Unesco-UNEP International Environmental Education Programme

Environmental Education Series 23

GUIDELINES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF NON-FORMAL ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

Prepared at:

Gwent College of Higher Education, Caerleon, Gwent, Wales, United Kingdom, by: A.J. Young M.J. McElhone

Division of Science, Technical and Environmental Education

The opinions expressed in this publication do not necessarily coincide with any official views of Unesco. The designations used and the presentation of the material herein do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of Unesco concerning the legal status of any country, or of its authorities or concerning the delimitations of the frontiers or any country or territory.

0 Unesco, 1986 ED-86/WS/92

PREFACE

The environmentalization of formal and nonformal education brings relevance to teaching/learning at all levels and types of education. Nonformal environmental education with its wide scope and large target audience is a fertile and promising field for fulfilling the purpose of inculcating awareness, knowledge, skills, commitments and actions on the part of individuals and groups in the general public for the protection and improvement of the environment and its quality for the present and future generations.

The development of nonformal environmental education requires the incorpora- tion of environmental education objectives, concepts, teaching methods and evaluation techniques into all processes of nonformal education. In order to facilitate the development of nonformal environmental education, it has been considered essential to develop some guidelines to serve as a discussion guide in a series of regional and subregional training seminars in which key personnel shall focus on the taskof how to environmentalize their nonformal education systems at the national and local levels. This document has been prepared in the context of activities of Unesco-UNEP International Environmental Education Programme (IEEP) to serve the above purpose by spurring’and guiding discussions on this fundamental topic.

The content of this document focuses on the concept of environmental education (EE); environmental problems and their resolution; methods, materials, training of personnel and evaluation in nonformal EE; environmental ethics; and coordination and legislation in nonformal EE. Throughout the document examples are given as concrete experiences at national level from certain countries. These guidelines and examples may be specified and/or increased when the development of nonformal EE is conceived in the context of a specific educational system by interested national educational institutions.

Unesco is appreciative of the collaboration of Dr. A.J. Young and Dr. M.J. McElhone in the preparation of this document done under a contract with Unesco at Gwent College of Higher Education, Caerleon, Gwent, Wales, United Kingdom.

Comments on this document to be considered in its revision may be sent to IEEP, Division of Science, Technical and Environmental Education, Unesco, 7 Place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris, France.

Opinions expressed in this document do not necessarily coincide with official views of Unesco. The designations employed and the presentation of the materials herein do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of Unesco concerning the legal status of any country, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of the frontiers of any country or territory.

@ UNESCO 1986

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface we

I Introduction i 1

II Environmental Education 3

III 1. Environmental Problems and their Resolution 10

III l.A. Environmental Problems 10 Population 10 Energy 11 Resource Depletion ' 13 Pollution 13

Deforestation, extinction of species, ecosystem degradation, urban explosion 14

III 1. B. Resolving Environmental Problems 16 Community partlclpation 16 Environmental pressure groups in the developed world 17 Development of alternatives 19. Environmental implication in the Third World 22

IV Methods, materials, training of personnel and evaluation In non-formal Environmental Education 28

The variety of non-formal Environmental Education 28 The Methodology of non-formal Environmental Education 29 The talk or lecture aa part of an extended programme 32 The class environment 33 The technical competence of the speaker 33 The class discussion 34 Problem solving 37 The use of drama/popular theatre 44. E.E. and existing non-formal education programme3 47 Suggested Training Programmes for teachers in E.E. 49 Guidelines for a training programme for teachers/extension workers in non-formal Environmental Education 55

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V

VI

VII

VIII

Suggested Training Programme

Evaluation

The media and non-formal Environmental Education

Radio

Television

Guidelines on the use of media in non-formal E.E.

The multi-media approach

Environmental Ethics

Co-ordination in non-formal Environmental Education

International co-ordination and co-operation

Non-formal Environmental Education at national level3

Asia

Africa

Arab States

Caribbean

Latin America

U.S.A.

U.S.S.R.

Czechoslovakia

Portugal

Finland

Legislation

Conclusions

Bibliography

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I. Introduction

The objectives in producing the guidelines for the development of

non-formal environmental education are threefold;

(1 > to define the concept and elaborate the importance, needs

and target groups,

(2) outline the ways of developing non-formal environmental

education

(3) enhance the exchange of information.

In this paper, the importance of environmental education is reviewed

along with its objectives of promoting awareness, knowledge, attitudes,

skills and levels of participation. fiphasis is placed upon the need

to cater for all ages and social groups from a variety of societies

living in developed and developing countries. It may be necessary to

challenge more traditional approaches of environmental use and develop

new ways of thinking and increased participation in the solving of

environmental problems.

The need for environmental education is amply illustrated in the review

of environmental problems. Population pressures, rising energy

consumption, resource depletion, pollution, ecosystem degradation and

urban population explosions are all indicative of the need to alter

man's exploitative attitude towards the environment. The role of non-

formal environmental education and a process through which it can be

developed is considered here. The strength of non-formal education lies

in the fact that it does not operate within a given set of rules with

a strict structure, curriculum and examination procedures. Non-formal

environmental education, theoretically at least, is more capable of

responding to local environmental issues which have more social meaning and

usefulness to the community and is less dominated by academic requirements.

One of the major problems envisaged concerning the effective implementation

of non-formal environmental education is the diversity of the target

groups and their needs. Other problems include the lack of finance

and structure through which environmental education concepts can be

developed. For discussion, we have presented a comprehensive Chapter on

methods, materials, training of personnel and evaluation of non-formal

environmental education. Key personnel likely to be involved are

identified and how the environmental dimension of their training can

be facilitated and improved.

A review of the need for the development of environmental ethics is

given. Although, attitudes towards the environment may vary from

culture to culture, it is imperative that people foster and develop an

environmental ethic which is prudent and conducive to a harmonious

development with nature,maintaining stability and sustainability.

Lastly, a review of the development of formal education at national

and international levels is given with particular emphasis on the role

of co-ordination and co-operation in increasing the efficiency and

effectiveness of non-formal environmental education.

3

II. Environmental Education

It is nearly eight years since the IntergoverrmIental Conference

on Dnrironmental Education (E.E.) took place in Tbilisi, U.S.S.R.,

five years ago, a World Conservation Strategy to promote

development that is environmentally sound and also sustainable

was launched in over one hundred countries. And yet, today,

approximately twenty eight million (28m) people in Africa are

suffering from lack of food and water and are in an extremely

critical state, India has recently experienced the worst

environmental accident in living memory and many scientists in

the Federal Republic of West Germany believe that they are

monitoring the death of the Black Forest by acid deposition.

These examples, along with many others which could be cited,

indicate that the magnitude and urgency of solving environmental

problems, whether local or global, are not diminishing. Whilst

it is difficult, if not impossible, to assess whether world wide,

the extent of such problems is increasing or decreasing, the idea

of progress envisaged by Turgot is becoming increasingly more

difficult to sustain :-

(1 . . . ..manners are gradually softened, the human mind is enlightened, separate nations draw nearer to each other, commerce and policy connect at last every part of the globe, and the total mass of the human race, by alternating between calm and agitation, good and bad, marches always, however slowly, towards greater perfection". hoted by Buzzati-Traverson in Trends in Environmental Education UNESCO, 1977.

For many environmentalists, the concept of the globe marching

slowly towards perfection is untenable, the more cynical might .

suggest that a more accurate metaphor would portray the world

running quickly in the opposite direction. But the way ahead

4

has been signposted for many years. In 1972, the Declaration of

the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in

Stockholm stated that I' . . . ..to defend and improve the environment

for the present and future generations has become an imperative

goal for mankind". United Nations Conference on the Human

Environment, Stockholm 1972.

The Stockholm Conference was an early milestone in the development

of E.E. It called upon the Secretary General to plan and

organise world-wide programnes of E.E., not simply for the

formal sectors of education, but for all sections of the community.

As a result of the recommendation 96 of the Stockholm Conference,

UNESCO and U.N.E.P. established the UNESCO-UNEP International

Environmental Education Programme (I.E.E.P.) which organised the

International Workshop.on E.E. in Belgrade in October 1975.

A revised form of the papers presented at the workshop have been

published, Trends in Environmental Education, UNESCO 1977, and

they illustrate the somewhat euphoric optimism felt by many of

the participants from sixty-five nations. The need to think and

act in new ways in order to resolve environmental problems was

a unifying theme

of E.E. was :-

"To develop

of the workshop and one of the identified goals

a world population that is aware of, and concerned about, the environment and its associated problems, and which has the knowledge, skills, attitudes, motivations and commitment to work individually and collectively toward solutions of current problems and the prevention of new ones". The Belgrade Charter : A Global Framework for Environmental Education; produced and adopted at the International Environmental Workshop at Belgrade, Yugoslavia, October 1975.

The objectives of E.E. were also summarised as :

"1 .

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Awareness : to help individuals and social groups acquire an awareness of and sensitivity to the total environment and its allied problems.

Knowledge : to help individuals and social groups acquire a basic understanding of the total environment, its associated problems and humanity's critically responsible presence and role in it.

Attitude : to help individuals and social groups acquire social values, strong feelings of concern for the environment and the motivation for actively participating in its protection and improvement.

Skills : to help individuals and social groups acquire the skills for solving environmental problems.

Evaluation ability : to help individuals and social groups evaluate environmental measures and education programmes in terms of ecological, political, economic, social, aesthetic and educational factors.

Participation : to help individuals and social groups develop a sense of responsibility and urgency regarding environmental problems so as to ensure appropriate action to solve these problems". The Belgrade Charter op. cit.

The workshop recognised that most people in the world consider

that education is a potent force for bringing about change and

development and thus E.E. was of paramount importance in

developing an environmental ethic based on ecological balance,

man's quality of life and the needs of future generations.

As stated previously, optimism ran high ".....because environmental

education is for everyone, a great variety of individuals and

institutions have rallied to the cause. There is a growing

momentum accompanied by the kind of healthy excitement and

controversy that occurs with any such reformationtt. Schneider,

Allen. The nature and philosophy of environmental education :

goals and objectives. Trends in Environmental Education op. cit.

The Belgrade workshop and the resulting Charter was important in

that the nature and philosophy of E.E. was examined and the

6

fundamental aims of such an education for differing groups within

society such as teachers, adults and out-of-school youth, were

identified. In addition, there was a clear acceptance of the fact

that the relevance and efficiency of teaching programmes dealing

with environmental issues depend on their being specifically

adapted to the differing socio-economic conditions within each

country.

This theme was further developed in a series of meetings organised

by UNESCO-UNEP International Environmental Education programme

(I.E.E.P.) and also in the Intergovernmental Conference on

Environmental education, organised by UNESCO in co-operation with

UNEP, which took place in 1977 in the city of Tbilisi, Georgia,

U.S.S.R. The Conference was a landmark in that it identified, in

great detail, the role, objectives and guiding principles of E.E.

and also recommended to member states courses of action which would

lead to the realisation of such goals. The deliberations of the

Conference were crystallised in forty one (41) recommendations, the

most important of these being that E.E. involves the development of

critical thinking about integrated environmental problems and that

they can be resloved by participation at the community level

(Tbilisi 1977).

An examination of the UNESCO literature produced since the Tbilisi

Conference indicates that a great deal has already been achieved;

every three months, for example, specific progratrxnes from many

countries are highlighted in CONNECT. But much more remains to

be done and it must be accepted that, in many parts of

7

the world, the goal of producing an environmental ethic within

society is a long way from being realised. Consequently; if

we are to resolve our environmental problems then we must

continue to learn and think and act in new ways.

The successful management of the environment depends upon the

co-operation of various governmental agencies, industry and

concerned, informed citizens acting either individually or

through elected officials. Whilst it could be argued that the

latter group is the most important influence on the environment,

the problems of producing an informed citizenry must not be

underrated. Intelligent and effective citizen participation in

environmental conservation requires knowledge from the sciences,

social sciences and humanities. It further requires the development

of practical skills which assist people to live in a manner which

enhances environmental quality and reduced environmental degradation.

The most significant problem in environmental education today is

how to translate, in simple terms , such concepts as interdependence,

limitation of finite resoruces, human population growth and energy

flow. In addition the economic advantages of carrying out simple

measures associated with the conservation of renewable resources,

the planning of land use and the prevention of pollution must

also be highlighted. These are not easy tasks. Firstly we must

critically examine existing educational practice, we often

disregard the extent to which formal education may be a cause of

our problems. Many educators today can be accused of using

classical elitist approaches which are old fashioned and irrelevant

to the vast majority of school children. Many children throughout

the world should be receiving an education which uses the richness

of the environment to develop a wide range of cognitive skills

rather than focussing on disciplines and SpehaliSatiOn for

selection purposes.

A further problem is that environmental education often requires

teachers to adopt new techniques in their classroom teaching.

Thus an environmental studies approach to teaching should involve the

children in such things as working outside the classroom; enquiring,

exploring, comparing, 'contrasting and making decisions and value

judgements. It should be based on scientific enquiry whilst not

ignoring th emotional response that can come from the child being

closely involved with the biotic features of his environment.

But for many teachers, adopting the above approach would entail a

complete rejection of existing practice and philosophy; they have not

been trained to think or act in this manner.

The traditional approach to education is also challenged by the

process of environmental problem solving. The complexity of most, if

not all, environmental issues means that they do not fit within the

boundaries of any one discipline but are trans disciplinary in nature.

Cnce again teachers are expected to deal with a situation which is

radically different from their own experience and training. It is

not surprising, therefore, that, worldwide, the response of the formal

education sector to the environmental challenge has been slow and

piecemeal. It has to be accepted that the educational system, like the

rest of society, has not been able to adapt quickly enough to rapidly

changing environmental conditions. This situation is unlikely to

change dramatically in the next decade and the world cannot wait for a

new generation of politicians and decision-makers to emerge. It may be

necessary to develop an educational strategy that is prepared to

challenge existing economic principles and practice, which questions

traditional social and political goals .and also critically examines

the personal ethics that are considered the norms of many societies.

To achieve this in target groups other than pre-primary, primary,

secondary and tertiary level students, it is necessary to develop

an effective nonformal environmental education process.

Envirorrnental education must be envisaged as a lifelong process and

consequently nonformal education is of the utmost importance in

creating a society whose citizens are knowledgeable enough to make a

valid contribution to the decision making process.

All countries in the world should consider how they can extend the

educational opportunities for all members of their society; people

must learn that the envirorPnent determines and shapes their life

styles, their expectations and future hopes. Such an insight can only

lead to a more concerned and accountable populace for one becomes

responsible for what one knows.

10

III. 1. Environmental brdems and their resolution.

III. 1A. Environmental problems

On a global scale projections concerning the environment,

population growth and levels of pollution are pessimistic.

If present trends continue the world in 2000 will be more

crowded, more polluted, less stable ecologically and more

vulnerable to disruption than the world we now live in.

Barney (1982) predicts that for hundreds of millions of the

desperately poor the outlook for food and the necessities

of life will be no better in the year 2000. This assumes,

of course that there is no change in public policies,

institutions or rates of technological change.

The major issues and problems confronting man include population,

energy, resource depletion, pollution, deforestation,

desertification, extinction of species and ecosystem degradation.

Population

The planet is being called upon to support about 175,000 extra

people per day - 1.2 million per week. This means that the

earth's population is doubling every 20-25 years. The United

Nations estimates that about one third or one half of those alone

are hungry or malnourished; three quarters of them do not have

either adequate housing or safe water supply. The great majority

of human beings in the world today have to live on $100 per year

(Miller and Armstrong 1982) and many spend most of their waking

hours and 60-95% of their incomes just trying to get enough food

for themselves and their children to prevent starvation or

debilitating diseases.

11

No completely technological solution to this complex problem exists.

However, food supplies can increase by putting more land under.cultivation,

cultivating freshwater and oceans and raising yields by using new seeds,

increased irrigation, use of fertiliser etc. However it is necessary to

develop integrated plans for reducing world population birth rates,

controlling agricultural pollution and mounting a massive attack on global

poverty.

Energy

The world energy consmption is rising steeply, increasing almost 600%

between 1900 and 1965. The demand for energy is doubling every 14 years,

and most of the energy is consumed by industrial nations; whilst they

only have 30% of the world's population, they use 80% of the world energy

(Miller and Armstrong 1982). Many forms of agriculture today are dependent

upon substantial energy subsidies i.e. the addition of fossil fuel energy

to supplement the input of energy through photosynthesis to agricultural

systems.

Many environmental problems have arisen due to huge energy consumption,

particularly that of pollution. Concentrations of carbon dioxide in the

atmosphere have ensued and may possibly lead to a warming of the earth's

climate. Increased levels of sulphur and nitrogen oxides lead to the

formation of acid rain and the loss of trees and animals in forests and

lakes. An increasing level of radiation in the environment due to accidents

associated with nuclear power; nuclear fission is potentially the most

hazardous of all sources of energy.

Alternative non-polluting energy sources such as hydroelectric, wind, .

tidal power, geothermal solar energy etc. must be explored for other use.

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Bioenergy

Bioenergy can play an important role in providing for future energy needs.

Biomass (plant material) is a widely available resource that can be produced

renewably and inmany situations at low costs. Not only does it reduce

dependence on costly oil imports, but its low sulphur, low ash and high

oxygen content makes biomass clean and easy to convert to high quality

synthetic fuels (Williams 1985).

The development of Biogas in India and China has met with varying degrees of

success (Moulik 1985). China in particular is very comnitted to continued

promotion of Biogas and it has been declared a principal alternative to cope

with the fuel crisis of rural Chinese villages, however there is some apprehen-

sion concerning the future of Biogas, due to the threat of modernisation.

Many developing countries are forced to pay a large proportion of their foreign

exchange earnings to secure oil, hence slowing down development. A large

proportion of the oil is used in transport. One feasible substitute for oil is

ethanol which is made from carbohydrate producing crops. In countries such as

Brazil, Zimbabwe and Kenya ethanol has been used for petroleum substitutes or

extenders. In Brazil, the development of a National Ethyl-Alcohol Program has

resulted in savings of $1.15 billion per year in petroluem imports

(approximately 30%) (Goldenburg, Moreira, dos Santos and Serra 1985).

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Resource deDletion

Resources may be classified as renewable and non-renewable.

Renewable resources are those which can maintain themselves and can be

replenished by crops, forests, wildlife, air water and soil.

Other resources such as oil, natural gas, coals,phosphates and metal

ores are non-renewable. However, the usefulness of certain resources

changes with our technological progress e.g. increase in synthetics vs.

non-synthetics such as rubber. A substance becomes or remains a resource

because technology makes it available for a reasonable cost. The Techno

centric view is that some technological wonder will save us regardless

of what we do. EkooentricistsX 4.11 view things differently and they

would hope to conserve resources for future generations and adopt

alternative "softU technological techniques in order to develop a

sustainable world.

Pollution

Pollution occurs when excessive amounts of waste accumulate in the

environment and affect humans and plants or animals in an undesirable

way, usually by causing environmental stress. Pollutants can range

from those producing high environmental stress such 'as heavy metals,

solidor radio active wastes to those raising a lower level of stress

such as litter, noise and low levels of carbon monoxide. It is very

important to understand how a pollutant behaves within the environment,

especially at what concentration it is stressful. The level or

threshold at which a pollutant can harm varies widely between pollutant

and with different organisms. Pollutants may combine and have a more

severe effect than the sum of the two acting separately @ynegism)-

14

Pollutants such as DDT and heavy metals (e.g. Mercury) may be concentrated

in food chains (Biological Magnification). It can be appreciated that

problems of pollution may be global (e.g. carbon dioxide build-up in

the atmosphere) and warrant intergovernmental regulation, National

(e.g. toxic waste) or .local or regional (river pollution,land fill).

-Deforestation, extinction of species, ecosystem degradation

One of the most rapidly vanishing living natural resources the tropical

rain forest is disappearing at a rate of 7.3 million hectares a year

(Myres 1984). Half the world's plants and animal genetic diversity is

concentrated on only 60% of the land surface, mostly in the tropical

rain forests. If present trends are not reversed, mankind may witness

the elimination of one million of the planet's S-10 million plant and

animal species by the end of the century. Through their genetic

resources, these species provide essential materials for agriculture,

medicine and industry and other economic uses. Most of the loss is

occurring in the humid forests of Africa, Asia and South America.

Deforestation and mismanagement of the land (e.g. poor soil conservation

and badly planned irrigation schemes) have a very significant effect on

water availability.

Urban explosion

From 1900 to 1975 the number of inhabitants in cities with populations

over one million has increased tenfold and that of cities with over

five million inhabitants multiplied by twenty. During the same time,

the population of the twenty five largest cities is more than quadrupled

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and will be increased eight to ten times by the year 2000, increasing

their average size from two to sixteen million inhabitants. Before the

year 2000 the world will have more town dwellers than country dwellers

(UNESCO Courier March 1985).

In the metropolitan areas of the developed countries with low growth

or falling pollutions, the problem today is one of reviving activity,

preserving the cultural heritage, preventing the depreciation of

certain districts before they are transformed into ghettos and making

the best possible use of existing infrastructures. The metropolitan

areas of developing countries, on the other hand are seeking to control

their demographic growth, to organise urban extensions, to make good

their lack of facilities and services and make productive use of the

available labour force.

In order to reduce some of the social and environmental problems in the

cities, green belts can be.maintained to halt blanket urbanisation;

urban renewal is an essential factor in improved integration of

inhabitants; planning must be smaller in scale and better adapted for

the urban environment and implemented after community participation;

energy conservation techniques must be developed. All these developments

have to be appropriate to local technical, administrative and financial

contexts.

All environmental problems differ in their extent, diversity and

complexity. Procedures for implementing changes vary from country to

country and location to location; hence it is essential that participation

of citizens in environmental issues and planning procedures is advocated

in order to produce the best chance of success for the projects.

16

III i. b RZSOL;IING ENVIRONMENTAL PRWLEMS

Community participation can be either defensive mitigating against

change or developmental in which the participants attempt to alter the

situation. The type of participation depends upon the nature of the

problem and it is often a mixture of both defensive or developmental

participation. One aim of participation would be to broaden the base

of participants, for instance increasing the social activity of women

or illiterates. Groups may be clearly recognised and have a firm

structure or less clearly recognised and incidental (e.g. local community

action groups). Much depends upon the permanence of the problem.

In community participation projects, decisions are made in the best

interest of the groups and not individuals; however much depends upon

the political framework, in some countries defensive groups are treated

with deep suspicion and intolerance. In countries operating a democratic

parliamentary system, many environmental protest groups have made an

impact on the power structure by directly lobbying members of parliament,

in some cases, due to insensivity of governments the same groups have

concentrated on more direct action or publicised their protests by

attracting extensive media coverage (e.g. Greenpeace).

In developing countries, community participation has been important in

their development. This idea was incorporated into the International

Development Strategy for the United Nations Second Development Decade

adopted in October 1970. Harrison (1980) suggests that participation

in implementing projects reduces their cost by mobilising unused local

resources and free human energy. Participation in decision-making

provides planners with much better information on peoples' wants and

dislikes. It helps to avoid disastrous errors which may result if the

supposed beneficiaries are not consulted. It can boost morale, increase

productivity and reduce negative and destructive conflicts between

. - - “ ” _ , . . . I , . _. . . . _ , . ”

17

managers and the managed. In many cases, the poor live in a state of

passive inertia because of their total powerlessness in the face of

entrenched elites. Primarily, participation is an educative process.

It produces confidence in the participants especially in their ability

to control circumstances instead of being controlled by them. It can

also increase political stability by reducing sectional interest.

Increased participation will mean a considerable measure of self help

but the necessary technical skills, materials and finance have to be

provided so assisted self help is required.

Environmental pressure groups in the developed world

The development of awareness and participation of adults forming an

environmental pressure group and their influences on the course of

events leading to the prosecution of a factory for illegal contamination

of the environment can be seen in figure 1 . The groups are composed

of fairly well educated , aware citizens. Generally the group has a

minimal budget and is self financing (mainly from individual contributions).

There are several stages in the development of environmental awareness,

participation and action.

The siting of a factory resulted in an air pollution which caused the

local community to be exposed to smoke, steam, dirt and most

controversially incompletely burnt toxins. This was initially perceived

by the local residents as a nuisance, they then formed a small community

protest group which discussed the problem collected and clarified

information. They published their activities by holding meetings in

schools and developed a publicity drive, which involved contact with .

local radio, television, producing posters and organising demonstrations.

18

I Increased awareness & I

Perception of a Industrial develoment I

Rarticipatidn

ormation of groups of concerned

International involvement

Figure 1 shows some of the spheres of interest and involvement

influenced by the formation of environmental pressure groups.

19

This resulted in enhanced public awareness and greater support.

The momentum of the protest increased and involved the concern of

local politicians, and administration including the local environmental

and health departments. The issue developed political weight and there

was a call for a public enquiry, which resulted in national awareness

manifested as national T.V. and radio and newspaper coverage.

Although a public enquiry was not held, the local government authority

subsequently attempted to prosecute the factory under existing

legislation.

The formation of a local environmental pressure group resulted in the

development of awareness by providing information, mutual support and

motivation which was relevant, significant and interesting.

Development of alternatives

The above example illustrated how the existing system in the developed

world accommodates environmental concern. It might be argued that by

maintaining the existing industrial or socio economic system, problems

will always arise. So it is not surprising that there has been a small

but qualitatively important search for alternative technologies more

appropriate for development.

The development of alternative technologies (AT) or soft technologies

which are characterised by ecological self sufficiency, smallness

(particularly in hard ware and soft ware> and suited to the economic

conditions in developing countries. The aim of alternative (or

appropriate) technology is to make the most economical use of a

country's natural resources and its capital, labour and skills that

20

further national and social goals; the objective is to foster the right

choice of technology.

In developing countries, the appropriate technology should create as

many jobs as possible-and enable and improve income. It must use scarce

capital wisely, using simple machinery and produce goods suited to the

local market. Environmentally, the technology should be hygienic,

conservational and non polluting; using renewable sources of energy and

raw materials with themaximum re-use of industrial and human wastes,

and farm residues. Alternative technology should satisfy basic needs

and involve popular participation. It must be technically sound, economic

to users and customers in comparison with the alternatives and be socially

acceptable in the light of local cultures and traditions.

The auto rickshaw is an ingenious adaptation of a clever piece of

western technology adapted to an eastern need (Harrison 1980).

Solar energy has a big future in the tropics. Alternatives to large

conventional energy plants, which are of little use to the poor who

cannot afford domestic connections are solar energy and planting of

fast growing fuel wood plantations such as eucalyptus.

Another appropriate fuel with considerable potential is methane gas

from the fermentation of animal and human waste.

Unfortunately research into appropriate technology is minimal while

that in developing new technology is far greater.

21

Resolution of enviroranental problems : A Case Study

The Mountain Ash Project and Research Centre is located in South Wales

and was initially sponsored by the local planning department.

In this area there has been a general run down of industry and many mines

have been closed which formerly employed vast numbers of the local people.

The Centre which provides advice on consuner and welfare problems also

acts as a focus for voluntary groups whose aim is the identification and

initiation of environmental improvement schemes. The original conception

was to allow young people to be involved in their own environment and

ideally therefore, to give them ownership. The latter was difficult to

achieve and work on the projects disappeared as the money did.

Initially, the centre set up a management group which attempted to use

local knowledge to identify groups and individuals who wanted to be

involved. A working group was subsequently formed which provided a source

of local knowledge and allowed a separate identity from the planning

department. Their aim was to raise funds and sponsor schemes on their own

behalf. The working group, at first, found it difficult to adapt to the

additional responsibility of freedom but was able to gain sufficient funding

to develop, along with volunteer assistance from professionals and the local

primary school, an urban environmental work prograxmne involving planting

flowers, urban regeneration and the painting of murals.

After considerable effort the working party were able to achieve and ensure

continuation after grant aids ended and develop into a company with charit-

able status, which under British law implies tax exemption. They were then

able to tap into further trust aid funds and set up workshops and fund.

activities all in the local community.

,- -- _---...

22

Environmental Implications in the Third World

Distilling the environmental significance of the non-formal educational

experiences of the Third World countries investigated can only be

satisfactorily undertaken within the context of the political

philosophies which inform those experiences. Any environmental ethic

therefore is also a political ethic with implications for man-man as

well as man-environment relations. 'Environmental implications' as a

concept must therefore be broadened to include the human or social

environment - at least some aspects of it! Thus, in China during the

period of the GPCR (Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution) dating from

1966, the moral-political element in education noted by Price (1970)

could be considered as a form of 'social environmental ethic'.

Elnanating then from this broadened social and physical environment

concept are a number of environmental consequences; of these the more

significant have to do with :-

(i) environmental understanding : It is suggested that the concern

with out-of-school or non-formal education as examined above is

likely to promote a deeper understanding of the environment as

a living, integrated and interactive system. Some quantitative

measure of this concern in Cuba can be gauged from the fact

that students in ESBEC schools (Secondary Schools in the

Countryside), currently cultivating approximately 300,OOOnectares

of agricultural land, equivalent to seven per cent of the total

cultivated area in the country, contributed 194,000 man-years

of work during 1975-76 or 6.7 per cent of the country's total 1

labour input in that year. Paraphrasing Jose/Mart< (1853-18951,

the Cuban writer and patriot, young Cubans must learn to handle,

I-1cI.“I^ ._ . - .“.. ,“-_. _.....

23

that is to understand and manage, the forces with which they

will struggle through life (see Gelman, 1981). Students in

ESBEC schools spend three hours of each school day in

agricultural pursuits; this can be seen as a most direct way

of operationalising Marti's belief and more particularly

developing in young Cubans at a relatively early age what is

hoped will be cumulative knowledge about that part of the

environment with which most schoolchildren, after leaving school,

will be most intimately concerned.

(iia) environmental conservation and development : One outcome

anticipated from combining intellectual endeavour with manual

work is to lay the basis for a more rational approach to the

use of the environment in general and the mode of development

of its resources in particular. This would help to conserve

and find the best use for resources or establish the best means

to exploit them, whilst at the same time minimising negative

environmental impacts. Chinese agricultural development is a

case in point. With a population, officially recognised as

having surpassed one billion by 1982, China nevertheless is

regionally self-reliant for nearly all its food, even though

the average area of agricultural land held is a mere 0.1

hectares per head (Zweig, 1984,221. Moreover, China achieves

this from only 12.5 per cent of its totalland area, whilst

ensuring a gross grain availability per head per day of 800

gramnes, a substantially superior position compared with the

'impoverished nations of Asia (Timmer et al; 1979,q26). .

24

(iib) There is a further aspect of this particular environmental

implication which highlights the political nature of environ-

mental ethics. Particularly in the cases of China and Cuba

for example, non-formal educational practice places emphasis

on training students as producers first and as consumers

second. Emphasis on productive work it is anticipated will

counteract the emergence of a consumer mentality amongst

future generations of Cuban citizens. In the long-term,

holding down the level of production of consumer goods and

items of conspicuous consumption should reduce the degrees of

environmental despoliation and degradation which have attended the

history of the highly competitive, laissez-faire economies of

western developed nations in which the environment has itself

been considered as a consumer good and sold to the hiaest

bidder - more often than not for industrial or manufacturing

purposes!.

(iii) rural and urban environments : the rural focus of development

in China, Cuba and Tanzania, and the nature of the non-formal

educational process subsumed within it has very pxitive

implications at both ends of the rural-urban continuum.

Thus, improving social and economic conditions in the country-

side, by making them more attractive places in which to live

and work, would help to reduce flows of migrants from the

relatively impoverished rural areas to the more attractive and

richer cities but which already have over-burdened social and

economic infrastructural facilities. Rectifying infrastructural

imbalances between town and country would in the long term

relieve some of the pressure of migration from cities and would

. . I _ . I I . . . _ . . . . - . . . ” , I I - - , . . . . “,__.j__ . , , . . . _ . I_ _- , . .__,_. . . ) _

25

improve the economic viability of rural economies by reducing

rates of abandonment of small properties, at the same.time

providing better access for small farmers to facilities such

as credit and rural extension. In this way they would be better

able'to sustain their small-scale agricultural economies whilst

at the same time making a more significant contribution to the

larger national economy.

Both rural and urban environments would thus, through time,

become more productive than otherwise : urban places, because

their economies would have to support fewer 'dependent' urban

migrants; and rural places, because by retaining more people

in the countryside with better supporting service back-up a

more rational and more extended pattern of agricultural land

use could be anticipated.

(iv> community and environment : both the Chinese and Tanzanian

approaches to (non-formal) education and development demonstrate

the importance of a grass-roots, community-focused, approach

to the education and development process and the (quantifiable)

benefits which can accrue from it. In China the foundation-

stone of rural social organisation in the period since 1949 has

been the production team, comprising between twenty and sixty

households which have traditionally undertaken certain

agricultural tasks in common and as a social unit reside as,

or as part of a village community (see Open University, 1983).

In Tanzania also, the ujamaa village and subsequently the *

villages established during the villagisation programme were

to provide the structure through which rural developemnt was to be promoted.

26

(VI

In China certainly the rural environmental benefits were

substantial. Not only did the productivity of the rural

environment rise quite phenomenally (see Maxwell, 1979 for

precise figures on increases in grain production for example)

during the Tachai campaign, but also, as a consequence of a

more rational use of local resources, land and water, a

significant overall improvement in the living environments of

rural inhabitants was achieved. All this was possible initially

without recourse to outside professional help- surely a lasting

tribute to the rural inhabitants themselves and to the potential

of development as a means of non-formal education when it is

projected from within the community rather than externally

upon it.

the human factor and the social environment : there is little

doubt that in the context of non-formal education and development,

the examples discussed in this paper implicitly or explicitly

acknowledge the gradual domination of the environment by man.

What then distinguishes the Third World countries examined here

from many western developed nations? Simply stated it is in

the purposes served by the dominion exerted by man over nature.

The concentrated urban-in&strial development characteristic

of modern western nations has given rise to conflictual rather

than harmonious social and economic relations; these, are manifest

for example in the antagonistic dichotomies between urban and

rural places and between industry and agriculture

27

In contrast, the non-formal education and development processes in Cuba,

China and Tanzania have been concerned to establish more even,, rurally-

oriented develoment patterns. Not only is this intended to focus

development in the Third World upon those who are most often overlooked

but does so in ways which encourage rural people themselves to participate

in the process rather than to be merely spectators of it. The non-formal

educational means by which this is achieved ought not to be underemphasised

namely principles such as combining intellectual with manual work,

bringing together students and rural workers and training students as

producers first and as consLPners second. In combination the nature of the

development processes and the means by which they have been carried

through, in China for example, have avoided creating the geographical

dichotomies of developed and undeveloped places and, amongst the population,

the antagonisms which have attended modernisation in the west.

IV

Methods, materials, training 'of personnel and evaluation in non-formal

Enviro,nmental Education

4.1 The variety of non-formal E.E.

The planning, organisation an3 methodology of non-formal E.E.

varies enormously from one country to another. In Nepal, for example,

Radio Nepal broadcasts a regular weekly programme on ecology with an

emphasis on the preservation cf forests, a particular problem in Nepal.

The Iraqui Environmental Protection Society has confined its activities

to the production of publications aimed at stimulating public awareness.

The Sahel-Vert operation, which was conducted in Senegal, was a

practical exercise in out-of-school E.E. involving nearly two thousand

young people in a tree planting programme cov ering almost 700 hectares

of the Sahel Desert. The Nature Protection League of Poland, in

co-operation with various youth and adult groups, has set u, schocl

nature camps and environmental research centres for young naturalist?.

Also many regional nature museums and gardens have special educational

rooms for E.E. In Indonesia, the Government accepted that a non-

formal E.E. programme was needed to enhance public awareness of

environmental problems. Consequently a team of non-formal educators,

based its campaign on local environmental issues.

The public is reached through a regular series of lectures to youth

and womens' organisations and these are augmented by an imput from the.

mass media - radio, T.V. and the press where the particular target

group is children outside the formal education system. In Wales, the

29

Prince of Wales' Committee, a charitable organisation, is responsible

for the supervision of a large number of environmental improvement

projects, often using the labour of the young unemployed. The financing

of such projects is provided by Government sponsored agencies such as

the Manpower Services Commission and the Welsh Development Agency.

The above examples, along with many others which could have been cited,

illustrate the variety, complexity and versatility of educational and

practical activities which could be classified as non-formal E.E.

Thus many programmes are obviously Governmental inspired and controlled,

others are sponsored by non-governmental organisations (NGO's! wt;ilst

some are a combination of both. Even within the Government organised

programmes, ministries other than that for Education are often involved

e.g. Agriculture, Employment and tivironment. This flexibility of

approach is an important feature of non-formal E.E. and is advantageous

because there is a need to vary the approach to meet the needs of

differing target groups and their specific situations. Great flexitility

also brings problems however. It may result in the fragmenti:% of

effort at Government level and a coherent strategy for non-formal E.E.

may also be lacking amongst the NGO's.

4 .2 The methodology of non-formal E.E.

In general terms the type of non-formal E.E. may be classified as

either participatory or non-participatory. The latter are those in

which target group members are merely passive receivers and would

include radio and T.V. broadcasts, press articles, visits to institutions

such as museums, zoos, aquaria etc., and alsolisteningto the occasional

30

lecture at a local club. These non-participatory forms of non-formal

E.E. are very prevalent throughout the world, particularly so in the

developed countries. During the last decade, the increased incidence

of T.V. programmes dealing with environmental problems such as

conservation, pollution, famine etc., is a measure of the concern felt

by the general public for these important issues.

It is difficult to assess the value and effectiveness of the learning

situation in these non-participatory activities because little research

has been undertaken. The research that has been accomplished clearly

illustrates that learning can, and does, take place. If we consider

visits to zoos and museums then Wright (1980)) Borun and Miller (1980)

and Rosenf'eltl (1984) have demonstrated that both adults and school

children can benefit educationally from such visits and the ability to

grasp certain concepts is enhanced. The impact of T.V. programmes on

the development of an environmental ethic has not been studied but it

would appear that such prograrrmes have been instrumental in creating a

groundswell of public opinion that has manifested itself in such NO' s

as Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth. The goal of these, and similar

organisations throughout the world, is to sensitise the general public

to environmental issues, to raise the level of environmental awareness

and understanding and also to encourage active participation in

environmental problem solving. In West Germany the "Greens" (die

Crunen) have been able to give a political dimension to this environmental

concern and were able to win a number of seats in the elected parliament.

31

It appears, therefore, that non-participatory programmes in E.E. are

widespread and common throughout the world and although the main concern

of these programmes is to entertain the viewing audience, they are also

instrumentai in bringing about attitudinal changes in a large number of

the world's population.

It is interesting to record that in a regional conference on "Environmental

Education in ASEAN Universities and its Transfer" held in the Universiti

Partanian, Malaysia in 1981, educators, researchers and officials frcm

the ASEAN countries (Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and

Thailand) recommended that "... ..the mass media should be encouraged to

educate and not merely to disseminate information of environmental

concern" (Connect Vol. VII No. 2, 1982). Rut this is precisely the

dilemma faced by the mass media; if‘ pt-OgrmITES are too educative then

they often cease to be entertaining to a large majority of‘ the popuiation

and their value is lost. If such programmes are only entertaining then

the environmental message is not clearly transmitted. A further

recommendation from the ASEAN conference states ".....although the mass

media have proved to be an effective instrumer,t for public E.E.,

personal contact, too, must be augmented for the substantive transfer

of environmental education, taking into account the culture and

educational levels of the target group" (Connect op. cit.).

This augmentation of non-participatory E.E. programmes with those that

are more structured, educative and interactive, is most important for

those countries in which environmental issues are imnediate and relevant

to the day-to-day lives (or deaths) of the people. In such countries

the formal education system is often disadvantaged by lack of resources,

high drop-out rates and insufficient placements at secondary school and

32

subsequently the non-formal E.E. programmes of a participatory

nature assume an increased significance. Each region of the

world offers numerous examples of such programmes and it would

be salutary to examine some of the more comnon methods of

instruction used in non-formal E.E. with particular reference

to the various target groups.

'Ihe talk or lecture as part of an extended programme

This type of teaching involves one person (the teacher, the

extension worker, the community worker etc.) talking to an

audience on a particular subject. The technique requires little

active participation by the audience and is, therefore, probably

the least significant in helping the learning process. It is

also the teaching technique which most closely mirrors that used

in formal education; it highlights the distinction between

teacher and taught and this could be disadvantageous if the

audience has a high percentage of individuals who have not

experienced success in the formal sector e.g. school drop outs

and early school leavers. Paradoxically, it may be a good

technique for a class of adults who are experiencing a traditional

classroom situation for the first time. Whatever the audience

however, there are certain features of the technique which should

be borne in mind by all educators.

33

lhe class environment

Wherever possible the classroom should be adequately ventilated,

well lighted and be at a reasonable temperature. Students

should be comfortable but not pampered. The seating arrangement

will depend upon the size of the class but it should be such

that all the class can see the face of the speaker.

The technical competence of the speaker

Ihe speaker must be aware of those features of the talk that

encourage the audience to continue listening and avoid those

which do the opposite i.e. send them to sleep. The most common

fault is that the speaker talks too quickly. This is often

because too much is being attempted; most non-formal classes

can only cope with a small number of ideas at any one time.

Adult audiences in.particular, need time to consider and under-

stand what they are hearing and often the same point or idea

needs to be repeated in a variety of ways.

Another comnon fault is that the speaker reads from a prepared

text in a boring monotone. The soporific effect of such a

delivery can be counteracted by the speaker consciously

introducing variation in volume and pitch and also pausing at

significant places during the lecture. In general it must be

appreciated that the span of attention for most classes in non-

formal E.E. is very limited, probably some ten to fifteen

minutes. After this period of time, involuntary breaks in

34

attention become increasingly comnon when little of what is

heard is comprehended. The speaker must not confuse interest

with understanding. Many of the environmental issues which need

to be considered by non-formal classes are very relevant and of

immediate concern to the audience and thus motivation may be high.

But such issues may also be very complicated and the process of

identifying and understanding an environmental problem and

exploring alternative strategies of solving it, may be a long,

slow and often frustrating experience.

The speaker, therefore, when planning a talk should ensure that

not too much is attempted with the significant points being made

early in the talk. Frequent recapitulations should be made in a

variety of ways and the end of the talk should contain an

effective and stimulating sumnary.

4.24 Ihe class discussion

The term 'discussion' can be used to describe a great variety of

verbal exchanges between people. In the context of this paper

it is used to describe 'I . . . ..a group seeking to put together

their knowledge, ideas and opinions about one subject in a

co-operative endeavour to learn from each other, to learn from

each other, and by working together to reach a little nearer to

the truth or to the solution of the problem....." (Legge 1971).

35

This form of teaching is obviously more participatory than the

talk or lecture and is, therefore, potentially a more effective

teaching and learning strategy. It is also a technique which is

particularly suitable for non-formal E.E. because many adults

can learn best in a social context. Participation in a group

discussion can often boost the confidence of students, an

important factor in self development. It would be irresponsible,

however, to suggest that discussion as a teaching technique has

no drawbacks. Very often a discussion session in a non-formal

class provides the opportunity for people to express firmly held

prejudices or irrational arguments and little, if any, dialogue

occurs. Similarly the discussion may be monopolised by a few

vociferous class members which may accentuate or produce a

feeling of inferiority in other members of the class. It is

most important that the teacher or group leader, in particular,

does not assume a dominant role in discussion sessions, a

tendency all too apparent in many non-formal classes.

Discussion, as a teaching strategy, is not appropriate where

practical skills are being acquired such as the use of unknown

agricultural implements e.g. crop hand sprayers or the application

and use of simple environmental monitoring equipment. Under

these circumstances, clear, unambiguous instructions need to be

understood by the class and a discussion on the relative merits

of one machine versus another may be counterproductive.

Discussion, per se, is also inappropriate when there are a large

number of people in the class. It would appear that good

discussion practice becomes very difficult when class numbers .

exceed twenty five with an optimum number between ten and fifteen.

36

Probably the greatest difficulty with this teaching technique

is the fact that, on many occasions, either the members of the

class have nothing to contribute or they are incapable of

adequately expressing themselves in a group situation. In such

circumstances the discussion session must be seen as part of a

total teaching strategy. In Botswana, for example, the Ministry

of Education initiated Iketleetse, a multi-media, inter-departmental

extension project aimed at disseminating information and

stimulating action amongst the rural poor. It was hoped that

tne Project would supply information about services and

institutions concerned with rural development; provide the

knowledge and skills to help community members use resources to

improve their health, welfare and standard of living and that

it would provide support for local extension workers by

developing a system of communication in remote areas. In the

teaching of the target groups both distance teaching methods

(radio and printed material) and face-to-face approaches were

employed. As part of the latter component Iketleetse employed

a group discussion method which followed a set agenda viz :-

listen to the cassette programme

look at the flip chart pictures

discuss the questions

complete the report forms and

decide upon action

(Byron and Garforth 1979).

'Thus the discussion session followed on from one in which

limited information was presented in a variety of ways. It was

possible therefore, to confine class comments to the particular

-l__l_ I . . _ - . . - -.__ . . _ . , _ . .

37

issue under consideration. Used in this way, discussion can be

a most effective teaching strategy although it tends to be time

consuming and slow in achievement of educational objectives.

As a teaching technique it is best used as part of a problem-

solving approach in which varied opinions and interests, all of

which are relevant, need to be considered before planning

appropriate action. Most, if not all, environmental problems

fall into this category.

Problem solving

The concept of 'problem solving' as a teaching technique is a

recurring theme in much of the literature on E.E. It is

frequently referred to in the report on the Tbilisi Conference

and subsequently in other UNESCO/UNEP publications ".....since

the Tbilisi conference, environmental education has been considered

essentially as education for discovery and action. This implies c

a teaching methodology that gilres equal importance to the

analytical and theoretical-approach of the scientific method as

well as to the more synthetic and pragmatic problem-solving

approachrr (Connect Vol. VIII NO. 3. September 1983). Tne appeal

OP :;his t,ec;i,liqu: is not difficult to untierstand for problem-

solving not only provides a basis for a relevant and meaningful

curriculum, it is also highly participatory and allows individuals

to develop critical tininking skills which are transferable to

many other situations. Furthermore success in a problem-soiving

situation, no matter how small and insignificant, can lead to a

much improved self image. People begin to reaiise chat they

38

can become change agents for the benefit of themselves and their society.

But the persistence of many environmental problems indicates that there

are a limited number of people who are trained to identify and effectively

solve complex environmental problems. It also indicates that problem

solving is a difficult process and, furthermore, using problem solving as

a teaching technique equally arduous. Some of the latter difficulties

arise from constraints within existing formal systems and may be overcome

by developing problem solving programmes in the non-formal system.

For example, learners can be encouraged to deal with controversial issues

and develop interpersonal communications skills and values which aid the

handling of complex issues. Teachers and leaders who are not well versed

in the art of problem solving can be made aware of how controversy may

spark learning if handled effectively. Many educational programmes could

be designed around a problem solving format and involve an integrated or

interdisciplinary study rather than academic subjects involving competency

testing. A more flexible timeperiod, rather than easily administered

time blocks, may facilitate a problem solving approach (see Cowan, Denzer,

Deutsch et al 1984).

Briefly, participants in the problem solving exercise must :

39

(1) Recognise and define the problem

(2) Collect, organise and analyse the information

(3) Generate, evaluate and select alternatives

(4) Develop, implement and evaluate a plan of action

(5) Evaluate the process.

(Stapp and Cox 1981).

The first two stages rely on the experience and perception of the target

group, for example, the problems of overpopulation may not be a suitable

topic for young school drop-outs.

The second stage calls for the development and application of reference

skills whilst stage 3 demands certain analytical and comparative skills.

Stage 4 and 5 require the group to be self critical and recognise factors

causing most environmental issues. In all the above stages the ability

to listen with comprehension and communicate effectively is essential,

furthermore, each member of the group must be prepared to understand

and be prepared to accept alternative views to their own.

The methodology associated with environmental problem solving will, of

necessity, vary according to the target group and with the size and

complexity of the problem. There are guidelines, however, which should be

standard practice in all situations.

Firstly the role of the teacher/group leader is critical. Problem solving,

perhaps more so than any other method in E.E. should be the one that

involves the maximum participation. Illich (1971 ) suggests that ".....most

learning is not the result of instruction. It is rather the result of

unhampered participation in a meaningful setting". The teacher's role is

to guide, clarify, co-ordinate, encourage and if possible, determine the

boundaries of the problem study. The latter is important because the

group should experience scme degree of success in its project.

40

Secondly the selection of the particular environmental problem to be

examined should come from discussions within the target study group.

The teacher or group leader may wish to suggest alternative problems

to be considered, ensuring that such alternatives are of a practical,

pragmatic nature and capable of being solved, but in the final analysis

high levels of motivation can only be maintained if the group determines

the problems to be investigated. Thirdly, the teacher/group leader should

ensure that the maximum use is made of the knowledge, expertise and

experience possessed by members of the group. The problem to be examined

will be of a local nature and this will require local knowledge and local

experience. As indicated previously the teacher should ensure that

contributions from the local officials of various Government Agencies

e.g. Health, Water, Agricultural Extension Officer, Wildlife Ranger etc.,

are received and understood by the target group but the fund of relevant

information collectively possessed by group members should never be

underestimated.

Problem solving in Ghanaian children : a case study

Knamiller and Obeg Asamoah (1979) found that primary school children in

rural areas possessed a great wealth of environmental knowledge that could

be used and developed in a variety of learning situations. For example,

they discerned that children in the village of Akrokerri, Ghana :-

" (a) have a great deal of knowledge about local water resources,

where the best quality drinking water can be found at any time

of the day and in whatever season of the year.

41

(b)

cc>

Cd)

(e> Had experience in growing food crops. Many of them had their own

gardens and worked closely with their parents on the family farm

and vegetable plot. They also knew many food crop pests, both

animals and weeds, and often participated in local attempts to

control them including the indiscriminate use of chemical

deterrents".

On the basis of this information and particularly that associated with

the local water supply, Knamiller and Obeng-Asamoah were able to

involve the children in a problem solving exercise. They noted that

no one was collecting water from the local stand pipes and were able

to discover from the children, the number of stand pipes in the area,

how long they had not been working, the name of the man responsible

for their maintenance and the advantages of using piped water.

The children knew that the pump for drawing water from the bore-hole

to the main water tank was broken and they suspected that there was

no money available to purchase a replacement part for the pump.

Knew a tremendous amount about firewood, the local varieties,

burning qualities, who gathers it, where to get it, how much

you can sell it for, its use in local industries such as charcoal

making.

Have a great deal of inside information about local, small-scale

industries. Many of their families engage in these.

Had a lot of experience with infants, particularly l-5 year olds.

They carry them, play with them, toilet them, cook for them and

feed them.

42

'Ihe teaching /learning potential in this situation was now exploited

and this involved the children in mechanics - how did the pump work?

economics - who paid for the water? and civics - what government agency

was responsible for maintaining the water system? It was also suggested

that the class find out if the community perceived the problem and if,

in fact, they wanted the system working again. lhus the aim of this

problem solving exercise was to gather information about the water

system, assess the attitude of the community regarding the problem and

suggest a scheme to get the system working again.

Although the above example is concerned with children in the formal

education sector, it cannot be considered as a typical programme and

illustrates a number of points which are of great significance to non-

formal education:-

(1 1 'Ihe starting points for acquiring knowledge and learning skills

came from the children's own out-of-school experience and knowledge.

(2) If children of primary school age had acquired such a find of

local knowledge then it is highly likely that considerably more

information and expertise would be possessed by parents and

older siblings.

(3) The procedures adopted in the study are very relevant for all

target groups in non-formal E.E.

Thus Knamiller (lot. cit.) lists the objectives of "environmental

education for development" as helping people to:-

(1 1 become critically aware of issues and problems in their own

community; to question why things are as they are,

(2) develop an ability to consciously make decisions; to take a

stand on local issues and problem,

(3) explore alternatives for Social action; to consider possible ways

of solving local community problems.

Furthermore ffiamiller suggests a following curriculum model for the

study of local environmental issues.

43

Environmental issue/problem e.g. “Are chemical herbicides and pesticides used indiscriminately in local homes and gardens?19) .

Inquiry into What is the current ai tuation” ,gathering factual infomat ion analysing informat ion evaluating

Inquiry into What ought to be”

gathering information about attitudes and beliefs analysing information evaluating informatlon

Decision-Making (llYea, there is a probleW or “No, there is not a problem”.)

Deciding on Social Action

. identifying alternatives

. ordering alternatives

. considering consequences

Thus a problem solving approach in E.E. can make individuals aware of

those features in their environment which are detrimental to individual

and collective well-being. It can also teach them how to analyse the

causes of a&h problems and take appropriate counter measures.

Hopefully it also shows that by working together comunltiw do have

the abfllty to plan for sustainable development within the context of

living rmource conservation.

^__-- _-__ ,------

44

4.26 The use of drama/popular theatre

The use of popular theatre as a communication medium for

development projects hasa,long history. In the late 40's,

teams of field-workers toured villages in Ghana using drama

and demonstration to educate and involve people in campaigns

for such topics as family planning, child care, cocoa disease

eradication etc. Thus it has long been recognised that theatre

can

11(a>

(b)

cc>

Cd)

be an effective tool for non-formal education because.....

as entertainment it can engage and hold the interest of

large numbers of people, many of whom have been alienated

by traditional approaches to adult education and development

as an oral medium in local languages it can involve many

people who are left out of development activities because

of their literacy or lack of understanding of the official

national language (e.g. English or French or Portuguese)

as a means of cultural expression which everyone in the

community is capable of it can be kept within the control

and use of the local people

as a public or social activity3tbrings a community

together and creates the context of co-operative thinking

and action" (Kidd, R. 1979).

The early use of popular theatre as part of a mass education

programme was characterised by the fact that the programmes

were mainly designed to impart information and skills.

They were planned and prepared by headquarters staff of various.

government departments such as agriculture, and health and

..__,._^ -).-” “I . ^ .,,. _._* ” .-...._.

45

little, if any, consultation occurred with the rural clientele.

Such prorammes have been criticised because they were II.....

conceived primarily as a way of putting across information in a

one-way fashion about topics chosen by central-decision makers

rather than as a way of engaging the villagers in authentic

dialogue about their own priority problems" (Kidd lot. tit).

tiring the last decade there has been an increasing use of popular

theatre as part of a two-way communication process. The purpose of

such programmes is not simply to impart information but also to develop

a critical awareness and generate a comitment to collective action.

An example of this new approach is illustrated by the Laedza Batanani

('Wake up - let's get together and work together') festivals in

Botswana. Started in 1974 by extension workers in Northern E!otswana,

the festival is a mixture of socio-drama and group discussion and

provides a forum for the expression of feelings and an analysis of the

major problems faced by a community. Each year local community leaders

and extension workers meet in a workshop situation to choose the issues

to be examined and planthwfestival. Such issues have included

agricultural production, nutrition, the effects of migrant labour and

various health problems. The criteria for selecting issues could include:

popularity

the perceived severity of the problem

the scale of the task

the seasonal nature of the problem.

_ ..“.- _ - a-

46

A smaller group then prepares songs, dances, perhaps puppetry and a

drama production and this is performed by the extension workers in the

main villages of the area. After the performance there is an organised

discussion in which the villagers consider the problem presented and

decide on a plan of action. The performers in the festival i.e. the

local extension workers and community leaders, then provide the

organisational support and technical advice to support the plan of

action. The success of Laedza Batanani has led to other groups in

Botswana adopting this approach and in Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia

and Malawi the University Theatre Departments also organise tours

through village districts as a means of developing a critical awareness

among the rural poor.

As a result of these, and other experiences in popular theatre it is

possible to offer,the following guidelines for consideration by those

planning programmes of non-formal E.E. :-

(1 > popular theatre can be very effective in increasing public

awareness of environmental issues such as health and nutrition,

agricultural production and management of fuel reserves

(2) popular theatre should be organised on a local basis with the'

aim of involving all aspects of the local society in a meaningful

dialogue.

(3) It must be expected that sometimes the issues raised may be

beyond the understanding and/or competence of local government

workers. This can lead to incorrect information being transmitted

and inappropriate action being taken.

47

(4) The issues to be examined should be carefully chosen; an

increased social awareness and social conscience with no

resulting action can lead to frustration and social unrest.

(5) Sometimes the excitement and enjoyment of participating in

the performance may be such a distraction that the intended

message is not transmitted.

(6) Popular theatre is at its most effective when the resulting

motivation and enthusiasm can be harnessed to an existing

organisational framework. This is particularly true if the

issues raised and the work undertaken can be integrated into

that already being undertaken by extension workers.

4.3 E.E. and existing non-formal education programmes

Many of the techniques indicated above are currently practised

by some programmes of non-formal education. The scale and

range of existing programmes in the non-formal sector of

education are enormous and offer a great opportunity for the

spread of E.E.

For example, many countries throughout the world are attempting

to deal with the problem of illiteracy by mounting adult,

functional literacy projects. Such projects are fertile ground

for introducing those environmental issues which are of

immediate concern and relevance to the participants.

This must go beyond the obvious teaching ploy of ensuring that

readers, flashcards, booklets etc. deal with everyday features

of adult life and work.

48

The subject matter under discussion must be such that it

lends itself to the introduction of an element of evaluation

and concern. 'Ihe acquisition of adult literacy is enhanced

by the participants considering environmental problems that

affect the lives of themselves and their families.

Thus an examination of how to improve the amenities of a

village such as a constant water supply and adequate

sanitation arrangements, or how to improve the economy of

an area by increased agricultural yields and better marketing,

would appear to be ideal topics for an adult literacy class.

But there is a need to introduce a more penetrating holistic

view to such topics, for example excessive use of pesticides

and fertilisers may give short term crop yields but what are

long term costs?

An ecologically balanced view must be given and this may pose

problems on two fronts. Firstly it is more difficult (but

not impossible!) to produce simple reading materials on complex

environmental issues and, secondly, the teachers may not

understand the concepts underlying such issues.

A broadly-based environmental approach is also needed in other

programmes of non-formal education such as agriculture and

health studies.

In these areas, in particular, it is imperative that an

environmental perspective is not perceived as an esoteric,

abstract notion, counterproductive in some way to local

developmental strategies.

49

It rust be explained, simply and clearly, how environmental objectives

can contribute, both in the long- and short-term to such development

programnes. Once again this presupposes that the teachers or extension

workers engaged in such programmes have a background in E.E. which

enables them to give this broader view. In order that this is achieved,

a more radical approach to the training of adult education personnel

is needed. Instead of being trained to teach courses which may be

narrowly conceived e.g. use of fertilisers, prevention of specific

diseases, pre- and ante-natal care; all adult education tutors should

be trained in the broader perspective of E.E.

4.4 Suggested Training Programme for Teachers in E.E.

In order to devise effective training programmes for potential teachers

of E.E. in the non-formal sector, it is essential to identify the

needs and requirements of the different target groups and thus plan

the appropriate training programmes. Whilst it may be argued that

the main goal of E.E. is common to all situations i.e. a sophisticated

understandirg of how the environment functions, the I'..... failure to

break down the 'general public' into identifiable target populations,

with a number of defined common denominators from the educational view,

may be one of the reasons for the inadequacy of environmental education

for adults" (Fmmelin 1977). Thus any schedule for training personnel

involved in non-formal education should include items which are of

significance to the particular target group. For example, any programme

concerned with teaching E.E. to young school drop-outs should illustrate .

how features of the local environment can be used to develop the

50

basic skills of literacy and numeracy which will, almost

certainly, be lacking in the pupils. Similarly, training

programmes for those teachers of unemployed young adults should

contain a large element of outside project work in which a

variety of jobs can be experienced. For adults, particular

consideration should be given to the problems of adult literacy

ensuring that the methods and materials are relevant and meaningful

at an adult level; I1 . . . ..any adult can begin to read in a matter

of forty hours if the first words he deciphers are charged with

political meaning (Illich 1971). In addition E.E. for civic,

corrnnunity and political competence and also the particular

needs and the potential of women in society would seem more

appropriate at the adult level.

Apart from the needs of specific target groups, a detailed list of

competencies for teachers of E.E. has already been prepared viz :-

Level I : Ecological foundations

The effective environmental education teacher should be

able to :-

apply a knowledge of ecological foundations to predict

the ecological consequences of alternative solutions to

environmental problems;

be sufficiently literate in ecology to identify, select

and interpret appropriate sources of scientific information

in a continuing effort to investigate, evaluate and find

solutions for environmental problems;

communicate and apply in an educational context, the .

major concepts in ecology.

51

Level II : Conceptual awareness

The effective environmental education teacher should be

able to select, develop and/or implement curricular

materials which will effectively make receivers aware of:

how man's cultural activities (e.g. religious, economic, political, social, etc.) influence the environment from an ecological perspective;

how individual behaviours impact on the environment from an ecological perspective;

a wide variety of local, regional, national and international environmental issues and the ecological and cultural implications of these issues;

the viable alternative solutions available for remediating discrete environmental issues and the ecological and cultural implications of these alter- native solutions;

the need for environmental issue investigation and evaluation as a pre-requisite to sound decision- making;

the roles played by differing human values in environ- mental issues and the need for personal value clarification as an integral part of environmental decisionqaking;

the need for responsible citizenship action (e.g. persuasion, consumerism, legal action, political action, eco-management) in the remediation of environmental issues.

Level III : Investigation and evaluation

The effective environmental education teacher should be

competent to investigate environmental issues and

evaluate alternative solutions and to develop, select

and/or implement curricular materials and strategies

which will develop similar competencies in receivers,

including :

the knowledge and skills needed to identif and investigate issues (using both primary an c? secondary

_-... ._- I --.---- ----

52

sources of information and to synthesise the data gathered);

the ability to analyse environmental issues and the associated value perspectives with respect to their ecological and cultural implications;

the ability to identify alternative solutions for discrete issues and the value perspectives associated with these solutions;

the ability to autonomously evaluate alternative solutions and associated value perspectives for discrete environmental issues with tespect to their cultural and ecological implications;

the ability to identify and clarify their own value positions related to discrete environmental issues and their associated solutions;

the ability to evaluate, clarify and change their own value positions in the light of new information.

Level IV : Environmental action skills

The effective environmental education teacher should be

competent to take positive environmental action for the

purpose of achieving and/or maintaining a dynamic equi-

librium between quality of life and the quality of

environment, and to develop, select and/or implement

curricular materials and strategies to develop similar

competencies in receivers to take individual or group

action when appropriate (i.e. persuasion, consumerism,

political action, legal action, eco-mamagement, or

combinations of these action categories).

'Ihe above list represents the ideal qualifications for teachers of

E.E. and were prepared as guidelines mainly for those entering the

formal education sector. Many of the features mentioned above also

have great significance for the non-formal sector but it must be

53

accepted that many E.E. teachers, both in the formal and non-formal

sectors of education will possess only a fraction of the expertise and

skills listed above. Furthermore the length of time available for the

training or retraining of teachers or extension workers for non-formal

E.E. will almost certainly be of a limited duration and, therefore,

deciding the priority of content in a training course is inevitable.

Obviously it is of paramount importance that teachers should

have a sound knowledge of ecological principles and conservation

practices but of equal importance is the need for teachers to

be sympathetic to the aims and objectives of non-formal E.E.

Thus they must have experience in their training which helps

them to develop a sensitivity to the needs of the target group

and to the individuals who compose it. They must learn to

identify with, and be sympathetic to, the difficulties and

problems faced by members of their class. In establishing

relationships with, class members they must learn to recognise

the virtues inherent in every human being. Pride is the

besetting sin of teachers and they must understand that the

flaunting of a superior intellect is counter productive to the

aims of non-formal E.E. Because of the complexity of many

issues in E-E., most, if not all teachers, will find themselves

in situations that are beyond their own expertise and experience.

Under such circumstances teachers must be prepared to admit

their ignorance and this can be difficult if the teacher has

adopted a highly autocratic posture with the students.

54

Humility, integrity and sincerity are the behavioural

characteristics that underpin the best human relationships;

such relationships based on a mutual trust and confidence are

the keystones of learning in non-formal education.

,When considering possible guidelines for a training programme for

educators of non-formal E.E. it might be useful to identify two

extreme roles that they may play in society - as "environmentalist-in-

residence and environmentalist-as-facilitator11 (Knamiller, personal

correspondence). The former's brief emerges from 'Western' type approach

to the environment i.e. it is concerned with imparting the concepts of

ecology, it is conservation based and a chief concern is the preservation

of plant and animal species.

The environmentalist-as-facilitator's brief emerges from community

development school; his/her concern is with controversy, political

activism and the general raising of public consciousness. Althou&

these may be construed as polar opposites, the conflict of conservation

versus development is a very real one and what is needed are environ-

mental educators who can listen to, and be sympathetic with, the

concerns of communities but who can translate and interpret this

concern in terms of sustainable development. It is hoped that the

following training programme would serve to produce non-formal teachers

who were skilled in performing this difficult task.

I”__~..^ 1. I . - - _ . - . . , “ “ ^ . - *_ l̂ “ , . - . . . , . .

55

Guidelines for a training programme for teachers/extension

workers in non-formal E.E.

Main Objectives

1. To ensure that environmental educators have some under- standing of the complex relationships that exist in the environment.

2. To ensure that environmental educators realise that human activities in the environment must be managed to ensure the sustainable utilisation of resources.

3. To give a variety of first hand, practical activities in the environment.

4. To ensure that environmental educators understand the way in which the learning process differs with specific target groups.

5. To give the opportunity for environmental educators to practice relevant and varied teaching methodologies.

Unit 1

(a>

(b)

Man and the Environment

The Biosphere

(i> Plant and animal communities and the concept of an ecosystem

(ii> The circulation of substances and energy in the environment

(iii) Self regulating mechanisms in the biosphere.

Environmental care and management

(i> Man's exploitation of and impact on, ecosystems such as soil, forests, coastal and fresh water habitats. Suggestions for the improved management of these life- support systems

(ii) Harmful substances in the environment, their source, effect and strategies for their reduction

(iii) Specific studies of local environmental problems e.g. overgrazing; wood collection; urban stress; acid rain. etc.

--

56

Unit 2 The aims and methodoll_ogy of non-formal E.E.

0) Ihe learning process in (a) adults (b) children

(ii> Aspects of group dynamics to illustrate the importance of inter- and intra-personal relationships

(iii) Critical examination of specific E.E. programnes which use a variety of methodologies in differing combinations

(iv> Problem solving = on-site activities in a village/town situation to include :- (a) information gathering from villagers/townspeople/

extension workers etc.

(b) problem analysis and problem solving to include .small-scale constructive work

cc> consideration of various schemes aimed at environmental monitoring.

(VI The production of teaching schemes, including audio- visual aids, based on specific local problems (see iv above).

Unit 3 'Ihe political dimension of E.E.

(i> Simple management techniques to ensure of effort with particular reference to

How to influence

(ii) government policy - the administrative local level, state and national level; power groups

co-ordination problem solving

system at the role of

(iii) aspects of environmental Law : the interpretation and enforcement of environmental legislation at national and local level.

57

4.43 Suggested training programme

The training programme for future tutors/extension workers in non-formal

E.E. should be such that due consideration is given to the type of

person who may wish to become an adult tutor. Often they will have

jobs outside the formal education system and part-time evening study

is likely to be the pattern of attendance. In order to meet these

particular requirements it is suggested that the training programme

is arranged in a number of stages with each stage divided into a

series of modules (see Fig. >. In stage one there are three inter-

related modules which aim to give students an initiation into basic

teaching skills and an insight into the major issues emerging from a

study of the biosphere. This stage should involve at least 30 hours

of course instruction and be followed by some teaching practices

with adult groups. The modules suggested for stages 2 and 3 are meant

to provide for an increasing professional training both in the pedagogic

and environmental fields, and it is envisaged that a further 70 hours

of instruction would be necessary to complete these stages.

The interval between stages could be varied during which time there

would be an opportunity for further teaching practice. The division

of the course into stages and modules is based on the principle of

ffcredit-accumulationff and ensures that part-time adult students are

not overburdened with the problems of long, continuous studies and

extensive examinations.

Finally the course aims at providing an increasing local perspective

which is the key to effective non-formal environmental education.

Fig. Suggested programme for the training of tutors/extension workers in E.E.

Stage 1

1. The learning process in children and adults. Adult psychology.

2. Group dynamics - the importance of inter- and intra-personal relationships.

3. The Environmet& the concept of an ecosystem. Energy in the biosphere, self- regulating mechanisms.

Minimum 30 hours.

1 *

2.

3.

Stage 2

Specific E.E. programmes, various methodologies in adult education.

Harmful substances in the local environment, sources effects and strategies for reduction.

Environmental Law - environmental legislation.

minimum 30 hours

1 .

2.

3.

stage 3

Production of specific, local teaching programmes including audio-visual aids.

F \ \

Man's exploitation of and \ impact upon the environment. \

\

4. Problem solving, on-site activities

Examination of local including simple

environmental problems management

interoretation and techniques.

enforcement of I

environmental legislation, 3 J/ evaluation at local level. 0

0 minimum 40 hours

59

4 -5 Evaluation

The evaluation process is an integral part of the education

process and one cannot be adequately carried out without the

other. The most appropriate definition of evaluation, with

particular reference to non-formal E.E. is given by Popham

who states that If . . . ..systematic educational evaluation consists

of a formal assessment of the worth of educational phenomena"

(1975). Such phenomena would include a wide variety of

educational processes and practices in E.E. and could range

from the evaluation of a particular course for extension workers

to assessing the role of a NGO in promoting E.E. to a particular

clientele. Such diverse evaluative needs have been fully

considered by Bennett (1977) when presenting a synthesis of

evaluation models in E.E. Furthermore a list of general

objectives and performance indicators in E.E. have been published

by the Maryland State Department of Education.

This section therefore, will attempt to offer guidelines on the

evaluation of specific programmes or projects in the field of

non-formal E.E.

The purpose of evaluation is to find out to what extent the aims

and objectives of a programme or project have been achieved.

In non-formal E.E. such aims and objectives may be wide searching

and the evaluation exercise could

factors such as.....

. . . ..the design of the project or

. . . ..the cognitive, affective and

involve an examination of

programme.....

skills aspects of the goals to be achieved by participants.....

. . . ..the financial, cultural and political conditions for its feasibility.....

60

. . . ..the acceptability of content to learners, teachers and organisers.....

. . . ..the methodologies used by the teacher/group leader.....

. . . ..the teaching learning materials.....

. . . ..the recruitment and training of the teachers/group leaders....

. . . ..the effectiveness of the programne in preventing/reducing environmental abuse.....

All evaluation measures the change in, and influence of, variables and

these fall into two major categories - independent and dependent

variables. When considering some of the factors mentioned above, some

aspects such as the methodologies employed, the teaching and learning

media used, the amount of money allocated, the length of the course etc.,

can all be varied and the degree of influence on the course can be

evaluated. Such variables are termed independent. Other factors which

can be evaluated are such things as student achievement in understanding

certain environmental concepts, performing various skills and in

developing a concern for the environment. These variables which indicate

the amount of change that may or not have taken place are termed depender

One of the most difficult tasks in any evaluation exercise is to

establish clear, measurable objectives in the programme. Another major

problem is to decide how evidence may be collected which will indicate

if the programme is moving towards such objectives. Usually a

combination of techniques is used for data gathering; those participating

in the programme such as teachers, students, administrators, extension

workers, may fill in a questionnaire and/or produce written or oral

statments. They may also be observed carefully noting behavioural

changes or they could be interviewed by an outside assessor. Written

work that is presented on a regular basis may also help in assessing

students. In general, techniques employed must be matched to the

educational situation. If, for example, the teaching progrme includes

61

practical activities in the environments such as building a dam or

planting trees, then the evaluation exercise should attempt to

measure improvement in manual skills and also, perhaps, co-operative

effort.

The easiest evidence to Qandle is that which can be counted in

some way, but much of it will be in the form of simple

descriptions which may be difficult to categorise. When all the

evidence has been gathered it needs to be critically examined

with regard to its validity but it will almost certainly shed

some light on the efficiency of programmes and indicate where

problems are occurring.

The Iketleetse Rural Extension Project in Botswana provides us

with an example of the role and importance of evaluation in

non-formal E.E. The project had evaluation built into the

I program design both to monitor the operations and also as a

summative exercise. The evaluative exercise indica:ed that the

following were important for the success of any project :-

. . . ..detailed topic research

. . . . . inter-departmental design and planning which involved village, district and central levels of participation

. . . . . careful pre-testing of draft materials

. . . . . feedback and evaluation.

The evaluation of the methodologies employed indicated that :-

. . . . . there were insufficient practical demonstrations

. . . . . the extension workers did not integrate group activities into their routine work

. . . ..group meetings tended to decrease in frequency

. . . ..there was a need to integrate media material with face-to-

face demonstrations

62

. . . ..there was an over-estimation of the impact of the media, especially on illiterates.

When considering the overall success of the Project, the

information gathered showed that co-ordination at district level

was important for non-formal activities in E.E. Such co-ordination

was instrumental in.....

. . . . . recruiting group leaders

. . . . . helping to plan the educational content of the programme

. . . . . following up ideas transmitted

. . . . . supporting group and individual action.

The above example clearly indicates the importance of evaluation

when considering the wide-ranging aspects of an educational

programme.

Some specific guidelin,es,,on evaluation

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Evaluation should be accepted as a fundamental aspect of non-formal E.E.

When planning any programme or project, specific measurable objectives should be established and evaluative techniques considered.

The greaterthe complexity of the objectives then the more difficult it is for them to be avaluated.

It: is easier to evaluate a formal education prograrrPne than a non-formal programme.

Data may be collected in a variety of ways but it is important to consider its validity.

Evaluative procedures should enhance programme planning and provide information for relevant innovation.

Evaluation is not easy but some attempt must be made.

Some aspects of non-formal E.E. which are of no great significance

may be easy to evaluate, other aspects which are of great

significance may be very difficult to evaluate.

63

The media and non-formal environmental education

Radio

The use of radio in developing an awareness of the environment and

environmental issues has been a characteristic of the medium since its

origin. However, most programme producers, outside the traditional

formal school framework are often more concerned with education by

stealth rather than signposting progrxrxnes as environmental education.

This approach is certainly common in developed countries, but there is

evidence that producers in developing countries are prepared to transmit

progrmes which deal with environmental issues of immediate relevance

to the listeners.

Improved technological and production processes have ensured that portable,

transistorised radio has become the most widespread and commonly used

invention of the twentieth century. Thus radio has been, and is likely

to be for some time, the main medium for non-formal education in the

developing world. One of the major problems of using radio for educational

purposes is that of ensuring that the message reaches, and is understood

by the target audience and many strategies have been tried to increase

feedback from listeners.. These strategies have been fully considered

by Moemeka (1983) and include the use of a forum approach in Ghana and

Benin and using radio in a spec'ific instructional way which has been

attempted in Tanzania and Nigeria. In these latter countries the

listeners were organised into groups and the aim was to teach a variety

of cognitive skills as well as work skills which could lead to an

increased standard of living. The radio programmes were aumented by *

64

written materials and a local teacner or extension worker provided an

element of interpersonal corrmunication. Feedback from the teacher was

important in terms of programme amendment but the audience was not

necessarily involved in this process. This is in contrast to the forum

approach previously mentioned. Here, the emphasis was on group discussion

and listeners views and questions formed the basis of much of the

programmes. This strategy of using listening/discussion groups also

included the use of written materials and the participation of a

completed monitor or extension worker to direct the activities.

In Ghana and Benin this approach was used some fifteen years ago to

discuss such environmental issues as health and sanitation and modern

agricultural techniques.

The evidence of these and other educational initiatives using radio,

have shown quite clearly that success depends upon the involvement of

the target group in the planning and execution of the progrannnes and

also upon a teacher using other teaching/learning strategies to re- 9

inforce the broadcast.

Although there are examples where the success of radio in non-foraml

education has been striking, in general, the impact of radio programmes

has been minimal in nearly all of the countries where this strategy has

been attempted. The reasons for this are numerous and include lack of

finance, an absence of a support infrastructure and, perhaps, an

overemphasis on literacy and basic education. Another factor affecting

the widespread success of the radio learning group strategies is the

lack of message specificity. People, both in rural and urban areas are

motivated by issues that have significance to their day-to-day lives. .

Many environmental problems are localised, or have a local manifestation,

65

and need to be discussed and, hopefully, solved by local people and

local officials. It is often not appropriate to confront people with

problems that are at a worldwide or even national level; they need to

examine the problems of their village or their town such as their water

supply, the use of fertilisers on their fields, the graffiti in their

town centre etc.

tioemeka (lot. cit.) suggests that this important local perspective can

best be achieved by setting up local radio stations

II . . . . . local radio strategy, with its demands for grassroot

participation, and staff rapport with local communities, has a very strong potential for making a success of non-formal education on a national level if sufficient stations are constructed. It is a strategy that will surely help to improve for the better the social, economic, cultural, environmental and political conditions of the rural communities" (Moemeka lot. cit.).

Television

If radio is the most important mass communication medium in the developing

world then television is the medium of the developed world.

The impact of television in motivating people has never been more clearly

demonstrated than by the recent appeals for famine relief in Africa.

The pictures of undernourished children in the relief camps of Ethiopia

triggered off a wave of concern in the Western World which resulted in

tens of millions of dollars being donated to the relief charities.

In addition, governmental aid to the Third World became a public issue

and many people, for the first time, faced the reality of a divided world.

This example illustrates both the advantages and disadvantages of tele-

vision in non-formal environmental education. Television has enormous

potential to inform, fascinate, stimulate and challenge people's views

on environmental issues but, even more so than radio, it lacks a local

66

perspective. The costs of producing television prograr;;mes and the

concern of the producers with viewing ratings means that it is

unlikely that coverage of Small-Scale, local enviromental issues

will occur and even major environmental problems which are not

newsworthy will be ignored. Thus television, as with radio, has to

be localised and people who traditionally are the "object audience"

have to become "subject participantstl in the message (see Lewis 1977).

Video, i.e. small gauge, portable T.V. units and its associated

equipment, can provide the answer in that it can be the means whereby

television is used in a locally-based participating style of non-formal

environmental education.

In the developed world, video has become a major tool at all levels of

formal education but its use in non-formal education is not widespread.

In the developing world, althou& its use was at first spasmodic and

ill-defined, it is now being used more extensively to train extension

workers of various government departments. For example in The Gambia,

Phillipines and India video has been used extensively in family

planning programmes.

It is possible, therefore, to envisage video being used in much the

same way as local radi0.i.e. as a flexible media resource responsive

to local needs and aspirations.

Guidelines on the use of the media in non formal E.E.

In recognising that radio and television are probably the most effective

media for influencing public opinion, it is proposed that they can be'

used more effectively in non-formal E.E.......

67

1. . . . ..by presenting regular, e.g. daily programmes, in which

envirPnmenta1 issues are presented in an interesting and lively

manner. A diary, for example, broadcast every morning for five

minutes could inform farmers of such things as weather prospects,

commodity prices, new techniques in fertiliser treatment, optimum

planting times etc.

Environmental concern could also be incorporated into programmes

which are more clearly designed to be entertaining. It is well

known that regularly presented programmes on either the radio or

television in which the audience can identify with people and

situations can be very popular and command eTy3rmous audiences.

In such programmes environmental issues could be woven into the

story to maximum effect. For example, a series based on the

everyday life of a family could naturally include such topics

as publich health and family planning.

2. . . . ..by ensuring that the educational potential of documentaries

and other specialist programmes are maximised. In many countries

television programmes concerned with natural history are very

popular but often the producer fails to realise the contribution

that E.E. can make to the quality of such programmes.

For example, in many programmes the emphasis is on spectacular,

unusual photography which, obviously, many people find fascinating

and entertaining. But an examination of environmental problems

such as water-borne diseases, pest control and urban decay can be

equally fascinating, of immediate relevance to the audience yet

still exploit the specific, motivating characteristics of the

mediun.

3. . . . ..by making sure that the regular news programmes in both

television and radio, local and national, inform people of

current enviromental problems and issues. This should not

68

be confined to the reporting of major envirorznental disasters

but should constantly remind the public that environmental

degradation, in all its manifestations, is a constant and

pressing problem for most societies.

4. . . . ..by incorporating an environmental perspective into existing

educational programmes. In many countries a sophisticated

system of educational broadcasting exists at both a formal and

an informal level. Such a system could be the vehicle for much

continuing education and it should be possible to utilise it so

that current environmental issues are brought to the notice of

the general public.

5. . . . ..by focussing on environmental subjects in those programmes

which rely on audience participation. There has been an

increasing tendency, particularly in developed countries, for

the views of the listening audience to-be incorporated into

discussion programmes. This may take the form of a direct

telephone link between selected listeners and the presenter

or a survey of opinion which is gained by many people phoning

into a central switchboard. Occasionally the topic under

discussion is environmentally based but there is a great

opportunity to use this programme format more effectively in

examining environmental issues, particularly at local level.

6. . . . ..by ensuring that producers of radio and television

programmes are aware of, and have some understanding of

the environmental problems faced by their local societies

and that they inform themselves of the role that non formal

E.E. has in solving such problems. It would be unrealistic

to propose that all producers undertake an in-service course

in environmental studies but it is desirable that at least

one person in the local or national broadcasting organisation

69

is trained in E.E. The task of such a person would be to

examine, with programme producers, how environmental awareness

could be incorporated into existing programmes and how it may

be extended by new broadcasting strategies.

The multi-media approach

The existing use of television, video and radio, and its further use as

suggested above, indicates the great potential that the media has in

promoting non-formal environmental education. In all cases however,

the impact of television and radio programmes can be consolidated and

extended by the use of suitable written materials. 'Ihus associated

teaching aids such as posters, flip-charts, field guides, instruction

manuals etc; are of great importance in all forms of non-formal

education.

Such a multi-media approach has been shown to be most effective in

disseminating knowledge, attitudes and skills to the general public.

An essential element in their production is the need for pre-testing

and this should be seen as an integral part of the production and

implementation process. Whilst this is often accepted, the time and

resources which are allowed for the pre-testing of materials are often

underestimated.

'Ihe teaching materials, however, no matter how well they have been

produced, are no substitute for the benefits that are gained by inter-

personal contact. People, in general, need the help, guidance and

encouragement that comes from relating to a teacher or extension worker,

and this is particularly true for the non-formal sector of education

70

Environmental Ethics

Environmental attitudes and ethics vary from culture to culture and

are influenced by societal, theological and environmental factors.

An environmental ethic is composed of three main elements :

1. Harm to people

'2. Harm to plants and animals

3. Harm to natural systems.

It is not possible to review the whole range of ethics and their

cultural, political and theological influences. It is, however,

worthwhile to realise that an environmental ethic has been present

from the original speciation of man, and is inherent in all religious

beliefs. A chief observance of Buddhists is the role of sanctity of

all life forms. One example of an ethic developed in a culture which

was ecologically harmonious was that of the North American Indians.

The various indian tribes had a deep respect for the environment,

indeed they recognised that the earth had a spirit. When Black Elk, a

holy man of the Oglala Sioux, speaks of "the beauty and strangeness of

the earth" he speaks of reverence for the everyday environment, an

environment which was interwoven with Indian life. The closeness to

which the indians felt attached to the earth is mirrored in Indian

sayings and statements from their people. Chief Luther Standing Bear

born in 1868 says,

The Sioux were true naturists. They loved the earth and things of the earth, the attachment growing with age. The old people came literally to love the soil and they sat or reclined on the ground with a feeling of being close to a mothering Fewer. It was good for the skin to touch the earth and the old people . liked to remove their mocassins and walk with bare feet on the sacred earth. Their tipis were built on the earth and their altars made

71

of earth. The birds that flew in the air came to rest upon the earth and it was the final abiding place of all things that lived and grew. The soil was soothing, strengthening, cleansing and healir-@. (McLuran 1971).

In this culture kinship with all creatures of the earth, sky and water

was a real and active precept. For animals of the world there existed

a brotherly feeling. The Sioux believed that man's heart away from

nature becomes hard and that a lack of respect for growing, living

things soon led to the lack of respect for humans as well.

While this deeply spiritual environmental ethic may exist in many

cultures in less developed countries, it has declined in the western

world. Despite this many are aware of the loss, particularly the

dehumanising and desocialising effects of rapid industrialisation and

urbanisation and its effect on the environment (O'Riordan 1978).

This concern has not only manifested itself in the formation and

expansion of environmental pressure groups, but, admittedly, in more

academic circles, the development of an environmental philosophy which

evaluates the relationship between man and his fellow beings and their

relationship to the biophysical surroundings. Environmental philosophy

provides an important contemplative perspective to a mode of thinking

that is concerned with the application of management techniques and

political activism motivated to sustain. Often the formulation and

development of an environmental philosophy involves the resolution of

contradictory elements which are considered e.g. the environmental

curtailment of freedom, protection of sovereignty and questions of

moral and cultural rights.

72

The aim of environmental philosophy is to develop an ethic which

facilitates a prudent attitude and practice towards the environment.

A variety of different views are held within the western world.

O'Riordan (1978) recognises two basic types of thinking, ecocentricism

and technocentricism. The ecocentric attitude is one which has little

faith in large scale technology, believes materialism for its own sake

is wrong and in the intrinsic importance of nature for the humanity of

man and has a high regard for the idea that ecological laws dictate

human morality. The technocentric attitude has a strong faith that

man will find a way out of difficulties either politically or

technologically.

One form of ecocentric thought is the self reliant soft technologist

which has much to offer developing countries whose people have the will

to develop independently, The soft technologists have little faith in

large scale technology and its associated demands on elitist expertise,

central state authority and inherently anti democratic institutions.

They emphasise smallness of scale and hence community identity in

settlement work and leisure, the integration of concepts of work and

leisure through a process of personal involvement and communal

improvement. They place importance upon participation in community,

affairs and guarantees of the rights of minority interests.

Participation is seen both as a continuing education and political

function. In order to counter the distressing tendencies of western

development, environmentalists and economists such as Schumacher

(1973) and Pirages and Ehrlich (1974) have developed ideas based upon

small scale sustainable, self reliant communities largely governed .

through cmnity participation.

73

One of the most pressing environmental problems is to maintain the

sustainability of finite ecosystems. Many believe a solution to this

problem lies in a harmonious collaboration with nature and control

based upon ecological understanding and the ethic of stewardship.

In order to transform a destructive attitude towards the environment to

one resulting in a sustainable earth it may be necessary to develop a

number of approaches, ecological, humanistic and theological.

The exploitation and development of a better understanding of these

approaches may formulate or emphasise environmentally prudent values.

Miller and Armstrong (1982) suggest a series of questions that can be

evaluated : Is humanity the source of all value? Does nature exist for

the purpose of exploitation? Is success based upon material wealth?

Are material sources unlimited? Humans do not have to adapt to the

environment but merely control it by using science and technology.

A different set of questions may apply to a different cultural system.

It would be interesting to discover how the man vs. nature attitude of

each culture arose historically, but more challenging and vital, cultures

may attempt to develop environmentally aware attitudes and to seek

alternatives. These must evolve towards forming a partnership with

nature based upon ecological understanding and co-operation; with an

emphasis on preserving and encouraging physical, biological and cultural

diversity, while preventing the deterioration of the quality of the

environment. The ideal human goal is that of caring and sharing, not

complete individualism and domination. No individual or group has the

right to an ever increasing share of earth's finite resources.

74

Teachers and the curriculum

Teachers and leaders express their environmental concern in various

ideologies and this is expressed through the curriculum, both in formal

and non formal education. Huckle (1983) suggests that three general

ideologies exist : conventional environmentalism which attempts to

develop environmental management incorporating applied ecology. Its

main emphasisis that major ecological dangers can be avoided without

major social change provided that ecology can be incorporated into

existing decision making frameworks.

Utopian environmentalism uses peoples' concern about the environment

to gain support for utopian alternatives to prevailing conceptions of

society, e.g. alternative energy techniques, holistic living.

Such environmentalists believe that nature not only helps us to under-

stand ourselves and our world but is itself a source of moral values

which imposes limits on economic development.

Radical environmentalism regards disparities in environmental well-

being as examples of more general disparities in social justice and

maintainsthatenvironmental abuse results from the normal operations

of institutions in societies where economic needs generally dominate

peoples' needs for high quality surroundings. One major criticism of

western industrial development is that it is rarely prepared to put

the environment before profit and so transfers the cost of its

environmentalal damage to its citizens.

75

Education about the environment reflects conventional education and

treats the environment as a subject of education thereby creating an

understanding of environmental issues and thus contributing to sound

environmental management. Education from the environment uses

environmental studies as a rationale for pupil centred, topic based

learning which deals with rural and historical environments and emphasises

social concensus rather than conflict. Education for the environment

regards environmental well being as its goal. It is designed to ensure

the target group's awareness of the moral and political decisions

shaping their environment and to give them the knowledge, attitudes and

skills which will help them form their own opinion and participate in

environmental politics.Oftenthe problems are issue based and need to

ensure awareness and understanding and culminate in some form of

community action. Bnphasis in developing an environmental ethic within

target groups should centre upon helping them to understand the way in

which they interact with the environment and that they can vary the

quality and sustainability of the environment by altering their material

needs.

76

VI Co-ordination in non-formal environmental education

1. International co-ordination and co-oneration

A number of international organisations which have been involved

in non-formal environmental education includes the Food and

Agriculture Organisation (F.A.O.), World Health Organisation

(WHO) and the Meteorological Organisation (WO). The United

Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF), in particular, have emphasised

the role of non-formal education in helping people interact with

their environment in mutually constructiveways.

UNESCO plays a key role both in general environmental education

in all its aspects (both formal and non-formal). The purpose of

its long term programme is to facilitate joint planning and pre

programming activities essential for an international programme;

promote the exchange of ideas and information, co-ordinate

research, design and evaluate materials, train and retrain

personnel and provide an advisory service.

Within the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP)

environmental education is one of the four supporting measures

for environmental programmes (the other three being training,

technical assistance and information). UNEP has established

international networks receiving contributions from strong

national and regional institutions.

77

The International Environmental Education Programme (I.E.E.P.)

has contributed greatly to the development of environmental

awareness, particularly by initiating a series of international

and regional meetings which led to the governmental Conference

at Tbilisi in 1977. The Conference laid the basis for the

development of national strategies and the promotion of

international co-operation. Regular periodical information on

non-formal Environmental Education has been published in Connect

which appears in five languages and is distributed to 12,000

individuals and institutions of five world regions. I.E.E.P.

programmes have been involved in the clarification of concepts

and methodology of Environmental Education stressing the inter-

disciplinary approach and problem solving within the community.

Dyasi (1977) has reviewed international and regional co-operation

in environmental education and concludes that except in the case

of the environmental education programme spearheaded by UNESCO

and UNEP there has been virtually no dynamic interaction among

the organisers. Eight years later some progress has been made

but clearly a major initiative is required for the co-ordination

and co-operation of non-formal environmental education.

Many problems have to be overcome. One of the major difficulties

is that educational goals are defined in different ways by

different groups and different processes are thought to be

essential for their attainment. One way to partially resolve

the problem is to consider the perception of environmental

education as a transaction in which everyone should have a role

78

to play. It is necessary to develop a forum for non-fonal

environmental education where all representatives can interact

and consider suggestions for action. A forum can be developed at

national levels to allow participation by a greater number from the

grass roots of each nation. Another for policy makers at national

and global levels.

2. Non-formal environmental education at national levels

Envirornnental education has an inextricable place within the

concept of non-formal education particularly in the developing

countries because of its link with basic needs and development,

Voluntary and governmental organisations tend not to be well

co-ordinated, although co-operation between voluntary organisations

is growing e.g. Council for bvirorpnental Education in Britain.

In order to co-ordinate national organisations in an efficient

and structured manner, it is necessary to be aware of the

develoment of non-formal environmental education in a variety

of countries. In a few cases, their links with international

organisations is discussed.

Asia

In some less developed countries national and international action and

co-operation take on a different form. Non-formal environmental

education is being developed in Asia in a variety of ways fran fundamental

literacy and numeracy programmes based on the local environment to

special seminars and courses for decision and policy makers.

For teaching the mass of the population, there is no role more important

than that of the mass media - radio, television and the press. Due to

their greater flexibility and power of penetration, they constitute a

79

particularly suitable means of reaching not only wide audiences, but also

certain social groups which for a variety of reasons - geographic

inaccessibility, language difficulties, remain outside the mainstream of

the educational system.

A media workshop jointly sponsored by the Asia - Pacific Institute for

Broadcasting development, the Econanic and Social Conmission for Asia and

the Pacific and the UNEP was conducted in Kuala Lumpur in 1982.

'Iheir objectives were to increase the involvement and utilisation of the

media, familiarise broadcasters with E.E. problems, and provide practical

experience in production and furnish a general background.

In India, non-formal education has been addressed to youth and adults, in

both rural and urban areas. Youth centres have been specifically treated

for this purpose in towns, cities and villages. Youth weeks are organised

which involve young people in nature protection and environmental improve-

ment on large scales. Adults are involved in the prograsxnes but more time

is given to environmentally appropriate tools and technology.

self sufficiency in tools is one of the goals, so as to reduce population

flow into the city. B-E. activities deal directly with local environmental

problems and their solutions involving concerned SeCtiOnS Of the comunitY

ad the support of the local media.

In Bangladesh during 1981 a national workshop on the theme "Environment and

the role of Nongovernmental Organisations I1 was held under the auspices of

the National Federation of UNESCO Clubs. A special ccmmittee was formed to

raise the level of the local population awareness and concern.

,--- -- -- ~- --

,-

Africa 80

In Africa the mass media plays a dominant role in non formal education.

Radio is an important medium in all member states and television is

used extensively on the Ivory Coast, in Guinea, Kenya, Senegal and Zaire.

In addition, community organisations for development and youth associations

are directly involved in campaigns such as reforestation (Cap Vert,

Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Madagascar, Mauritania,

Nigeria, Senegal, Seychelles and Tanzania). Similarly local populations

are involved in public health campaigns.

In Senegal non formal environmental education has involved a number of

training and other activities. Key personnel were trained by the former

Office of Environmental Protection of the State Council. In addition

cadre were trained technically for local, state and sectoral envimrmental

management posts. In all during 1979 to 1981 nearly 20, 000 cadre were

involved in some 375 training programmes with courses on water and air

analysis and monitoring, envirorxnental quality evaluation, contaminated

water treatment, smoke elimination and other new envirorxnentally sound

technology. In addition in 1980-81 a vast number of public information

programmes were launched. This scheme highlighted the relationship between

environment and population growth; between economic development, national

resource protection and ecological balance; between isxnediate and long

term developent and local and national interests. The programme involved

the press, radio, television, cinema, scientific research, academic

circles and general community activities. During the information month of

March 1980 alone, 2,000 newspaper articles appeared on envirorxnental

protection.

In Sierra Leone, an integrated envirorxnental approach is increasingly

taken within adult or community health prograxnes. The principal :

ministries involved are health, education, agriculture and forestry,

tourism and culture, energy, power and lands. The mass media are used

to the maximum, particularly radio and television.

81

Arab States

Schemes have been organised by Egypt's Arab Office of Youth and

Environment, a non governmental youth organisation and the Youth Service

Clubs of Sudan to promote active participation by Arab youth in the

protection and preservation of the environment. Participants from twelve

Arab States : Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Morocco, Cxnan, Qatar,

Somalia, Sudan, Tunisia and the United Arab Emirates attempted to

establish co-operative relationships among Arab youth groups and to

develop discussion of major environmental problems in the Arab region

and what is being done to solve them plus the development of a work plan for

regional E.E. and environmental youth activities. Subjects discussed were

environmental education, conservation strategies, sea water pollution,

energy,overpopulation and the environment, rural development regional

and international environmental activities.

The Ministries of Culture and National Education of Syria organised an

environmental education workshop in 1983 with the collaboration of UNESCO

Regional Offices for Education. Six modules were developed for non formal

E.E. on (1) various forms of urban poilution (2) diseases transmitted

by worms (3) by insects (4) public health and the environment

(5) nutritional hygiene (6) environmental diseases attributed to

unsanitary archaic practices.

82

Caribbean

Protection and care of the envirorxnent as well as the rational use of

natural resources are considered tasks of such importance that they

receive special attention by the State of Cuba and are embodied in its

fundamental laws and regulations. To this effect the Council of

Ministries created the National Commissions for the Protection of the

Environment and the Conservation of Natural Resources. This law has

specifically established environmental education as a concern of the

National System of Education. Environmental education of the general

public is a primary concern and the responsibility of the mass media.

Special television shorts have been created for this purpose as well

as educational films for local projection. A number of goverrxnental

and non goverrnnental organisations participate actively, as well, in

non formal E.E. of the general public.

Latin America

Some non formal environmentai programmes are often treated in the

functional literacy programmes, as in other countries such as Africa

and Asia, while others are more specific.

Non formal environmental education in Argentina has generally involved

promotion and participation in World Ehvirorxnent Day - posters, primers

and packets of didactic material were distributed to some 3,000

establishments during a recent celebration. Audio-visual materials have

been developed for use inside and outside the s&&l. Other instructional

materials have been prepared by the Direction National de Ordenamiento

Ambiental as a part of its EE programme, these involve leaflets, special

83

didactic materials and guidelines, technical publications and general

information booklets. The support of the mass media in the celebration

of World Environment Day has been invaluable.

The Costa Rican National Fark Service, created in 1970, has produced a

permanent programme for giving information to schoois and the general

public. The Ministry of Agriculture has an Environment Education

Department and the Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports conducts a few

activities in the environmental field throu@;h the National Youth Movement.

In 1980, the Costa Rican Electricity Institute collaborated with U.N.E.P. 3,

in sponsoring a course on 'Environmental Impact Evaluation'.

The Municipal Advising and Promotion Institute serves as a support

organisation for local government and offers training courses in

municipal policies, conducts studies on trash and biodegradation techniques

and has co-operated in the training of other state officials in

environmental contamination matters and materials recycling.

Many other institutes such as the National System of Cultural Radio and

Television, the Costa Rican Tourism Institute, the National Committee for

Scientific and Technical Research and the Costa Rican Institute for

Nature Conservation play an important role in non formal Environmental

Education.

84

U.S.A.

Non formal EE constitutes an exceptionally important part of E.E. in the

U.S. Environmental organisations, museuns, aquaria and the mass media

in general reach a majority of the population. One of the largest

conservation societies, The National Wildlife Federation, produces

a periodical which reaches the reading public beyond its 4.6 million

members; the society sponsors a Wildlife Week and has developed projects,

materials and runs workshops. The National Audubon Society provides E.E.

through its education centres, adult ecology camps, field programmes and

film/lecture series. Recently it has become concerned with the urban

environment. Many of the 6, 700 museums of the country have initiated

environmental interpretetive programmes.

The contribution of the mass media - press, radio and television has been

so marked that it is now taken for granted and environmental educators

are now developing audio visual technology, e.g. the combination of

television set, videoscope and microcomputer, which allow direct

individual participation in environmental games and simulation.

85

U.S.S.R.

The U.S.S.R. has a highly developed system of environmental

legislation based upon its constitution which declares that

'Natural Resources belong to the people and all citizens should

maintain them in good state', environmental education is well

developed and supported but it is largely concerned with nature

conservation education. Societies with concern for nature

conservation are present throughout the Soviet Union and possess

power in all matters concerned with conservation. The societies

act as watchdogs and check on the local observance of conservation

laws. They also perform an important role through envirorrnental

publicity campaigns to make people conservation conscious by

distributing information.

Non formal education is developed as an out-of-school activity for

their students and there are also societies of young naturalists.

There are nearly 60 million members of Societies for the safe-

guarding of nature. Lecture teams have been formed for public E.E.

which have organised several million educational talks and

encounters. The mass media and especially radio and television are

playing an increasingly important role in non formal E.E.

As for audio visual E.E. materials, from 1977 to 1980 alone there

have been 150 films produced.

..- __-. ---

86

Non-formal education in the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic

The central body of State administration in the field of non-

formal education is the Ministry of Culture. A wide range of

installations, institutions and organisations, which are controlled

and organised by the school, carry out their activities outside

the teaching process. Certain schools have an extended educational

regime involving non-formal education; these include:- after school

facilities, school clubs, hobby groups,

youth and parent teachers associations.

of the Socialist Union of Youth is very

formal education. One concrete example

activity was carried out by the Pioneer

libraries, houses of

The Pioneer Organisation

active in the area of non-

of nature conservation

organisation in 1979

when it planted over 1 million trees. Other activities have

been carried out by various groups including Union of Co-operative

Farmers, Czech Angling Union, Czech Union of Gardeners.

The organisational bases of non-formal teaching are long term,

regular group forms of education whose advantage is th.at they

have direct and indirect educational impact on education and

youth. Non-formal E.E. seeks to develop and further deepen the

interests and talents of children and youth in particular activities

and to broaden and improve the specialised knowledge and skills.

The Pioneer organisation is primarily orientated to practical

activities and to developing collective feeling and behaviour

and participating in collective decision making. Within this

group the most active are the young friends of wild life and

groups of young nature conservationists.

87

Portugal

The initiation and development of non formal environmental education in

Portugal has been undertaken since 1975 by the National Service for the

Participation of Peoples (NSPP), an organ of the National Commission for

the Environment. This action has involved both the conceptualisation and

implementation of E.E. itself as well as the clarification of the role of

schools in E.E. activities outside of the school. The result has been a

fluid cDmunitY based structure responding to the needs and demands of

various departments of the Ministry of Education, school boards, teachers

and other individuals and institutions.

Noteworthy among the NSPP activities have been exchanges, the establishment

of a document centre, organisation of study sessions on people and their

environment, meeting for natural science teachers and nurses, preparation

and acquisition of films, slides and other audio visual materials and

publication of newsletters.

Finland

Non-formal E.E. in Finland is being conducted in several ways. Well over

100 civic and workers' institutes are carrying out some form of environmental

education with emphasis on biology and agricultue. Three of the 88 "folk

high schools I1 have courses in ecology and environmental protection , many

more have included environmental themes in their social science studies.

Ten more study centres have been organised by various cultural and

educational organisations. Materials have been produced by environmental

protection organisations as well as by Adult Education Prograsrnes of the

88

Finnish Broadcasting Company. The study centres have also produced

their own materials. In addition to the nature protection organisations

there are various groups such as the Energy Policy Association, Society

for Soft Technology and the Antinoise Society, which produce E.E.

teaching and learning materials.

It is concluded that on a national basis, planning, organisation and

conduct of non formal E.E. may be governmental, non governmental and/or

a combination of both. Aspects of, or an entire prograsxne may fall

officially and formally under the ministry of education or another

ministry e.g. agriculture, tourism etc.

In order to reach the objectives of non-formal Ehvironmental Education

quickly and efficiently, it is necessary to embark on action considered

as priorities at international and national levels. These actions need

to be identified and elaborated at national level with appropriate

co-operation and co-ordinationinthe following areas :

(a> co-ordination of initiatives

(b) co-ordination of expertise and exchange of information on different experiences

cc> exchange of information on techniques and materials

Cd) co-ordination of training initiatives.

89

Legislation

One of the most important factors influencing the implementation of

non-formal environmental education is legislation. Many countries

such as Indonesia and the Netherlands have laws regulating environmental

mamagement for the purpose of protecting and enhancing environmental

quality. Others such as Korea have developed Charters for the

protection of the envirorxnent and have stressed the importance of

active participation in the solution of environmental problems.

Not only is it necessary to develop a national development plan, but,

as in Colombia, educational reform is necessary. Legislation must

include specific laws protecting the environment and a specific charter

for the development of nonformal environment education. In the U.S.A.

much environmental legislation has been formulated, this includes both

a National Environmental Policy Act (1969) as well as an Environmental

Education Act, the latter leading to the formation of the Office of

Environmental Education.

China has been very concerned with the relationship between environmental

protection and the modernisation programme, specifically, knowledge

about the environment has been popularised and linked to decision making

particularly during the Period of Readjustment of the National Economy.

In Poland, the law requires compulsory introduction of environmental

education into all on-the-job training courses for workers.

'Ihe Tbilisi Conference recommendations on envirorxnental education at

the national level are contained in the country's 1980 Environmental

Protection Act.

CONCLUSION 90

The concept of environmental education is now well defined and its importance,

role and direction has been clearly elucidated at the Tbilsi Conference. The objectives

of n on-formal environmental education are similar to those in the formal system, that

is, to increase awareness and knowledge and to develop skills and attitudes conducive

to a harmonious relationship with the environment. To do this, it is necessary to

evaluate both environmental education programmes and the efficacy of decisions involved

in environmental management. There are strong arguments that suggest that prudent

environmental decision-making and educational programmes must involve a higher degree

of participation in order to develop a sense of responsibility and urgency within the

learners.

A variety of environmental problems has been reviewed. All countries have some

problems and they may be very severe in many Third World countries. Yet, in almost

all cases, there are alternative strategies such as more appropriate technological

developments or alternative agricultural practices. An attempt has been made to present

guidelines of methodologies which can be made available in order to develop the

objectives of non-formal environmental education, these include both participatory and

non-participatory types. It is argued that both methods are extremely important and

that different techniques can be tried in specific situations, depending on such factors

as the availability of teaching resources, cultural context and the kinds of target groups.

Suggested training techniques have been described which develop informational, foundation

and conceptual awareness, powers of investigation, evaluation and finally action skills.

It is particularly important that environmental leaders evaluate educational programmes

with regard to the need, relevance and degree of participation of the learners.

Finally, a review has been made of the extent of international and national co-

ordination and legislation of non-formal environmental education. A number of

organisations are involved in non-formal environmental education. Key roles are played

by F.A.O., W.H.O., M.M.O., U.N.E.P., U.N.I.C.E.F. and U.N.E.S.C.O. There is clear!y

a need for interaction between these organisations and a major initiative is required for

improved co-ordination. At the national level, the countries reviewed here appear to

have a mixture of governmental and non-governmental organisations involved with non-

91

formal environmental education. In many cases, there is a much greater need for

improved co-ordination and interaction and this may be achieved by formulating a

specific charter for the development of non-formal environmental education within these

countries.

It is inevitable that there will be a great variety in the form and practice of

non-formal environmental education. If the rapid growth in communications technology,

which more areas of the world have experienced in the last decade, continues for the

next decade, then it is not difficult to envisage systems of teaching/learning evolving

that are fundamentally different from those of today. Such developments would

profoundly influence the format and the importance of non-formal education and if

environmental degradation continues at a similar pace, then environmental issues wi II

*become increasingly important.

In the short term, however, it would be prudent if education administrators

reflected on the essential features that characterise non-formal environmental education

i.e. it should be concerned with local issues (but I’ . ..think globally and act locallytlj,

it must involve all levels of society and, above all, it must be active and participatory.

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DOCUMENTS IN THE ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION SERIES

No.

1 Trends in Environmental Education since theTbilisi Conference

2 Guide on Gaming and Simulation for Environmental Education

3 Module Bducatif sur la conservation et la gestion des ressources naturelles

4 Educational Module on Environmental Problems in Cities

5 Environmental Education Module for Pre-Service Training of Teachers and Suoervisorsfor Primary Schools

6 Environmental Education Module for In-Service Training of Teachers and Supervisors for Primary Schools

7 Environmental Education Module for Pre-Service Training of Science Teachers and Supervisors for Secondary Schools

8 Environmental Education Module for In-Service Training of Science Teachers and Supervisors for Secondary Schools

9 Environmental Education Module for Pre-Service Training of Social Science Teachers and Suoervisors for Secondary Schools

10 Environmental Education Module for In-Service Training of Social Science Teachers and Supervisors for Secondary Schools

Year

1983

1983

1983

1983

1983

1985

1983

1983

1985

1985

No.

11 L’energie : theme integrateur en education relative a I’environnement

12 Guide on Environmental Education Evaluation at School

13 Guide on Environmental Education Values Teaching

14 Interdisciplinary Approaches in Environmental Education

15 A Problem-Solving Approach to Environmental Education

16 Environmental Education Module on Desertification

17 A Comparative Survey of the Incorporation of Environmental Education into School Curricula

18 The Balance of ‘Lifekind’: An Introduction to the Human Environment

19 Analysis of Results of Environmental Education Pilot Projects

20 Environmental Education: Principles of Teaching and Learning

21 Environmental Education Module on Health, Nutrition and the Environment

22 Procedures for Developing an Environmental Education Curriculum

Year

1985

1985

1985

1985

1985

1985

1985

1985

1985

1985