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Fundamentals of Software Project Management

INTRODUCTIONSoftware project management is the process of planning, organising, staffing , monitoring, controlling and leading a software project.Every software project must have a manager who leads the development team and is the interface with the initiators (synonym : one who start the project), suppliers and senior management. The project manager :Produces the software project management plan (SPMP).Defines the organisational roles and allocates staff to them.Controls the project by informing staff of their part in the plan .Leads the project by making the major decisions and by motivating staff to perform well ;Monitors the project by measuring progress.Reports progress to initiates and senior managers.

INTRODUCTION (Contd.)Figure 1 shows the control and monitoring loop required in every software project. Standards and user requirements are the primary input to both the planning and production processes. Plans are made for project management, configuration management, verification and validation and quality assurance. These plans control production. Reports, such as progress reports, timesheets, work package completion reports, quality assurance reports and test reports provide feedback to the planning process. Plans may be updated to take account of these reports.The project manager is the driving force in the management control loop. The following sections defines the skills, roles and responsibilities of the project manager and discuss project management activities.

The Skills of a Project Manager

The evolution of development projects has changed the skills required of project managers. Not long ago the emphasis was placed on technical skills and project managers were hired by the experience and proficiency in the technical area the project was involved in. In the last years the nature of development projects has changed considerably, projects are not just one-dimensional approaches focused on a single solution. So, different types of skills are required by Project Manager: Managerial SkillsTechnical Problem SolvingNegotiationConceptualInterpersonal SkillsLeadershipCommunicationBehavioral

Managerial SkillsProject teams involve more and more non-technical staff, and behavioral skills became equally important as technical skills. In this new time, to be an effective project manager, may require having an understanding of general management rather than being a technical expert. Projects are becoming more complex that it is simply no longer possible for the project manager to remain a technical expert in all aspects of the project. Project managers need to spend more of their time planning, organizing, directing and controlling progress rather than providing technical direction.Project management is both a science and an art; it's a science because it requires the use of quantitative analysis such as charts, graphs, financial data ; and an art because it deals with qualitative analysis such as negotiating , conflict resolution, political, interpersonal and organizational factors.

Managerial Skills : Technical SkillsThe project manager must have skills to use management techniques, procedures and tools. He/She must know how to interpret a budget report, know how to read a statistical analysis of a project baseline data, and understand the correct application of the different management methodologies. In addition to the above the project manager is expected to have skills in the effective use of information and communication technology to help his/her be more effective in work.Technical skills are related to working with processes and tools. They refer to using specialized knowledge and experience related to project management and the specific methodologies of the project for implementing project activities. These skills are necessary to communicate effectively with the project team , to assess risks, and to make trade-offs between cost, schedule, time and quality issues.

Managerial Skills:Technical Skills (Contd.)Since project managers do not do the actual work of the project, they do not need the same technical skill level as the people performing the work. This is not to say that the project manager doesn't need a level of technical expertise, the more expertise the project manager has in the technical area of the project , the greater identify potential problems and increases the ability of the project manager to integrate all aspects of the project.The project manager must maintain a general perspective and not let his/her technical competence lead to micro-managing or do the project work. He / She must concentrate on managing the project, letting the project team members perform the technical work and limit his/her technical involvement to evaluating the work of the team.

Managerial Skills: Problem Solving SkillsAll projects are prone to encounter problems, problems that were not identified in the risk or scope of the project and that will need to be managed accordingly. Problem solving requires a good definition of the problem that is detected early enough to allow time to respond. In many cases the original problem is a symptom or a larger problem. Problem solving skills make use of different techniques, and by using these techniques we can start to tackle problems which might otherwise seem huge, overwhelming and excessively complex. down into manageable parts, identifying root causes of problems, analyzing strengths, weaknesses, opportunities & threats, must be mastered in order to solve problems.Additionally the project manager needs synthesis and analysis thinking skills. A project manager must be able to synthesize information-collecting and arrange disparate information into a meaningful whole. A project manager must be able to see patterns in information and derive meaning from distinct pieces of data.Analysis is the skill of breaking a whole into component parts, much like decomposing work into a WBS.

Managerial Skills: Negotiation SkillsProject managers spend a large portion of their time negotiating for resources, equipment or other support, and if they do not have strong negotiating skills, their chances of being successful project managers are greatly reduced. A large part of negotiation takes place within the organization to get the resources the project needs, resources that are being requested by other project managers.Negotiation is the process of obtaining mutually acceptable agreements with individuals or groups. Depending on the projects structure and the level of authorization the project managers has to negotiate on behalf of the organization.Negotiation usually include making trade-offs when stakeholders request changes or modifications to the project and its resources, negotiation also includes dealing with vendors or consultants who are bidding for a specific good or service, this area may require the assistance of specialized staff such as representatives from legal or the procurement department.

Managerial Skills: Negotiation Skills (Contd.)Negotiation skills also come handy when dealing with project beneficiaries and building agreements that will benefit both the project and the beneficiaries.Beneficiaries have in many instances other priorities and participating in the project activities may not be a main priority. The project manager must be able to find the best approach to develop common understanding and align the interest of the beneficiaries with those of the project.

Managerial Skills: Conceptual SkillsConceptual skills is the ability to coordinate and integrate all the projects efforts, it requires for the project manager to see the project as a whole and not just the sum of its parts, ability to understand how all the parts make a whole and how they all relate and depend on one another, and the ability to anticipate how a change on one part of the project will affect the entire project. The bigger and more complex is the project, the larger is the need for this type of skill. This skill helps the project manager keep a clear vision of the ultimate goal of the project and understand its relationships and dependencies with the project's environment.Conceptual skills refer to the ability to see the big picture. Project managers with good conceptual skills are well aware of how various elements of the project environment or ecosystem interrelate and influence one another. Conceptual skills are necessary to appropriately deal with project politics and to acquire adequate support from top management.Interpersonal SkillsIt is better that the project manager be a generalist rather than an expert.The reason is that experts tend to be very narrow in their views.A generalist on the other hand, is far more open to views and suggestions of this team members.The results of projects led by a generalist tend to give much better deliverables than a comparable project led by an expert.Every organization has a unique culture and individual divisions within an organization often have their own personalities.Understanding of these culture is very important.

Interpersonal SkillsInterpersonal skills require understanding people, their attitudes, and human dynamics. They represent the ability of a project manager to work effectively as a project team leader and to build cooperative effort with the project members and all other groups with which the project team interacts. They are most critical for and how effective performance in a project environment. Major interpersonal skills include : communication, team building, leadersh ip, coaching, motivating, decision making, delegating, training, directing, influencing, negotiating, and supporti ngThe project manager must be sensible to the cultural differences when dealing with diverse people and their opinions, values, and attitudes.The good interpersonal abilities build trust and confidence between members of the project team and help create good relations and good working environment. The important interpersonal abilities required to handle projects are leadership, communication, behavior and negotiation.

Interpersonal Skills: Leadership SkillsLeadership skills are essential for project managers because project managers must influence the behavior of others. Project managers require leadership skills for the simple reason that they accomplish their work through people who have faces and names. Leadership is the predominant contributor to the success of the project manager. In small projects, good leadership can succeed even in a climate of otherwise unskilled management. This skill gives the project manager the ability to articulate a clear vision and provide direction.

Interpersonal Skills: Communication SkillsGood communications skills include verbal and non verbal communications that enables a project manager to convey project information in a way that it is received and understood by al project stakeholders.The first essential skill is the ability to communicate. This skill is important in any endeavor but is absolutely crucial in project management. It has been estimated that project managers spend 90 percent of their time just communicating: with the project team, the customer, functional managers, and upper management. Communication is only successful when both the sender and the receiver understand the same information as a result of the communication. By successfully getting our message across, we convey our thoughts and ideas effectively. When not successful, the thoughts and ideas that our send do not necessarily reflect our own, causing a communications breakdown and creating roadblocks that stand in the way of our goals- both personally and professionally.Interpersonal Skills: Behavioral SkillsBehavioral skills are the skills that give the project manager the ability to work with people, and the ability to motivate people involved in the project. Behavioral skills are also known as people skills and these skills are needed in development projects due to the large and varied number of people the project interfaces with. Behavioral or people skills, it's the ability to build cooperation between the project team, other project stakeholder, and the project organization. These skills involve communication, team building, leadership, influencing, under standing perceptions and attitudes, which help improve the morale of individuals and groups. An element of communication skill is having good listening skills that make a project manager an active listener which makes the communication skills more effective.

The Roles of a Project Manager

One of the mistakes development organizations make is appointing project manager only for he depth of his/her technical skills. Project Manager must have a good understanding of the technical aspects of the project, the principal areas of competence that are required from every project managers are in the management competence areas and these include communicating, planning, negotiating, coaching.He/ She is the one whose job is to make sure the project gets done, and is the principal contact person for the donor, beneficiaries and the key stakeholders. As responsible for the project he/she needs to make key decisions regarding the management of the resources available to the project; in order to do that, the organization's senior management needs to appoint the project manager and give the sole responsibility and authority.There are four critical roles of the project manager :1. Integrator2. Communicator 3. Leader 4.Facilitator

The Roles of a Project Manager: IntegratorA key responsibility of the project manager is to ensure the proper integration of the project management processes and coordinate the process phases trough the project management cycle, to ensures that all areas of the project come together to deliver the project to a successful conclusion. This is the main role of the project manager The role of integrator involves three specific areas of responsibility : Developing the project management plans, which involves the development of all project planning documents into a consistent, coherent project plan documentImplementing the project plan, which involves the execution of the project plan and ensuring all activities are performed by all the people involvedMonitor and control the plan, which involves measuring the initial results against the intended objectives and coordinating all changes to the plans .

The Roles of a Project Manager: CommunicatorCommunication is providing relevant, timely information to the right people about the project. Communication is used to inform and educate the project stakeholders about the project objectives, risks, assumptions and constraints .The communication or informational role is the most critical role for the success of the project, the organization functional managers, project staff, donors and key stakeholders need to make critical decision about the project, and the information they receive must be relevant, on time and accurate.Project managers in the role of communicators take three functions: to gather information from project staff and other people involved with the project; distribute the information to stakeholders, which includes the donor, beneficiaries , and the organizations functional managers; transmit the information to the external environment, such as the general public to gain support to the project.

The Roles of a Project Manager: LeaderA project manager is above all a leader ; the team needs direction for the life of the project and the project manager is responsible for leading the team to achieve the vision that the project has created, a project manager does this by facilitating, coordinating and motivating the team to achieve the project goals, this is a central role of the project manager and her ability to influence, inspire, direct, communicate will determine her effectiveness as a project manager.Leading is a central role ; it involves working with and through others to achieve the objectives of the project. It is through the project manager's ability to lead - which includes the ability to facilitate, coordinate, and motivate - that will determine the effectiveness of the project manager.The focus on this role is to ensure the project team and the project stakeholders have a clear vision of the objectives the project aims to achieve. The Roles of a Project Manager: FacilitatorIn this role the project manager acts an individual who enables the project team to work more effectively ; helps them collaborate and achieve synergy. The project manager is not responsible to do all the tasks of the project, that is the responsibility of the project team, the project manager role is to create the right conditions that enable the project team to carry their duties.The project manager also contributes by providing the framework to facilitate the interactions among the different groups so that they are able to function effectively. The project manager encourages full participation from the project team . promotes mutual understanding with the beneficiaries and cultivates shared responsibility among all project stakeholders.The facilitator role is mostly used when dealing with beneficiaries , since the project manager doesn't have any form of authority over this group he must provide a safe environment where beneficiaries feel comfortable contributing ideas and provide input to the project and discover the solutions that can help achieve the projects objectives.

The Responsibilities of Project ManagerResponsibility is an agreement between two or more people for the intention of achieving a desired result.The project manager must be sure that the assigned responsibility is clearly stated and the expected results are mutually understood and accepted by all stakeholders.Accountability comes as a result of the assigned responsibility. When an organization assigns responsibility to a person to manage a project, the organization must hold that person accountable for achieving the desired result or provide consequences for poor performance, such as a negative employee performance rating, reassignment, probation, or termination. The accountability must be consistent with the responsibility assigned.

The Responsibilities of Project Manager (Contd.)Projects vary in duration, scope, and complexity. On a large or complex project, the Project Manager may elect to appoint one or more Assistant Project Managers. The Project Manager may delegate single or multiple responsibilities , including budget responsibility to an Assistant Project Manager. The Project Manager may direct the Assistant Project Manager to control different processes of the project; this may include controlling budgets, and monitoring progress.

The Responsibilities of Project Manager (Contd.)The project manager is responsible for three areas of the project: responsibility to the donor to provide timely and accurate information responsibility to beneficiaries for delivering the project outcomes responsibility to organization for managing the project and follow policies and uphold its values .

The Responsibilities of Project Manager (Contd.)In general terms the project manager responsibilities in the project are: planningorganizingdirectingcontrolling the project.The Responsibilities of Project Manager (Contd.): PlanningPlanning responsibility involves defining what the project will accomplish, when it will be completed, how it will be implemented and monitored and who will do it. The project manager is responsible for creating the project plans and defining the ,goals, objectives, activities and resources needed. The project plans are the blueprints under which the entire project will be implemented and will serve as a map to guide the project team, beneficiaries, donors and management.The project manager is also responsible for updating the plans as new changes or modifications are approved, he/she is responsible for communicating all stakeholders on the changes and ensures that the changes are being ,incorporated in the activities and tasks of the project team.

The Responsibilities of Project Manager (Contd.):OrganizingThe responsibility of the project manager is to establish a structure that will maximize the efficiency (doing the things right) and effectiveness (doing the right things) of the project. The project manager, once the plans have been approved and distributed, has the responsibility to build and staff the project organization that will be capable to carry out the plans.The focus is on coordination, and control of activities and the flow of information within the project.In this responsibility the project manager distributes and delegates authority to project staff.The project manager must have the ability to determine the type of project organization that will fit the needs, constraints and environment of the project.

The Responsibilities of Project Manager (Contd.):DirectingOnce the plans are made and the organization has , been determined and the project staffed, the responsibility of the project manager is to direct, lead and motivate the members of the project to perform in a unified, consistent and manner. By directing, the project manager assumes the responsibility that the project team will follow his/her vision of the project and all instructions, mandates and work orders.

The Responsibilities of Project Manager (Contd.): ControllingControlling is a responsibility to ensure the actions of the project team contribute toward the project goals; the project manager must establish standards for performance, measure performance and compare it with the established standards; detect variations from the standards and make the necessary corrections. This responsibility ensures that the project is on track.

PROJECT INTERFACESProject managers must identify the people or groups the project deals with , both within the parent organization and outside. A project may have interfaces to :initiatorsend userssupplierssubcontractorsthe prime contractorother subsystem developersWhen defining external project interfaces, the project manager should :ensure that a single, named point of contact exists both within the project team and each external group ;channel all communications between the project and external groups through as few people as possible ;ensure that no person in the project has the liaise (to form) with more than seven external groups

Project InterfacesStakeholder analysis

Stakeholders can be individuals, groups, a community or an institution.Stakeholders are:people affected by the impact of an activitypeople who can influence the impact of an activity.Stakeholder groups are made up of people who share a common interest, such as an NGO, church leaders and the community. However, such groups often contain many sub-groups. Seeing the community as one stakeholder group can be meaning less because some people may have very different interests from others in the same community.These sub-groups may be affected by the project in different ways, and some subsgroups may have a lot more influence on the impact of the project than others.

Project InterfacesStakeholder analysis (Contd.)government ministries are different stakeholder groups, if they have different, and even conflicting, opinions about a development proposal. Government at national, state and local levels may also have very different interests.Stakeholders include : User Groups people who use the resources or services in an areaInterest Groups people who have an interest in, an opinion about, or who can affect the use of, a resource or serviceBeneficiaries of the projectDecision MakersThose Often Excluded from the decision-making process .

Project InterfacesStakeholder analysis (Contd.)Stakeholders can be divided into two main types :Primary Stakeholders who benefit from, or are adversely affected by , an activity. This term describes people whose well-being may be dependent on a resource or service or area (e.g., a forest) that the project addresses . Usually they live in the area or very near the resources. They often have few options when faced with change, so they have difficulty adapting. Primary stakeholders are usually accessible. They are the reason why a project is carried out - the end users.Project InterfacesStakeholder analysis (Contd.)Secondary Stakeholders include all other people and institutions with an interest in the resources or area being considered . They are the means by which project objectives can be met, rather than an end in themselves. If stakeholders are not identified at the project planning stage, the project is at risk of failure. This is because the project cannot take into account the needs and aims of those who will come into contact with it.

Project InterfacesStakeholder analysis: Advantages (Contd.)Stakeholder analysis is a useful tool for identifying stakeholders and describing the nature of their stake, roles and interests. Stakeholder analysis helps to :improve the project's understanding of the needs of those affected by a problemreveal how little we know as outsiders, which encourages those who do know to participateidentify potential winners and losers as a result of the projectreduce, or hopefully remove, potential negative project impactsidentify those who have the rights, interests, resources, skills and abilitiesto take part in, or influence the course of, the projectidentify who should be encouraged to take part .in the project planning and implementationidentify useful alliances which can be built uponidentify and reduce risks which might involve identifying possible conflicts of interest and expectation among stakeholders so that conflict is avoided.Project InterfacesStakeholder analysis: Risks (Contd.)It is important to be aware that there are risks in doing a stakeholder analysis :The analysis is only as good as the information used. Sometimes it is difficult to get the necessary information, and many assumptions will have to be made.Tables can oversimplify complex situations .

Project InterfacesStakeholder analysis: Methods (Contd.)There are a number of ways of doing stakeholder analysis. The method provided below is just one approach. The approach taken will vary depending on the type of project that is being proposed. The method given below is quite general and can be adapted to whatever type of project is being proposed Ideally, stakeholder analysis should be carried out with representatives of as many stakeholder groups as possible. It might not always be practical to do so if the stakeholders are widely spread.However, if there is a danger that important stakeholders might be excluded, more time and resources should be invested in doing the stakeholder analysis to make sure they are included.

NEEDS IDENTIFICATION Accurate requirements are an essential part of the formula for software project success.According to survey projects are cancelled due to following major reasonsSome software projects are canceled before they are completedMany projects runs out of cost than original estimateSmall number of projects are completed on time and within budget.When the causes of these failures were identified, the survey found the following top three reasons why projects are damaged.Lack of user inputIncomplete requirements and specificationsChanging requirements and specificationsThis basic problem is poor requirement share. If it isn't clear what we are supposed to build, how can we estimate the cost of building it ? How can we create a project, plan , assign resources, design system components, or create work orders ? We need accurate requirements to perform these activities.

NEEDS IDENTIFICATION: Need of RequirementsWe use requirements for a variety of purposes, including :Project scopingCost estimatingBudgetingProject schedulingSoftware designSoftware testingDocumentation and training manualIndividuals throughout an organization have a fixed interest in producing solid requirements.Many project teams treat requirements as a statement of purpose for the application and express them in very general terms, such as : "The system should have the ability to create problem labels for outside warning." But is this a solid requirement ?NEEDS IDENTIFICATION: Classifying and Documenting Requirements

Requirements are not requirements unless they are written down. In other words, neither hallway conversations nor "mental notes" constitute requirements. We typically capture requirements in three separate documents :Stakeholder NeedsSoftware FeaturesSoftware Requirements SpecificationGenerally, in any organization, we associate some attributes (e.g., priority, status etc.) with each requirement to help with decision making, scheduling, and so on. The information contained in one requirement document should be referenceable in the others. For example, the information recorded in the software features document should support and be traceable to one or more items listed in the stakeholder needs document.Maintaining these three documents allows specific person to understand specific parts of the system. It also promotes better accountability which is a key element for a successful software development process.

NEEDS IDENTIFICATION:Classifying and Documenting Requirements : Documenting Stakeholder NeedsWhatever needs and requirements we formulate at the beginning of our project, it expand as our project gain. If we are using an iterative development approach, we should compute our requirements after each iteration, and if we make changes one document, we should update the others as well to maintain consistency.Stakeholder needs, which are part of the problem domain, describe what stakeholders require for successful project.

NEEDS IDENTIFICATION:Classifying and Documenting Requirements : Documenting Stakeholder NeedsNeeds describe what the application should do to help in lower the cost of a business process , increase revenue or meet regulatory or other obligations .Documenting stakeholder needs involves identifying, understanding and representing different viewpoints.The first step is to identify all stakeholders. Users represent a class of stakeholders , but by no means do they represent the interests of the whole organization. Other classes of stakeholders may come from finance and accounting, procurement, and IT, as well as from other departments or organizations that directly or indirectly support or benefit from the project .We can draw needs from stakeholders using various techniques , including one-on-on meetings, questionnaires, storyboarding, and Joint Application Development (JAD) sessions.

NEEDS IDENTIFICATION:Classifying and Documenting Requirements: Documenting Software Features

After we have defined stakeholder needs, we must translate them into a set of distinct system features. There is difference between needs and features : Needs do not indicate a particular solution ; they simply describe the business need. For example, if a stakeholder says, "We need to stream line the help-desk application support process because we can't keep up with the calls", that person is expressing a need that the development team can translate into a feature .However , if the stakeholder says, "We need a Web -enabled system so that customers can enter their own support requests", the stakeholder has already translated the need into a feature.

NEEDS IDENTIFICATION:Classifying and Documenting Requirements: Documenting Software Features (Contd.)A feature is a service that the system provides to fulfill one or more stakeholder needs.It is important for the development team to understand the distinction between needs and features and to record them in separate documents .We should separate needs from features ; the reason behind it is that needs are part of the problem domain, and features are part of the solution domain. Also, by separating needs from features, we can find a common set of features that will meet multiple needs .

NEEDS IDENTIFICATION:Classifying and Documenting Requirements: Documenting Software RequirementsAfter we analyze and generalize needs and features, we should move into the solution domain by analyzing and capturing the system requirements. Now we have enough understanding to define a requirement as : a software capability that must be met or possessed by a system or a system component to satisfy a contract, standard, or desired feature. Requirements must satisfy one or more of the following criteriaContract obligationsStandardsDesired needs and features

NEEDS IDENTIFICATION:Classifying and Documenting Requirements: Documenting Software Requirements (Contd.)We can classify the requirements into two categories :Functional requirements present a complete description of how the system will function from the user's perspective. They should allow both business stakeholders and technical people to walk through the system and see every aspect of how it should work - before it is built.Non -functional requirements dictate properties and impose constraints on the project or system. They specify attributes of the system , rather than what the system will do . For example, a non-functional requirement might state : "The response time of the home page must not exceed five seconds.

Qualities of SRSDFollowing are some qualities that should characterize the descriptions in our Software Requirements Specification Document :Lack of ambiguity. The software development team will be unable to produce a product that satisfies users' needs if one or more requirements can be interpreted in multiple ways.Completeness. In the beginning of our project, we should not expect to know all the system requirements in detail; the development team should not waste time trying to specify things that are bound to evolve . As the project proceeds , however, we should keep our Software Requirements Specification document up to date ; as we gain more knowledge about the system , the specification document should grow more complete .Consistency. We cannot build a system that satisfies all requirements if two requirements conflict or if the requirements do not reflect changes that were made to the system during the iterative development and functionality testing.

Qualities of SRSD (Contd.)Traceability. The team should track the source of each requirement whether it evolved from a more abstract requirement , or a specific meeting with a target user .No design information. As long as requirements address external behaviors, as viewed by users or by other interfacing systems, then they are still requirements, regardless of their level of detail. However, if a requirement attempts to specify particular subcomponents or their algorithms, it is no longer a requirement; it has become design information .

Capturing functional requirementsTo document functional requirements we must capture three categories of information :Use casesFunctional capabilitiesBusiness rulesUse cases define a step-by-step sequence of actions between the user system. Organizations are rapidly adopting use cases as a means to communicate requirements because they.Show how the system will work from the users' perspective Force us to think about the end-job : What is the user trying to accomplish by using the system ? Require us to define how the system should work, step-by-step.Provide an excellent basis for building test cases and helping to ensure that these are built before the code is written. Provide a common requirements "language" that's easy for stakeholders, users, analysts, architects, programmers, and testers to understand.

Capturing functional requirements (Contd.)when we communicate via uses cases, we don't leave it up to the developers to determine the application's external behavior. These include a use case diagram, primary and assisting actors, triggering events, use case descriptions, preconditions, post conditions, alternative flows, error and exception conditions, risks and issues, functional capabilities, and business rules. It should be noted that use cases do not result in requirements until we define functional capabilities and any business rules that apply to the use case.

Capturing functional requirements (Contd.)Functional capabilities define what specific action the system should take in a given situation. We can relate functional capabilities directly to a specific use case or define them globally for the entire system.Business rules state the condition under which a use case is applicable and the rule to be applied.Capturing non-functional requirements

Non-functional requirements are attributes that either the system or the environment must have. Such requirements are not always in the front of stakeholders' minds , and often we must make a special effort to draw them out. To make it easier to capture non-functional requirements, we organize them into five categories :UsabilityReliabilityPerformanceSupportabilitySecurity

Capturing non-functional requirements (Contd.)Usability describes the ease with which the system can be learned or used. A typical usability requirement might state :The system should allow novice users to install and operate it with little or no training. The end user shall be able to place an order within thirty seconds .The end user shall be able to access any page within four seconds.

Capturing non-functional requirements (Contd.)Reliability describes the degree to which the system must work for users. Specifications for reliability typically refer to availability, mean time between failures, mean time to repair, accuracy, and maximum acceptable bugs. For example :The system shall meet the terms of a Service Level Agreement. The mean time to failure shall be at least four months.

Capturing non-functional requirements (Contd.)Performance specifications typically refer to response time, transaction through put , and capacity. For example :All Web pages must download within three seconds during an average load, and five seconds during a peak load . While executing a search, the system must be able to display 200 search results per page.

Capturing non-functional requirements (Contd.)Supportability refers to the softwares ability to be easily modified or maintained to accommodate typical usage or change scenarios. Here are some examples of supportability requirements :The system shall allow users to create new workflows without the need for additional programming.The system shall allow the system administrator to create and populate tax tables for the upcoming tax year.

Capturing non-functional requirements (Contd.)Security refers to the ability to prevent and/or forbid access to the system by unauthorized parti Some examples of security requirements are :User authentication shall be via the corporate Single Signon system .Only authorized payroll administrators shall be permitted to access employee pay information .

Requirements Analysis Process : Requirements Elicitation, Analysis and Specification

Requirements Analysis is a process of understanding customer needs and expectations from a proposed system or application and is a well-defined stage in the Software Development Life Cycle model.Requirements are a description of how a system should behave or a description of system properties or attributes. It can alternatively be a statement of 'what' an application is expected to do.Given the multiple levels of interaction between users, business processes and devices in global corporations, there are simultaneous and complex requirements from a single application, from various levels within an organization and outside it as well.The Software Requirements Analysis Process covers the complex task of eliciting and documenting the requirements of all these users, modeling and analyzing these requirements and documenting them as a basis for system design .

Requirements Analysis Process : Requirements Elicitation, Analysis and SpecificationA dedicated and specialized Requirements Analyst is best equipped to handle the job . The Requirements Analysis function may also fall under the scope of Project Manager, Program Manager or Business Analyst , depending on the organizational hierarchy.Software Requirements Analysis and Documentation Processes are critical to software project success. Requirements Engineering is an emerging field which deals with the systematic handling of requirements.

Requirements Analysis Process: Requirements Elicitation, Analysis and Specification: Importance of Requirements AnalysisSurveys reveal that inadequate attention to Software Requirements Analysis at the beginning of a project is the most common cause for critically vulnerable projects that often do not deliver even on the basic tasks for which they were designed .There are instances of corporations that have spent huge amounts on software projects where the end application eventually does not perform the tasks it was intended for.Software companies are now investing time and resources into effective and streamlined Software Requirements Analysis Processes as a prerequisite to successful projects that align with the client's business goals and meet the project's requirement specifications .

Requirements Analysis Process: Requirements Elicitation, Analysis and Specification: Footfalls in the Requirements Analysis ProcessFix system boundariesThis initial step helps in identifying how the new application integrates with the business processes, how it fits into the larger picture and what its scope an limitations will be.Identify the customerBy defining in concrete terms who the intended user is, the Requirements Analysis knows in advance where he has to look for answers. The Requirements Elicitation Process should focus on the wish-list of this defined group to arrive at a valid requirements list.

Requirements Analysis Process: Requirements Elicitation, Analysis and Specification: Requirements elicitation

Information is gathered from the multiple stakeholders identified. The Requirements Analyst draws out from each of these groups what their requirements from the application are and what they expect the application to accomplish.The level of detail of the requirements list is based on the number and size of user groups , the degree of complexity of business processes and the size of the applicationRequirements Analysis Process: Requirements Elicitation, Analysis and Specification: Requirements elicitationProblems faced in Requirements Elicitation.Ambiguous understanding of processes Inconsistency within a single process by multiple users Insufficient input from stakeholders Conflicting stakeholder interestsChanges in requirements after project has begunTools used in Requirements Elicitation.PrototypesTransition process diagramsUse casesUser Interfaces Data flow diagrams

Once all stakeholder requirements have been gathered, a structured analysis of these can be done after modeling the requirements. Some of the Software Requirements Analysis techniques used are requirements animation, automated reasoning, knowledge-based critiquing, consistency checking, analogical and case-based reasoning .

Requirements Analysis Process: Requirements Elicitation, Analysis and Specification: Requirements Analysis ProcessRequirements Analysis Process: Requirements Elicitation, Analysis and Specification: Requirements SpecificationRequirements Specification. Requirements , once elicited, modeled and analyzed should be documented in clear, unambiguous terms. A written requirements document is critical so that its circulation is possible among all stakeholdersRequirements Specification is vital and serves as a:Base for validating the stated requirements and resolving stakeholder conflicts, if any Contract between the client and development team Basis for systems design for the development team Bench-mark for project managers for planning project development lifecycle and goals Source for formulating test plans for QA and testing teams Resource for requirements management and requirements tracing Basis for evolving requirements over the project life span

Requirements Analysis Process: Requirements Elicitation, Analysis and Specification: Requirements SpecificationThe challenge of a well-written requirements specification is to clearly communicate to both these groups and all the sub-groups within. Requirements Specifications may be documented separately as:User Requirements wriitten in clear, precise language with plain text and use cases, for the benefit of the customer and end-userSystem Requirements expressed as a programming or mathematical model, addressing the Application Development Team and QA and Testing Team. Requirements Specification serves as a starting point for software , hardware and database design. It describes the function (Functional and Non-Functional specifications) of the system, performance of the system and the operational and user-interface constraints that will govern system development.

Requirements Analysis Process: Requirements Elicitation, Analysis and Specification: Requirements ManagementRequirements Management is the comprehensive process that includes all aspects of software requirements analysis and additionally ensures verification, validation and traceability of requirements. Effectiverequirements management practices guarantee that all system requirements are stated unambiguously, that omissions and errors are corrected and that evolving specifications can be incorporated later in the project lifecycle .

VIS ION AND SCOPE DOCUMENTThe document that covers the business requirement is called the vision and scope document. This document covers the vision of the project, which is in the long run what the project will accomplish.The scope part of the document will clearly spell out what would be taken up.There are four sections to this document and each one of them is important. These sections are :Business RequirementsVision of the solutionScope and limitationsBusiness context.

VIS ION AND SCOPE DOCUMENT: Benefits of Creating Vision and Scope Document (Contd.)Earning CredibilityBy creating vision and scope document , the customer can see that we are adding value by capturing his requirements. He can also see a tangible product at the end of the requirement capture exerciseEnsuring project successIt is essential for all parties concerned that the project is completed successfully. Preparing vision and scope document has significant contribution in ensuring success of a project.Ensuring project viabilityMany times project fail because the client was not clear in his mind about the project. Putting down the requirement from the business perspective would force the client to think about why he is doing the project.

VIS ION AND SCOPE DOCUMENT: Sections Under Vision and Scope Document (Contd.)Business RequirementsBackground, Business Opportunity, and Customer NeedsBusiness Objectives and Success CriteriaBusiness RisksVision of the SolutionVision StatementMajor FeaturesAssumptions and DependenciesScope and LimitationsScope of Initial and Subsequent ReleasesLimitations and ExclusionsBusiness ContextStakeholder ProfilesProject Priorities

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLEThe Project Management Life Cycle has four phases: Initiation, Planning, Execution and Closure. Each project life cycle phase is described as follows, along with the stasks needed to complete it.During Project Initiation phase, we :Develop a Business CaseUndertake a Feasibility StudyEstablish the Project CharterAppoint the Project TeamSet up the Project Office Perform Phase Review

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE (Contd.)Develop a Business Case A Business Case justifies the start-up of a project. It includes a description of the business problem or opportunity, the costs and benefits of each alternative solution, and the recommended solution for approval. A Business Case document is used whenever the expenditure on a project has to be justified. Completing a Business Case document is usually the first step in the Project Life Cycle. Once the Business Case document has been completed, it is presented to a Sponsor for approval. The Business Case is referred to frequently during the project , to determine whether it is currently on track. At the end of the project, success is measured against the ability to meet the objectives defined in the Business Case.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE (Contd.)Undertake a Feasibility StudyA Project Feasibility Study is an exercise that involves documenting each of the potential solutions to a particular business problem or opportunity. Feasibility Studies can be undertaken by any type of business, project or team and they are a critical part of the Project Life Cycle.The purpose of a Feasibility Study is to identify the likelihood of one or more solutions meeting the stated business requirements.During the Feasibility Study, a variety of 'assessment: methods are undertaken. The outcome of the Feasibility Study is a confirmed solution for implementation.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE (Contd.)Establish the Project CharterThe Project Charter describes the project vision, objectives, scope and deliverables, as well as the Stakeholders, roles and responsibilities. The Project Charter is also known as a "Terms of Reference" or "Project Definition Report" .Every time we start a new project, we should complete a Project Charter document.The Project Charter defines the vision and boundaries for the project, as well as the high level roadmap. In addition, the Project Charter also defines the scope of the project, within which the deliverables are produced. With a well defined Project Charter, the Project Manager has a clear project roadmap for success.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE (Contd.)Appoint the Project TeamA Project Job Description defines the objectives and responsibilities of a particular role on a project. Completing a Job Description document ensures the skills, experience and qualifications needed to fulfill the role are clearly defined.A Job Description may also be referred to as a "Position Description".A Project Job Description should be completed every time a new role is identified. The Project Job Description should clearly state the objectives and responsibilities of the role and where it fits within the organizational structure.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE (Contd.)Set up the Project OfficeThe Project Office document lists everything we need to do, to set up a Project Management Office. A Project Management Office is the physical premises within which project staff (e.g. the Project Manage r and support staff) reside.The Project Office also contains the communications infrastructure and technologies required to support the project.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE (Contd.)Perform Phase ReviewA Project Review is an assessment of the status of a project, at a particular point in time. The first time in the project life cycle that a project review is undertaken is at the end of the first project phase, called "Initiation". During this project review, a decision is made as to whether or not the team has met the objectives and is approved to proceed to the next project phase, being the "Planning" phase.Performing a project management review at the end of each phase is critical to the success of the project, because it allows the Project Sponsor to control the progress of the project and make sure that it passes through each Project Phase smoothly. As soon as the project team believes they have completed a particular project phase, a prcject review should be undertaken. There will usually be at least three project reviews during the project life cycle: at the end of the Initiation, Planningand Execution project phases.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE (Contd.)During Project Planning phase, we :Create a Project PlanCreate a Resource PlanCreate a Financial PlanCreate a Quality PlanCreate a Risk PlanCreate an Acceptance PlanCreate a Communications PlanCreate a Procurement PlanContract the SuppliersDefine the Tender Process Issue a Statement of WorkIssue a Request for InformationIssue a Request for ProposalCreate Supplier Contract Perform Phase Review

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE: Planning (Contd.)Create a Project PlanA Project Plan sets out the phases , activities and tasks needed to deliver a project . The time frames required to deliver the project, along with the resources and milestones are also mentioned in the Project Plan.Using this Project Plan Document, we can quickly and easily create a comprehensive Project Management Plan for our project, as it already lists the commonly used tasks needed to complete projects from start to finish.A Project Plan Document is filled in every time we wish to embark on a new project . A summarized Project Plan is usually created early in the life cycle, with a detailed Project Plan being created later the planning phase.Every day, the Project Manager will review actual progress against that stated in the Project Plan, to ensure they are still on track . The Project Plan is therefore the most critical tool a Manager can have to successfully deliver projects.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE: Planning(Contd.)Create a Resource PlanA Resource Plan summarizes the level of resources needed to complete a project . A properly documented Resource Plan will specify the exact quantities of labor , equipment and materials needed to complete our project. The Resource Planning document also helps us gain approval from our Sponsor, ensuring their buy in. Anyone responsible for Project Resource Management will need to create a comprehensive Resource Plan , to ensure that all of the resources needed to complete the project are identified. By implementing proper Resource Planning practices, it also helps us with budgeting and forecasting project expenditure.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE: Planning (Contd.)Create a Financial PlanA Financial Plan identifies the Project Finance (i.e., money) needed to meet specific objectives. The Financial Plan defines all of the various types of expenses that a project will incur (labor, equipment, materials and administration costs) along with an estimation of the value of each expense. The Financial Plan also summarizes the total expense to be incurred across the project and this total expense becomes the project budget. As part of the Financial Planning exercise , a schedule is provided which states the amount of money needed during each stage of the project.Whenever we need to ask for money, we need a sound Financial Plan showing how it will be consumed. Using this Financial Plan document, we can create a detailed Financial Plan for our project. It will help us get the Project Finance needed to successfully deliver our project on time.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE: Planning (Contd.)Create a Quality PlanA Quality Plan helps us schedule all of the tasks needed to make sure that our project meets the needs of our customer. It comprises two parts : the Quality Assurance Plan lists the independent reviews needed and the Quality Control Planlists the internal reviews needed to meet our quality targets. By using Quality Assurance and Quality Control techniques, we can create a comprehensive Quality Management Plan for our project.Creating a Quality Plan is essential if we want to provide the customer with confidence that we will produce a solution that meets their needs. The Quality Plan states everything we're going to do, to ensure the quality of our solution.PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE: Planning (Contd.)Create a Risk PlanA Risk plan helps us to foresee risks, identify action to prevent them from occurring and reduce their impact should they eventuate. The Risk Management Plan is created as part of the Risk Planning process. It lists of all foreseeable risks, their ranking and priority, the preventative and contingent actions, along with a process for tracking them. This Risk Plan document will help us perform these steps quickly and easily.A Risk Plan should be used anytime that risks need to be carefully managed. For instance, during the start up of a project a Risk Plan is created to identify and manage the risk involved with the project delivery. The Risk Plan is referred to frequently throughout the project, to ensure that all risks are mitigated as quickly as possible. The Risk Plan document helps us identify and manage our risks, boosting our chances of success.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE: Planning (Contd.)Create an Acceptance PlanAn Acceptance Plan (also known as an "Acceptance Test Plan") is a schedule of tasks that are required to gain the customers acceptance that what we .have produced is satisfactory. It is more than just a task list though. An Acceptance Plan is in fact an agreement between us and the customer, stating the acceptance tasks that will be undertaken at the end of the project to get their final approval. The Acceptance Plan includes a list of the deliverables, the acceptance test activities, the criteria and standards to be met, and the plan for their completion.By creating an Acceptance Plan at the start of a project, it will save our time and hassle at the end, as the acceptance test actions will already have been pre-completed by the customer.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE: Planning (Contd.)Create a Communications PlanA Communication Plan (or Communications Plan) describes how we intend to communicate the right messages to the right people at the right time. Within a Communication Plan, the communication goals, stakeholders and strategies, activities and timeframes are described. A Communication Plan helps us keep everyone informed so that we can communicate a consistent message to our target audience.Whenever we have a variety of staff, external suppliers, customers and stakeholders to communicate with, then we should record our communications formally in a Communication Plan. It is also critical to the success of projects, as it ensures that all of the staff and stakeholders are kept properly informed of the progress of a project. The best time to perform Communication Planning is during the start up phase of a project. This will ensure your Communication Plan includes the tasks needed to communicate effectively throughout the entire project life cycle.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE: Planning (Contd.)Create a Procurement PlanA Procurement Plan defines the products and services that we will obtain from external suppliers. A good Procurement Plan will go one step further by describing the process we will go through to appoint those suppliers contractually. Whether we are embarking on a project procurement or organizational procurement planning exercise, the steps will be the same. First, define the items we need to procure. Next, define the process for acquiring those items . And finally, schedule the timeframes for delivery. It is advisable to create a Procurement Plan whenever we want to purchase item from suppliers. Using the Procurement Plan document, we can define the procurement requirements, identify potential suppliers, contract those suppliers and manage them to ensure delivery. This Procurement Plan document helps us to perform these steps quickly and easily.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE: Planning (Contd.)Contract the SuppliersA Tender Form is issued to a supplier during the "Invitation to Tender" process. Each Tender Form helps the team to collect information about potential suppliers so that they can appoint one or more preferred suppliers to the business. As each Tender Form is released to the suppliers, the progress is tracked in the Tender Register. To save time creating each Tender Form, a Tender Document is used .

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE: Planning (Contd.)Define the Tender Process. A Tender Process (or "Invitation to Tender" process) is a method by which suppliers are selected for the provision of products and services to an organization. The process involves creating a suite of Tender Documents to manage the supplier selection process. The Tender Documents help the organization to select the best possible supplier available, and include documents such as the "Statement of Work", "Request for Information" and "Request for Proposal".

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE: Planning (Contd.)Issue a Statement of Work.A Statement of Work or SOW, defines 'what it is that we need' from an external supplier. It is a statement of the work to be completed by a supplier. The Statement of Work also describes the materials and equipment to be provided, within a defined timeframe. This Statement of Work Document saves our time, because all of the sections have been pre-completed for us.Every time we need to request work from an external supplier, we need to issue a Statement of Work. It helps us clarify what it is that we want from our supplier and the timeframes in which to complete it.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE: Planning (Contd.)Issue a Request for Information. A Request for Information (or "RFI") is a document which is issued to potential suppliers to allow them to take part in an "Invitation to Tender" process. It is a request for information from the supplier, to help us decide whether or not to appoint them. By using this Request for Information document , we can complete the RFI process quickly and easily.We need to issue a Request for Information whenever we want to contract an external supplier to our business. The document will explain to our supplier, the information we need, to help us with our supplier selection.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE: Planning (Contd.)Issue a Request for Proposal. A Request for Proposal (RFP) is a document that is issued to suppliers to help them provide the information needed to make a preferred supplier decision. By using this RFP Document, we can quickly create a Request for Proposal for our business . We need to create a Request for Proposal whenever we want to request a proposal from external suppliers. The Request for Proposal describes the nature of the proposal we're seeking from them and the time frames for delivering it. The Request for Proposal also includes key terms and conditions we intend to include in a supplier agreement. PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE: Planning (Contd.)Create Supplier Contract. A Supplier Contract or "Supply Contract" is an agreement between a business and an external supplier for the delivery of a defined set of products and services. A Supplier Contract is a legal agreement and is used as the basis upon which to measure the supplier's performance. In addition to listing the items to be supplied, the Supply Contract states the timeframes, responsibilities, pricing and payment clauses needed to administer the relationship. A Supplier Contract should be used whenever we need to purchase products or services from an external supplier.The Supply Contract defines the delivery milestones and therefore the criteria for making payments. So by using a Supply Contract, it will make it easier to manage our suppliers today.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE: Planning (Contd.)Perform Phase Review. A Project Phase Review is completed at the end of each project phase. During this project management review, the reviewer completes a Phase Review Form describing the progress of the project to date and recommending whether or not it should continue to the next project phase. If approved, the next project phase can be commenced .The project review may be conducted by the Team Manager or an independent person to the project. During the project management review, any risks and issues should also be recorded. The Project Phase Review Form is then completed, documenting the outcome of the reyiew , for approval.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE: Execution (Contd.)During Project Execution phase, we :Build DeliverablesMonitor and ControlPerform Time ManagementPerform Cost ManagementPerform Quality ManagementPerform Change ManagementPerform Risk ManagementPerform Issue ManagementPerform Acceptance ManagementPerform Communications Management

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE: : Execution (Contd.)Perform Time ManagementProject Time Management is all about recording the time spent by people on a project. To record time spent, the team implement a Project Time Management Process (or "Time Process"). This time process involves recording the time spent on tasks, using Timesheets. The time process helps the manager know which tasks has been worked on, when and for how long. The best way to see if our project is on track is to record time actually spent vs. time planned to be spent. The time process allows us to see for every task, whether is has been completed on time. This time process also allows us to control time spent by implementing a timesheet approval process.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE: : Execution (Contd.)Perform Cost ManagementA Cost Management process helps us control expenses within an organization. Using this project Cost Management process, we can ensure that our project delivered within budget.If we want to control the way that expenses are incurred, then we need to implement a Cost Management process. It will help us to control project expenses ensuring that only expenses which have been approved, may take place. Using this Cost Management process, we can also keep our project plan up-to-date with the latest expense information available.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE: : Execution (Contd.)Perform Quality ManagementA Quality Management Process is a set of procedures that are followed to ensure that the deliverables produced by a team are "fit for purpose". The start of the Quality Management Process involves setting quality targets, which are agree with the customer. A "Quality Assurance Process" and "Quality Control Process are then undertaken, to measure and report the actual quality of deliverables.A part of the Quality Management Process, any quality issues are identified an resolved quickly.Whether we are producing deliverables as part of a project or operational team, an effective quality management and quality assurance process will be beneficial. By implementing this Quality Management Process, we can ensure that our team's outputs meet the expectations of your customer.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE: : Execution (Contd.)Perform Change ManagementA Change Process, or Change Management Process, is a set of procedures that help teams to control change effectively. It's not that we have to prevent change from happening ; it's how we manage change once it occurs that really matters. The Change Process allows us to record change requests, and review and approve those requests, before implementing them. This Change Process makes change management easy.If we work in a team that is subject to change, then we need a Change Process. By implementing a Change Process, we can track change as it occurs and control the effect it has on our team.A Change Process helps us monitor the impact of change on the business, to ensure that each change has the desired outcome.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE: : Execution (Contd.)Perform Risk Management A Risk Process, or Risk Management Process, describes the steps we need to take to identify, monitor and control risk. Within the Risk Process, a risk is defined as any future event that may prevent you to meet your team goals. A Risk Process allows you to identify each risk, quantify the impact and take action now to prevent it from occurring and reduce the impact should it eventuate. We use a Risk Process whenever your ability to meet your objectives is at risk. By putting in place this Risk Process, you can monitor and control risks, removing all uncertainty. The Risk Process involves running risk reviews to identify and quantify risks. This Risk Process will help you put in place the right processes for managing risk today.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE: : Execution (Contd.)Perform Issue ManagementAn Issue Process, or Issue Management Process, is a set of procedures that help us manage issues as they occur. Whether we're part of a project or operational team, issues will occur on a regular basis affecting the ability to meet our team goals. An Issue Process helps us record each issue and identify the actions needed to resolve it. As part of the Issue Process, an approval step is included to ensure that the right actions are taken, at the right time. We follow an Issue Process when we encounter issues that need to be resolved quickly. Examples of issues that are resolved through an Issue Process include; lack of funding, insufficient resources and tight deadlines. Regardless of the circumstance, this Issue Process helps us get approval to take action to resolve it immediately.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE: : Execution (Contd.)Perform Procurement ManagementA Procurement Management Process, or Procurement Process, is a method by which items are purchased from external suppliers. The procurement management process involves managing the ordering, receipt, review and approval of items from suppliers. A procurement process also specifies how the supplier relationships will be managed, to ensure a high level of service is received. In essence, the procurement process helps us "get what you have paid for". It also helps us manage the supplier relationship, ensuring that any issues are resolved quickly. By implementing a Procurement Process, we can ensure to get the maximum value from our supplier relationship.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE: : Execution (Contd.)Perform Acceptance Management An Acceptance Management Process is a series of steps that we take to complete User Acceptance Testing.When a project is nearly complete, one of the final step is to perform User Acceptance Testing with the customer. As part of the User Acceptance Testing process, the customer will be asked to review the project deliverables and confirm that they are "fit for purpose" . By using this Use Acceptance Testing process , we can confirm that our customer is happy and sign off the project as complete .Before we can close a project officially, we need to show our Project Sponsor that we have completed User Acceptance Testing and that our customer has signed off the deliverables as being 100 percent complete. Only when User Acceptance Testing is complete, should we proceed with closing the project.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE: : Execution (Contd.)Perform Communications ManagementA Communication Process , or Communications Management Process, is a set of that are taken every time formal communications are under taken in organization . A Communications Process is undertaken as part of Communications Management and helps to ensure that our stakeholders are kept regularly informed. For example as part of the project life cycle, the team implement a Communication Process to make sure that the entire team is kept informed of status of the project.A Communication Process should be used when we wish to communicate formally within an organization. As part of the Communication Process, we can receive feedback on the communications which have taken place to date ensure that future communications are improved . PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE: Closure (Contd.)During Project Closure phase, we :Perform Project ClosureReview Project Completion

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE: Closure (Contd.)Perform Project ClosureA Project Closure Report describes how we intend to close our projects . The Project Closure Report confirms that the objectives have been met, the deliverables have been handed over to the customer and that project closure can commence. Every Project Manager needs to complete a Project Closure Report to gain agreement from their Sponsor that the project is ready for closure. Once the Project Closure Report has been approved, the Manager can proceed with the actions needed to close the project swiftly.A Project Closure Report should be documented any time that a project is ready for closure. Using this Project Closure Report, we can to document the actions needed to perform project closure immediately.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CYCLE: Closure (Contd.)Review Project CompletionA Post Implementation Review, or Post Project Review, is performed after a project is complete. The purpose of a Post Implementation Review is to determine whether the project was successful and identify any lessons learned. A Post Implementation Review also looks at whether the project produced the required deliverables within the agreed timeframe. The overall achievements are also documented in the Post Implementation Review report. The best time to conduct a Post Implementation Review is between 1 and 6 months after a project has completed. By then, the project deliverables will have been handed over to the customer and the benefits of the project will be clear. A Post Implementation Review is a critical part in the project life cycle, as it's during this review that the success of the project is measured. SPM OBJECTIVESThe primary responsibility of the project manager is to ensure that the end product meets the client's requirements ; therefore, the first scheduling task of the project manager is to clarify project objectives by translating them into quantifiable terms. A project objective is a statement specifying the results to be achieved. These statements form the foundation for the entire planning process . including development of the Master Schedule.The project objectives will be previewed frequently throughout the project. They will be referred to at the onset of the project. They will be referred to at the onset of the project to identify the project team's responsibilities. During the project they will be reviewed to identify changes that fall outside the original project scope. At the project's conclusion, they will be reviewed to help the project manager perform an objective postmortum review of the project.

SPM OBJECTIVES(Contd.)A well defined project objective has several characteristics. The objective will be:Attainable. The objective identifies a target which can be reasonably achieved given the project's time and resource constraints. If the objective is set too high, credibility is destroyed because the sence of shortfall greater than the sense of accomplishmentSPM OBJECTIVES(Contd.)Definitive. It spells out in concrete terms what is to be achieved and to what degree. The results to be attained are clearly defined. Only those objectives related to project or organizational goals are included. Routine project activities must not be mistaken for objectives.Quantifiable. It specifies a yardstick for completion which can be identified by all concerned, especially those responsible for its achievement. The establishment of measurable objective is mandatory so that performance can be compared to a standard.Specific Duration. It defines the time parameters within which the task is to be achieved. This is also necessary for evaluation of project progress.

SPM OBJECTIVES(Contd.)Trode-off FunctionsThe primary objective of software project management is to establish relation between performance, time and budget. The following graph shows the relation.

SPM OBJECTIVES(Contd.)Following are the trade-off functions for determining performance, time and budget.Performance = f (Time, Budget)Time= f (Budget , Performance)Budget= f (Performance, Tim e)SMART PrinciplesFor setting general objectives , we should use SMART principles. SMART objectives. are :SpecificMeasurable Achievable RealisticTimelySmart principles are strongly encouraged when setting objectives.

SPM OBJECTIVES(Contd.)SpecificIs it clear and well defined Is it clear to anyone that has a basic knowledge of the work.MeasurableKnow if the goal is obtainable and how far away completion is.Know when it has been achieved.AchievableAgreement with all the stakeholders what the goal should be.Is there a realistic path to achievement.RealisticWithin the availability of resources, knowledge and time.Timely Enough time to achieve the goal is there a time limit. Not too much time which can affect work performance.

MANAGEMENT SPECTRUMEffective software project management focuses on the three P's :people, problem, and process. The manager who forgets that software engineering work is an intensely human endeavor will never have success in project management. A manager who fails to encourage comprehensive customer communication early in the evolution of a project risks building an elegant solution for the wrong problem. Finally, the manager who pays little attention to the process runs the risk of inserting competent technical methods and tools into a vacuum .

MANAGEMENT SPECTRUM: PeopleThe Software Engineering Institute has sponsored a people management maturity model to enhance the readiness of software organizations to undertake increasingly complex applications by helping to attract, grow, motivate, deploy , and retain the talent needed to improve their software development capability."The people management maturity model defines tie following key practice areas for software people: recruiting, selection, performance management ; training, compensation, career development, organization, and team and culture development.Organizations that achieve high levels of maturity in the people management area have a higher likelihood of implementing effective software engineering practices.

MANAGEMENT SPECTRUM: The ProblemBefore a project can be planned, objectives and scope should be established, alternative solutions should be considered, and technical and management constraints should be identified. Without this information, it is impossible to develop reasonable estimates of the cost, a realistic breakdown of project tasks, or a manageable project schedule that provides a meaningful indication of progress.The software developer and customer must meet to define project objectives and scope. In many eases, this activity occurs as pare of structured customer communication process such as joint application design.Joint Application Design (JAD) is an activity that occurs in five phases : project definition, research, preparation, the JAD meeting, and document preparation. The intent of each phase is to develop information that helps better define the problem to be solved or the product to be built.

MANAGEMENT SPECTRUM: The Process

A few framework activities apply to all software projects, regardless of their size or complexity. A number of task sets - tasks, milestones, deliverables, and quality assurance points - enable the framework activities to be adapted to the characteristics of the software project and the requirements of the project team . Finally, umbrella activities such as software quality assurance, software configuration management, and measurement - overlay the process model.Umbrella activities are independent of any one framework activity and occur throughout the process.

MANAGEMENT SPECTRUM: The Process

MANAGEMENT SPECTRUM: The Process

The Software Engineering Institute (SEI) has developed a comprehensive assessment model that is predicated on a set of software engineering capabilities that should be present as organizations reach different levels of process maturity. To determine an organization's current state of process maturity, the Sill uses an assessment questionnaire and a five-point grading scheme. The grading scheme determines compliance with a capability maturity model that defines key activities required at different levels of process maturity. The Sill approach provides a measure of the global effectiveness of a company's software engineering practices and establishes five process maturity levels that are defined in the following manner :

MANAGEMENT SPECTRUM : The ProcessLevel 1 :Initial. The software process is characterized as adhoc, and occasionally even chaotic. Few processes are defined, and success depends on individual effort.Level 2 :Repeatable. Basic project management processes are established to track cost, schedule, and functionality. The necessary process discipline is in place to repeat earlier successes on projects with similar applications.Level 3 : Defined. The software process for both management and engineering activities is documented, standardized and integrated into an organization wide software process. All projects use a documented and approved version of the organization's process for developing and maintaining software. This level includes all characteristics defined for level 2.Level 4 :Managed. Detailed measures of the software process and product quality are collected. Both the software process and products are quantitatively understood and controlled using detailed measures. This level includes all characteristics defined for level 3.

MANAGEMENT SPECTRUM : The Process Level 5: Optimizing. Continuous process improvement is enabled by quantitative feedback from the process and from testing innovative ideas and technologies. This level includes all characteristics defined for level 4.The five levels defined by the SEI are derived as a consequence of evaluating responses to the SEI assessment questionnaire that is based on the CMM. The results of the questionnaire are distilled to a single numerical grade that provides an indication of an organization's process maturity.

MANAGEMENT SPECTRUM : The ProcessThe SEl has associated key process areas (KPAs) with each of the maturity levels. The KPAs describe those software engineering functions (for example , software project planning and requirements management) that must be present to satisfy good practice at a particular level. Each KPA is described by identifying the following characteristics :goals : the overall objectives that the KPA must achievecommitments : requirements (imposed on the organization) that must be met to achieve the goals, provide proof of intent to comply with the goalsabilities : those things that must be in place (organizationally and technically) that will enable the organization to meet the commitmentsactivities : the specific tasks that are required to achieve the KPA function methods for monitoring implementation -the manner in which the activities are monitored as they are put into placemethods for verifying implementation : the manner in which proper practice for the KPA can be verified.

Project PlanA project plan is : "a formal, approved document used to guide both project execution and project control. The primary uses of the project plan are to document planning assumptions and decisions, facilitate communication among stakeholders, and document approved scope, cost and schedule baselines. A project plan may be summary or detailed. "Also we can define it as :"a statement of how and when a project's objectives are to be achieved , by showing the major products. milestones, activities and resources required on the project."

Planning ObjectivesThe purpose of a project plan is to maintain control of a project. As a complicated process, a project always threatens to exceed the limit of our control. To maintain control we need help in the form of tools and best tool is our plan. The project plan controls the project by :Breaking a complex process down into a number of simpler componentsProviding visibility for difficulty or ambiguous tasks in the projectProviding a single point of reference for everyoneEnforcing inspection of the sequence and nature of eventsProviding a baseline against which execution of the project can be compareAnticipating likely events and providing pre-planned means of a them.A project plan must be as accurate, complete and as specific as possible. How accurate, complete and specific of course depends upon how much time resources we have.

Types of project planThere are many types of plans used in human service organizations. While the essence of all plans is the same - answering questions such as : where are we going and how are we going to get there ?We often give them different names depending on what the plan is for.For example plans can be made for :The organization (e.g. strategic plan, service plans, financial plan)A project (e.g. project plan, financial plan)A team (e.g. team work plan)worker (e.g. individual work plan)A client (e.g. individual service plan)

Types of project plan (Contd.)Some of the different types of plans and the questions they ask and attempt to answer are given as follows.The OrganisationStrategic Plan. Where are we? Where are we going? Why? How will we get there?Service Plan . Who are the clients ? What will be the benefits to them ? How ? Operational Plan. What do we need to do to make it all happen and know we are on track ? Financial Plan. Where is the money coming from ? Where is it going to ? Will there be enough?Evaluation Plan. How do we know we are doing a good job ? How do we know how to improve what we are doing ?

Types of project plan (Contd.)The ProjectProject Plan. What are we trying to achieve ? How will we make it happen ? Project Financial Plan. Where is the money coming from ? Where is it going to ? Will there be enough ? Project Evaluation Plan. How do we know we are doing a good job ? How do we know how to improve what we are doing ?

Types of project plan (Contd.)The TeamTeam Work Plan. What are we on about? What do we need to do, when and why?The WorkerIndividual Work Plan. What am I on about? What do I need to do, when and why?

Types of project plan (Contd.)The ClientsIndividual Service Plans / Case Management. What do I want to achieve ? How can it happen ?A typical large organization: In a large organisation there will be many plans, for example, a separate strategic plan, financial plan and operational plan. There will be project plans, team work plans, individual work plans. And if the organisation is a direct service provider there will be individual service plans or case management plans.Very small organizations. A very small organisation many only require one plan which incorporates the answers to all the questions above.

Structure of a Software Project Management PlanProjects require a plan of what is intended and a description of what happens.Following is a pro-forma that can be used for a project plan.

ProjectWhat is the name of the project ?BackgroundHow did this project arise ? How was it identified ? How has it evolved ? DescriptionWhat is a brief description of the project ?ValuesWhat values underpin this project ?Target group &their needsWho will benefit ?What are their needs ?AimsWhat are the overall aims this project is trying to achieve ?OutcomeshierarchyWhat is the outcomes hierarchy that will lead to the achievement ofthese aims ?Objectives What are the specific objectives this project will achieve ?Strategies/stepsWhat are the principal strategies or steps that will be required to make this project happen ? How will the project work ?ManagementWho is responsible for the management of the project ?FundingWhat financial resources are required and where are they coming from ?Time frame What is the time frame ?ActionHow has to do what to make the project happen ? By when ?EvaluationHow will the project be evaluated ?SOFTWARE PROJECT ESTIMATIONSoftware cost and effort estimation will never be an exact science. Too many variableshuman, technical, environmental,