Understanding Sociology & Sociological Research

Chapters 1 & 2

A Look Ahead

• How did sociology develop?• How does it differ from

other social sciences?• Who are the pioneers and what

are their theoretical perspectives?• How does sociology help us

develop a sociological imagination?

What is Sociology?

• Sociology: Scientific study of social behavior and human groups

• Focus on:– How relationships

influence people’s attitudes and behavior

– How societies develop and change

Sociological Perspective

• Special vision

– Seeing the general in the particular– Seeing the strange in the familiar– Seeing individuality in social context

Benefits of the Sociological Perspective

• Question “common sense”• Assess opportunities and constraints • Empowerment• Living in a diverse world

The Sociological Imagination

• C. Wright Mills’ sociological imagination:– An awareness of the

relationship between an individual and the wider society

– Ability to view society as an outsider would

Sociology and the Social Sciences

• Study influence society has on people’s attitudes and behavior– Seek to understand ways in which

people interact and shape society– Examine social relationships scientifically

Sociology and the Social Sciences

• Science: Body of knowledge obtained by methods based on systematic observation– Natural science: Study of physical features of

nature and the ways they interact and change– Social science: Study of social features of

humans and the ways they interact and change

Sociology and Common Sense

• Sociologists do not accept something as fact because “everyone knows it”– Each piece of information must

be tested, recorded, and analyzed

Key concepts in Sociology

• Skepticism– Uncovering “inconvenient facts”- Weber

• Method of organizing perspectives• Objectivity• Ethics• Critical thinking

The Development of Sociology

• Industrial Revolution– Growth of cities• Pull of factories• Push of enclosure

• Political Change – Pursuit of self-interest

Early Thinkers

• Auguste Comte (1798–1857)– Systematic investigation of behavior– Coined term “sociology”

• Harriet Martineau (1802–1876)– Studied social behavior in Britain and U.S.– Emphasized impact of economy, law, trade,

health, and population on social problems• Herbert Spencer (1820–1903)– Studied “evolutionary” change in society

Émile Durkheim (1858–1917)

• Behavior must be understood within larger social context– Anomie: Loss of direction felt in a

society when social control of individual behavior becomes ineffective

Max Weber (1864–1920)

• To comprehend behavior, one must learn subjective meaning people attach to actions– Verstehen: understanding; insight– Ideal type: Construct for evaluating specific cases

Karl Marx (1818–1883)

• Society divided between two classes that clash in pursuit of interests– The Communist Manifesto• Working class

should overthrow existing class system

– Emphasized group identification and associations that influence one’s place in society

Modern Developments

• W. E. B. Du Bois (1868-1963)– Black sociologists assisted struggle

for racially egalitarian society– Knowledge essential in combating prejudice– Double consciousness: Division of individual’s

identity into two or more social realities

Twentieth-Century Developments

• Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929)– Used sociological perspective

to examine face-to-face groups• Jane Addams (1860–1935)– Combined intellectual inquiry, social

service work, and political activism– Co-founded Hull House

Modern Developments

• Pierre Bourdieu (1930–2002)– Capital sustains individuals and

families from one generation to the next– Cultural capital: noneconomic goods

reflected in knowledge of language and arts– Social capital: collective benefit of social networks

Why Theory?

• Allows for full exploration of an issue or problem

• 3 sociological theoretical paradigms– Sets of assumptions that guide thinking and

research

Functionalist Perspective

• Emphasizes the way parts of a society are structured to maintain its stability

• Views society as vast network of connected parts• Each helps maintain

the system as a whole

Functionalist Perspective

• Manifest functions: Open, stated, conscious functions; intended and recognized consequences of an aspect of society

• Latent functions: Unconscious or unintended functions; may reflect hidden purposes

• Dysfunctions: Elements or processes of society that may disrupt a social system or reduce its stability

Conflict Perspective

• Assumes social behavior best understood in terms of conflict or tension between competing groups– Conflict theorists interested in how

institutions may help maintain privileges of some groups and keep others subservient

Conflict Perspective

• The Feminist view– Sees inequality in gender as central

to all behavior and organization– Often allied with conflict theory– Broadened social behavior by extending

analysis beyond male point of view

Interactionist Perspective

• Generalizes about everyday forms of social interaction to explain society as a whole– Humans viewed as living in

a world of meaningful objects– Nonverbal communication: Includes

gestures, facial expressions, and postures

What is the Scientific Method?

• Systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem– Defining the problem– Reviewing the literature– Formulating the hypothesis– Selecting the research design

and collecting and analyzing data– Developing the conclusion

Scientific Method

• Defining the Problem– Operational definition: Explanation of

an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow researchers to assess the concept

• Reviewing the Literature– Refines problem under study

Scientific Method

• Formulating the Hypothesis– Hypothesis: Speculative statement

about the relationship between two or more factors known as variables

– Variable: Measurable trait or characteristic subject to change under different conditions• Independent variable: Variable

hypothesized to cause or influence another• Dependent variable: Action depends

on influence of the independent variable

Scientific Method

• Formulating the Hypothesis (continued)

– Causal logic: Involves relationships between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one event leading to the other

– Correlation: Exists when change in one variable coincides with change in another• Correlation does not necessarily indicate causation

Figure 2-3: Causal Logic – page 36

Major Research Designs

• Research design: Detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically– Surveys– Observation– Experiments– Existing sources

Surveys

• Study that provides sociologists with information about how people act or think– Interview: Researcher obtains information

through face-to-face or telephone questioning– Questionnaire: Researcher uses printed or written

form to obtain information from respondent

Ethnography

• Collecting information through direct participation and/or by closely watching a group or community– Ethnography: Efforts to describe

an entire social setting through extended systematic observation

– Observation: Sociologist joins group to get accurate sense of how it operates

Surveys

• Quantitative research: Collects and reports data primarily in numerical form

• Qualitative research: Relies on what is seen in field and naturalistic settings; often focuses on small groups and communities

Experiments

• Experiment: Artificially created situation that allows researcher to manipulate variables– Experimental group:

Exposed to independent variable– Control group: Not exposed

to independent variable– Hawthorne Effect: Unintended influence

of observers or experiments on subjects

Use of Existing Sources

• Secondary analysis: Research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data

• Content analysis: Systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale

Scientific Method

• Collecting and Analyzing Data– Selecting the Sample• Sample: Selection from a larger population

that is statistically typical of that population• Random sample: When every

member of a population has the same chance of being selected• Snowball samples (Convenience Samples):

participants recruited through word of mouth or by posting notices on the Internet

Scientific Method

• Collecting and Analyzing Data– Ensuring Validity and Reliability• Validity: Degree to which the

measure reflects the phenomenon being studied• Reliability: Extent to

which the measure provides consistent results

Scientific Method

• Developing the Conclusion– Supporting the Hypothesis• Sociological studies do not always generate

data that support original hypothesis

– Controlling for other factors• Control variable: factor held constant to

test the impact of the independent variable

Figure 2-1: The Scientific Method – page 33

Using Statistics

• Percentage: Shows portion of 100• Mean: Average; sum of a series of

values divided by the number of values• Mode: Single most common

value in a series of values• Median: Midpoint that divides

a series of values into two groups with equal numbers of values

Figure 2-2: Educational Level and Household Income in the United States – page 35

Source: 2010 American Community Survey in Bureau of the Census 2011b:Table S1903; 2011a:Table 233.

Figure 2-4: Impact of a College Education on Income – page 37

Source: Author’s analysis of DeNavas-Walt et al. 2011, Detailed Table PINC-03.

Ethics of Research

• Code of Ethics (ASA, 1997)– Maintain objectivity and integrity in research– Respect subjects’ right to privacy and dignity– Protect subjects from personal harm– Preserve confidentiality– Seek informed consent– Acknowledge collaboration and assistance– Disclose sources of financial support