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UNIT – 1 INTRODUCTION Protocols and standards – OSI model – TCP / IP protocol suite – addressing – versions – underlying
technologies.
Protocols and Standards
Protocol
set of rules that governs communication
For communication to occur, the entities must agree on a protocol.
A protocol defines
o what is communicated,
o how it is communicated,
o when it is communicated.
Elements of protocol
Syntax
Syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in which they are presented
The data order is also applied to the order of bits when they are stored or transmitted
Semantic
Refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
o How is a particular pattern to be interpreted
o what action is to be taken based on that interpretation?
Example
o does an address identify the route to be taken or the final destination of the message
Timing
Timing refers to two characteristics:
o when data should be sent
o how fast it can be sent.
Example
o sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can process data at only 1 Mbps, t
o he transmission will overload the receiver and data will be largely lost.
Standards
Essential in creating and maintaining an open and competitive market for equipment manufacturers
Essential in guaranteeing national and international interoperability of data and telecommunications
technology and processes
They provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government agencies, and other service
Data communication standards fall into two categories
de facto (meaning “by fact” or “by convention”)
o Standards that have not been approved by an organized body but have been adopted as standards
through widespread use
o Examples are MS Office and various DVD standards
de jure (meaning “by law” or “by regulation”)
o those that have been legislated by an officially recognized body.
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Internet Administration
Internet Society (ISOC)
International, nonprofit organization formed in 1992 to provide support for the Internet standards process.
ISOC accomplishes this through maintaining and supporting other Internet administrative bodies such as
IAB, IETF, IRTF, and IANA
ISOC also promotes research and other scholarly activities relating to the Internet
Internet Architecture Board (IAB)
technical advisor to the ISOC
Main purposes
o to oversee the continuing development of the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
o to serve in a technical advisory capacity to research members of the Internet community
IAB accomplishes this through its two primary components,
o The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
o The Internet Research Task Force (IRTF).
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
forum of working groups managed by the Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG).
responsible for identifying operational problems and proposing solutions to these problems
develops and reviews specifications intended as Internet standards
nine areas have been defined
o Applications, Internet protocols, Routing, Operations, User services, Network management
o Transport, Internet protocol next generation (IPng), Security
Internet Research Task Force (IRTF)
forum of working groups managed by the Internet Research Steering Group (IRSG).
IRTF focuses on long-term research topics related to Internet protocols, applications, architecture, and
technology
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)
Was responsible for the management of Internet domain names and addresses until October 1998
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)
a private nonprofit corporation managed by an international board, assumed IANA operations
Network Information Center (NIC)
responsible for collecting and distributing information about TCP/IP protocols
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OSI Model ISO
o International Standards Organization
o Established in 1947
o ISO is the organization;
o ISO is a multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards
OSI
o Open Systems Interconnection
o introduced in the late 1970s
o OSI is the model
o An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications
o An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate regardless
of their underlying architecture
OSI Model
The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows communication
between all types of computer systems.
It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines a part of the process of moving
information across a network
Layered Architecture
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The OSI model is composed of seven ordered layers
1. Physical
2. Data link
3. Network
4. Transport
5. Session
6. Presentation
7. Application
Layer-to-Layer Communication
Interfaces between Layers
Each interface defines what information and services a layer must provide for the layer above it
Well-defined interfaces and layer functions provide modularity to a network.
As long as a layer provides the expected services to the layer above it, the specific implementation of its
functions can be modified or replaced without requiring changes to the surrounding layers
Organization of the Layers
Three subgroups
Network support layers
o Layers 1, 2, and 3—physical, data link, and network
o Deal with physical aspects of moving data from one device to another (such as electrical specifications,
physical connections, physical addressing, and transport timing and reliability)
User support layers
o Layers 5, 6, and 7—session, presentation, and application
o they allow interoperability among unrelated software systems
Overlapping layer
o Layer 4, the transport layer,
o links the two subgroups and ensures that what the lower layers have transmitted is in a form that the
upper layers can use
An exchange using the OSI model
Encapsulation
A packet at level 7 is encapsulated in the packet at level 6.
The whole packet at level 6 is encapsulated in a packet at level 5, and so on.
The data part of a packet at level N is carrying the whole packet (data and overhead) from level N + 1.
The concept is called encapsulation because level N is not aware what part of the encapsulated packet is
data and what part is the header or trailer.
For level N, the whole packet coming from level N + 1 is treated as one integral unit
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Layers in the OSI Model
Physical Layer
Responsible for moving individual bits from one (node) to the next
Physical characteristics of interfaces and media
o Representation of bits
o To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals—electrical or optical.
o The physical layer defines the type of encoding (how 0s and 1s are changed to signals)
Data rate.
o transmission rate - the number of bits sent each second
o the duration of a bit, which is how long it lasts
Synchronization of bits
o the sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized at the bit level
Line configuration
o point-to-point : two devices are connected together through a dedicated link.
o multipoint configuration : a link is shared between several devices
Physical topology.
o Defines how devices are connected to make a network.
o Devices can be connected using a
mesh topology (every device connected to every other device),
a star topology (devices are connected through a central device),
a ring topology (each device is connected to the next, forming a ring)
a bus topology (every device on a common link).
Transmission mode.
o direction of transmission between two devices:
o simplex
only one device can send; the other can only receive
oneway communication
o half-duplex
two devices can send and receive, but not at the same time
o full-duplex.
two devices can send and receive at the same time
Data Link Layer
Transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable link.
It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network layer)
Other responsibilities
Framing
o Divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into manageable data units called frames.
Physical addressing
o If frames are to be distributed to
different systems on the network - header to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame.
outside the sender’s network - the address of the connecting.
Flow control.
o If the rate at which the data is absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate produced at the sender,
o flow control mechanism to prevent overwhelming the receiver.
Error control
o mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames.
o It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames.
o achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame.
Access control.
o necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given time.
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Network Layer
Responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet, possibly across multiple networks (links)
Data link layer oversees the delivery of the packet between two systems on the same network (link)
The network layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to its final destination.
If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need for a network layer
Other responsibilities
Logical addressing
o Adds a header to the packet which includes the logical addresses of the sender and receiver.
Routing
o To provide a mechanism to route or switch the packets to their final destination in a network of networks
Transport Layer
Responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message.
Ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order, overseeing both error control and flow control
at the source-to-destination level.
Other responsibilities
Service-point addressing
Computers often run several programs at the same time.
Source-to-destination delivery means delivery not only from one computer to the next but also from a
specific process (running program) on one computer to a specific process (running program) on the other.
The transport layer header include a type of address called a service-point address (or port address).
The network layer gets each packet to the correct computer;
The transport layer gets the entire message to the correct process on that computer.
Segmentation and reassembly
A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each segment containing a sequence number.
These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the
destination and to identify and replace packets that were lost in transmission.
Connection control
The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection-oriented.
A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet and delivers it to the
transport layer at the destination machine.
A connection-oriented transport layer makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination
machine first before delivering the packets.
After all the data are transferred, the connection is terminated.
Flow control
Flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single link.
Error control
Error control at this layer is performed process-to-process rather than across a single link.
The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving transport layer
without error (damage, loss, or duplication).
Error correction is usually achieved through retransmission.
Session Layer
Network dialog controller.
establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction between communicating systems
Other responsibilities
Dialog control
Allows two systems to enter into a dialog.
Allows the communication between two processes to take place in either
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o halfduplex (one way at a time) or
o full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode
Synchronization
allows a process to add checkpoints (synchronization points) into a stream of data.
Helps to resend only the needed (lost / corrupted) data
Presentation Layer
Concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between two systems.
Specific responsibilities
Translation
Because different computers use different encoding systems, the presentation layer is responsible for
interoperability between these different encoding methods.
The presentation layer at the sender changes the information from its sender-dependent format into a
common format.
The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the common format into its receiver-dependent
format.
Encryption
To carry sensitive information a system must be able to assure privacy.
Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to another form and sends the
resulting message out over the network.
Decryption reverses the original process to transform the message back to its original form.
Data Compression
Reduces the number of bits contained in the information.
Particularly important in the transmission of multimedia such as text, audio, and video
Application Layer
Enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network.
It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access and transfer,
shared database management, and other types of distributed information services.
Specific services
Network virtual terminal
A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical terminal and allows a user to log on to a
remote host.
File transfer, access, and management (FTAM).
This application allows a user to access files in a remote host (to make changes or read data),
to retrieve files from a remote computer for use in the local computer, and
to manage or control files in a remote computer locally
E-mail services
This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.
Directory services
This application provides distributed database sources and access for global information about various
objects and services.
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TCP/IP Protocol Suite
.
Comparison with OSI Model
TCP/IP has more than one transport-layer protocol.
o Some of the functionalities of the session layer are available in some of the transport layer protocols.
o application layer is not only one piece of software.
TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of which provides a specific
functionality, but the modules are not necessarily interdependent.
o The term hierarchical means that each upper level protocol is supported by one or more lower level
protocols
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Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite
Internet is made up of several small networks called links
A link is a network that allows a set of computers to communicate with each other
Different links are connected together by devices called routers or switches that route the data to reach
their final destinations
Physical Layer
TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol for the physical layer.
It supports all of the standard and proprietary protocols.
At this level, the communication is between two hops or nodes, either a computer or router.
The unit of communication is a single bit.
When the connection is established between the two nodes, a stream of bits is flowing between them.
The physical layer, however, treats each bit individually
Data Link Layer
TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol for the data link layer either.
It supports all of the standard and proprietary protocols.
At this level, the communication is also between two hops or nodes.
The unit of communication however, is a packet called a frame.
A frame is a packet that encapsulates the data received from the network layer with an added header and
sometimes a trailer.
The head, among other communication information, includes the source and destination of frame.
The destination address is needed to define the right recipient of the frame because many nodes may have
been connected to the link.
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The source address is needed for possible response or acknowledgment as may be required by some
protocols.
The two nodes communicate logically at the data link layer, not physically.
Network Layer
At the network layer TCP/IP supports the Internet Protocol (IP).
The Internet Protocol (IP) is the transmission mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols.
IP transports data in packets called datagrams, each of which is transported separately.
Datagrams can travel along different routes and can arrive out of sequence or be duplicated.
IP does not keep track of the routes and has no facility for reordering datagrams once they arrive at their
destination.
Communication at the network layer is end to end while the communication at the other two layers are node
to node.
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Transport Layer
Although all nodes in a network need to have the network layer, only the two end computers need to have
the transport layer.
The network layer is responsible for sending individual datagrams from computer A to computer B;
The transport layer is responsible for delivering the whole message, which is called a segment, a user
datagram, or a packet, from A to B.
A segment may consist of a few or tens of datagrams.
The segments need to be broken into datagrams and each datagram has to be delivered to the network
layer for transmission.
Since the Internet defines a different route for each datagram, the datagrams may arrive out of order and
may be lost.
The transport layer at computer B needs to wait until all of these datagrams to arrive, assemble them and
make a segment out of them.
Traditionally, the transport layer was represented in the TCP/IP suite by two protocols:
o User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
o Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
A new protocol called
o Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)
o has been introduced in the last few years.
Application Layer
The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combined session, presentation, and application layers
in the OSI model.
The unit of communication at the application layer is a message.
The application layer allows a user to access the services of our
o private internet or
o the global Internet.
Many protocols are defined at this layer to provide services such as
o electronic mail,
o file transfer,
o accessing the World Wide Web
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Addressing Four levels of addresses are wih TCP/IP protocols:
o Physical address,
o logical address,
o port address
o application-specific address.
Each address is related to a one layer in the TCP/IP architecture
Physical Addresses
The physical address, aka the link address, is the address of a node as defined by its LAN or WAN.
It is included in the frame used by the data link layer.
It is the lowest-level address.
The physical addresses have authority over the link (LAN or WAN).
The size and format of these addresses vary depending on the network.
For example,
o Ethernet uses a 6-byte (48-bit) physical address that is imprinted on the network interface card (NIC).
o LocalTalk (Apple), has a 1-byte dynamic address that changes each time the station comes up.
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o A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address
07:01:02:01:2C:4B
Physical addresses can be either
o unicast (one single recipient),
o multicast (a group of recipients), or
o broadcast (to be received by all systems in the network)
Some networks support all three addresses.
o For example, Ethernet
Logical Addresses
Logical addresses are necessary for universal communications that are independent of underlying physical
networks.
Physical addresses are not adequate in an internetwork environment where different networks can have
different address formats.
A universal addressing system is needed in which each host can be identified uniquely, regardless of the
underlying physical network.
The logical addresses are designed for this purpose.
A logical address in the Internet is currently a 32-bit address that can uniquely define a host connected to
the Internet.
No two publicly addressed and visible hosts on the Internet can have the same IP address
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Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), finds the physical address of router that corresponds to its logical
address
The physical addresses will change from hop to hop, but the logical addresses remain the same.
The logical addresses can be either
o unicast (one single recipient),
o multicast (a group of recipients)
o broadcast (all systems in the network).
There are limitations on broadcast addresses.
Port Addresses
The end objective of Internet communication is a process communicating with another process.
For these processes to receive data simultaneously, we need a method to label the different processes.
the label assigned to a process is called a port address.
A port address in TCP/IP is 16 bits in length
o Ex: 753
The physical addresses change from hop to hop, but the logical and port addresses usually remain the
same.
Application-Specific Addresses
Some applications have user-friendly addresses that are designed for that specific application.
Examples
o e-mail address (for example, [email protected])
defines the recipient of an e-mail
o Universal Resource Locator (URL) (for example, www.mhhe.com).
used to find a document on the World Wide Web.
These addresses, however, get changed to the corresponding port and logical addresses by the sending
computer,
Versions IPv4
IPv6
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Underlying Technologies
Wired Local Area Networks A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that is designed for a limited geographic area such as a
building or a campus
Several technologies such as
o Ethernet,
o token ring,
o token bus,
o FDDI
o ATM LAN
IEEE Standard for LANs
subdivided the data link layer into two sublayers:
o logical link control (LLC)
o media access control (MAC).
created several physical layer standards for different LAN protocols
Ethernet Frame Format
Addressing
Ethernet Evolution
Access Method: CSMA/CD
Standard Ethernet implementations
Fast Ethernet (802.3u)
Gigabit Ethernet (802.3z)
Ten-Gigabit Ethernet (802.3ae)
Frame Format
The packet sent in an Ethernet LAN is called a frame
does not provide any mechanism for acknowledging received frames
Acknowledgments must be implemented at the higher layers
Minimum length: 64 bytes (512 bits) Maximum length: 1518 bytes (12,144 bits)
Preamble
o 56 bits of alternating 0s and 1s
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o alerts the receiving system to the coming frame and enables it to synchronize its input timing
Start frame delimiter (SFD)
o signals the beginning of the frame
o last chance for synchronization
o The last 2 bits are 11 and alert the receiver that the next field is the destination address
Destination address (DA)
o Physical address of the destination station or stations to receive the packet
Source address (SA)
o Physical address of the sender of the packet.
Length or type
o Type field to define the upper-layer protocol using the MAC frame
o The IEEE standard used it as the length field to define the number of bytes in the data field
Data
o This field carries data encapsulated from the upper-layer protocols
o It is a minimum of 46 and a maximum of 1500 bytes
CRC
o The last field contains error detection information, in this case a CRC-32
Addressing
Each station on an Ethernet has its own network interface card (NIC)
The NIC fits inside the station and provides the station with a 6-byte physical address (48 bits), normally
written in hexadecimal notation, with a colon between the bytes.
The address normally is referred to as the data link address, physical address, or MAC address
Ethernet MAC address example: 4A:30:10:21:10:1A.
Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast Addresses
A source address is always a unicast address—the frame comes from only one station.
The destination address, however, can be unicast, multicast, or broadcast.
If the least significant bit of the first byte in a destination address is 0, the address is unicast; otherwise, it is
multicast
The broadcast destination address is a special case of the multicast address in which all bits are 1s
The address is sent left-to-right, byte by byte; for each byte, it is sent right-to-left, bit by bit
Ethernet evolution
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Access Method: CSMA/CD
The IEEE 802.3 standard defines carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) as the
access method for traditional Ethernet
CSMA can reduce the possibility of collision, but it cannot eliminate it
Minimum Frame Size: transmission time Tfr must be at least two times the maximum propagation time Tp.
Standard Ethernet implementations
Fast Ethernet (802.3u)
Goals of Fast Ethernet
o Upgrade the data rate to 100 Mbps.
o Make it compatible with Standard Ethernet
o Keep the same 48-bit address.
o Keep the same frame format.
o Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths.
star topology only
half duplex
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o connected via a hub
full duplex
o connection is made via a switch with buffers at each port
autonegotiation.
o allows two devices to negotiate the mode or data rate of operation
Gigabit Ethernet (802.3z)
Goals
o Upgrade the data rate to 1 Gbps.
o Make it compatible with Standard or Fast Ethernet.
o Use the same 48-bit address.
o Use the same frame format.
o Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths.
o To support autonegotiation as defined in Fast Ethernet
two distinctive approaches for medium access: half-duplex and
full-duplex.
o central switch connected to all computers or other switches
o each switch has buffers for each input port in which data are stored until they are transmitted.
o there is no collision;
o the maximum length of the cable is determined by the signal attenuation in the cable.
Half-Duplex Mode
o Dependent on the minimum frame size
o Three solutions have been defined:
o traditional
minimum length of the frame as 512 bits
maximum length of the network is 25 m
o carrier extension
minimum length of a frame as 512 bytes (4096 bits)
length of 100 m
o frame bursting
multiple frames are sent with padding
Ten-Gigabit Ethernet (802.3ae)
Goals
o Upgrade the data rate to 10 Gbps.
o Make it compatible with Standard, Fast, and Gigabit Ethernet.
o Use the same 48-bit address.
o Use the same frame format.
o Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths.
o Allow the interconnection of existing LANs into a metropolitan area network (MAN) or a wide area
network (WAN).
o Make Ethernet compatible with technologies such as Frame Relay and ATM.
operates only in full duplex mode
o no need for contention; CSMA/CD is not used
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Some Ethernet Implementations
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Wireless LANs IEEE 802.11
Bluetooth
IEEE 802.11 Architecture
o Basic Service Set
o Extended Service Set
o Station Types
MAC Sublayer
o CSMA/CA
o Frame Exchange Time Line
o Fragmentation
o Frame Format
o Frame Types
Addressing Mechanism
Hidden Station Problem
Exposed Station Problem
Architecture
Basic Service Set
Building block of a wireless LAN
made of
o stationary or mobile wireless
stations
o optional central base
station, known as the
access point (AP).
ad hoc architecture
o BSS without an AP
infrastructure
o BSS with an AP
Extended Service Set
made up of two or more BSSs with Aps
BSSs are connected through a distribution system, which is usually a wired LAN
uses two types of stations: mobile and stationary
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Station Types
no-transition
o A station with no-transition mobility is either stationary (not moving) or moving only inside a BSS
BSS-transition
o can move from one BSS to another, but the movement is confined inside one ESS
ESS-transition mobility
o can move from one ESS to another
MAC Sublayer
CSMA/CA
Wireless LANs cannot implement CSMA/CD for three reasons:
For collision detection,
o a station must be able to send data and receive collision signals at the same time.
o Could mean costly stations and increased bandwidth requirements.
Collision may not be detected because of the hidden station problem.
The distance between stations can be great.
o Signal fading could prevent a station at one end from hearing a collision at the other end.
Frame Exchange Time Line
DIFS - distributed interframe space
RTS - request to send
SIFS - short interframe space
CTS - clear to send)
NAV - network allocation vector
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Collision Avoidance
When a station sends an RTS frame, it includes the duration of time that it needs to occupy the channel.
The stations that are affected by this transmission create a timer called a network allocation vector (NAV)
that shows how much time must pass before these stations are allowed to check the channel for idleness.
Each time a station accesses the system and sends an RTS frame, other stations start their NAV.
In other words, each station, before sensing the physical medium to see if it is idle, first checks its NAV to
see if it has expired.
Fragmentation
the division of a large frame into smaller ones
The wireless environment is very noisy; a corrupt frame has to be retransmitted
It is more efficient to resend a small frame than a large one.
Frame Format
Frame control (FC).
o The FC field is 2 bytes long and defines the type of frame and some control information.
o WEP Wired equivalent privacy (encryption implemented)
D
o defines the duration of the transmission that is used to set the value of NAV
o defines the ID of the frame in one control frame
Addresses
o There are four address fields, each 6 bytes long.
o The meaning of each address field depends on the value of the To DS and From DS subfields
Sequence control
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o Defines the sequence number of the frame to be used in flow control.
Frame body
o can be between 0 and 2312 bytes,
o contains information based on the type and the subtype defined in the FC field.
FCS
o The FCS field is 4 bytes long and contains a CRC-32 error detection sequence.
Frame Types
Management Frames
o Management frames are used for the initial communication between stations and access points.
Control Frames
o Control frames are used for accessing the channel and acknowledging frames
o Subtype Meaning
o 1011 Request to send (RTS)
o 1100 Clear to send (CTS)
o 1101 Acknowledgment (ACK)
Data Frames
o Data frames are used for carrying data and control information
Addressing Mechanism
specifies four cases, defined by the value of the two flags in the FC field, To DS and From DS.
Each flag can be either 0 or 1, resulting in four different situations.
Hidden and Exposed Station Problems
Hidden Station Problem
stations B and C are hidden from each other with respect to A.
Hidden stations can reduce the capacity of the network because of the possibility of collision
Solution
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use of the handshake frames (RTS and CTS)
RTS message from B reaches A, but not C.
Because both B and C are within the range of A, the CTS message, which contains the duration of data
transmission from B to A reaches C.
Station C knows that some hidden station is using the channel and refrains from transmitting until that
duration is over
The CTS frame in CSMA/CA handshake can prevent collision from a hidden station
Exposed Station Problem
The handshaking messages RTS and CTS cannot help in this case
If station A has started sending its data, station C cannot hear the CTS from station D because of the
collision
it cannot send its data to D.
It remains exposed until A finishes sending its data
Bluetooth Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology designed to connect devices of different functions
o Ex: telephones, notebooks, computers (desktop and laptop), cameras, printers, coffee makers
A Bluetooth LAN is an ad hoc network, which means that the network is formed spontaneously; the devices,
sometimes called gadgets, find each other and make a network called a piconet.
A Bluetooth LAN can even be connected to the Internet if one of the gadgets has this capability.
A Bluetooth LAN, by nature, cannot be large.
If there are many gadgets that try to connect, there is chaos.
Applications
Peripheral devices such as a wireless mouse or keyboard
Monitoring devices can communicate with sensor devices in a small health care center.
Home security devices can use this technology to connect different sensors to the main security controller.
Conference attendees can synchronize their laptop computers at a conference
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Architecture
Bluetooth defines two types of networks:
piconet
scatternet.
Piconets
A Bluetooth network is called a piconet, or a small net.
A piconet can have up to eight stations, one of which is called the primary; the rest are called secondaries.
can have only one primary station.
All the secondary stations synchronize their clocks and hopping sequence with the primary.
The communication between the primary and the secondary can be one-to-one or one-to-many
an additional eight secondaries can be in the parked state.
A secondary in a parked state is synchronized with the primary, but cannot take part in communication until
it is moved from the parked state.
Because only eight stations can be active in a piconet, activating a station from the parked state means that
an active station must go to the parked state.
Scatternet
Piconets can be combined to form what is called a scatternet.
A secondary station in one piconet can be the primary in another piconet.
This station can receive messages from the primary in the first piconet (as a secondary) and, acting as a
primary, deliver them to secondaries in the second piconet.
A station can be a member of two piconets.
Bluetooth Devices
built-in short-range radio transmitter
data rate is 1 Mbps with a 2.4-GHz bandwidth
possibility of interference between the IEEE 802.11b wireless LANs and Bluetooth LANs
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Frame Format
A frame in the baseband layer can be one of three types:
o one-slot,
o three-slot
o five-slot
Access code
o synchronization bits and the identifier of the primary to distinguish the frame of one piconet from
another
Header
o This 54-bit field is a repeated 18-bit pattern
o Address
can define up to seven secondaries (1 to 7).
If the address is zero, it is used for broadcast communication from the primary to all secondaries.
o Type
type of data coming from the upper layers
o F
for flow control
When set (1), it indicates that the device is unable to receive more frames (buffer is full).
o A
for acknowledgment
Bluetooth uses stop-and-wait ARQ
o S
sequence
o HEC
error correction subfield is a checksum to detect errors in each 18-bit header section.
Data.
o It contains data or control information coming from the upper layers.
o The sending station, after sensing that the medium is idle, sends a special small frame called request to
send (RTS).
o In this message, the sender defines the total time it needs the medium.
o The receiver acknowledges the request (broadcast to all stations) by sending a small packet called
clear to send (CTS).
o The sender sends the data frame.
o The receiver acknowledges the receipt of data.
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Point-to-Point WAN 56K Modems
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) Technology
Cable Modem
T Lines
56K Modems
Uploading
o the analog signal must be sampled at the switching station, which means the data rate in uploading is
limited to 33.6 kbps.
Downloading
o No sampling in.
o The signal is not affected by quantization noise
o Signal not subject to the
o data rate in the downloading direction is 56 kbps.
o telephone companies sample voice 8000 times per second with 8 bits per sample.
o One of the bits in each sample is used for control purposes, which means each sample is 7 bits.
o The rate is therefore 8000 × 7, or 56,000 bps or 56 kbps.
o The V.90 and V.92 standard modems operate at 56 kbps to connect a host to the Internet.
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) Technology
Highspeed digital communication over the existing local loops (telephone line)
set of technologies, each differing in the first letter (ADSL, VDSL, HDSL, and SDSL).
The set is often referred to as xDSL, where x can be replaced by A, V, H, or S
Asymmetric DSL (ADSL)
provides higher speed (bit rate) in the downstream direction (from the Internet to the resident) than in the
upstream direction (from the resident to the Internet). Hence asymmetric.
ADSL is an asymmetric communication technology designed for residential users; it is not suitable for
businesses
Because of the high signal/noise ratio, the actual bit rate is much lower than the above mentioned rates
Upstream: 64 kbps to 1 Mbps
Downstream: 500 kbps to 8 Mbps
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Other DSL Technologies
Symmetric digital subscriber line (SDSL)
o It divides the available bandwidth equally between the downstream and upstream directions.
The high bit rate digital subscriber line (HDSL)
o was designed as an alternative to the T-1 line (1.544 Mbps).uses alternate mark inversion (AMI)
encoding, which is very susceptible to attenuation at high frequencies.
o This limits the length of a T-1 line to 1 km.
o For longer distances, a repeater is necessary, which means increased costs.
The very high bit rate digital subscriber line (VDSL)
o an alternative approach that is similar to ADSL, uses coaxial, fiber-optic, or twisted-pair cable for short
distances (300 to 1800 m).
o The modulating technique is discrete multitone technique (DMT) with a bit rate of 50 to 55 Mbps
downstream and 1.5 to 2.5 Mbps upstream
Cable Modem
Traditional Cable Networks
Cable TV, Community Antenna TV (CATV)
The cable TV office, called the head end, receives video signals from broadcasting stations and feeds the
signals into coaxial cables
Unidirectional
HFC Network
hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) network
uses a combination of fiber-optic and coaxial cable
The transmission medium from the cable TV office to a box, called the fiber node, is optical fiber
From the fiber node through the neighborhood and into the house, the medium is still coaxial cable
Cable Modem Configurations
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T Lines
standard digital telephone carriers originally designed to multiplex voice channels
can be used to carry data from a residence or an organization to the Internet
can also be used to provide a physical link between nodes in a switched wide area network
T-1 Line
o The data rate of a T-1 line is 1.544 Mbps
T-3 Line
o A T-3 line has a data rate of 44.736 Mbps.
o It is equivalent to 28 T-1 lines
SONET
ANSI created a set of standards called Synchronous
Optical Network (SONET) to handle the use of fiber-optic cables
defines a set of electrical signals called synchronous transport signals (STSs).
It then converts these signals to optical signals called optical carriers (OCs).
The optical signals are transmitted at 8000 frames per second
Defined for rates 1, 3, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 96, 192 from 51.84 Mbps to 9953.280 Mbps
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
special protocol to control and manage the transfer of data
PPP Layers
PPP has only physical and data link layers.
No specific protocol is defined for the physical layer by PPP
PPP supports any of the protocols recognized by ANSI.
At the data link layer, PPP defines the format of a frame and the protocol that are used for controlling the
link and transporting user data.
Link Control Protocol (LCP)
responsible for establishment, maintenance, and termination of the link.
When the data field of a frame is carrying data related to this protocol, it means that PPP is handling the
link; it does not carry data.
Network Control Protocol (NCP)
defined to give flexibility to PPP.
PPP can carry data from different network protocols, including IP.
After establishment of the link, PPP can carry IP packets in its data field
PPP over Ethernet (PPPoE)
group of users, on an Ethernet LAN, to access the Internet through a single physical line
New protocol that uses a discovery technique to find the Ethernet address of the host to be connected to
the Internet.
After address discovery, a regular PPP session can be used to provide the connection
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Switched WAN covers a large area (a state or a country) and provides access at several points to the users.
mesh of point-to-point networks that connects switches.
The switches, multiple port connectors, allow the connection of several inputs and outputs.
Differences with LAN Technology
instead of a star topology, switches are used to create multiple paths
LAN technology is considered a connectionless technology; there is no relationship between packets sent
by a sender to a receiver
Switched WAN technology, is a connection-oriented technology.
o Before a sender can send a packet, a connection must be established
The connection identifier is used instead of the source and destination addresses in LAN technology.
X.25
first switched WAN
IP packets had to be encapsulated in an X.25 network-layer packet.
X.25 performs extensive error control
This makes transmission very slow and is not popular given the ever increasing demand for speed.
Frame Relay
a switched technology that provides low-level (physical and data link layers) service
was designed to replace X.25.
Advantages
High Data Rate. (44.7 Mbps)
Burstly Data
Less Overhead Due to Improved Transmission Media
all error checking is left to the protocols at the network and transport
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) Cell relay protocol designed by the ATM Forum and adopted by the ITU-T.
Design Goals
transmission system to optimize the use of high-data-rate transmission media
system that can interface with existing systems
design that can be implemented inexpensively so that cost would not be a barrier to adoption.
system must be able to work with and support the existing telecommunications hierarchies
system must be connection-oriented
move as many of the functions to hardware as possible (for speed) and eliminate as many software
functions as possible (again for speed).
Cell Networks
ATM is a cell network.
A cell is a small data unit of fixed size that is the basic unit of data exchange in a cell network.
In this type of network, all data are loaded into identical cells that can be transmitted with complete
predictability and uniformity.
Cells are multiplexed with other cells and routed through a cell network.
Because each cell is the same size and all are small, any problems associated with multiplexing different-
sized packets are avoided.
A cell network uses the cell as the basic unit of data exchange.
A cell is defined as a small, fixed-size block of information
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Asynchronous Time-Division Multiplexing
To multiplex cells coming from different channels, it uses fixed-size slots the size of a cell.
ATM multiplexers fill a slot with a cell from any input channel that has a cell; the slot is empty if none of the
channels has a cell to send.
ATM Architecture
The user access devices, called the end points, are connected to the switches inside the network.
The switches are connected to each other using high-speed communication channels
Virtual Connection
Connection between two end points is accomplished through
o transmission paths (TPs),
o virtual paths (VPs),
o virtual circuits (VCs).
A transmission path (TP) is the physical connection (wire, cable, satellite, and so on) between an end point
and a switch or between two switches.
A virtual path (VP) provides a connection or a set of connections between two switches.
A virtual connection is defined by a pair of numbers: the VPI and the VCI.
ATM Layers
The physical and ATM layer are used in both switches inside the network and end points (such as routers)
that use the services of the ATM.
The application adaptation layer (AAL) is used only by the end points.
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Use of the layers
Application Adaptation Layer (AAL)
Allows existing networks (such as packet networks) to connect to ATM facilities
AAL protocols accept transmissions from upper-layer services (e.g., packet data) and map them into fixed-
sized ATM cells.
At the receiver, this process is reversed—segments are reassembled into their original formats and passed
to the receiving service.
AAL5, which is sometimes called the Simple and Efficient Adaptation Layer (SEAL), assumes that all cells
belonging to a single message travel sequentially and that control functions are included in the upper layers
of the sending application. AAL5
The IP protocol uses the AAL5 sublayer
ATM Layer
The ATM layer provides routing, traffic management, switching, and multiplexing services.
It processes outgoing traffic by accepting 48-byte segments from the AAL sublayer.
Most of the header is occupied by the VPI and VCI.
The combination of VPI and VCI can be thought of as a label that defines a particular virtual connection.
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Physical Layer
Defines the transmission medium, bit transmission, encoding, and electrical to optical transformation.
It provides convergence with physical transport protocols, such as SONET and T-3, as well as the
mechanisms for transforming the flow of cells into a flow of bits.
Connecting Devices To connect LANs and WANs together we use connecting devices
Connecting devices can operate in different layers of the Internet model.
Repeaters
A repeater is a device that operates only in the physical layer.
A repeater receives a signal and, before it becomes too weak or corrupted, regenerates and retimes the
original bit pattern.
The repeater then sends the refreshed signal.
In bus topology,
o used to connect two segments of a LAN to overcome the length restriction of the coaxial cable
In a star topology,
o a multiport device, often called a hub, that can be used to serve as the connecting point and at the
same time function as a repeater.
A repeater forwards every bit; it has no filtering capability
A hub or a repeater is a physical-layer device.
They do not have any data-link address and they do not check the data-link address of the received frame
They just regenerate the corrupted bits and send them out from every port
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Bridges
A bridge operates in both the physical and the data link layers.
As a physical-layer device, it regenerates the signal it receives.
As a data link layer device, the bridge can check the MAC addresses (source and destination) contained in
the frame
A bridge does not change the physical (MAC) addresses in a frame
Has filtering capability
Filtering
check the destination address of a frame and decide from which outgoing port the frame should be send out
has a table used in filtering decisions
Transparent (Learning) Bridges
the stations are completely unaware of the bridge’s existence.
If a bridge is added or deleted from the system, reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary
Criteria
Frames must be forwarded from one station to another.
The forwarding table is automatically made by learning frame movements in the network.
Loops in the system must be prevented.
Forwarding
A transparent bridge must correctly forward the frames
Learning
dynamic table that maps addresses to ports automatically.
learns from the frame movements
the bridge inspects both the destination and the source addresses.
The destination address is used for the forwarding decision (table lookup);
the source address is used for adding entries to the table and for updating purposes.
the learning process may take a long time
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Two-Layer Switch
Performs at the physical and data link layer;
it is a sophisticated bridge with faster forwarding capability
Routers
Three-layer device; operates in the physical, data link, and network layers.
As a physical layer device, it regenerates the signal it receives.
As a data link layer device, the router checks the physical addresses (source and destination) contained in
the packet.
As a network layer device, a router checks the network layer addresses (addresses in the IP layer).
A repeater or a bridge connects segments of a LAN.
A router connects independent LANs or WANs to create an internetwork (internet).
A router changes the physical addresses in a packet
Differences between a router and a repeater or a bridge.
A router has a physical and logical (IP) address for each of its interfaces.
A router acts only on those packets in which the physical destination address matches the address of the
interface at which the packet arrives.
A router changes the physical address of the packet (both source and destination) when it forwards the
packet
Three-Layer Switch
A three-layer switch is a router; a router with an improved design to allow better performance.
A three-layer switch can receive, process, and dispatch a packet much faster than a traditional router
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