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1 Unit 1: Pre-Columbian Americas, the Age of Exploration, and the Establishment of the 13 Colonies Name: ____________________________________________________________ Period: ___________
1
Unit 1: Pre-Columbian Americas, the Age of Exploration, and
the Establishment of the 13 Colonies
Name: ____________________________________________________________ Period: ___________
2
GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
Stop and think| How does geography affect our daily lives?
Geographic factors often cause peoples to migrate, or move. These factors are usually categorized
into push and pull factors. Sort the following push and pull factors in the chart below:
Push and Pull Factors for Human Migration
Fear of persecution “American Dream” drought natural disaster warfare
Shortage of food population growth fertile soil curiosity freedom
PUSH PULL
We understand why humans migrate, but how did humans get from point A to point B over 10,000
years ago?
Geography
of Princeton,
New Jersey
Describe the
place we live in:
Describe the
way we move:
Describe the
region we live in:
Describe the way
we interact with
our environment:”
Imp
ac
ts in o
ur d
aily
live
s Imp
ac
ts in
ou
r d
aily
liv
es
A
B
3
Geographic characteristics of American societies led to the development of many distinct cultures.
Geographic features in the Americas also prevented extensive cultural diffusion, which made
American cultures considerably unique.
Culture buzz words: Define Cultural Diffusion:
REFLECT| Do you think that limited cultural interaction benefitted or hindered early American societies?
4
NATIVE AMERICAN VILLAGE TOUR
Task: Each group will create a model Native American village to represent daily life in one of six early
American societies. Begin by using the documents provided to complete your row in the chart
below. Then, please follow the instructions inside of our document folders to create your model
village. You will complete the chart below as you tour other villages in class this week.
Political Economic Social Contributions
Ma
ya
ns
Azt
ec
s
Inc
as
Po
wh
ata
n
Ch
ero
ke
e
Iro
qu
ois
REFLECT
In which early American civilization would you most like to live? Why?
Why do you think these early societies were unable to resist European conquest?
5
MOTIVES FOR EXPLORATION
Directions: Read the texts and examine the images below that explain the reasons why Europeans
wanted to explore the world in the late 1400s. Answer the questions that accompany each section,
the complete the synthesis task at the end.
Cause #1| Interest in the East
The Holy Crusades: History’s Most Successful Failure
Before the Crusades….
After the Crusades…
Though Western Europe was isolated from trade with
Asia during most of the Middle Ages, the Crusades
and books by travelers like Marco Polo kept
Europeans interested in the lands east of the
Mediterranean Sea. Stories about the riches of China
and India, and the limited availability of goods like
silk and spices from those areas fueled European
desire for adventure and profit.
1. Why were Europeans interested in exploring Asia?
A page from a medieval printing of The Adventures of
Marco Polo depicting a Mongol battle against the King
of Mein.
Medieval Europe:
Golden Age of Islam:
Jerusalem:
6
Cause #2| Ottoman Influence and Pricey Spices
Access to Trade in the Middle Ages through Christian Allies In the Middle Ages, Europeans had access to spices and other goods from Asia because they could easily
trade with the Byzantine Empire, a Christian empire that controlled the city of Constantinople which was a
crossroads for trade.
2. In the Middle Ages, why was the relationship with the Byzantine Empire important for Western Europeans?
Ottoman Control in the Eastern Mediterranean Then, in 1453, the Ottoman Empire conquered Constantinople and continued to expand in the 1500s under the
rule of Suleiman on the Magnificent. It became increasingly more difficult to trade through the Ottoman Empire
because of European Crusades that created distrust between the Muslim Ottomans and the Christian
Europeans. Italian city-states like Genoa, Milan, Florence, and Venice had a good trading relationship with the
Ottomans and became wealthy from what they imported from the Middle East, but other European countries
wanted access to the trade as well.
3. What effect did the expansion of the Ottoman Empire have on trade between Western Europe and Asia?
7
Increasingly Expensive Trade Europeans wanted more goods from Asia, especially gold and spices like pepper, cinnamon, cardamom,
ginger, and turmeric, but by the time the spices travelled from southeast Asia to Europe they were incredibly
expensive. To get spices to Europe, they travelled from southeast Asia in caravans along the Silk Roads or on
ships in the Indian Ocean to the Middle East where they were then shipped across the Mediterranean Sea to
European markets. It was rare for one trader to buy the spices in southeast Asia and take them all the way to
Europe. Instead, the spices were bought and sold many times from their origin to their final destination. To make
a profit, every merchant that bought the spices from another raised the price so, buying pepper in Malaysia
was cheapest, India was a little more expensive, buying it in the Middle East was more expensive still, then the
price went up in Constantinople, it was bumped up higher in Venice, and so on and so forth all the way
through Europe. Spices in places as far away as Portugal, Spain, or England were so expensive that only the
wealthiest Europeans could afford them.
4. Why were spices so expensive in Western Europe?
5. If you lived in Western Europe and wanted spices for less money, what would you do?
8
Cause #3| Mercantilism: An Absolute Monarch’s
Policy for Economic Power
At the end of the 15th century, absolute monarchs ruled in almost every country in Europe. The monarchs of
Spain, France, Portugal, England, the Holy Roman Empire, and other areas centralized the power in their
countries by raising large armies, controlling the people of their countries through harsh laws and military
force, and tied their rule to God through the theory of divine right.
Absolute monarchs and the officials working in their governments followed an economic policy that we now
call mercantilism. Mercantilists believed that a country was strongest if it had a lot of gold and silver, so
monarchs did everything they could to get it. There were two methods for filling their treasuries with gold and
silver:
1. Maintain a Favorable Balance of Trade
When thinking about mercantilism, imagine a whole country as one business and the absolute
monarch is the CEO. If the country sells (exports) more than it buys (imports), it will have more
money (gold and silver). For absolute monarchs, a “favorable” balance of trade one with a lot
more exports than imports.
2. Establish Colonies, Import their Raw Materials, and Sell Good Manufactured
Absolute monarch saw establishing colonies as a great way to bring in silver and gold through
mining and through trade. When explorers were sent out to Africa, Asia, or the Americas, the
kings and/or queens that sent them hoped they would find new sources of gold and silver.
Monarchs also hoped to find people they could trade with. They wanted to buy raw materials
(fur, crops, lumber) at a low price from the inhabitants they encountered, then bring those goods
back to the mother country where the raw materials would be turned into manufactured goods
like clothing and sold back to the colonies at a higher price.
By following the policy of mercantilism monarchs hoped to get more gold and silver that they could then use
to pay for larger and more modern armies that they could use to conquer more area and continue to secure
more silver and gold.
7. If you were an absolute monarch who followed the theory of mercantilism, what steps would you take to
make your kingdom wealthier and more powerful (list at least two)?
8. Why did the theory of mercantilism motivate European monarchs to sponsor explorers?
9
Cause #4| Religious Zeal [enthusiasm; passion]
One Spanish soldier who helped conquer
the Americas wrote that he joined the
exploration to “serve God and His
Majesty [the King of Spain], to give light
to those who were in darkness, and to
grow rich, as all men desire to do.” For
that soldier and for many Europeans,
spreading Christianity was an important
reason for going too far away lands.
Portugal and Spain were the first
European countries to send ships out on
trading expeditions. Both countries were
located on the Iberian Peninsula, the
region of Europe that is closest to North
Africa, only separated by the Strait of
Gibraltar. In the 700s, Muslim forces invaded from North Africa and settled in parts of both Portugal and Spain.
For almost 800 years there were battles between Christian (Roman Catholic) forces and Muslims over the land.
The Christian monarchs and Popes declared Crusades to rally forces against Muslims. In the 1200s, the
momentum swung in favor of the Christian armies and in 1492 the Muslim government that controlled Granada
signed a treaty with Ferdinand and Isabella, the King and Queen of Spain, finally ending what the Christians
called the Reconquista, the reconquering of the Iberian Peninsula.
After 800 years of fighting religious wars, the Portuguese and Spanish turned their devotion to the Catholic
Church to those they encountered through exploration. Explorers were sponsored (funded) by the Catholic
Kings and Queens of their countries. They viewed voyages to the coast of Africa and eventually to the Indian
Ocean and the Americas as opportunities to convert people to their faith. They believed that their religion was
the only true religion and that it would benefit them and the soon-to-be converts if they spread the lessons of
the Bible. Many ships had priests on board for the sailors and to teach the people they encountered about
Christianity.
6. Why was “religious zeal” one of the causes for European exploration?
Take to the Seas!
Task: You and your group, as a skilled mariners, must appeal to the king and queen to fund a journey
across the seas in search of a new route to the rich spice trade of the Indian Ocean. You will use
information from the following documents to develop a 1-3 minute presentation to your king and
queens, explaining to them why your voyage is necessary and worthy of funding. In your
presentation, you must:
• Provide two reasons that exploration is necessary for the success of the kingdom
• Your planned route or methods for travel
• One way in which the king and queen will directly benefit from your expedition
• Include a visual aid
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An Explorer’s Checklist: Ships, Maps, Navigation, Guns—and Guts?
Your Task: As a member of the growing merchant class, markets in Europe have become more and
more competitive for you. Now’s the time to sell your stuff! After reading about your assigned
necessity to exploration, do your best to sell it to future Iberian mariners ( ).
In your groups, convince us that your product is the true key to a successful exploration.
Complete your assigned section in the chart below, then prepare a 1-3 minute presentation/
advertisement to share with future explorers about your product. Your presentation must include:
• Description of product (and any definitions included in chart below)
• Significance of product to exploration
• Influence of earlier civilizations on your product (or lack thereof)
This information should be presented through the use of a poster, skit, public announcement (must be
preceded by Hear, Ye!), or other creative platform. Keep in mind that you will have 25 minutes to
read about your product AND prepare your presentation, so keep it simple!
Description Significance to Exploration Influence of earlier civilizations
Sh
ips
Lateen Sail:
Rudders:
Caravels:
Ma
ps
Cartography:
Na
vig
atio
n
Astrolabe:
Magnetic Compass:
Gu
ns
11
“It was adopting and adapting the ideas and technologies of earlier times and other peoples, rather
than anything they came up with on their own, that made possible the long distance voyages of
Iberian mariners in the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries.”
Explain:
Agree _____
Disagree _____
GOLD GLORY, AND GOD
The primary motives for exploration can be boiled down to gold, glory and God. Provide evidence
of each motive in the organizer below based on what we have learned about 15th century European
exploration thus far.
Go
ld
Glo
ry
Go
d
12
Directions: Read the excerpt from
Howard Zinn’s A People’s History of
the United States about Columbus’
arrival in the Americas, then answer
the questions below.
1. What was the goal of Columbus’
voyage?
2. What other European nation-states
were beginning to explore at this
time?
3. What predictions can you make
about the impact of European
exploration on Natives, based on
Columbus’ account?
13
THE “NEW WORLD”
14
THE “OLD WORLD”
15
Conquest in the Americas: A Case Study
Directions: Read the descriptions of the conquests of the Aztecs
and Inca below and answer the questions that follow.
Conquest of the Aztecs
In 1519, Hernan Cortes, a conquistador and the Chief Magistrate of Santiago, Cuba, a
land already settled by the Spanish, landed on the coast of Mexico with 450 soldiers to
lead an expedition in hopes of riches. There were previous reports of a great empire and
gold in the area. On his way to the Aztec capital city of Tenochtitlan, Cortes fought and
defeated other Mexican tribes, who then became the Spaniards’ allies. Many of the tribes
that Cortes came in contact with were ruled by the Aztecs and resented the power they
had over them. Those tribes saw working with the Spanish as an opportunity to defeat the
Aztecs and to gain power for themselves.
On November 8, 1519, Cortes, his men, and his native Mexican allies were welcomed into
Tenochtitlan by the Aztec ruler Moctezuma. Cortes took Moctezuma captive and held him
prisoner in one of the Aztec palaces. Cortes demanded gold and other valuables as
ransom. The Aztecs denied the Spanish any supplies, and finding no use for him, the
Spanish killed Montezuma. After a difficult and bloody escape from Tenochtitlan, Cortes
and his men regrouped in the area around the Aztec capital. Cortes visited tribes that were conquered and controlled by the Aztecs to try and win
allies. He was willing to promise them anything so he could take over Tenochtitlan. Because of the harsh rule of the Aztecs, the Spanish gained the
support of a large number of tribes.
During this time, the Aztecs also regrouped. They repaired their city from the damage the Spanish caused, but they also suffered from a smallpox
epidemic brought to the city by the Spanish that killed many in the capital. Cortes returned to Tenochtitlan to conquer it with new supplies from the
Spanish in Cuba and an expanded group of warriors from allied tribes.
Cortes started his assault on the Aztec capital by cutting off the city’s freshwater supply and preventing any food from getting into the city in an
attempt to starve the inhabitants. Then, when it came time to attack, he sent troops on boats assembled on Lake Texcoco in which Tenochtitlan was
centered, and invaded the city through its causeways. It took eighty days for the Spanish to defeat the Aztecs. Two-hundred and forty thousand
Aztecs are estimated to have died, and only 900 of Cortes’s troops survived. Though they did not benefit from the victory in the long run, the Spanish
success was largely due to the efforts of Cortes’ Indian allies who might have numbered as many as 200,000.
In search of wealth (GOLD), power (GLORY), and indigenous
people to convert to Christianity (GOD), companies of Spanish
conquistadors ventured into the American continent. The two
most well known expeditions, were those that led to the conquest
of powerful empires that already existed in the Americas: the
Aztecs and Inca. The first, led by a conquistador named
Hernando Cortes, defeated the Aztecs (1518-1520). The second
was led by Francisco Pizarro in 1532 during which he and his
fellow conquistadors conquered the Inca.
16
Conquest of the Inca
In 1532, after reports of gold, silver, and emeralds in Ecuador, Francisco Pizarro, Hernando de Soto, and 180 other
Spanish conquistadors mounted an expedition into South America hoping to find wealth and glory.
At one point in their journey, De Soto was sent to explore new lands and returned to Pizarro with men that were sent
by the Inca emperor Atahualpa to invite Pizarro and his men to meet with him. At the time, the Inca empire was
divided and engaged in a civil war. Pizarro formed alliances with tribes who opposed the Inca. In addition, the entire
Inca empire was suffering from an epidemic of smallpox which decimated the population.
After two months of marching, Pizarro and his troops came to one of the Inca king’s retreats near Cajamarca to meet
with him. De Soto met with the king but Atahualpa told the Spaniard to leave the Inca empire saying he would “be no
man’s tributary.” In response, Pizarro organized his troops, attacked Atahualpa's army and captured him in what
became known as the Battle of Cajamarca. Thousands of Inca died in the battle, but none of the Spanish soldiers did.
Pizarro executed Atahualpa’s 12-man honor guard and held the king for ransom. Though the Inca filled one room with
gold and two with silver, Pizarro executed Atahualpa on August 29, 1533. A year later, Pizarro invaded Cuzco, the
capital of the Inca empire, with indigenous troops and with it sealed the conquest of the Inca.
REFLECT
3. Why do you think the Spanish were able to defeat the Aztecs and Inca?
Conquest of
the Aztecs
Conquest of
the Incas
17
Why were the Spanish able to conquer the Aztecs and Inca despite being outnumbered and in a foreign land? Despite
being outnumbered in unfamiliar areas, the Spanish troops led by Cortes in Mexico and Pizarro in Peru were able to easily
defeated the Aztecs and Inca. Why?
One scholar named Jared Diamond wrote a book called Guns, Germs, and Steel in which he argues that the reason for European
domination did not have to do with intelligence or race, but geography. He claims that the European access to large domesticated
animals and the diseases they produced, the materials needed to make advanced weapons, and the collective knowledge of other
societies in Europe, Asia, and Africa, made it possible for the Spanish to defeat the isolated native Americans.
Directions: As you watch excerpts of the video “Guns, Germs, and Steel,” explain each of the factors that Diamond believes led to the
conquest of the Americas in the spaces below.
Guns Steel Collective Learning Horses Germs
Why did the Spanish
have guns, but the
Inca did not?
What effect did
arquebuses on have
the Inca?
Why did Europeans have the
technology to create
effective swords, but the Inca
did not?
How did collections of books
like the one featured in the
video help the Spanish defeat
the Inca?
What innovations helped the
creation and spread of books in
Eurasia?
Why didn’t the Inca have writing
even though the Aztecs did?
Why were the Spanish
horses such an effective
weapon against the
Inca?
Why were Europeans
exposed to smallpox before
the 1600s, but the Inca were
not?
Why was smallpox so
devastating for the Native
Americans but not for the
Europeans?
What impact did smallpox
have on the Spanish
conquest of the Aztecs and
Inca?
18
Below is a letter addressed to the noble Lord Raphael Sanchez, Treasurer to their
most invincible Majesties, Ferdinand and Isabella, King and Queen of Spain, by
Christopher Columbus, to whom our age is greatly indebted, treating of the islands
of India recently discovered beyond the Ganges, to explore which he had been
sent eight months before Ferdinand and Isabella had sponsored him.
. . . Thirty-three days after my departure from Cadiz I reached the Indian sea, where
I discovered many islands, thickly peopled, of which I took possession without
resistance in the name of our most illustrious Monarch, by public proclamation and
with unfurled banners. To the first of these islands, which is called by the Indians
Guanahani, I gave the name of the blessed Saviour (San Salvador), relying upon
whose protection I had reached this as well as the other islands; to each of these I
also gave a name, ordering that one should be called Santa Maria de la
Concepcion, another Fernandina, the third Isabella, the fourth Juana, and so with
all the rest respectively. . . .
. . . In that island also which I have before said we named Espanola, there are
mountains of very great size and beauty, vast plains, groves, and very fruitful fields,
admirably adapted for tillage, pasture, and habitation. The convenience and
excellence of the harbors in this island, and the abundance of the rivers, so
indispensable to the health of man, surpass anything that would be believed by
one who had not seen it. The trees, herbage, and fruits of Espanola are very
different from those of Juana, and moreover it abounds in various kinds of spices,
gold, and other metals. . . .
. . . On my arrival at that sea, I had taken some Indians by force from the first island
that I came to, in order that they might learn our language, and communicate to
us what they knew respecting the country; which plan succeeded excellently, and
was a great advantage to us, for in a short time, either by gestures and signs, or by
words, we were enabled to understand each other. These men are still travelling
with me, and although they have been with us now a long time, they continue to
entertain the idea that I have descended from heaven; and on our arrival at any
new place they published this, crying out immediately with a loud voice to the
other Indians, “Come, come and look upon beings of a celestial race”: upon which
both women and men, children and adults, young men and old, when they got rid
of the fear they at first entertained, would come out in throngs, crowding the roads
to see us, some bringing food, others drink, with astonishing affection and kindness.
. . .
. . . Finally, to compress into few words the entire summary of my voyage and
speedy return, and of the advantages derivable therefrom, I promise, that with a
little assistance afforded me by our most invincible sovereigns, I will procure them as
much gold as they need, as great a quantity of spices, of cotton, and of mastic
(which is only found in Chios), and as many men for the service of the navy as their
Majesties may require. I promise also rhubarb and other sorts of drugs, which I am
persuaded the men whom I have left in the aforesaid fortress have found already
and will continue to find; for I myself have tarried nowhere longer than I was
compelled to do by the winds, except in the city of Navidad, while I provided for
the building of the fortress, and took the necessary precautions for the perfect
security of the men I left there. Although all I have related may appear to be
wonderful and unheard of, yet the results of my voyage would have been more
astonishing if I had had at my disposal such ships as I required. But these great and
marvellous results are not to be attributed to any merit of mine, but to the holy
Christian faith, and to the piety and religion of our Sovereigns; for that which the
unaided intellect of man could not compass, the spirit of God has granted to
human exertions, for God is wont to hear the prayers of his servants who love his
precepts even to the performance of apparent impossibilities. . . .
Such are the events which I have briefly described. Farewell.
Lisbon, the 14th of March. 1493.
CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, Admiral of the Fleet of the Ocean.
SOAPSTone Analysis
Sp
ea
ke
r
Oc
ca
sio
n
Au
die
nc
e
Pu
rpo
se
Su
bje
ct
Ton
e
Do you believe that this is a
reliable account of
European exploration in
America? Why or why not?
What attitude did Columbus
have toward the natives he
encountered? Why do you
think he felt that way?
19
ESTABLISHING EMPIRES IN FOREIGN LANDS
Stop and Think| Based on what we just read, why do you think other European monarchs began to
explore the Americas after Columbus’ voyage?
After completing our notes on the next page, identify TWO things that were similar about British,
French, and Spanish colonization in the space below:
20
Comparing colonies PDF (guided notes)
21
THE COLUMBIAN
EXCHANGE List ingredients required to
make your favorite foods in
the space below:
Origin in the Americas Origin in Afroeurasia
Crops Manioc, Cassava, Beans (also known as
legumes such as wax, pinto, pink, kidney,
lima), Cacao tree (cocoa), Corn, Sweet corn,
Pumpkin, Peanut, Peppers (sweet and hot;
chili and cayenne), Pineapple, Potato,
Squash, Strawberry, Sunflowers (used for oil,
seeds; they are rich in protein), Tomato,
Avocado, Guava, Papaya, Passion fruit,
Tobacco
Beet, Broccoli, Cabbage, Brussels sprout, Carrot,
Eggplant, Okra, Onion, Pea, Sorghum, Soybean,
Yam, Mulberry, Pomegranate, Tamarind, Cherry,
Black pepper, Cinnamon, Coffee, Loquat, Banana,
Clove, Ginger, Parsley, Coriander, Leechee,
Oregano, Rice, Wheat, Barley, Rye, Turnip, Onion,
Lettuce, Peach, Pear, Orange, Olive, Sugar, Cotton
Animals Dog, Llama, Alpaca, Guinea pig, Turkey,
Raccoon, Chipmunk, Hummingbird,
Rattlesnake, Skunk
Dog, Horse, Donkey, Pig, Cattle, Goat, Sheep,
House Cat, Starling, Barnyard fowl, European brown
and red rat
Patho-
gens
Probably syphilis
Smallpox, Malaria, Yellow fever, Measles, Black
plague, Tuberculosis, Common cold, Chicken pox
Do a majority of the foods you enjoy come from the Americas or Afroeurasia? Were you surprised by
the origin of some of the foods you listed?
CASH CROPS IN THE AMERICAS: SUGAR AND TOBACCO
What Old World Foods Went to The Americas?
Food crops that went from Afroeurasia to the Americas were part of the Columbian Exchange, but in
the opposite direction. These included wheat, oats, barley, and citrus fruits. When grown on the
immense plains of the Americas, these food crops transformed farming after the sixteenth century.
Plantation owners also made huge profits growing Old World “cash crops,” notably sugar, coffee,
and cotton. Between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries, slaves brought by force from Africa
grew most of these commercial crops. The horse, an Afroeurasian animal, transformed life for plains
Indians in the Americas, and cattle ranching spread across North America, Brazil, and Argentina.
Define cash crops:
22
THE COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE| Lasting impacts on Native Americans and Africans
The Great Dying
In his book The Columbian Exchange, Alfred W. Crosby discusses the many advantages
the Spanish had over the Aztec populations they encountered in the valley of Mexico in
1519. The Spanish had:
• iron and steel weapons, not stone.
• cannon and firearms, bows, arrows, and slings.
• horses, which American Indians had never seen.
• military and political unity compared to different American Indian groups
• the opportunity to exploit Aztec myths that predicted the arrival of the “white
gods”.
But even with these advantages, Crosby asks, how were only about 600 Spaniards able
to conquer thousands of Aztecs so easily?
Professor William McNeill asks the same question. He points out that, “If horses and
gunpowder were amazing and terrible on the first encounter, armed clashes soon
revealed the limitations of horse flesh and of the very primitive guns the Spaniards had at
their disposal.” Other questions about the conquest of Mexico occupied McNeill. He
wondered why the religions of Mexico and Peru disappeared almost completely. Why
did some Indians come to worship and accept the Christian faith so readily? The Aztecs
quickly realized that the Spanish were not returning gods after all and that they meant
to do harm. McNeill points out that the Indians who gave aid to the Spaniards and their
Indian allies only did this when they were convinced that Cortez and his men would win.
Historians have come to understand that the key to the conquest of Mexico lies in basic
biology.
Our studies of the Age of Exploration have shown that the New World had been virtually
unknown to Afroeurasia. The trade networks of Afroeurasia did not include the Americas,
and the Indians were physically isolated from the lethal infections that had, over several
millennia, become endemic, and less lethal, in the Old World. When a population has
no antibodies to fight unfamiliar infections, it may suffer ecological disaster. Without
immunities, diseases familiar in one setting are deadly in another. Diseases such as
smallpox, measles, whooping cough, chicken pox, bubonic plague, malaria, diphtheria,
amoebic dysentery, and influenza were unleashed on the Mexicans and Andeans.
Historians have called this event “The Great Dying.” While estimates vary, it is believed
that up to 90 percent of American Indians living in the valley of Mexico died as a result
of the unseen invasion of microbes.
During “Noche Triste” (“Sad Night”), when the Spaniards were driven out of Tenochtitlan,
the capital of the Aztecs, a Spaniard who was present remarked that many Aztec
warriors were ill with what seemed to be smallpox. In 1699, a German missionary said,
“The Indians die so easily that the bare look and smell of a Spaniard causes them to give
up the ghost.”
The Plantation Complex
The Great Dying of the Amerindian population coincided with the growth of the
Plantation Complex. This was the European economic and political enterprise to
develop commercial agriculture in the tropical Americas. It arose in response to growing
international market demand for sugar, tobacco, cotton, indigo, and other products.
American Indians who survived the Great Dying tended to resist working on European
sugar or other plantations. They would sometimes starve themselves rather than be
forced to provide the labor. A sugar plantation demanded a hardy and strong labor
Notes on the
lives of Native
Americans and
African Slaves
23
force. Europeans brought Africans to the Americas as slaves in order to meet the
enormous labor requirements of the sugar and other industries in the Atlantic world.
African slave traders aimed to capture and sell mainly young women and men because
they were the age group best fit to work and reproduce. The African slave trade drained
African societies of millions of productive people. The success of American plantations,
however, came to depend absolutely on a steady supply of slave labor from Africa.
But the steady supply of slave labor from Africa ensured that European planters and
merchants could make huge profits. The slave/sugar complex began early in the
sixteenth century. At that time, African slaves were brought to America by the
Portuguese, the first to begin sugar production in Brazil. By the end of the seventeenth
century, sugar production was growing greatly in efficiency. New plantation societies
emerged on Barbados, Jamaica, Haiti, and other islands of the Caribbean, as well as the
lowland coasts of Mexico.
Though estimates vary, it is believed that between 1492 and about 1870, 12-14 million
Africans were forced into slavery to work in the Americas on plantations, in mines, and in
European households and shops. The brutal treatment they suffered has been well-
documented in most textbooks. In the Caribbean islands, slaves were likely to survive only
six or seven years. One fact not well known is that comparatively few slaves were sent to
North America.
As we have seen, the Columbian Exchange negatively affected the populations of both
Native Americans and Africans. Exposed to European diseases and brutally taken from
their homes and forced into plantations and mines, population figures can only suggest
the extent of human suffering these men, women, and children experienced as a result
of this aspect of global convergence.
After reading the article, please complete the graphic organizer below:
How was this population impacted by
the Colombian Exchange?
Why was this population impacted
in this way?
How are these impacts evident in
the present day?
Na
tive
Am
eric
as
Afr
ica
ns
REFLECT| How did the Great Dying influence the importation of African slaves?
24
Regional Labor Experiences: Sugar and Tobacco The conditions required for cultivating different cash crops largely shaped regional labor experiences and population demographics for enslaved Africans in the New World. European settlers experimented with a range of crops and export goods, often with significant influences from American Indians and Africans, but eventually market competition and environmental constraints determined which major cash crop different plantation regions primarily exported. The most lucrative cash crops to emerge from the Americas in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were sugar, tobacco, and rice. As described in the next exhibition in this series, cotton agriculture did not become a major feature of the U.S. southern economy until the early nineteenth century.
Sugar: The Caribbean and Brazil
The lucrative potential of sugar launched the rise of plantation agriculture from the Middle East to the Mediterranean, to islands in the Indian and Atlantic Oceans near Africa, and finally to the Americas. By the mid-seventeenth century, European settlers in the Caribbean and Brazil had established sugar plantation systems that dominated the trans-Atlantic sugar market. Sugarcane required large labor forces and demanding physical labor (particularly during harvest times) to cultivate a profitable export. It also required skilled laborers for processing the crop from cane, to juice, and finally to crystallized sugar.
Sugar planters initially deployed the labor of enslaved American Indians as well as enslaved Africans and European indentured servants, but by the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, African slavery had become the dominant labor system.
Tobacco: Mid-Atlantic North America
Tobacco plantations thrived in the temperate climate of the Mid-Atlantic region of North America starting with the English colony of Virginia in the seventeenth century. In contrast to sugar, European settlers could make a profit growing tobacco with smaller slaveholdings and less labor exertion. The result was that mortality rates were less extreme than sugar plantation areas, though they remained significant, particularly during the early development of tobacco plantation production.
In contrast to sugar plantations, which required large slaveholdings that often led to a black population majority, tobacco plantations could operate profitably with smaller numbers of slaves. They also employed a mixed labor force of free, indentured, and enslaved workers, so that colonial tobacco plantation regions generally had a white population majority.
In this minority context, enslaved Africans and African Americans had less access to the extended kinship
The Plantation, ca. 1825, courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. This painting by an unknown artist depicts fields for cultivating cash crops, a ship for exporting goods, and a large mansion, but enslaved laborers are notably absent from this representation of plantation life. The role of slavery in producing plantation wealth was often erased or romanticized in American popular culture, during the time of slavery and into the present.
A representation of the sugar-cane and the art of making sugar, West Indies, engraved by John Hinton, 1749, courtesy of the Library of Congress.
Images of punishment under slavery, from Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Henry Bibb, an American Slave, Written by Himself, 1849, courtesy ofDocumenting the American South at the University of North Carolina.
25
connections found with large enslaved communities in black majority contexts. They maintained African community enclaves, but enslaved Africans in the Mid-Atlantic tobacco region also lived in close and constant proximity to local whites. This proximity could have violent consequences for enslaved Africans and their African American descendants. Slaveholders throughout the New World regularly sought to “break” new arrivals into submission by “stripping” them of their African identities. Along with limiting independence and mobility, slaveholders employed oppressive strategies that included removing African names, assigning backbreaking labor, and minimizing food and clothing rations. Further submission methods were developed over time, such as legally forbidding African spiritual practices, drumming, and speaking in African languages. In black majority contexts, these “stripping” strategies could be more difficult to implement, because slaveholders had less direct
interaction with large groups of enslaved laborers. In white majority contexts, or in colonies that functioned as “societies with slaves,” slaveholders often had more direct and regular opportunities to control the daily experiences of enslaved people.
Questions for Reflection:
What caused European nation-states to invest in cash crops in the 16th century?
Describe the significance of African slaves to the expansion of European wealth and power in the Americas.
How did the treatment of African slaves in European colonies affect the formation of racial identities in the new world?
Enslaved laborers working in tobacco sheds on a colonial tobacco plantation, unknown artist, 1670.
Slave market in Pernambuco, Brazil, drawing by Augs. Earle, engraving by Francis Edward Finden, 1824, courtesy of the Library of Congress. The engraving was included in the journal of Maria Graham’s voyage to Brazil from 1821-23.
Slave market in Pernambuco, Brazil, drawing by Augs. Earle, engraving by Francis Edward Finden, 1824, courtesy of the Library of Congress. The engraving was included in the journal of Maria Graham’s voyage to Brazil from 1821-23.
26
SLAVERY IN THE AMERICAS In 1300, the African Kingdom of Mali was the richest civilization in the world, but by 1500, the Iberian
Kingdoms of Spain and Portugal had become the wealthiest through their control of the slave trade.
Mali, 1300 Changes Songhai, 1500
Mansa Musa’s
pilgrimage to Mecca
extends Trans-Sah-
aran trade routes
and gives Mali control
of regional trade.
Songhai participated
in, but did not
control, the Trans-
Atlantic Slave
Trade, part of the
Triangular Trade.
Mansa’ Musa’s
conquest of large cities
across the Sahara
and the spread of
Islam brought peace
and stability
Songhai’s prisoners of
war and other
captives were
sold to Portugal as
slaves in exchange
for European guns
Mali’s control of the
gold and salt trade
made them the
wealthiest nation in
the world
The Trans-Saharan
gold and salt trade
had collapsed
almost
completely
3 Facts about the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade 2 things that surprised you 1 Question
27
HOW COULD THE SLAVE TRADE HAVE HAPPENED?
Watch a clip from History Channel’s Roots to answer the questions below:
1. According to Dr. Morgan, what role did race play in the institution of Atlantic slavery?
2. Below is a depiction of the Triangular Trade system between Europe, Africa, and European
colonies in the Americas. Before we learn more about the triangular trade next week, brainstorm
some of the goods that may have been transported along each leg of the trade system and
record them on the picture below.
3. Why is it so difficult for historians to represent Africans’ experiences on the Middle Passage?
Answer the following AFTER watching a clip from History Channel’s Roots:
4. Why do you think that Africans were unable to resist or prevent the institution of Atlantic slavery,
despite their efforts to rise against captors, merchants, and, later on, their owners?
28
UPON ARRIVAL IN THE AMERICAS
Source Questions The height sometimes between decks was only
eighteen inches, so that the unfortunate beings
could not turn round or even on their sides, the
elevation being less than the breadth of their
shoulders; and here they are usually chained to the
decks by the neck and legs. In such a place the
sense of misery and suffocation is so great that the
Negroes… are driven to a frenzy.
Source: Walsh, Robert, Notices of Brazil in 1828 and
1829 (1831).
Why would captive Africans become
disoriented and mentally unstable during the
middle passage?
The ordinary punishments of slaves, for the
common crimes of neglect, absence from work,
eating the sugar cane, theft, are cart whipping,
beating with a stick, sometimes to the breaking of
bones, the chain, an iron crook about the neck... a
ring about the ankle, and confinement in the
dungeon. There have been instances of slitting of
ears, breaking of limbs, so as to make amputation
necessary, beating out of eyes, and castration... In
short, in the place of decency, sympathy, morality,
and religion; slavery produces cruelty and
oppression. It is true, that the unfeeling application
of the ordinary punishments ruins the constitution,
and shortens the life of many a poor wretch.
Source: James Ramsay, Essay on the Treatment
and Conversion of African Slaves in the British
Sugar Colonies (1784)
How are physical harm and terrorism used to
control Africans?
As the slaves come down to Fida from the inland
country, they are put into a booth, or prison, built
for that purpose, near the beach, all of them
together; and when the Europeans are to receive
them, every part of every one of them, to the
smallest member, men and women being all stark
naked... each of the others, which have passed as
good, is marked on the breast, with a red- hot iron,
imprinting the mark of the French, English, or Dutch
companies, that so each nation may distinguish
their own.
Source: John Barbot, "A Description of the Coasts
of North and South Guinea," in Thomas Astley and
John Churchill, eds., Collection of Voyages and
Travels (London, 1732).
What specific act marks how an African’s
freedom is symbolically lost?
REFLECT| Considering the inhumanity of Atlantic slavery, why do you think the institution of slavery
persisted in the Americas for many decades?
29
First they came for the Socialists, and I did not speak out—
Because I was not a Socialist.
Then they came for the Trade Unionists, and I did not speak out—
Because I was not a Trade Unionist.
Then they came for the Jews, and I did not speak out—
Because I was not a Jew.
Then they came for me—and there was no one left to speak for me.
-Martin Niemöller, Protestant pastor (1892–1984)
Task: To become acclimated with the topic of racial identity, each group will read a text that
discusses the evolution of the concept of race from the “discovery” of the Americas to the present
day. After reciprocal reading, please complete your row in the chart below and prepare the share
your responses with the class. You will complete the chart as other groups share their responses.
Using context from the text, define “race”
in your own words.
How and why did racial biases develop throughout the
establishment of European colonies in the Americas?
His
toric
al
Zin
n
Na
tive
s
Ro
ss
Using context from the text, define “race”
in your own words.
How does the author define his/her racial identity? Why does
he/she define it in this way?
Mo
de
rn
Ale
xie
Ste
ve
ns
Bro
na
ug
h
First they came…
30
EVOLUTION OF THE CONCEPT OF RACE IN AMERICA: A SEMINAR
How did the concept of race evolve as a result of the interaction between Europeans, Native
Americans, and Africans as the Americas were colonized by European powers?
Your Task:
Using your packets, notes, and knowledge of history, create a list of questions using the guide below,
with the goal of sparking discussion during this week’s seminar, centered around the question above.
Clarifying Questions: Simple questions of fact; used to clarify the dilemma and provide the
information participants need to better understand the text and classmates’ ideas.
1.
2.
Thematic Questions: questions about the themes of the topic; used to identify and develop “big
ideas.” For this seminar, these themes are race, bias, and inequity. Choose two of those themes to
create questions below:
1. Theme:
Question:
2. Theme:
Question:
Open-Ended Questions: questions without a known or definite answer; used to explore topics more
deeply and prompt classmates to share their own interpretations of evidence in the text. Write your
question first, and then determine the topic of that question for reference during the seminar.
1. Topic:
Question:
2. Topic:
Question:
PERSIAN Questions: prompt you classmates to connect ideas to various PERSIAN themes!
1. Theme:
Question:
2. Theme:
Question:
31
SEMINAR GUIDE
DIRECTIONS| Please use the organizer below to prepare evidence and ideas to inform your
discussion during the seminar.
How did the concept of race evolve as a result of the interaction between Europeans, Native
Americans, and Africans as the Americas were colonized by European powers in the colonial era?
Historical Evidence| Please select historical evidence from your classwork or textbook to complete
the organizer below. Cite your evidence by providing the page number on which it was found.
Characteristic of the relationship
between Natives and Europeans during
the colonial Era
How did the concept of race
evolve as a result of this?
Explain.
How has this characteristic
influenced racial relations in the
United States today?
Characteristic of the relationship
between Africans and Europeans during
the colonial Era
How did the concept of race
evolve as a result of this?
Explain.
How has this characteristic
influenced racial relations in the
United States today?
Connections to Today| Choose one recent news article that relates to the concept of race as it
exists in the United States today, then use it to complete the organizer below.
Evidence of modern race
relations from the article
How has this characteristic of race
relations in the U.S. today evolved
from race relations in the colonial era?
How has the incident/trend discussed
in this article influenced our concept
of race in the U.S. today?
32
SEMINAR NOTES
DIRECTIONS| Use the organizer below to take notes on our seminar while you are in the outer circle.
COLONIAL ERA
Historical Evidence put forth How did this help define the concept
of race (according to the speakers)?
Do you agree or disagree
with this argument? Explain.
TODAY Evidence of modern race relations put
forth
Connections made to the colonial era
(by the speakers)
Do you agree or disagree
with this argument? Explain.
POST-SEMINAR REFLECTION| Based on today’s seminar, do you believe that the United States was
destined to be divided? Explain.
33
THE LOST COLONY OF ROANOKE
The Story of America’s Frist Permanent European
Settlement
The origins of one of the America’s oldest unsolved
mysteries can be traced to August 1587, when a group
of about 115 English settlers arrived on Roanoke Island,
off the coast of what is now North Carolina. Later that
year, it was decided that John White, governor of the
new colony, would sail back to England in order to
gather a fresh load of supplies. But just as he arrived, a
major naval war broke out between England and
Spain, and Queen Elizabeth I called on every available
ship to confront the mighty Spanish Armada. In August 1590, White finally returned to Roanoke, where
he had left his wife and daughter, his infant granddaughter (Virginia Dare, the first English child born
in the Americas) and the other settlers three long years before. He found no trace of the colony or its
inhabitants, and few clues to what might have happened, apart from a single word—“Croatoan”—
carved into a wooden post.
Hundreds of years of research and investigation have produced four hypotheses:
1. The people of Roanoke were killed by Native Americans
2. The people of Roanoke assimilated with Native American allies on the main land.
3. The people of Roanoke relocated.
4. The people of Roanoke attempted to return to England, and were lost at sea.
PREDICT| Based on what you have seen so far and your knowledge of human history, which of the
four hypotheses do you suspect is accurate and why?
34
EXPLORE| Each group member will explore a different theory to support with data and evidence
collected from the documents provided. Record your findings in the first and second columns of the
chart below. When it comes time to share your theories with your group, you will write down any
evidence that contradicts what you have recorded in the third column and explain the
contradiction in the fourth column.
My assigned hypothesis:
Independent research Group discussion
Supporting Data and
evidence
How exactly does this
support your
hypothesis?
Contradictory
evidence (if any)
How exactly does this
evidence contradict
your findings?
1
2
3
4
5
6
REFLECT| After thorough discussion, which hypothesis did your group determine to be most valid?
Why? Specify the 2 most influential pieces of evidence that informed your decision in your response.
35
JAMESTOWN: SUCCESS OR FAILURE?
The First English Settlement in the New World| Annotate the map below as directed.
In June of 1606, King James I granted a charter to a group of London entrepreneurs, the Virginia
Company, to establish an English settlement in the Chesapeake region of North America. In
December of that year, 104 settlers sailed from London with Company instructions to build a secure
settlement, find gold, and seek a water route to the Pacific.
On May 14, 1607, the Virginia Company settlers landed on Jamestown Island to establish an English
colony 60 miles from the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay. Discovery of the exact location of the first
fort indicates its site was in a secure place, where Spanish ships could not fire point blank into the fort.
Within days of landing, the colonists were attacked by Powhatan Indians. The newcomers spent the
next few weeks working to build a wooden fort. Three accounts and a sketch of the fort agree that its
walls formed a triangle around a storehouse, church, and a number of houses. Bulwarks (raised
platforms) for cannons were built at the three corners to defend against a possible Spanish attack.
The Virginia Company tried to intensify the focus on money-making industry with The First Supply to
Jamestown. But disease, famine, and sporadic attacks from the neighboring Powhatan Indians took
a tremendous toll on the population of the settlement. There were also times when trade with the
Powhatan revived the colony with food in exchange for glass beads, copper, and iron implements.
Captain John Smith was particularly good at this trade. But his strict leadership made enemies within
and without the fort, and a mysterious gunpowder explosion badly injured him and sent him back to
England in October 1609. What followed was Jamestown’s darkest hour, the “starving time” winter of
1609-10. About 300 settlers crowded into James Fort when the Indians set up a siege, and only 60
settlers survived to the next spring. The survivors decided to bury the fort’s ordinance and abandon
the town. It was only the arrival of the new governor, Lord De La Ware, and his supply ships that
brought the colonists back to the fort and set the colony back on its feet. Some years of peace and
prosperity followed the 1614 wedding of Pocahontas, the favored daughter of Chief Powhatan, to
tobacco grower John Rolfe.
The first representative assembly in English North America convened in the Jamestown church on
July 30, 1619. The General Assembly met in response to orders from the Virginia Company “to
establish one equal and uniform government over all Virginia” and provide “just laws for the happy
guiding and governing of the people there inhabiting.” A few weeks later came the first arrival of
Africans to Jamestown. These Africans became indentured servants, similar in legal position to many
poor Englishmen who traded several years of labor in exchange for passage to America.
After Chief Powhatan’s death, his brother took leadership of the Indians of eastern Virginia and, in
1622, ordered a surprise attack on the English tobacco farms and settlements. More than 300 settlers
were killed. A last-minute warning spared James Fort itself, but the attack on the colony and the
continuing mismanagement by the Virginia Company convinced the King to revoke the Company’s
charter. Virginia became a crown colony in 1624.
* each bolded item can be further explored in an additional document provided in your folders
36
STEP ONE| In your groups, you will race to determine whether the Jamestown colony was a success
or a failure in England’s quest to colonize the New World. Use the reading on p. 35 and the
documents provided to evaluate and explain selected characteristics of the Jamestown settlement
in the chart below. Your evaluations should be made from the perspective of your assigned role.
Characteristic of
Jamestown Colony relevant
to your role
Evaluate:
Success
or Failure
What in this document
illustrates that
characteristic?
Explain: WHY is it a success or
failure?
37
STEP TWO| After time has been called, please proceed to the corner of the room designated for your
assigned role. There, you will discuss whether Jamestown was a success or failure from your assigned
perspective to complete the statement below, which will be shared with the rest of the class:
As _____________________________, we believe that the Jamestown colony was a ___________________,
because…
1.
2.
STEP THREE| Record successes and failures shared by your classmates in the chart below to inform
your final evaluation:
Politically Economically Socially/Culturally Militarily
Su
cc
ess
Fa
ilu
re
STEP FOUR| Now is the time for you to decide whether you feel that Jamestown colony was a
success or a failure! Complete the statement below from your own perspective:
I believe that the Jamestown colony was a ___________________, because…
1.
2.
38
MASSACHUSSETTS BAY COLONY
An Accidental English Settlement in the New World| Annotate the map below as directed.
The Mayflower Compact, 1620
In the name of God, Amen. We, whose names are underwritten, the
loyal subjects of our dread Sovereigne Lord, King James, by the grace of
God, of Great Britaine, France and Ireland king, defender of the faith,
etc. having undertaken, for the glory of God, and advancement of the
Christian faith, and honour of our king and country, a voyage to plant
the first colony in the Northerne parts of Virginia, doe by these presents
solemnly and mutually in the presence of God and one of another,
covenant and combine ourselves together into a civil body politick, for
our better ordering and preservation, and furtherance of the ends
aforesaid; and by virtue hereof to enacte, constitute, and frame such
just and equall laws, ordinances, acts, constitutions and offices, from
time to time, as shall be thought most meete and convenient for the
generall good of the Colonie unto which we promise all due submission
and obedience. In witness whereof we have hereunder subscribed our
names at Cape-Codd the 11. of November, in the year of the raigne of
our sovereigne lord, King James, of England, France and Ireland, the
eighteenth, and of Scotland the fiftie-fourth.
What attitude do these Englishmen have toward their duty as settlers?
Explain.
A City Upon a Hill, Governor John WIntrop
“ … for wee must Consider that wee shall be as a Citty upon a Hill, the eies of all people are uppon
us; soe that if wee shall deale falsely with our god in this worke wee have undertaken and soe cause
him to withdrawe his present help from us, wee shall be made a story and a byword through the
world, wee shall open the mouthes of enemies to speake evill of the wayes of god and all professours
for Gods sake … “
Evaluate the extent to which Winthrop’s message reflects the ideals of the Mayflower Compact.
SOAPSTone Analysis
Sp
ea
ke
r
Oc
ca
sio
n
Au
die
nc
e
Pu
rpo
se
Su
bje
ct
Ton
e
39
LIFE AT PLYMOUTH ROCK
Directions| Independently answer the questions that follow each document, then, as a group,
complete the graphic organizer to compare life in Plymouth to life in Jamestown. Each group must
comtribute two ideas to the organizer on the board.
DOCUMENT 1| “A city upon a hill”
The idea of a “city upon a hill” made clear the religious orientation of the New England settlement,
and the charter of the Massachusetts Bay Colony stated as a goal that the colony’s people “may be
soe religiously, peaceablie, and civilly governed, as their good Life and orderlie Conversacon, maie
wynn and incite the Natives of Country, to the Knowledg and Obedience of the onlie true God and
Saulor of Mankinde, and the Christian Fayth.” To illustrate this, the seal of the Massachusetts Bay
Company shows a half-naked Native American who entreats more of the English to “come over and
help us.”
Like their Spanish and French Catholic rivals, English Puritans in America took steps to convert native
peoples to their version of Christianity. John Eliot, the leading Puritan missionary in New England,
urged Native Americans in Massachusetts to live in “praying towns” established by English authorities
for converted Native Americans and to adopt the Puritan emphasis on the centrality of the Bible. In
keeping with the Protestant emphasis on reading scripture, he translated the Bible into the local
Algonquian language and published his work in 1663. Eliot hoped that as a result of his efforts, some
of New England’s native inhabitants would become preachers.
1. Why was the charter for the Massachussets Bay Colony granted?
2. Why did English Puritans in America attempt to convert Native Americans to their version of
Christianity? List two reasons supported in the text:
DOCUMENT 2| Religion and Culture in Massachusetts Bay
Puritan New England differed in many ways from both England and the rest of Europe. Protestants
emphasized literacy so that everyone could read the Bible. This attitude was in stark contrast to that
of Catholics, who refused to tolerate private ownership of Bibles in the vernacular language. The
Puritans placed a special emphasis on reading scripture, and their commitment to literacy led to the
establishment of the first printing press in English America in 1636.
As Calvinists, Puritans adhered to the doctrine of predestination, whereby a few elect would be
saved and all others damned. No one could be sure whether they were predestined for salvation,
but through introspection, guided by scripture, Puritans hoped to find a glimmer of redemptive
grace. This fear of damnation helped maintain order in Puritan New England, so long as every settler
was a devout Puritan.
Although many people assume Puritans escaped England to establish religious freedom, they proved
to be just as intolerant as the English state church. When dissenters, including Puritan minister Roger
40
Williams and midwife Anne Hutchinson, challenged Governor Winthrop in Massachusetts Bay in the
1630s, they both were banished from the colony.
Roger Williams questioned the Puritans’ theft of Native American land. Williams also argued for the
idea that the state could not punish individuals for their beliefs.
Puritan authorities found Williams guilty of spreading dangerous ideas, but he went on to found
Rhode Island as a colony that sheltered dissenting Puritans from their brethren in Massachusetts. In
Rhode Island, Williams wrote favorably about native peoples, contrasting their virtues with Puritan
New England’s intolerance.
Anne Hutchinson also ran afoul of Puritan authorities for her criticism of the evolving religious
practices in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In particular, she held that Puritan ministers in New
England taught a shallow version of Protestantism emphasizing hierarchy and actions—a “covenant
of works” rather than a “covenant of grace.” Literate Puritan women like Hutchinson presented a
challenge to the male ministers’ authority. Indeed, her major offense was her claim of direct religious
revelation (that she spoke directly with God), a type of spiritual experience that negated the role of
ministers.
Because of Hutchinson’s beliefs and her defiance of authority in the colony, especially that of
Governor Winthrop, Puritan authorities tried and convicted her of holding false beliefs. In 1638, she
was excommunicated and banished from the colony.
1. How did Puritans’ religious beliefs affect politics and law in Puritan New England? Provide two
examples from the text in your response.
2. List flaws in Puritan Law that the following individuals exposed:
Roger Williams: Anne Hutchinson:
3. After experiencing religious intolerance themselves in England, why do you think the Puritans
practiced similar intolerance against dissenters like Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson?
41
DOCUMENT 3| Puritan relationships with native peoples
When the Puritans began to arrive in the 1620s and 1630s, local Algonquian peoples viewed them as
potential allies in the conflicts already simmering between rival native groups. In 1621, the
Wampanoag, led by Massasoit, concluded a peace treaty with the Pilgrims at Plymouth. In the 1630s,
the Puritans in Massachusetts and Plymouth allied themselves with the Narragansett and Mohegan
people against the Pequot, who had recently expanded their claims into southern New England. In
May 1637, the Puritans attacked a large group of several hundred Pequot along the Mystic River in
Connecticut. To the horror of their Native American allies, the Puritans massacred all but a handful of
the men, women, and children they found.
By the mid-17th century, the Puritans had pushed their way farther into the interior of New England,
establishing outposts along the Connecticut River Valley. There seemed no end to their expansion.
Wampanoag leader Metacom or Metacomet, also known as King Philip among the English, was
determined to stop the encroachment. The Wampanoag—along with the Nipmuck, Pocumtuck, and
Narragansett—went to war to drive the English from the land.
In the ensuing conflict, called King Philip’s War, native forces succeeded in destroying half of the
frontier Puritan towns; however, in the end, the English—aided by Mohegans and Christian Native
Americans—prevailed and sold many captives into slavery in the West Indies. The severed head of
King Philip was publicly displayed in Plymouth. The war also forever changed the English perception
of native peoples; after King Philip's War, Puritan writers took great pains to vilify Native Americans as
bloodthirsty savages. A new type of racial hatred became a defining feature of Native American-
English relationships in the Northeast.
4. List two causes of King Phillip’s War between Puritan settlers and Native Americans.
5. Do you think English settlers and their native neighbors, including the Wampanoags, could
have lived together in peace? Why or why not?
42
REFLE
CT|
Wh
at
do
yo
u b
elie
ve
wa
s a
t th
e r
oo
t o
f th
e d
iffe
ren
ce
s b
etw
ee
n J
am
est
ow
n a
nd
th
e M
ass
ac
hu
sett
s B
ay C
olo
ny?
Exp
lain
.
43
THE 13 ENGLISH COLONIES
Geographical Analysis
1. Draw and label Jamestown colony and
Plymouth Colony on the map.
2. Color-code the three colonial regions on this
map, using the information below.
Northern Colonies:
• Massachusetts
• Rhode Island
• Connecticut
• New Hampshire
Middle Colonies:
• New York
• New Jersey
• Pennsylvania
• Delaware
Southern Colonies:
• Maryland
• Virginia
• North Carolina
• South Carolina
• Georgia
Because of different climate zones, resources, and European settlers in each region, the economies
of the Northern, Middle and Southern Colonies vary greatly. After reading about the economies in
each region, draw a picture to represent each in the boxes below.
Economic buzz words: Define Economy:
Northern Colonies Middle Colonies Southern Colonies
Economic Implications
44
NORTHERN COLONIES Northern Colonies / New England had a
short growing season and rocky soil; this
was not ideal for growing and exporting
cash crops (something that is grown and
harvested for the sole purpose of selling it
to make a profit - not for the consumption
of the farmer). Colonists took advantage
of other opportunities in the region,
especially fishing and whaling in the bays, inlets, rivers and oceans that dominated their lands. The
building and manufacturing of ships to support the fishing industry became a major part of the
economy of the Northern economy. Northern colonists also built small factories that would support
the processing and manufacturing of fish and whale oil. Also, many Northern Colonies turned to the
manufacturing of sugar from the Caribbean into rum, as well as fur / leathers goods from the natural
wildlife of the Northern Colonies or Canadian traders; all of which could be exported to Europe for a
profit.
MIDDLE COLONIES
The longer growing season of the Middle
Colonies, more even land and less rocky
soil, in combination with milder winters (as
compared to the Northern Colonies)
allowed farmers to grow and cultivate
fields of various grains. Grains were the
cash crop that earned the Middle
Colonies the nickname of the “breadbasket colonies”, as among the three colonial regions, they
grew the highest percentage of grains. Further supporting the economy of the middle colonies was
the manufacturing of goods in industrial centers such as New York City and Philadelphia.
SOUTHERN COLONIES Southern Colonies had a nearly year-
round growing season as a result of
warmer winters and humid summers
allowing them to grow tobacco and rice,
both of which thrive in warmer, more
humid, climates. Tobacco and rice were
the most profitable exports of all the cash
crops grown in the 13 colonies between
1768 and 1777. Of their sum total of exports, nearly 88% of all Southern Colonies exports were
agricultural (tobacco, rice, grains, and indigo).
REFLECT| How did the economic bases of the 13 colonies encourage the use of forced or
coreced labor? Explain.
45
THE BASIS OF THE AMERICAN ECONOMY| Indentured Servitude and Slavery
The American economy, largely based in cash crop agriculture, required an extreme amount of
labor to supply the English with the raw materials they needed to maintain the Triangular Trade
between Europe, Africa, and the Americas. While slaves provided most of this labor in the 13
colonies, some Europeans became indentured servants, drawn by the prospect of a new life in the
New World. While both indentured servants and slaves were important sources of labor, there were
extreme differences between the two groups.
Indentured Servitude Slavery
Description: An indentured servant was usually
someone who chose to immigrate to the colonies
from Europe under a contract that outlined the
terms of their service. Once their contract was over,
they were free from their masters to live their own
lives in the colonies. Usually European. Often, in
Europe these men and women were criminals or
from the poorest class.
Work: Hard labor, field work, skilled and unskilled
labor ranging from farming to brick laying, to
building, to sewing and cooking
Pay: Passage to America, room, lodging, food and
freedom dues
Terms of Work: Indentured servants were servants
who worked for their masters for usually up to 7 years
- after which they were freed, upon freedom they
were to receive goods such as a year’s worth of
corn, acres of land, cows, new clothes, etc.
Description: A slave was usually someone who
was forced to immigrate against their will from
their home country to the colonies. Some
were kidnapped, others were bought by slave
masters. Once in the colonies, they were
forced to do hard labor, for no pay. Usually
from Africa.
Work: Hard labor, housework, farm hand,
mostly unskilled labor, ranged from housework
to working on plantations to pick crops
Pay: Usually none, usually born into slavery,
were given room, lodging, food
Terms of Work: No pay, did what the masters
asked them to do, often died from servitude,
master determined their treatment,
sometimes separated from their family,
bought or sold between masters. Slaves were
usually slaves for life.
Slaves Indentured
Servants
46
Indentured Servitude
This Indentured Servitude Contract Witnesses, that John Reid of New Jersey ... has put himself ...
voluntarily, and of his own free Will and Accord put himself under an indentured servitude to Robert
Livingston to live and to Serve from the first Day of November 1742 till the full term of five years be
complete and ended … During all which Term the said Servant [John Reid] his said Master [Robert
Livingston] faithfully shall serve. Masters Secrets keep servant will keep, masters lawful commands gladly
every where the servant shall obey: the servant will do no damage to His Master … he shall not waste
his said Masters Goods … he shall not engage in relations with women, nor marry during the service of
his Term. The servant will not play Cards, Dice, or any other unlawful Game, ... he shall not be absent
Day nor Night from his said Masters service, nor visit Ale-houses, taverns [bars]… And the said Master
during the said Term shall... provide unto the indentured servant sufficient meat, drink, and Lodging…
Source: John Reid Jr - Contract of Indentured Servitude - 11/01/1742
1. Who is placing John Reid into indentured servitude?
2. What does “....voluntarily, and of his own free will and accord…” tell you about John Reid’s
indentured service?
3. For how long does John Reid have to be an indentured servant?
4. What does Robert Livingston have to provide his indentured servant with?
Slavery
Received of [Paid by] L.A. Johnson Three
Thousand Dollars, being in full for the
purchase of a Negro Slave named Henry the
right to own said Slave: I warrant [guarantee]
and defend against the claims of all persons
whatsoever, and likewise promise him to be
sound and healthy in mind and body, and
Slave for life. As witnessed my hand of seal.
Signed by: HH Hickman
1. For how long will Henry be a slave?
2. Why do you think an indentured servant’s contract was more extensive than a slave contract?
47
COLONY STATIONS
DIRECTIONS| Independently answer the questions below based on the documents at each station.
Station: The Carolinas
1. What products and practices form the basis of the Carolinas’ economy?
2. What city was the most important in colonial times in the region? Why?
3. What were three major differences between the northern and southern parts of the Carolinas?
Station: New Jersey
1. What changes did Philip Carteret bring to New Jersey? List three.
2. What happened to New Jersey in 1676? Why?
3. What did the government of New Jersey look like after they were reunited?
Station: New York
1. Who founded New York (nation and explorer)?
2. What did the society and economic makeup of the colony look like?
48
3. How did the English eventually gain control of the area?
4. Name two sources of tension that existed in New York.
Station: Rhode Island
1. Who founded Rhode Island? Why?
2. What was the government of Rhode Island like? List two characteristics of their government.
3. What happened to Rhode Island during the New England union? Why?
4. Where do the names for Rhode Island and Providence come from?
Station: Maryland
1. For what religious group was Maryland founded? Why?
2. What was the impact of the Toleration Act on colonists in Maryland?
49
3. How did the founding of Maryland affect immigration for centuries? Explain.
Station: Georgia
1. Who founded Georgia? Why?
2. What lessons did leaders in Georgia learn from South Carolina?
3. What made Georgia’s government different from the other colonial bodies?
4. Describe the relationship of Georgians with the Native Americans in the area.
YOU ARE THE PILOT OF YOUR OWN COLONY: A LEADERSHIP WORKSHOP
Task| In your groups, you will develop a presentation on effective leadership to share with
eager new leaders of the American colonies. As representatives of your assigned colonies at
this workshop, you will identify effective leadership strategies used in your own government
and society and explain how new leaders in attendance can adopt them. Your 2-3 minute
poster presentations must:
• Identify three effective leadership strategies used in your colony. Remember to
consider political, economic, social, and religious strategies, in accordance with
your roles. For each strategy, you must:
▪ Clearly list the strategy and provide a visual aid on your poster
▪ Provide an oral explanation of how this strategy can be adopted in new
colonies and WHY it should be.
• Evaluate the success of your own colony. At the end of your presentation, you
must explain the extent to which these leadership strategies made your colony
successful.
• Follow a prepared script that includes all group members
• BE CREATIVE!
50
BACON’S REBELLION
Bacon's Rebellion was an uprising in 1676 in
the Virginia Colony in North America, led by a
29-year-old planter Nathaniel Bacon. About
a thousand Virginians rose because they
resented Virginia Governor William Berkeley's
friendly policies towards the Native
Americans. When Berkeley refused to
retaliate for a series of Indian attacks on
frontier settlements, others took matters into
their own hands, attacking Indians, chasing
Berkeley from Jamestown, Virginia, and
torching the capitol. It was the first rebellion in
the American colonies in which discontented
frontiersmen took part; a similar uprising in Maryland occurred later that year. A protest against raids
on the frontier; some historians also consider it a power play by Bacon against Berkeley, and his
policies of favoring his own court. Their alliance disturbed the ruling class, who responded by
hardening the racial caste of slavery.[1] [2] While the farmers did not succeed in their goal of driving
Native Americans from Virginia, the rebellion did result in Berkeley being recalled to England.
Choose five important terms from the text and use then to compose a 1-sentence Summary of
Bacon’s Rebellion:
1. Summary:
2.
3.
4.
5.
Directions| Record our notes on Bacon’s Rebellion in the organizer below:
Causes Effects
Bacon’s
Rebellion
51
Directions| Use the reading below to
complete the character profiles on the
next page.
"[We must defend ourselves] against all
Indians in generall, for that they were
all Enemies." This was the unequivocal
view of Nathaniel Bacon, a young,
wealthy Englishman who had recently
settled in the backcountry of Virginia.
The opinion that all Indians were
enemies was also shared by a many
other Virginians, especially those who
lived in the interior. It was not the view,
however, of the governor of the
colony, William Berkeley.
Berkeley was not opposed to fighting
Indians who were considered enemies,
but attacking friendly Indians, he
thought, could lead to what everyone
wanted to avoid: a war with "all the
Indians against us." Berkeley also didn't
trust Bacon's intentions, believing that
the upstart's true aim was to stir up
trouble among settlers, who were
already discontent with the colony's
government.
Bacon attracted a large following who,
like him, wanted to kill or drive out every Indian in Virginia. In 1675, when Berkeley denied Bacon a
commission (the authority to lead soldiers), Bacon took it upon himself to lead his followers in a
crusade against the "enemy." They marched to a fort held by a friendly tribe, the Occaneechees,
and convinced them to capture warriors from an unfriendly tribe. The Occaneechees returned with
captives. Bacon's men killed the captives They then turned to their "allies" and opened fire.
Berkeley declared Bacon a rebel and charged him with treason. Just to be safe, the next time Bacon
returned to Jamestown, he brought along fifty armed men. Bacon was still arrested, but Berkeley
pardoned him instead of sentencing him to death, the usual punishment for treason.
Still without the commission he felt he deserved, Bacon returned to Jamestown later the same month,
but this time accompanied by five hundred men. Berkeley was forced to give Bacon the commision,
only to later declare that it was void. Bacon, in the meantime, had continued his fight against
Indians. When he learned of the Govenor's declaration, he headed back to Jamestown. The
governor immediately fled, along with a few of his supporters, to Virginia's eastern shore.
Each leader tried to muster support. Each promised freedom to slaves and servants who would join
their cause. But Bacon's following was much greater than Berkeley's. In September of 1676, Bacon
and his men set Jamestown on fire.
The rebellion ended after British authorities sent a royal force to assist in quelling the uprising and
arresting scores of committed rebels, white and black. When Bacon suddenly died in October,
probably of dysentery, Bacon's Rebellion fizzled out.
Bacon's Rebellion demonstrated that poor whites and poor blacks could be united in a cause. This
was a great fear of the ruling class -- what would prevent the poor from uniting to fight them? This
fear hastened the transition to racial slavery.
52
Governor William Berkeley
Nathaniel Bacon
I think…
I hear…
I see…
I feel…
I did…
I think…
I see…
I hear…
I feel…
I did…
53
THE GREAT AWAKENING
In colonial America, religious belief shaped every aspect of life. It guided the individual and the
family, work and play, community and government. The local church was where all of these were
given meaning and direction. Most Protestant colonial churches were strict. They taught that we are
all sinful and that God grants grace and a place in heaven only to a faithful few. Puritan
Congregationalists, Presbyterians, and many others accepted the idea that God had already
decided who was saved. All a person could do was search for signs of being among the chosen few.
Living a good life, studying the Bible, and attending church might be such signs. But they could not
by themselves save a sinner. Only a deep faith granted by God could do that. By the early 1700s,
these beliefs were still widely held. Yet many colonists had begun to feel that people no longer took
religion seriously. Colonial wealth was increasing and so were temptations to live a less godly life. Too
many churchgoers were said to be only going through the motions, without real faith. In the 1730s
and ‘40s, this uneasy feeling gave birth to a huge revival of religion known as the Great Awakening.
In this upheaval, thousands of people heard new sorts of preachers using a more emotional
preaching style. The words of these preachers moved many to cry out, “What must I do to be
saved?” Such terrifying awareness of sin might then shift as suddenly into an equally powerful feeling
of joy and acceptance by Christ. The heart of the Great Awakening was this life-changing sense of
being “reborn” as a new and better person of faith. The preachers were evangelicals who felt they
could trigger this rebirth suddenly, in a flash, rather than over the course of a lifetime. Many ordinary
clergymen preaching in their own churches took part in the revivals. The key figures, however, were
often “itinerants,” preachers who moved from town to town. George Whitefield, an Englishman, was
the most famous of them. His powerful, appealing voice and deep feeling could make crowds weep
in fear of God’s judgment and cry tears of joy at the thought of salvation. Whitefield first toured the
colonies in 1739. He preached in fields and city squares, often to thousands at a time. Another key
figure was Jonathan Edwards, a Congregationalist preacher in Northampton, Massachusetts.
Edwards was perhaps the greatest American philosopher and religious thinker of the colonial period.
Some of the preachers, however, were not as thoughtful as Edwards. Many played on emotion and
took no interest in whether the conversions they produced were real or likely to last. Some were
harshly critical of those regular town ministers who stressed a calm use of reason and learning. Such
hard feelings often split churches into opposed groups, so-called “New Lights” and “Old Lights.” New
churches appeared, and America’s religious diversity became even more diverse. The upheaval also
made colonists more aware of a world beyond their town or church. This may have given them a
sense of belonging to a broader “American” society rather than to one limited to a single town or
colony. The revivals also led people to become more critical of their local religious leaders. After all,
salvation seemed to come from within, not necessarily from what happened in church. Did this foster
a more independent spirit? Did it make Americans more willing to challenge all sorts of traditional
forms of authority? If so, the Great Awakening may have prepared the colonists for the American
Revolution just a few decades ahead.
Summarize the Great Awakening in one sentence How did the Great Awakening change
daily life in the colonies? (list 3 ways)
When In the 1730s,
Who evangelical preachers
Where In Massachussets Colony
What
Why because…
54
Using the documents provided, prove or disprove the following statement:
The Great Awakening taught colonial Americans to challenge religious authority forcefully. This
helped prepare them for the political revolution to come.
The two most important
figures in America’s Great
Awakening were George
Whitefield and Jonathan
Edwards. Whitefield was
born in England in 1714. At
the age of 22, he began
preaching with a power
and depth of feeling that
few had ever seen. He
urged listeners to feel their
own sinfulness strongly,
repent, and change. He
often preached to huge
crowds in fields, both in
England and here. He
made his first trip to
America in 1739. The
above illustration shows
him preaching in his usual
style. Even before
Whitefield arrived,
Jonathan Edwards led a great revival of religion in his own New England town of North Hampton.
Edwards held to the strictest form of his religion’s traditional Puritan beliefs. He warned listeners of the
overwhelming power of God and of their inability to do much to save their souls. Yet, his preaching
triggered a great revival in his community. On the right is the cover from his own account of this
revival, which even he seems to have found to be sudden and surprising.
Evidence of changes in New England life in the
document
Do these ideas prove or disprove the stated
thesis? Explain.
1.
2.
55
This engraving was
published in London
in 1763. It criticizes
and makes fun of
George Whitefield’s
emotional and
evangelical
preaching style. In
the center, Whitefield
stands on a three-
legged stool
preaching in the
open air. A flying imp
uses a pipe to pour
inspired thoughts in
his ear. Hovering on
his other side is
another evil-spirit,
“Fame.” This spirit
listens to Whitefield’s
preaching with an
ear-trumpet and uses
another trumpet to tell the crowd of the preacher’s greed and sinful behavior. Meanwhile, under
thstool, the Devil is grasping at gold coins offered as donations by the eager crowd of listeners.
Whitefield impressed many with his powerful voice. However, an eye disease gave him a cross-eyed
look. This led those who disliked him to call him “Dr. Squintum,” the label used for him in this illustration.
Evidence of changes in New England life in the
document
Do these ideas prove or disprove the stated
thesis? Explain.
1.
2.
56
Document 4
In May of 1743, a group of New England ministers attacked the revivals for doctrinal errors and
emotional excess, which they termed “enthusiasm.” They also criticized the disrespect shown to
ministers who did not favor the revivals. However, another group of New England pastors disagreed.
They met in Boston on July 7, 1743, to defend the revivals. The three passages below are by this other
group of pastors. In their statement, they say the revivals did bring about a real spiritual renewal for
many who took part in them.
Part 1
[Many in the revivals], were able to give, what appeared to us, a rational account of what so
affected their minds—a quick sense of guilt, misery, and danger. And they would often mention
passages in the sermons they heard, or particular texts of Scripture, which were set home upon them
with such a powerful impression. And as to such whose joys have carried them into transports and
ecstasies, they in like manner have accounted for them, from a lively sense of the danger they
hoped they were freed from, and the happiness they were now possessed of … and particularly of
the excellencies and loveliness of Jesus Christ, and such sweet tastes of redeeming love, as they
never had before.
Part 2
With respect to the numbers of those who have been under the impressions of the present day, we
must declare there is good ground to conclude they are becoming real Christians; the account they
give of their conviction and consolation agreeing with the standard of the Holy Scriptures,
corresponding with the experiences of the saints, and evidenced by the external fruits of the holiness
of their lives.
Part 3
Indeed, it is not to be denied, that in some places many irregularities and extravagances have been
permitted to accompany [the revivals]; which we would deeply lament and bewail before God, and
look upon ourselves obliged, for the honor of the Holy Spirit, and of his blessed operations on the souls
of men, to bear a public and faithful testimony against. Though at the same time it is to be
acknowledged with much thankfulness, that in other places where the work has flourished, there
have been few, if any, of these disorders and excesses. But who can wonder, if at such time as this,
Satan should intermingle himself, to hinder and blemish a work so directly contrary to the interests of
his own kingdom?
Evidence of changes in New England life in the
document
Do these ideas prove or disprove the stated
thesis? Explain.
1.
2.
57
Document 5
Most revivalist preachers were “itinerants” who traveled from place to place giving sermons in fields
or town squares. Their visits often left people dissatisfied with their own pastors, who were rarely as
exciting as the revivalists. Some church leaders, in turn, saw itinerants as a threat to the religious order
and even to authority itself. The passages below are from a 1744 statement that takes this view. The
statement was by the president and faculty of Harvard. It was directed specifically at George
Whitefield.
Part 1
In regard of the danger which we apprehend the people and churches of this land are in, on
account of the Rev. Mr. George Whitefield, we have thought ourselves obliged to bear our
testimony, in this public manner, against him and his way of preaching as tending very much to the
detriment of religion, and the entire destruction of the order of these churches of Christ, which our
fathers have taken such care and pains to settle, as by the Platform, according to which the
discipline of the churches of New England is regulated.
Part 2
First then, we charge him with enthusiasm. … We mean by an enthusiast, one that acts, either
according to dreams, or some sudden impulses and impressions upon his mind, which he fondly
imagines to be from the spirit of God, persuading and inclining him thereby to such and such actions,
though he hath no proof that such persuasions or impressions are from the holy spirit. … And if such
impulses and impressions be not agreeable to our reason, or to the revelation of the mind of God to
us, in his Word, nothing can be more dangerous than conducting ourselves according to them. For
otherwise, if we judge not of them by these rules, they may as well be the suggestions of the evil spirit.
Part 3
Now by an itinerant preacher, we understand one that hath no particular charge of his own, but
goes about from country to country, or from town to town, in any country and stands ready to
preach to any congregation that shall call him to it. And such a one is Mr. W … [and] all the itinerant
preachers who have followed Mr. W’s example and thrust themselves into towns and parishes, to the
destruction of all peace and order, whereby they have to the great impoverishment of the
community, taken the people from their work and business to attend their lectures and exhortations,
always fraught with enthusiasm, and other pernicious errors. But what is worse, and it is the natural
effect of these things, the people have been thence ready to despise their own ministers, and their
usefulness among them, in too many places, hath been almost destroyed.
Evidence of changes in New England life in the
document
Do these ideas prove or disprove the stated
thesis? Explain.
1.
2.
58
REFLECT
Select what you believe to be the four
most important changes to New England
Life that resulted from the Great
Awakening found in these documents.
Why did you select this
change?
Would this change prepare
colonists for revolution? Why
or why not?
Now, evaluate the evidence you collected to make a definitive claim:
The Great Awakening taught colonial Americans to challenge religious authority forcefully. This
DID \ DID NOT help prepare them for the political revolution to come, because:
(Circle one)
1.
2.
59
FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR
The French and Indian War, also called the Seven Years’ War was fought between the British and the
French alongside their Native American allies for contol of North American lands West of the
Apalacian Mountains. It began in 1754 in the Ohio River Valley when the governor of Virginia sent
George Washington to warn the French off of what they believed to be British territory. In your groups,
you will read about what happened on that fateful day in the Ohio River Valley, and record your
findings in the organizer below. Then you will share your interpretation of the incident with the class.
Summarize the Incident in two sentences
Choose three
adjectives that
describe G.W.
Who is at
fault for the
war? Why?
1
When In 1754,
Where at the French Fort Duquesne in the Ohio River Valley,
Who George Washington
What
Why because…
2
Out-
come
George Washington surrendered to the French because…
60
REFLECT
Why was each account of the war so different?
What impact do biases have on our study of history? How can we ensure that we learn history as it
happened, not just as it’s told?
CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR
MAKE PREDICTIONS| How might British responses to the French and Indian War upset English
colonists? What challenges might the colonists face in resisting them?
(See map on p. 40)
61
Political Map Key
Physical Map Key
Political Map:
Physical Map:
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