SPPA 4030 Speech Science 1
UNIT 2 RESPIRATION & PHONATION
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Structure and Mechanics of Respiratory System
Pulmonary system Lungs and airways
Upper respiratory system Lower respiratory system
Chest wall system Necessary for normal vegetative and speech
breathing
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Pulmonary system: lower respiratory tract
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Pulmonary system: lower respiratory tract
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Chest wall system Rib cage Abdomen Diaphragm
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Chest wall-Lung relation Lungs not physically attached to the thoracic walls Lungs: visceral pleura Thoracic wall: parietal pleura Filled with Pleural fluid Ppleural < Patm - “pleural linkage” allows the lungs to move with
the thoracic wall Breaking pleural linkage Ppleural = Patm - pneumothorax
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Thorax
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Abdomen
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Diaphragm
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Respiratory muscles Diaphragm External intercostals Internal intercostals (interosseus & intercartilaginous) Costal elevators Serratus posterior superior Serratus posterior inferior Sternocleidomastoid Scalenes Trapezius
• Pectoralis major• Pectoralis minor• Serratus anterior• Transverse throacis• Rectus abdominis• External obliques• Internal obliques• Transversus abdominis• Quadratus lumborum
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Moving Air
Vt = Palv
Palv < Patm (- Palv)
P differential = density differential air molecules flowing into lungs = inspiration
Vt = Palv
Palv > Patmos (+ Palv)
P differential = density differential air molecules flow out of lungs = expiration
Patm: atmospheric pressure Palv: alveolar pressureVt: thoracic volume
P = k/V: Boyle’s Law
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Changing lung volume ( Vlung)
pleural linkage: Vlung = Vthoracic
Vthoracic is raising/lowering the ribs (circumference)
Raising: Vthoracic = inspiration Lowering: Vthoracic =expiration
Raising/lowering the diaphragm (vertical dimension) Raising: Vthoracic =expiration Lowering: Vthoracic =inspiration
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Rest breathing vs. speech breathing
What are the goals?
Rest breathing ventilation
Speech breathing communication ventilation
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Quantifying respiratory function What measures would be useful?
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Measuring respiratory function
Volume Spirometer
“wet” and “dry” varieties
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Measuring respiratory function
Pressure Manometer Specialized pressure transducers
measures pressure at specific locations For example,
When swallowed, thoracic and abdominal pressures “inserted” into the trachea for tracheal pressure placed strategically along the vocal tract
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Measuring respiratory function
Flow Rate Spirometer
nonspeech Pneumotachograph
Airflow during speech and nonspeech Vented mask the covers mouth and nose
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SpirometryLu
ng V
olum
e
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Lung Volumes
REL
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A Review of volumes and capacitiesTidal Volume (TV)
Volume of air inspired/expired during rest breathing.Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
Volume of air that can be forcefully exhaled, “below” tidal volume.Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
Volume of air that can be inhaled, “above” tidal volume.Residual Volume (RV)
Volume of air left after maximal expiration. Measurable, but not easily so.Total Lung Capacity (TLC)
Volume of air enclosed in the respiratory system (i.e. TLC=RV+ERV+TV+IRV)Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)
Volume of air in the respiratory system at the REL (i.e. FRC=RV+ERV)Inspiratory capacity (IC)
TV + IRVVital Capacity (VC)
Volume of air that can be inhaled/exhaled (i.e. VC=IRV +TV+ERV)
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NOTE
Some authors use the term FRC (functional residual capacity) instead of REL (resting end-expiratory level)
Behrman uses resting lung volume (RLV) Refers to equivalent “place” in the lung
volume space
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Some typical adult valuesTypical Volumes & Capacities
Vital Capacity (VC) 4-5 liters
Total Lung Capacity (TLC)~ one liter more than VC
Resting Tidal Volume (TV)~ 10 % VC
Resting expiratory end level (REL)~ 35-40% VC when upright
Typical Rest Breathing Values
Respiratory rate12-15 breaths/minute
Alveolar Pressure Palv +/- 2 cm H20
Airflow~ 200 ml/sec
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Respitrace
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Speech vs. Life BreathingRest Breathing
Volume10 % VC at rest
Alveolar Pressure Palv +/- 2 cm H20
Average Airflow100-200 ml/sec
Ratio of inhalation to exhalation~40/60 to 50/50
Speech Breathing
Volume20-25 % VC @ normal loudness (note Kent reports lower values)40 % loud speechAlveolar Pressure Palv + 8-10 cm H20 on expiration
Average Airflow100-200 ml/sec
Ratio of inhalation to exhalation~ 10/90
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Respiratory System Mechanics
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Respiratory System Mechanics
It is spring-like (elastic) Elastic systems have an equilibrium point
(rest position) What happens when you displace it from
equilibrium?
SPPA 4030 Speech Science 28equilibrium Longer than
equilibrium
Displacement away from equilibrium
Restoring force back to equilibrium
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equilibriumShorter thanequilibrium
Displacement away from equilibrium
Restoring force back to equilibrium
SPPA 4030 Speech Science 30equilibriumShorter than
equilibriumLonger thanequilibrium
Displacement away from equilibrium
Restoring force back to equilibrium
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Equilibrium point ~ REL
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RELLung VolumeBelow REL
Lung VolumeAbove REL
Displacement away from REL
Restoring force back to REL
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Is the respiratory system heavily or lightly damped?
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Respiratory Mechanics: Bellow’s Analogy
Bellows volume = lung volume Handles = respiratory muscles Spring = elasticity of the respiratory system – recoil or
relaxation pressure
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No pushing or pulling on the handles ~ no exp. or insp. muscle activity
Volume ~ REL Patmos = Palv, no airflow
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muscle force
muscle force
elastic force
pull handles outward from rest V increases ~ Palv decreases Inward air flow INSPIRATION
At REL
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muscle force
muscle force
elastic force
push handles inward from rest V decreases ~ Palv increases outward air flow EXPIRATION
At REL
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Respiratory Mechanics: Bellow’s Analogy
Forces acting on the bellows/lungs are due to Elastic properties of the system
Passive Always present
Muscle activity Active Under nervous system control (automatic or voluntary)
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Forces due to elasticity of system(no active muscle activity)
Recoil forces are proportionate to the amount of displacement from rest
Recoil forces ~ Palv
Relaxation pressure curve Plots Palv due to recoil force against lung volume
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Relaxation Pressure Curve (as in Behrman)
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Relaxation Pressure Curve(Our version)
42
% Vital Capacity40 0100
0
Alv
eola
r Pre
ssur
e (c
m H
20)
20
40
60
-20
-40-60
80 60 20
relaxation pressure REL
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Breathing for Life: Inspiration
pulling handles outward with net inspiratory muscle activity
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Breathing for Life: Expiration
No muscle activity Recoil forces alone returns
volume to REL
45% Vital Capacity
40 0100
0
Alv
eola
r Pre
ssur
e (c
m H
20)
20
40
60
-20
-40
-6080 60 20
relaxation pressure
10 %
~ 2 cm
Breathing for Life
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Respiratory demands of speech Conversational speech requires
“constant” tracheal pressure for driving vocal fold oscillation
brief, “pulsatile” changes in pressure to meet particular linguistic demands emphatic and syllabic stress phonetic requirements
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Respiratory demands of speech Conversational speech
Volume solution Constant tracheal
pressure 8-10 cm H20 Pulsatile solution
Brief increases above/below constant tracheal pressure
Driving analogy Volume solution
Maintain a relatively constant speed
Pulsatile solution Brief
increases/decreases in speed due to moment to moment traffic conditions
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Example
Time
Pres
sure
wrt
atm
osph
ere
0
-5
5
10
49
Breathing for Speech: Inspiration
pulling handles outward with net inspiratory muscle activity
Rate of volume change is greater than rest breathing
50% Vital Capacity
40 0100
0
Alv
eola
r Pre
ssur
e (c
m H
20)
20
40
60
-20
-40
-6080 60 20
relaxation pressure
20 %
~ 8-10 cm
Breathing for Speech
51% Vital Capacity
40 0100
0
Alv
eola
r Pre
ssur
e (c
m H
20)
20
40
60
-20
-40
-6080 60 20
relaxation pressure
20 %
~ 8-10 cm
Breathing for Speech
52
Breathing for Speech: Expiration
Expiratory muscle activity & recoil forces returns volume to REL Pressure is net effect of expiratory
muscles (assisting) and recoil forces (assisting)
53% Vital Capacity
40 0100
0
Alv
eola
r Pre
ssur
e (c
m H
20)
20
40
60
-20
-40
-6080 60 20
relaxation pressure
20 %
~ 8-10 cm
Breathing for Speech
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Summary to this pointMuscle activity for Inhalation Life
Active inspiration to overcome elastic recoil Speech
Active inspiration to overcome elastic recoil Greater lung volume excursion
Longer and greater amount of muscle activity Rate of lung volume change greater
Greater amount of muscle activity
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Summary to this pointMuscle activity for exhalation Life
No active expiration (i.e. no muscle activity) Elastic recoil force only
Speech Active use of expiratory muscles to maintain airway
pressures necessary for speech (8-10 cm water) Degree of muscle activity must increase to offset
reductions in relaxation pressure
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This meets our needs to provide ‘constant’ pressure of 8-10 cm H20
What about meeting our ‘pulsatile’ pressure demands?
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What is required to provide these pressure ‘pulses’? Brief, robust expiratory muscle activity We need a ‘well-tuned’ system
Chest wall must be ‘optimized’ so that rapid changes can be made
Optimal environment created by active muscle activity
A ‘modern’ view of speech breathing
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What we know now vs. then “Classic” studies of speech breathing
University of Edinburgh Draper, Ladefoged & Witteridge (1959, 1960)
“Contemporary” studies of speech breathing Harvard University Hixon, Goldman and Mead (1973) Hixon, Mead and Goldman (1976)
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What we know then and now
Then Inspiratory muscles
only
Now Coactivation of Rib cage (insp) Abdomen (exp) ‘net’ inspiration
Net Inspiratory Muscle Pressure
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What we know then and now
Then All muscles are silent
Now Coactivation of
Rib cage (insp) Abdomen (exp) System ‘balanced’
Net Zero Muscle Pressure
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What we know then and now
Then RC muscles
Now Rib cage (exp) Abdomen (exp)
Net Expiratory Muscle Pressure
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Interpretation of information Constant muscle activity may serve to “optimize”
the system in various ways
For example, Abdominal activity during inspiration pushes on, and stretches the diaphragm Optimal length-tension region of diaphragm Increase ability for rapid contraction which is needed
for speech breathing
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Interpretation of information Constant muscle activity may serve to “optimize”
the system in various ways
For example, Abdominal activity during expiration Provides a platform for rapid changes in ribcage
volume (pulsatile) Without constant activity, abdomen would ‘absorb’
the forces produced by the ribcage
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So what? Suggests speech breathing is more ‘active’
than originally thought Passive pressures (recoil forces) of the system
is heavily exploited in life breathing speech breathing requires an efficient pressure
regulator and therefore relies less on passive pressures
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Summary: Muscle activityInspirationLife Active inspiratory musclesSpeech COACTIVATION OF
inspiratory muscles expiratory muscles
(specifically abdominal) INS > EXP = net inspiration System ‘tuned’ for quick
inhalation
Expiration
Life No active expiration (i.e. no
muscle activity)Speech Active use of rib cage expiratory
muscles Active use of abdominal
expiratory muscles System “Tuned” for quick brief
changes in pressure to meet linguistic demands of speech
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Summary: Muscle activityNo AirflowLife Minimal muscle activitySpeech Coactivation of
Rib cage (inspiratory) Abdomen (expiratory) System ‘balanced’
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Lifespan considerations (Kent, 1997)
Respiratory volumes and capacities until young adulthood young adulthood to middle age during old age
stature elastic properties muscle mass
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Lifespan considerations (Kent, 1997)
Maximum Phonation Time (MPT) Longest time you can sustain a vowel Function of
Air volume Efficiency of laryngeal valving
Follows a similar pattern to respiratory volume and capacities
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Lifespan considerations (Kent, 1997)
Birth Respiration rate 30-80 breaths/minute Evidence of ‘paradoxing’ Limited number of alveoli for oxygen exchange
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Lifespan considerations (Kent, 1997)
3 years Respiration rate 20-30 breaths/minute Speech breathing characteristics developing
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Lifespan considerations (Kent, 1997) 7 years
Adult-like patterns > subglottal pressure than adults Number of alveoli reaching adult value of 300,000
10 years Functional maturation achieved
12-18 years Increases in lung capacities and volume
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Clinical considerations Parkinson’s Disease Cerebellar Disease Spinal cord Injury Mechanical Ventilation
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Parkinson’s Disease (PD) Rigidity, hypo (small) & brady (slow) kinesiaSpeech breathing features muscular rigidity stiffness of rib cage abdominal involvement relative to rib cage ability to generate Ptrach modulation Ptrach Speech is soft and monotonous
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Cerebellar Disease dyscoordination, inappropriate scaling and
timing of movementsSpeech breathing features Chest wall movements w/o changes in LV
(paradoxical movements) fine control of Ptrach Abnormal start and end LV (below REL) speech has a robotic quality
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Spinal cord injury Remember those spinal nerves… Paralysis of many muscles of respirationSpeech breathing features variable depending on specific damage abdominal size during speech control during expiration resulting in difficulty
generating consistent Ptrach and modulating Ptrach Treatment: Support the abdomen (truss)
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Mechanical Ventilation Breaths are provided by a machineSpeech breathing features control over all aspects of breath support Length of inspiratory/expiratory phase Large, but inconsistent Ptrach Inspiration at linguistically inappropriate places Speech breathing often occurs on inspiration Treatment: “speaking valves”, ventilator adjustment,
behavioral training
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Other disorders that may affect speech breathing
Voice disorders Hearing impairment Fluency disorders Motoneuron disease (ALS)