1 Running Head: WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT IN ETHIOPIA
Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture:
Understanding the Five Domains of Empowerment in the Context of Livestock Ownership,
Animal Source Food Consumption, and Child Malnutrition in Haramaya, Ethiopia
Anna Rabil
University of Florida
2 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT IN ETHIOPIA
Abstract
Livestock ownership, particularly by women, and Animal Source Food (ASF) consumption have
both been associated with reduced rates of chronic malnutrition in children. The Five Domains
of Empowerment (5DE), as characterized in the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index
(WEAI), include production, resources, income, leadership, and time. Empowerment of women
across these domains has been associated with greater productivity and improved human
health outcomes. Using the 5DE as an indicator of overall women’s empowerment, this paper
seeks to examine household livestock ownership as it drives women’s empowerment. The study
also aims to test whether women’s overall empowerment is associated with ASF consumption
and/or chronic malnutrition among their young children, and to identify which domains of
empowerment, if any, are protective against malnutrition. As such, this analysis seeks to
characterize the role of women’s empowerment in smallholder agricultural communities of
Haramaya District, Ethiopia and its relationship with child nutrition.
Household data collected during fall 2018 were analyzed using R statistical software. Household
survey data and anthropometric measurements of children were collected using the REDCap
software platform on Samsung tablets in five rural kebeles of Haramaya, Ethiopia. Bivariate
analysis was conducted on each predictor and outcome variable of interest with p-value < 0.20.
Using the adequacy thresholds identified in the A-WEAI, analysis identified four out of 102
women as overall empowered. Given the overall small sample size (102) and the very small
number of women identified as empowered (4), finding statistically significant associations
between women’s overall empowerment and other predictor variables, as planned, is unlikely.
Among the four empowered women, one had a child who consumed ASF, and two had stunted
children. Because of the small sample size and the skewed distribution of results, in addition to
3 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT IN ETHIOPIA
examining the overall 5DE scores, this analysis examines on the five individual domains of
empowerment (production, income, resources, leadership, and time).
Introduction
Globally, women account for 43% of the agricultural labor force, and they comprise two-thirds,
or 400 million, of over 600 million small livestock owners (Doss, 2011, Huyer, 2016). With
women playing such an integral role in these sectors, it is important to address their
empowerment, or lack thereof, in order to improve nutritional outcomes at the household level,
particularly in rural communities where agriculture is central to livelihood. Empowerment of
women in agriculture, through ownership of assets and power in decision-making, has the
potential to not only close gender gaps and improve the economy, but also strengthen food
security at the household level and allow for greater health outcomes for both women and
children (Kumar, 2015, Jin and Ianotti, 2014). Research has delineated a positive relationship
between livestock ownership and improved nutrition, as well as a link between women’s
ownership of assets and household food security (van den Bold, 2013). Similarly, when women
are empowered, they are better equipped to sustain their children’s health as well as their own,
and they are more productive in agriculture (Malapit, 2015).
Ethiopia maintains the largest population of livestock in Sub-Saharan Africa, with livestock
representing 90% of the value of assets in the country (Campenhout, 2012). Livestock is a
major source of agricultural wealth, reflecting the potential to be both a source of livelihood and
a tool for gaining credit (Debela, 2017). Women’s ownership of livestock, in particular, increases
household food security and improved child nutrition outcomes (Njuki, 2013). As such, livestock
ownership is a critical component of women’s empowerment in agriculture (Jin and Iannotti,
2014). Livestock ownership at the household level may facilitate access to animal source foods
(ASF), either through direct production or purchase, through sale of livestock and livestock
4 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT IN ETHIOPIA
products. ASF have been shown to reduce significantly nutrition deficits (Ianotti et al., 2017).
ASF include milk, meat, and eggs, all rich in proteins, vitamins, and minerals that cannot be as
readily absorbed from plant-based foods (Njuki, 2013). In turn, when a woman is empowered
within agriculture, she has more control over nutritional resources such as ASF foods thereby
producing better nutritional outcomes for both her and her children (Gillespie, 2017). Consuming
ASF, therefore, is particularly beneficial for impoverished rural communities and is especially
critical in the first 1000 days between conception and 24 months of age. As noted, livestock
ownership may increase on-farm consumption of ASF through direct consumption of that which
is produced, but it may also increase purchased ASF, through income generated by the sale of
livestock products, making it an imperative part of livelihood in rural agricultural communities
(Njuki, 2013).
Roughly 38%, or 5.8 million, children under the age of five are stunted in Ethiopia (Ethiopia,
2018). Stunting is a life sentence that condemns a child to myriad health and nutritional
problems throughout their life, from hindered growth and lowered cognitive abilities, to increased
susceptibility to diseases and less productivity in adulthood (Black et al., 2008). Underlying
causes of stunting are complex and numerous. Lack of sanitation, food intake, and livestock
ownership have all been associated with stunting in children (Geberselassie, 2018). Research
has found that targeting nutrition in the first 1000 days of a child’s life has a positive impact on
cognitive development for the child (Schwarzenberg, 2018).
A woman who is empowered in agriculture is described as one who has the resources and
opportunity to engage in agricultural management decisions and participates in activities in
agriculture that are productive; in turn, she has control over the benefits reaped from her efforts
in agriculture (Women’s Empowerment, 2016). With women making up the majority of the
agricultural workforce globally, it is critical that they have power over decision-making and
receive the returns of their production. The Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index is a
5 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT IN ETHIOPIA
standardized method of quantifying empowerment in agricultural communities that can be used
to assess how empowered a woman is and to determine where women are disempowered in
order to close the gaps in empowerment between men and women. The WEAI is made up of
the Five Domains of Empowerment and the Gender Parity Index. Together, these components
enable an analysis of where a woman has control in agricultural production and allow for
diagnosis and monitoring of how empowerment varies across different agricultural communities.
The Five Domains of Empowerment (5DE) makes up 90% of the WEAI score and, as its name
suggests, is comprised of five domains: decision-making and production, resources, income,
leadership, and time. These five domains are calculated based on six weighted indicators,
which are then aggregated to determine the 5DE empowerment score. The indicators are input
in productive decisions, ownership of assets, access to and decisions on credit, control over use
of income, group membership, and workload (A-WEAI, 2018). The Gender Parity Index (GPI)
measures gender parity within the households that were surveyed, showing the woman’s 5DE
score in comparison to the man’s score, thereby providing the empowerment gap between men
and women in the same household as well as the percentage of women who are just as
empowered as men (Malapit, 2013). Without male empowerment data, the GPI cannot be
calculated and thus a full WEAI score can also not be computed.
Aims and Hypotheses
It is the intention of this study to identify the relationship between women’s empowerment in
agriculture and child malnutrition, ASF consumption, and livestock ownership. The first aim of
this paper is to examine the relationship between household livestock ownership and women’s
empowerment. If there is an association, this study will then examine which domains of
empowerment are associated with livestock ownership. The second aim is to test for
associations between 1) women’s empowerment and child ASF consumption, and 2) women’s
empowerment and child malnutrition. If a significant association between women’s
6 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT IN ETHIOPIA
empowerment and child ASF consumption and/or between women’s empowerment and child
malnutrition rates is identified, this study will again seek to examine which specific domains of
empowerment are associated with positive child health outcomes. These analyses will provide
insight into how women’s actions and interactions in agriculture contribute to child nutritional
outcomes in Haramaya District Ethiopia. This information may inform interventions that seek to
close the gender gap in agriculture or to reduce rates of child malnutrition.
Methods
Study Design and Population
Analysis was conducted on primary household data collected as part of the larger, ongoing
Campylobacter Genomics and Environmental Enteric Dysfunction (CAGED) project. This
analysis examines data from household surveys and child anthropometric measurements from
102 households across five kebeles in rural Haramaya, East Hararghe zone, Oromia region,
Ethiopia, collected between October and December 2018. Data on empowerment were
collected by individually asking the female heads of the 102 households the Five Domains of
Empowerment questions, taken from the standardized A-WEAI survey tool. Household surveys
also asked questions pertaining to data on livestock ownership, ASF consumption, and dietary
diversity in women and children. Children 11-17 months, targeted for the study, were measured
and weighed as part of the study.
Statistical Methods
Bivariate analysis was conducted on each predictor and outcome variable of interest. Statistical
analyses, including logistic regression, Fisher’s Exact Test, and two-sample t-tests, were
conducted in R-Studio. Results with a p-value < 0.20 were considered significant. Variables
included in analysis were tropical livestock units (TLU), child ASF consumption (yes/no), and
7 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT IN ETHIOPIA
length-for-age z-scores (LAZ). These variables were analyzed against the Five Domains of
Empowerment score (5DE) and each of the domains of empowerment, separately.
Analyses
The first analysis examines household livestock ownership as the independent variable and
overall women’s 5DE score as the dependent variable. Livestock ownership will then be
analyzed against each domain of empowerment to determine whether certain dimensions of
women’s empowerment are more or less associated with livestock ownership. The second
portion of analysis will look at women’s empowerment as the independent variable and child
ASF consumption as the dependent variable to determine if women’s empowerment is
associated with an increase in ASF consumption. Subsequently, each of the five domains will
be examined for their effect on child ASF consumption as well. The same approach will be
taken with stunting, to determine which, if any, domains of women’s empowerment are
associated with lower rates of malnutrition in young children.
Results
Out of the 102 women and household data analyzed, only four women were empowered, with
5DE scores of greater than .80. Given the small count in the empowered category (4), bivariate
analysis with predictor variables are unlikely to yield statistically significant results. Of the four
empowered women, as identified through the 5DE, one (25%) had a child who consumed ASF,
and two (50%) had stunted children.
In Table 1, summary data are presented for empowerment and tropical livestock units (TLU), a
continuous variable that reflects livestock ownership at the household level. Overall
empowerment (5DE) and each of the domains individually are presented. As can be seen in
Table 1.1, only four women were overall empowered. They had a mean TLU score of 1.75,
which is greater than the mean for non-empowered women (1.58), but not statistically
8 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT IN ETHIOPIA
significant. When looking at each of the domains, however, we do see higher rates of
empowerment. Table 1.4(a) shows 97% (102) of women as empowered in Ownership of Assets
with a mean TLU score of 1.59. In Table 1.5, we see that 80% (102) of women were
empowered in leadership with a mean TLU score of 1.65 compared to a mean of 1.31 for
disempowered women within leadership.
Table 1- TLU vs 5DE
1.1 Overall 5DE Empowered count mean sd
0 98 1.58 1.46 1 4 1.75 0.642
1.2 Production prod_Adequacy count mean sd
0 85 1.48 1.29 1 17 2.1 1.99
1.3 Income inc_Adequacy count mean sd 0 74 1.51 1.42 1 28 1.78 1.48
9 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT IN ETHIOPIA
1.4(a) Resources A: Ownership of Assets own_Adequacy count mean sd 0 3 1.33 0.764
1 99 1.59 1.45
1.4(b) Resources B: Access to & Decisions about Credit credit_Adequacy count mean sd 0 95 1.66 1.45
1 7 0.486 0.456
1.5 Leadership lead_Adequacy count mean sd 0 20 1.31 1.43 1 82 1.65 1.44
1.6 Time time_Adequacy count mean sd 0 49 1.51 1.36 1 53 1.65 1.51
Though not statistically significant using a 95% confidence interval and p-value of < 0.05, the
relationship between livestock ownership (as indicated by TLU) and empowerment is marginally
significant (p = 0.1014, see Table 1.7), with the odds of a woman being empowered being 1.08
times greater per increased TLU. When looking by empowerment domain at a significance level
of p <.20, the domains of Production and Resources B: Access to and Decisions about Credit
are significant. Looking at Production (p=0.109), a woman is 1.3 times more likely to reach the
threshold for adequacy (thus deemed “empowered’) in Production per unit of TLU (see Table
1.7). For Access and Decisions in Credit (p=0.004), a woman is 0.21 times less likely to have
adequacy in this subset of the Resources domain per unit of TLU (see Table 1.7).
10 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT IN ETHIOPIA
Table 1.7 – TLU vs 5DE – Logistic Regression
Note: *p<0.20
In Analysis 2, we first examined relationship between women’s empowerment and Child ASF
Consumption, both overall and by domain. Table 2A shows two by two tables for the 5DE and
ASF, as well as the results of the Fisher’s Exact Test analysis that was run on each predictor
and outcome variable. Out of 101 women, as one household did not have Child ASF data
reported, the Income domain, as shown in table 2A.3, is significant (p=0.003). Nine women had
adequacy in the income domain and their children were 0.250 times as likely to consume ASF.
Leadership is also significant (p=0.132) with a child being 2.066 times more likely to consume
ASF when their mother has adequacy in the leadership domain compared to disempowered
women within this domain.
Table 2A – 5DE vs Child ASF Consumption – Fisher’s Exact Test
2A.1 Overall 5DE Fisher’s Exact Test p-value = 0.3149 95 percent confidence interval: (0.005, 3.206) odds ratio: 0.247
5DE
No Yes
Child ASF
No 41 1
Yes 56 3
2A.2 Production
Production Adequacy
No Yes
Child ASF
No 39 5
Yes 45 12
2A.3 Income
Income Adequacy
No Yes
Child ASF
No 25 19
Yes 48 9
OR (95% CI) p-value
Overall 5DE 1.08 (0.57,2.06) 0.1014*
Production 1.3 (0.94,1.8) 0.109*
Income 1.14 (0.85,1.52) 0.2778
Resources A: Ownership of Assets 1.16 (0.46,2.94) 0.7557
Resources B: Access & Decisions About Credit 0.21 (0.05,0.93) 0.004*
Leadership 1.21 (0.82,1.81) 0.315
Time 1.07 (0.81,1.41) 0.626
11 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT IN ETHIOPIA
Fisher’s Exact Test p-value = 0.284 95 percent confidence interval: (0.610, 8.166) odds ratio: 2.066
Fisher’s Exact Test p-value = 0.003* 95 percent confidence interval: (0.086, 0.681) odds ratio: 0.250
2A.4A Resources A: Ownership of Assets
Ownership Adequacy
No Yes
Child ASF
No 2 42
Yes 1 56
Fisher’s Exact Test p-value = 0.579 95 percent confidence interval: (0.133, 159.923) odds ratio: 2.641
2A.4B Resources B: Access to and Decisions About Credit
Credit Adequacy
No Yes
Child ASF
No 40 4
Yes 54 3
Fisher’s Exact Test p-value = 0.696 95 percent confidence interval: (0.0775, 3.504) odds ratio: 0.559
2A.5 Leadership
Leadership Adequacy
No Yes
Child ASF
No 12 32
Yes 8 49
Fisher’s Exact Test p-value = 0.132* 95 percent confidence interval: (0.759, 7.202) odds ratio: 2.277
2A.6 Time
Time Adequacy
No Yes
Child ASF
No 20 24
Yes 29 28
Fisher’s Exact Test p-value = 0.689 95 percent confidence interval: (0.339, 1.903) odds ratio: 0.806
Note: *p<0.20
In the second half of Analysis 2, we analyzed the association between the Five Domains of
Empowerment and LAZ scores for children under two years of age using two-sample t-tests.
Table 2B depicts the summary data and boxplots of our results as well as the statistical tests.
Overall, the mean LAZ score for children of empowered women (-1.90), and the mean LAZ
score for children of disempowered women (-1.89) was virtually the same.
Table 2B – 5DE vs LAZ
2B.1 Overall 5DE Empowered count mean sd 0 98 -1.89 1.56
12 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT IN ETHIOPIA
1 4 -1.90 1.60
2B.2 Production prod_Adequacy count mean sd 0 85 -1.96 1.45 1 17 -1.55 2.03
2B.3 Income inc_Adequacy count mean sd 0 74 -1.79 1.51 1 28 -2.14 1.67
2B.4(a) Resources A: Ownership of Assets own_Adequacy count mean sd 0 3 -1.99 1.05 1 99 -1.89 1.57
2B.4(b) Resources B: Access to and Decisions about Credit credit_Adequacy count mean sd 0 95 -1.94 1.55 1 7 -1.16 1.59
2B.5 Leadership lead_Adequacy count mean sd 0 20 -1.92 1.20 1 82 -1.88 1.64
2B.6 Time time_Adequacy count mean sd 0 49 -1.40 1.46 1 53 -2.34 1.51
13 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT IN ETHIOPIA
A two-sample t-test was conducted to compare LAZ scores for children under two years of age
in overall empowerment and each of the domains individually. The only domain of
empowerment for which a statistically significant difference was found is Time (p=0.002), where
women empowered in time had children with lower LAZ scores, or poorer growth. More than
half of the women (53) are empowered within this domain, and they have a smaller mean LAZ
score (-2.34) than the children of disempowered women (-1.40).
Table 2B.7 – 5DE vs LAZ – Two-Sample T-Test
T p-value
Overall 5DE -0.021127 0.9832
Production 0.99637 0.321
Income -1.011 0.31
Resources A: Ownership of Assets 0.11011 0.91
Resources B: Access & Decisions About Credit 1.2818 0.203
Leadership 0.091558 0.93
Time -3.1687 0.002*
Note: *p<0.20
Discussion
A woman is empowered in agriculture when she has the resources to contribute to agricultural
decisions and can participate in productive agricultural activities. From the results of this
analysis, only 4 women meet this distinction, or are considered overall empowered. Of these
14 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT IN ETHIOPIA
four women, 25% had a child who consumed ASF and 50% had stunted children. In the
analysis of individual domains, there are more significant results. In analyzing TLU and the 5DE,
women are more likely to be empowered in the domain of production per TLU. Empowerment in
this domain means that the woman has input in productive agricultural decisions including
decisions on food, cash crops, and livestock. Existing literature highlights that livestock is a
major source of agricultural wealth in Ethiopia and thus a source for gaining credit, however
these results indicate that a woman is less likely to be empowered within the Access to and
Decisions About Credit subset of the Resources domain per household TLU. Without adequacy
in this indicator, a woman either has no credit, or has credit, but does not participate in
decisions regarding the credit. Research also shows that when women are empowered in
agriculture, they have more control over nutritional resources such as ASF, yet in analyzing the
5DE and child ASF consumption, women empowered within the domain of Income, meaning
they have input in decisions regarding income and major household expenditures, had children
that were less likely to consume ASF. Interestingly, however, women empowered in leadership
had children more likely to consume ASF. In analyzing the 5DE and LAZ scores, women with
adequacy in the Time domain, had children with lower LAZ scores, indicating higher rates of
stunting. This is again contradictory to research that indicates empowered women having better
health outcomes for their children and thus lower rates of stunting.
Limitations
There are significant limitations to this research. Because this was a limited dataset with results
significantly skewed towards disempowerment, it is difficult to draw any conclusions based on
these results. For more effective statistical testing, a larger sample size should be surveyed in
order to have greater generalizability. In this study, ultimately, a woman who has a child that
consumes ASF consumption or a child that is not stunted, is likely still overall agriculturally
disempowered and therefore deeper analyses are needed to determine the consistency and
15 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT IN ETHIOPIA
significance of these findings. In turn, although the overall empowerment analysis produced
significant results for the TLU analysis, we know that only four out of 102 women were overall
empowered, thereby diminishing the significance of this relationship and emphasizing the need
for a larger sample size. Another limitation is that this study only looks at one component of the
two components that constitute the A-WEAI survey: the 5DE. If the full A-WEAI was utilized,
conclusions could be made about the significance of these empowerment results in comparison
with the empowerment of men in the same household.
Future Research
Further analyses should include examination of the types of livestock owned by the household.
Although TLU gives a weighted aggregate score for total livestock in the household, it does not
allow for insight about the role of specific species of animals associated with empowerment. .
Similarly, looking at the types of ASF consumed by the child would determine if consumption of
certain animal sources foods is affected by empowerment more than that of others. There also
needs to be closer inspection of why empowerment in certain domains may drive more negative
results of outcome variables, such as why women empowered in the Time domain have more
stunted children. Alternatively, implementation of the full A-WEAI would allow for an
understanding of the severity of the disempowerment in these women. For example, if the men
in this same sample are significantly more empowered, then there is a gender gap that needs to
be addressed. However, if there is also only a very small portion of men who are empowered,
then there is overall disempowerment across the community.
Conclusions
With only four percent of women identified as empowered, it appears that there is a significant
need to develop the agricultural empowerment of women in these areas. While most women
achieved adequacy within the ownership of assets subset domain of Resources, most women
16 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT IN ETHIOPIA
were disempowered in the Access to and Decisions about Credit subset of Resources. This
may be explained by the fact that Ownership of Assets considers not only independent
ownership, but also joint ownership with the male head of household. Therefore, although a
household keeps livestock, the male head of household may oversee decisions surrounding the
resource of livestock, thereby removing the woman from decision making abilities, ultimately
disempowering her in the Access to and Decisions About Credit subset of Resources domain.
So, while a woman may share ownership of assets, and thus be considered adequate within the
Ownership domain, she may not have power in decision making over credit surrounding the
resources. Livestock ownership is included in determination of adequacy within the Ownership
of Assets domain and therefore it is to be expected that there will be an association between
TLU scores the Resources domain. Results showed that women who have achieved adequacy
within the Income domain of empowerment have children who consume less ASF. This may be
because when a woman is empowered in income, she may be more likely to sell animal
products for profit that can be used for other necessities rather than to lose profit by feeding the
animal products to her family. The fact that our final analysis reveals that women who achieve
adequacy within the Time domain have children with lower LAZ scores, indicating poorer
growth, can likely be interpreted by the understanding that without empowerment in other
domains of agriculture, being time empowered alone will not improve growth outcomes for
children under two years of age. Ultimately, however, it is important to conclude that this is still a
significantly disempowered population, and thus making definitive conclusions about ASF
consumption, livestock ownership, and child malnutrition rates in relation to empowerment is not
possible with this dataset. Further analyses of these data and future replication with a greater
sample size are imperative to better understanding the dynamics at play.
17 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT IN ETHIOPIA
References
A-WEAI. (2018). Retrieved January 20, 2019, from https://weai.ifpri.info/versions/a-weai/
Black, R. E., Allen, L. H., Bhutta, Z. A., Caulfield, L. E., de Onis, M., Ezzati, M., … Rivera, J.
(2008). Maternal and child undernutrition: global and regional exposures and health
consequences. The Lancet. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61690-0
Black, R. E., Victora, C. G., Walker, S. P., Bhutta, Z. A., Christian, P., De Onis, M., … Uauy, R.
(2013). Maternal and child undernutrition and overweight in low-income and middle-
income countries. The Lancet. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60937-X
Campenhout, B. V., & Dercon, S. (2012). Nonlinear Dynamics of Livestock Assets: Evidence
from Ethiopia. SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2198474
Debela, B. L. (2017). Factors Affecting Differences in Livestock Asset Ownership Between
Male- and Female-Headed Households in Northern Ethiopia. The European Journal of
Development Research, 29(2), 328-347. doi:10.1057/ejdr.2016.9
Doss, C. (2011) The Role of Women in Agriculture (Working Paper No. 11-2). The Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/3/a-am307e.pdf
Ethiopia: Nutrition Profile. (2018, May 18). Retrieved January 20, 2019, from
https://www.usaid.gov/what-we-do/global-health/nutrition/countries/ethiopia-nutrition-
profile
Geberselassie, S. B., Abebe, S. M., Melsew, Y. A., Mutuku, S. M., & Wassie, M. M. (2018).
Prevalence of stunting and its associated factors among children 6-59 months of age in
Libo-Kemekem district, Northwest Ethiopia; A community based cross sectional
study. Plos One, 13(5). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0195361
18 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT IN ETHIOPIA
Gillespie, S., & van den Bold, M. (2017). Agriculture, Food Systems, and Nutrition: Meeting the
Challenge. Global Challenges. https://doi.org/10.1002/gch2.201600002
Huyer, S. (2016). Closing the Gender Gap in Agriculture. Gender, Technology, and
Development, 20(2), 105-116. doi:10.1177/0971852416643872
Iannotti, L. L., Lutter, C. K., Stewart, C. P., Gallegos Riofrío, C. A., Malo, C., Reinhart, G., …
Waters, W. F. (2017). Eggs in Early Complementary Feeding and Child Growth: A
Randomized Controlled Trial. Pediatrics. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-3459
Jin, M., & Iannotti, L. L. (2014). Livestock production, animal source food intake, and young
child growth: The role of gender for ensuring nutrition impacts. Social Science and
Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.01.001
Kumar, N., & Quisumbing, A. R. (2015). Policy Reform Toward Gender Equality in Ethiopia:
Little by Little the Egg Begins to Walk. World Development, 67, 406-423.
doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.10.029
Malapit, H., Kovarik, C., Sproule, K. Meinzen-Dick, R. A. Q. (2013). Instructional Guide on the
Abbreviated Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (A-WEAI). World
Development. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.06.007
Malapit, H. J. L., & Quisumbing, A. R. (2015). What dimensions of women’s empowerment in
agriculture matter for nutrition in Ghana? Food Policy.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2015.02.003
Njuki, J., & Sanginga, P. C. (2013). Women, livestock ownership, and markets: Bridging the
gender gap in Eastern and Southern Africa. (1st ed.). Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.
19 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT IN ETHIOPIA
Schwarzenberg, S. J., & Georgieff, M. K. (2018). Advocacy for Improving Nutrition in the First
1000 Days to Support Childhood Development and Adult Health. Pediatrics.
https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2017-3716
Van den Bold, M., Quisumbing, A. R., & Gillespie, S. (2013). Women's Empowerment and
Nutrition. (Discussion Paper 01294). IFPRI.
https://www.fsnnetwork.org/sites/default/files/ifpridp01294.pdf
Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index 101 Workshop [Feed the Future]. (2016).
https://www.agrilinks.org/sites/default/files/weai_101_ppt112016_0.pdf