2. Objectives of Unit 2:
Discuss findings/experience of Assignment 1: Doing Nothing
Reflect on the concept of theory in Sociology
Introduce the classical(traditional) perspectives in
Sociology
Introduce the newer perspectives in Sociology
Introduce a global perspective in Sociology (unit 3 & 9)
Introduce briefly common methodological approaches (tools) in
Sociology
2
3. 3
Assignment 1: Doing Nothing
4. 4
A theory is. Hmmm !?
5. 5
6. What is a Theory?
6
Attempts to understand the (social) world and our place in it, has
led to the development of theories
Theories are abstract propositions about how things are as well as
how they should be; an explanation of how we think things
work
We refer to theories as approaches, schools of thought, paradigmsor
perspectives.
This implies that they are different approaches!
Social theories are guiding principles or abstract modelsthat
attempt to explain and predict the social world
A theory is comparable to a map. When you discover new places, you
have to modify this map
7. 7
8. 8
9. 9
10. 10
Is there something like down or above? down and above become
relative
11. Example of a theoretical model: the social change
model
11
12. Theories are dynamic, they change
12
Theories have to be tested:
Thats what scientifically research is all about!
We develop theories and test them, modify them to fit the reality
better, why?
Theories will change over time, because their area of study they
seek to understand and explain:
Society, itself changes over time
Theories seek to understand society in periods of both order and
change
Social change makes theoretical change a continual
necessity
13. 13
The object of study is on the move
14. Have you ever tried to photograph a moving object?
14
15. Different theoretical perspectives
15
In attempting to develop theories about humans and societies,
sociologists face a wide range of choices:
What issues should we study? How should we link facts together to
form theories? What assumptions might underpin our theories?
I.e. what theoretical maps guides the study of phenomena?
=Theoretical Perspective
This is a basic image that guides thinking and research
There exists an array of basic images that guide thinking and
research!
16. The elephant metaphor:poem by John Godfrey Saxe
(1816-18-87)
16
Wall
Fan
Snake
Rope
Spear
Tree
17. The poem/parables moral:
17
18. 18
Classical, traditional perspectives in Sclg
19. 3 classical perspectives in Sclg:
Macro-level perspectives:
Structural Functionalism
Conflict theory
Micro-level perspective:
Symbolic interactionism
20. 20
Structural Functionalism
21. Key tenets Structural Functionalism
21
Is a framework for building theory that envisages society as a
complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and
stability
Our lives are guided by social structure
i.e. relative stable patterns of social behaviour
This frameworks understands social structure in terms of its social
functions
i.e. functions/consequences for the operation of society
Society is stable, an ordered system of interrelated partsof the
social structures. Each structure has a function that contributes
to the continued stability of society.
22. Founding Fathers of Structural Functionalism:
I focus on social solidarity
Society is comparable to the human body
To promote social integration during times of radical change
Herbert Spencer
Emile Durkheim
Auguste Comte
23. Key tenets Structural Functionalism
The SF perspective organizes sociological observations by
identifying various structures of society and studying the function
of each one.
E.g. of social structures (social institutions) are: the family,
the educational system, politics, religion, mass media systems and
the economy
24. Other theorists that have contributed to SF
perspective
24
Society is a system, with parts that have basic tasks, all members
should be socialized to maintain order
Social functions can be expanded in manifest, latent and
dysfunctions
Talcott Parsons
Robert Merton
25. Social functions expanded (Merton)
25
The consequences of any social pattern are likely todifferfor
various members of society
E.g. traditional families provide crucial support for the
development of children but also confer privileges on men while
limiting the opportunities for women
We dont always perceive all functions of a particular social
structure:
Manifest functions: the recognized/intended consequences of any
social pattern
Latent functions: consequences that are largely unrecognized and
unintended
Not all the effects if any social structure turn out to be useful:
Social Dysfunctions
i.e. any patterns undesirable consequences for the operation of
society
26. (dys)functions of.?
26
What are the main functions (in terms of manifest and latent) and
dysfunctions of the following social structures:
The family
Education
Religion
Mass media
The economy
Jail
Gaming
27. Critique on Structural Functionalism
27
How can we assume that society has a natural order when social
patterns vary from place to place and changeover time?
By focusing on social integration and harmony SF tends to
overlook/hide social inequalities based on social categories such
as: ethnicity, gender, age and social class
28. 28
Conflict Theory
29. Key tenets Conflict Theory
29
Is a framework for building theory that envisages society as an
arena of inequality that generates conflict and change
It highlights divisionsin society based on inequalities
Inequalitiesbased on social class, ethnicity (or race), sex and
age
Theory focuses on dominance,competitionandsocial change
Conflictbetween categories of people (social groups): dominant vs.
disadvantaged categories. E.g. Rich vs. poor
Aim is not only to understand how inequality is rooted in the way
society is organized, but also to do reduce inequalities:
By promoting and bring about Social Change
30. Conflict Theory
has a materialistic view of society. It focuses on labor practices
and economic reality
takes a critical stancetowards existing social arrangements (labor
market, democracy, inequality between social groups)
doesnt believe that science can be objective: all theoretical
approaches have political consequences. i.e. theories have hidden
agendas
Believes that transformation of society is inevitable(social
change)
31. Founding father of Conflict theory:
31
My main task is not to just analyze how society reproduces
inequality, but my task is to change this!
Karl Marx
32. Critique on Conflict Theory
32
CT highlights inequality and overlooks how shared values or
interdependence generate unity among members of society
CT sometimes pursuits explicitly political goals (it wants to bring
social change) and because of this it sometimeslacks scientific
objectivity*
* The objectivity of science is a much disputable notion in science
on itself
33. Critique on how SF & CT approach Society
33
Both the SF and CT envisage society in very broad terms. Society
becomes a thing on itself describing our lives as a composite of
for example: family or social class
we have criticized this notion in unit 1!
Both SF and CT are considered conservative theories (gone out of
fashion!)
34. 34
Symbolic Interactionism
35. 3. Symbolic Interactionism*
Is a theoretical framework that envisages societyas the product of
everyday interactions of people doing things together
Is influenced by Webers social action perspective. i.e. a
perspective that emphasizes the need to understand a setting from
the point of view of people in it.
Human meanings and action shape society
We act toward things on the basis of their meanings
Individual/social groups give meaning to the experience of
life
Meaning is process of constant negotiation:
i.e. meanings can change or be modified through interaction and
through time
*SI is the most influential sociological perspective!
36. Founding father & inspiration of SI
36
Meanings and action shape society. Modern society is the product of
a new way of thinking, not just of new technology and
capitalism
I look at how we assemble our sense of self over time based on
social experience
Max Weber
George Mead
37. Key tenets of Symbolic Interactionism
37
Through the human process of finding meaningin our surroundings, we
define our identities, bodies and feelings, and come to socially
construct the world around us.
Society as a mosaic of subjective meanings and variable
responses:
E.g. the meaning of the membership of a gang member:
The one perceives being part of a gang as something to be proud of,
you get symbolic status in an other part of society, you are
appreciated by fellow gang members, they are your family.
The other sees gangs as something to be feared, a menace for
society, a collection of organized crime, peer pressure and
stupidity
38. Changing meanings of the concept of beauty for
teenagers(1975 vs. 2010):
39. Critique on Symbolic Interactions
39
By focusing on day-to-day experience/interactions we overlook the
workings of larger social structures
40. Conclusion so far
40
Not one single perspective can cover in its totality the dynamic
character of society and social experience.
A some what more better understanding of society comes from the
combination of different perspectives:
Sociology examines the social world by looking at functions and
dysfunctions, conflicts and consensus, actions and meanings
And still, as we will see, some other angles are lacking!
Because all 3 traditional perspectives have weakness as well as
strengths, they will probably never fully explain the totality of
social phenomena, even when taken together
41. 41
Contemporary, emerging perspectives
42. 3 new perspectives in Sociology
New perspectives will, and indeed must, continue to rise. Changes
in society, bring changes in our conceptual way of studying
it:
Each is linked to a major contemporary social transformation:
Changing ideas about gender roles
Changing notions of sexual identity
Changes associated with a post-industrial, technologically based
society
42
43. 43
Feminist Theory
44. First female sociologist
44
I can be considered the first female in sociology. My area of
expertise is the study of urban life, I am one of the pioneers of
the Chicago School
Jane Addams
45. 1. Feminist theory
45
Looks at gender inequalities in society and the way gender
structures the social world
Gender is a social construct
46. 46
47. E.g. A feminist analysis of female fairy tale
characters
47
48. 48
49. 49
Queer Theory
50. 2. Queer theory
50
Proposes that categories of sexual identity are social constructs
and that no sexual category is fundamentally either deviant or
normal
51. 51
Post-modernism
52. 2. Postmodern theory
52
Suggests that there is no universal, knowable truth: realities are
fluid and diverse
The kaleidoscope metaphor
53. 53
It has all been done. The extreme limit of possibilities have been
reached. It has deconstructed its entire universe. So, all that are
left are pieces. All that remains to be done is play around with
the pieces: that is post-modern
Baudrillard
54. 54
55. 55
Global perspective in Sociology
56. Global perspective
56
The study of the larger world and each societys place in it
Importance of interrelations
Importance of contexts
We will continue with this theme in unit 3 and unit 9
57. 57
Common methods in Sociology
58. 58
There is no absolutely objective scientific analysis of culture.or
social phenomena independent of special and one-sided viewpoints
according to which they are selected, analyzed and organized
(Weber, 1949: 72)
Max Weber
59. 59
60. 60
Distinction between Quantative and Qualitative research
methods
Quantative: uses data that can easily be converted into numbers,
such as a survey or an experiment
E.g. Censo 2010
61. 61
62. 62
Qualitative: involves data that cannot easily be converted to
numbers, such as observation or informal interviews.
Most sociological research uses the scientific method
This is the standard for acquiring and verifying empirical
scientific knowledge:
After conducting a literature review, a researcher forms a
hypothesis stating a potential relationship between 2 or more
variables:
The number of friendships at the work & the level of job
satisfaction
e.g. more friendships at the workplace increases job
satisfaction
Variables must be clearly defined so that they can be
measured
Finally data is collected and the hypotheses tested
(deductive)
63. Steps of the scientific Method
Starting from 1 to 7 = Deductive research
Starting from 5 (4) to 1 = Inductive research
63
64. 1. Ethnographic methods
64
One way to collect data is through ethnography, a method based on
studying people in their own environment in order to understand the
meanings they attribute to their activities
It involves:
Active participation in and observation of a naturally occurring
setting and a written account (field notes) of what goes on
there.
In participant observation the research observes and becomes a
member in the social setting
Anthropology uses this method often
65. Ethnography:
65
Snow white joined the 7 dwarfs in their private homes, here she
could observe their social practices
66. 2. Interviews
66
Involves direct, face-to-face contact with respondents.
The researcher identifies the target population that she wishes to
study and then selects a sample of people to be interviewed from
that population
close-ended questions:
E.g. Are you for or against the legislation of abortus?
(yes-no)
open-ended question:
What is your opinion about legalizing abortus? please
elaborate
What do you think of married couples cheating on each
other?
67. 3. Surveys
67
Surveys are questionnaires that are administrated to a sample of
respondents selected from a target group population
Tend to look at Large-scale social patterns and employs statistics
methods of analysis
http://www.censo2010.aw/
68. 68
URL: www.censo2010.aw
69. 4. Experimental methods
69
Experiments are formal test of whether an independent variable
causes the dependent variable that are performed in a controlled
setting where all aspects of the situation can be controlled.
Comparison between experimental group vs. control group (sample
without intervention)
Experiments in social science are very difficult to conduct because
of ethical questions:
Twins separated at birth, one grows-up in a nice family, one in a
dysfunctional family?
70. Pill to make you dance at a party when you dont like
dancing
70
Control: she takes a placebo pill
Experiment: she takes the to be tested pill
71. 5. Emerging research tools:
71
Life stories (narratives)
Diaries
Logs and time-budgets
Letters
Visual sociology: Photography
Visual sociology: Film and video
72. Issues in Social science research
72
Social scientists/researches should be Value-free
Code of ethics to avoid bias, protect respondents from harms,
privacy issues and unethical behavior in the name of science
etc.
On the wikispace you can find examples of different code of ethics
for social sciences
73. E.g. Unethical research
73
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/02/health/research/02infect.html?_r=1&ref=todayspaper
Article trackback:
74. 74
Awakening thesociological imagination:
Studying = feeling like a space traveler, flying above earth,
fascinated by its organizing ecology & exploring its encoded
meanings
N.D.L.
75. 75
Social Scientists
76. Assignment 2:
76
77. Understanding the London Riots
77
See Assignment 2 on the wikispace: Free-styling sociological
imagination: Understanding the London Riots.
As sociologists-in-training we will attempt to understand the
riotscarefully. Follow the instructions for this assignment on the
wikispace.