within the organization are politically driven, they become

indifferent to formally stated missions, initiatives, and long and short term goals presented to

them as organizational initiatives by management. Managers who give employees reason to

believe that decisions are made politically should expect employees to become indifferent

toward management’s formal approach to achieving organizational goals. If management does

not reinforce employee behaviors that support the formally stated initiatives of management, it

should not come as a surprise when employees become indifferent to the formal expectations

of management or even fully disengage from the process and begin to strategize on behalf of

their own self-interests.

2.5 Favoritism Based Personnel Actions

Personnel decisions such as pay raises and promotions that are based on favoritism over

merit are driven by a political culture that favors those on the powerful end of that culture

(Malik et al., 2009). When cronyism, through politics, reaches a point of rewarding employees

for reasons other than previously agreed on performance based system, the message is sent to

the organization that politicking is more important than performance. If personal friendships

and exchanges of favors become reasons for workplace rewards, it is here that employees will

place their energies and not on organizational goals. Managers whose interest it is to manage





outcome oriented organizations must reinforce goal-oriented behaviors on the part of

employees and not reward political behaviors.

2.6 Decrease in Employee Job Commitment

Demographics aside, employees seem not to prefer politics within an organization. When

however, examining age, older employees were found to be less committed to a politically

driven organization than younger employees (Miller et al., 2008). It is possible that younger

employees are simply focused on directives put forth to them and do not know or care to what

extent an organization is political. Often, younger employees do not gain a full grasp on the

political environment in an organization until they have experienced it for several years.

Contrarily, more experienced (“older”) employees are more likely to fully understand the

realities of organizational politics and the unfairness and lack of productivity that it brings to

organizations. For similar reasons, international employees also seem less likely to be disrupted

by organizational politics than do domestic employees (Miller et al., 2008). Given the generally

less stable overall environment, e.g., visa, citizenship, and language concerns, international

employees may be less willing to risk the personal damages that can come from choosing not

to address or engage in organizational politics.

2.7 Diminished Organizational Citizenship Behavior

The presence of organizational politics holds a negative relationship with “organizational

citizenship behavior,” which is defined as: “discretionary behavior that enhances the social

context in which the technical core of the organization operates” (Chang et al., 2012, p. 396).

In laymen’s terms, good citizenship behavior might be expressed as shared “good will” among

fellow employees and management across an organization. When political interactions

encroach into the organization and eventually come to control the direction of the organization,

citizenship behaviors will reflect the very same self-interest that is at the core of organizational

politics. Management must allow good citizenship behavior a chance by not rewarding political

behaviors taking place in the organization.

2.8 Job Stress

Job stress can be caused by a variety of factors, such as high pressure situations, obstacles

to completing a task, and lack of recognition from managers (Semmer, 2006). It again becomes

apparent that managers are positioned to play a positive role in eliminating politically caused

stress that can negatively impact organizational production. An environment marked by poor

social relationships among employees, conflict among employees, and a lack of social support

from co-workers and managers produces some of the most stressful situations in the work

environment (Semmer, 2006). Although not exclusively caused by politics, work place stresses

can be mitigated through strategies to reduce organizational politics.





3. The Need to Manage Organizational Politics

Managerial awareness of organizational politics is helpful, if not necessary, for the most

effective reduction in politics through the implementation of strategies. Research consistently

supports the idea that organizational politics has to be carefully managed, or it will be

detrimental to the work environment (Chang et al., 2009; Cropanzano et al., 1997; Randall et

al., 1999). There are several options available for managers as they aspire to reduce negative

effects of organizational politics.

3.1 Maintaining a Collegial Organizational Climate

Organizational climate can help mitigate the negative effects of organizational politics.

Shared perceptions related to values, norms, beliefs, and procedures, in addition to the social

and organizational conditions in which workers perform their assignments, generally support a

collegial organizational climate (Ayim & Salminen, 2007). If values within an organization are

truly shared across employees and management, a natural collective sense of belonging across

members of the organization will create a sense of security that will help decrease political

attempts to not only gain security but to also advance within the organization. Thus, focusing

on creating an amiable organizational climate, regardless of the degree of political behaviors

taking place in an organization, will influence factors such as job performance, work behavior,

and motivation levels, which generally support productivity (Ayim & Salminen, 2007).

3.2 Preserving Job Satisfaction

Organizational politics, if not properly managed, establishes a basis for the unhappiness of

those employees who are not the beneficiaries of political maneuvering. It is the responsibility

of individuals in leadership positions to ensure that politics does not reduce job satisfaction

(Breaux et al., 2009). Employees struggle to be satisfied with their job when there is a strong

political influence on the organization, which makes it important that the work environment is

enhanced through managerial support of employees (Parker et al., 1995). The need to maintain

employee satisfaction or at least prevent employee dissatisfaction is of the utmost importance

to successfully harness the collective efforts of employees for the purpose of achieving

organizational goals.

3.3 Fostering Organizational Support

Organizational support is necessary if the potentially negative effects of organizational

politics are to be diminished (Hochwarter et al., 2003; Randall et al., 1999; Shanock &

Eisenberger, 2006). It is management that must spearhead organizational support to help reduce

organizational politics. Whether it be the support of employee career opportunities (Parker et

al., 1995), or the support of general attitudes and behaviors of employees that are shaped in a

positive manner (Foong-ming, 2008) when the organization provides support, positive

outcomes in the form of enhanced productivity are the result. When high levels of





organizational support are perceived by employees, they feel a greater sense of effort and

obligation toward the organization and its goals (Arshadi, 2011; Chang et al., 2009); in turn,

agendas of self-interest lose their focus (Foong-ming, 2008).

Overall, there tends to be a feeling that organizational support pushes an organization in a

positive and stronger direction despite the persistence of organizational politics and its negative

persuasions (Cropanzano et al., 1997). Not surprisingly, politics seems to rise when

management does not provide organizational support (Shoss, Eisenberger, Restubog, &

Zagenczyk, 2013). Without organizational support, employees begin to question whether the

organization cares about their well-being (Arshadi, 2011; Hochwarter et al., 2003).

3.4 Allowing for Employee Control

Control over one’s work environment was also found to reduce the effects of politics. One

form of control of one’s work environment, employee self-monitoring, was perceived to help

reduce the effects of politics (Chang et al., 2012). When employees are provided with a sense

of security through control of their environment, their need to engage in politics to gain control

diminishes.

Contrarily, employees with low levels of self-monitoring were found to be influenced

negatively by organizational politics (Chang et al., 2012). An astute manager will learn the

personalities of his employees and allow employees who he considers capable and responsible,

to self-monitor. Allowing proven employees to self-monitor will prevent those very same

employees from engaging in damaging politics to gain the control over their environment to

which they feel entitled.

4. Strategies to Diminish Organizational Politics

Various managerial strategies that serve the purpose of diminishing organizational politics

are available to the manager. Implementing such strategies can be helpful as management aims

to reduce organizational politics in the interest of diminishing its stifling effects on productivity,

i.e., goal achievement. Strategies found effective in reducing organizational politics include but

are not limited to: involving employees in decision making, fostering teamwork, building trust

and social support, hiring politically under-skilled employees, and basing personnel and

program decisions on objective criteria.

4.1 Involving Employees in Decision-Making

Empowering employees by allowing them input through involvement in the decision

making process will meet their need or want to be involved, thus taking away their sense of

urgency to engage in politics to become involved. Organizational politics was found to decrease

when employees were included in decision-making within the organization, and doing so

reduced the negative effects on relationships caused by organizational politics (Witt et al.,

2000).





Involving employees provides them with a greater sense of control over their job, which

makes them feel as if they have power within the organization (Witt et al., 2000). Keeping

employees involved in making decisions in an organization is one way to suppress the

controversial presence of political agendas. A balanced approach, however, should be

considered, when allowing employees more involvement in the direction of an organization.

Over involving employees who have limited interest in being involved in decision making can

actually result in an increase of political behaviors for the purpose of removing oneself from

input to decision making and the accountability that may come with it. In fact, the typical

employee may prefer limited control over a large amount of control that also requires them to

be held accountable (Breaux et al., 2009).

4.2 Emphasis on Teamwork

Management’s emphasis and encouragement on teamwork is a strategy to soften the

negative impact of organizational politics in the workplace (Parker et al., 1995; Valle & Witt,

2001). An emphasis on teamwork, in a manner that is mutually beneficial to both the workplace

and employee can be effective. The manager who artificially props up the importance of being

a team player will not be effective in overcoming organizational politics unless the expectations

of teamwork also support individual needs of employees. Given that employees engage in

organizational politics for self-serving purposes, the wise manager will incorporate a plan that

meets individual wants and needs of employees while at the same time brings employees

together as a team to also achieve objectives of the organization.

4.3 Building Trust and Social Support

Trust and social support can act as strong moderators in the relationship between

organizational politics and job outcomes (Vigoda-Gadot & Talmud, 2010). As organizational

politics festers within an organization, managers and co-workers who build trust through

morally upstanding actions and who show a genuine interest in employees’ personal lives, as

employees deem appropriate, place themselves in a favorable position to diminish

organizational politics. Trust from employees will only be gained if managers assume a genuine

approach to supporting things most important to employees. Managers who work to build trust

and social support among employees can help negate the detrimental effects of organizational

politics (Vigoda-Gadot & Talmud, 2010).

4.4 Hiring Politically Under-skilled Employees

Job performance and satisfaction was found to be greatest in a political environment when

employee political skill was low and managerial political skill was high (Brouer et al., 2011).

Furthermore, Brower et al. goes on to point out that the presence of highly politically skilled

employees does not automatically mean that the negative effects of organizational politics will





be reduced. In fact, when both employees and managers are politically skilled, the negative

effects can be more severe than if employees are naïve in the political arena.

Employees who are unaware of a political environment, seem not to be affected by it

(Brouer et al., 2011). However, the presence of highly skilled employees and managers make

for an environment conducive to on-going political encounters within the organization. Over-

engagement in politics, reinforced by an abundance of organizational members who are skillful

in politics throughout the organization runs the risk of members spending an overwhelming

amount of time pursuing political advantages instead of actual work related outcomes. As a

strategy to mitigate the potential damaging organizational effects of politics resulting from the

presence of both politically skilled managers and employees, hiring young professionals who

have yet to gain the political wherewithal to engage in the extended amount of politics that can

be damaging to organizational productivity, should be considered.

4.5 Base Personnel and Program Decisions on Objective Criteria

Organizational politics can impact a variety of processes that take place in the work

environment every day, including employee performance evaluations and other critical

decisions made during the decision-making process (Chang et al., 2009). Personnel decisions

include but are not limited to hiring, promotions, and rewards. Although some of the most

important decisions are personnel based, decisions are also made that effect program resources

and the overall direction of the organization, which can also be strongly influenced by politics.

The employee performance evaluation is a method of employee assessment on which

personnel decisions are commonly based. When organizational politics establishes an

environment where managers and peers do not use objective criteria to complete employee

evaluations, employee behaviors become politically centered in the interest of self-preservation

instead of the goals of the organization. When it is politics that influences or even drives

personnel decisions, employees will conform by also practicing politics to enhance their

probability of gaining favorable decisions. Doing so will further increase a cultural of

organizational politics and the negative repercussions that come with it.

5. Indirect Deterrents to Organizational Politics

In much the same way that the pedagogy/teaching literature claims that the best way to

prevent classroom discipline problems is to implement sound teaching methods (Sugai &

Horner, 2008) one also might argue that the best way to prevent negative outcomes resulting

from organizational politics is to implement sound managerial strategies that require the

attention and time of employees that might otherwise be spent engaging in politics. Motivation

and employee engagement are two such approaches that are not mutually exclusive. A

genuinely engaged employee is a motivated employee. Implementing effective job designs is

another indirect deterrent to organizational politics.





5.1 Motivation

With the sense of direction that motivation provides employees, it allows employees a focus

that offers the ability to push aside the negative effects of organizational politics. The two

common types of motivation, extrinsic and intrinsic, can be effective as methods to dissipate

organizational politics.

Extrinsic motivation, can be used as a method to focus employee behaviors on the goals

of the organization and can overshadow organizational politics. Coming from “outside” a

person, extrinsic motivation, can take place when managers align performance

incentives/rewards, such as promotions and monetary incentives (Danish & Usman, 2010). If a

rewards system is in place that reinforces actions supporting organizational goals, employees

will act in manners consistent with the goals of the organization and inconsistent with

destructive organizational politics. Recognition and praise also serve as effective extrinsic

motivational behaviors and can take place in the form of: personal recognition, recognition of

work practices, recognition of job dedication, and recognition of results (Brun & Dugas, 2008).

Intrinsic motivation, which involves employees working on a task because they enjoy and

find it worth their time on a personal level (Hardre & Reeve, 2009) can also overshadow the

negative effects of organizational politics. Although managers may be less able to utilize

intrinsic motivation as a strategy to dissipate organizational politics, they, however can exercise

efforts to match employee interests with organizational goals in a manner that will create a

natural ‘fit’ between the employees and the organization. In doing so, employees will be

intrinsically motivated or motivated from within oneself to engage in efforts that do not include

influences associated with organizational politics.

5.2 Employee Engagement

One of the most critical factors on which managers can focus to diminish organizational

politics is employee engagement. In doing so, a work environment conducive to employee

efficiency and productivity is created. The general meaning of employee engagement, involves

employees being involved in work, showing extreme amounts of enthusiasm for work, and

expressing a willingness to help the organization achieve success and be productive (Kompaso

& Sridevi, 2010). Employee engagement can also be seen in employees that show significant

amounts of energy, vigor, dedication, and absorption toward their work (Saks, 2006).

5.3 Implementing Effective Job Designs

One of the ways that managers can work on enhancing employee motivation and

engagement in their employees is by implementing an effective job design (Garg & Rastori,

2006). Establishing an effective job design will increase the motivational levels of employees.

Although various approaches exist to job design, some common elements of a job design

include: providing workers with a greater variety of work, providing workers chances for career





and personal growth, providing workers control and responsibility in planning their

performance, skill and task variety, task significance, giving employees autonomy, providing

employees with feedback, giving employees a sense of responsibility for the work they produce,

and designing the job around choice, social norms, and expectations (Garg & Rastori, 2006).

Managers who create and implement job designs, based on motivational criteria specific to

employees, support an engaged and productive employee whose interest in politics will be

minimal.

6. Summary

Astute and strong management is necessary if organizational politics is to be stifled, in the

interest of maximizing productivity. Insecure and weak managers will succumb to the political

persuasions of the more powerful employees. Therefore it is necessary that leadership of the

organization is proficient in establishing and implementing a system of management that is

transparent and based on performance based criteria. It is equally important that managers who

choose performance and outcome based management over politics are supported from their

supervisors. When politics is allowed to disrupt the managerial process that emphasizes data

based decisions, employees will quickly adjust and begin to engage in political behavior instead

of performance based behavior. If it is political behaviors that are rewarded, employees will

behave politically. Conversely, if it is performance behaviors that are rewarded, employees will

perform. Not to be forgotten is that in the final analysis, politics in organizations is omnipresent

(Brouer et al., 2011). Thus, if one believes that politics can be eradicated from an organization,

although refreshing, he is most likely naïve. Even a strict implementation of a performance

based approach will not make for a politically free organization. The best one can do is remain

focused on reinforcing performance based behaviors and not politically based behaviors, while

also utilizing strategies to diminish political behaviors that arise. Assuming all other business

circumstances are favorable, if politics can be kept in the background and prevented from being

the center of management and employee behaviors, the organization stands a good chance of

achieving long term productivity.

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