UNIT 1Grammar Focus:

ARTICLES (A, An, The)

What is an article? Basically, an article is an adjective. Like adjectives, articles modify nouns.

English has two articles: the and a/an. The is used to refer to specific or particular nouns; a/an is used to modify non-specific or non-particular nouns. We call the the definite article and a/an the indefinite article.the = definite articlea/an = indefinite article

For example, if I say, "Let's read the book," I mean a specific book. If I say, "Let's read a book," I mean any book rather than a specific book.

Here's another way to explain it: The is used to refer to a specific or particular member of a group. For example, "I just saw the most popular movie of the year." There are many movies, but only one particular movie is the most popular. Therefore, we use the.

"A/an" is used to refer to a non-specific or non-particular member of the group. For example, "I would like to go see a movie." Here, we're not talking about a specific movie. We're talking about any movie. There are many movies, and I want to see any movie. I don't have a specific one in mind.

Let's look at each kind of article a little more closely.

A. Indefinite Articles: a and an"A" and "an" signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring to any member of a

group. For example: "My daughter really wants a dog for Christmas." This refers to any dog. We don't

know which dog because we haven't found the dog yet. "Somebody call a policeman!" This refers to any policeman. We don't need a specific

policeman; we need any policeman who is available. "When I was at the zoo, I saw an elephant!" Here, we're talking about a single, non-

specific thing, in this case an elephant. There are probably several elephants at the zoo, but there's only one we're talking about here.

B. Remember, using a or an depends on the sound that begins the next word. So... a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy; a car; a bike; a zoo; a dog an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an elephant; an egg; an apple; an idiot;

an orphan

Grammar Focus:

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a + singular noun beginning with a consonant sound: a user (sounds like 'yoo-zer,' i.e. begins with a consonant 'y' sound, so 'a' is used); a university; a unicycle

an + nouns starting with silent "h": an hour a + nouns starting with a pronounced "h": a horse

o In some cases where "h" is pronounced, such as "historical," you can use an. However, a is more commonly used and preferred.A historical event is worth recording.

Remember that these rules also apply when you use acronyms:Introductory Composition at Purdue (ICaP) handles first-year writing at the

University. Therefore, an ICaP memo generally discusses issues concerning English 106 instructors.

Another case where this rule applies is when acronyms start with consonant letters buthave vowel sounds:

An MSDS (material safety data sheet) was used to record the data. An SPCC plan (Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures plan) will help us prepare for the worst.

If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an depends on the initial sound of the adjective that immediately follows the article:

a broken egg an unusual problem a European country (sounds like 'yer-o-pi-an,' i.e. begins with consonant 'y' sound)

Remember, too, that in English, the indefinite articles are used to indicate membershipin a group:

I am a teacher. (I am a member of a large group known as teachers.) Brian is an Irishman. (Brian is a member of the people known as Irish.) Seiko is a practicing Buddhist. (Seiko is a member of the group of people known as

Buddhists.)

C. Definite Article: theThe definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is specific

or particular. The signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a particular member of a group. For example:

"The dog that bit me ran away." Here, we're talking about a specific dog, the dog that bit me.

"I was happy to see the policeman who saved my cat!" Here, we're talking about a particular policeman. Even if we don't know the policeman's name, it's still a particular policeman because it is the one who saved the cat.

"I saw the elephant at the zoo." Here, we're talking about a specific noun. Probably there is only one elephant at the zoo.

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Grammar Focus:

D. Count and Noncount NounsThe can be used with noncount nouns, or the article can be omitted entirely.

"I love to sail over the water" (some specific body of water) or "I love to sail over water" (any water).

"He spilled the milk all over the floor" (some specific milk, perhaps the milk you bought earlier that day) or "He spilled milk all over the floor" (any milk)."A/an" can be used only with count nouns.

"I need a bottle of water." "I need a new glass of milk."

Most of the time, you can't say, "She wants a water," unless you're implying, say, a bottle of water.

E. Geographical use of theThere are some specific rules for using the with geographical nouns.Do not use the before:

names of most countries/territories: Italy, Mexico, Bolivia; however, the Netherlands, the Dominican Republic, the Philippines, the United States

names of cities, towns, or states: Seoul, Manitoba, Miami names of streets: Washington Blvd., Main St. names of lakes and bays: Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie except with a group of lakes like

the Great Lakes names of mountains: Mount Everest, Mount Fuji except with ranges of mountains like

the Andes or the Rockies or unusual names like the Matterhorn names of continents (Asia, Europe) names of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Key West) except with island chains like the

Aleutians, the Hebrides, or the Canary IslandsDo use the before:

names of rivers, oceans and seas: the Nile, the Pacific points on the globe: the Equator, the North Pole geographical areas: the Middle East, the West deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas: the Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the Black Forest,

the Iberian Peninsula

F. Omission of ArticlesSome common types of nouns that don't take an article are:

Names of languages and nationalities: Chinese, English, Spanish, Russian (unless youare referring to the population of the nation: "The Spanish are known for their warm hospitality.")

Names of sports: volleyball, hockey, baseball Names of academic subjects: mathematics, biology, history, computer science

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Grammar Focus:

Form and Meaning (i.e. From Another Good Source)

1. We use a / an when we are talking about something for the first time. o He is wearing a suit and a tie.o They have a cat.

2. We use the when we are talking about a specific person or thing, or if there is only one, or if it is clear which one we are talking about.

o She took a glass of water and started to drink. (one of many glasses of water)o She took the glass of water nearest to her. (a specific glass)o She took the glass of water and started to drink. (there is only one glass of

water)o Can you turn on the TV? (it's clear we are talking about the TV in this room)o I have to see the doctor tomorrow. (it's clear I am talking about my usual

doctor)o I need to see a doctor. (not any specific doctor)o How many people have walked on the moon? (there is only one moon)o The best film I've ever seen is Top Gun. (there can only be one best film)

3. We use no article when we are talking about people or things in general. o Carrots are good for you. (carrots in general)o The carrots growing in my garden are almost ready to eat. (specific carrots)o English people drink a lot of tea. (English people in general)o The English people in this hotel are very nice. (specific English people)

4. We use a / an to say what kind of person or thing someone or something is (often withan adjective, or to say it belongs to a particular group.

o You have a nice house.o That's a very expensive car!o A cat is an animal a bus is a vehicle.

5. With school, university, prison, hospital, church, bed, work and home we use the when we are talking about a particular one, and no article when we are talking about the idea of school, university...

o The church on our street was built in the 17th Century. (a particular church)o I go to church every Sunday (the idea of church, not a particular building)o My friend works at the prison outside the city centre.o My husband is in prison.o The work isn't finished yet.o I was feeling sick yesterday so I didn't go to work.o The new bed is bigger than the old one.o I put my children to bed a 8pm.

6. We use the with singular countable nouns to talk about a type of thing.

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o The computer was invented in the 20th Century. (not a particular computer)Grammar Focus:

o The computer in my office is broken. (a particular one)o The crocodile is very dangerous. (this type of animal)o The crocodile in the river is very big. (a particular one)o She plays the piano. (not a particular piano but this type of instrument)o The piano she is playing is very old. (a particular one)

7. We use the + adjective to talk about a group of people (including nationalities). o I always give money to the homeless.o The unemployed receive money from the government.o The French produce good wine.

8. We use a / an to talk about someone's job. o My wife is an optician.o She works as a mechanic.

9. We use no article with continents, countries, regions, cities, streets, mountains, lakes and parks.

o Asia, Italy, California, Bristol, Main St., Mount Everest, Lake Superior, Central Park

10. We use the if the country contains Kingdom, Republic, State, Union o The United Kingdom

11. We use the with plural names of people and places. o The Smiths, The Netherlands, The United States, The Bahamas, The Alps

(also The Caribbean)12. We use the with oceans, seas, rivers and canals.

o The Atlantic Ocean, The Red Sea, The Nile, The Panama Canal13. We use the with north, south, east and west to talk about the location of a place within

another place, but no article to compare the location of two places. o Greece is in the south of Europe.o Spain is south of France.

14. We use no article with northern, southern, eastern and western: o Greece is in southern Europe.

15. We normally use the with buildings, except if the first word is the name of a place. o The White House, The Sheraton Hotel.o Oxford University, Buckingham Palace.

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Grammar Focus:

Exercise : A or An?In the following phrases, supply either a or an:

1. ____ bingo game

2. ____ idiot

3. ____ good job

4. ____ rotten plum

5. ____ used fork

6. ____ uncle

7. ____ historian

8. ____ apple

9. ____ hair

10. ____ artichoke

11. ____ horrible movie

12. ____ opera

13. ____ fine opera

14. ____ television

15. ____ earthquake

16. ____ icicle

17. ____ plant

18. ____ eggplant

19. ____ honorable discharge

20. ____ intelligent man

21. ____ table

22. ____ up stairway

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Grammar Focus:

23. ____ paper clip

24. ____ animal

25. ____ usual feeling

26. ____ interest

27. ____ alibi

28. ____ early bird

29. ____ couch

30. ____ airplane

31. ____ grade

32. ____ pair

33. ____ idea

34. ____ energy level

Exercise : Articles Exercise 1Directions: Fill in the blank with the appropriate article, a, an, or the, or leave the space blank if no article is needed.

1. I want ____ apple from that basket.

2. ____ church on the corner is progressive.

3. Miss Lin speaks ____ Chinese.

4. I borrowed ____ pencil from your pile of pencils and pens.

5. One of the students said, "____ professor is late today."

6 Eli likes to play ____ volleyball.

7. I bought ____ umbrella to go out in the rain.

8. My daughter is learning to play ____ violin at her school.

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Grammar Focus:

9. Please give me ____ cake that is on the counter.

10. I lived on ____ Main Street when I first came to town.

11. Albany is the capital of ____ New York State.

12. My husband's family speaks ____ Polish.

13. ____ apple a day keeps the doctor away.

14. ____ ink in my pen is red.

15. Our neighbors have ____ cat and ____ dog.

Exercise : Articles Exercise 2Directions: Write the following paragraphs, inserting a, an, and the where needed.

1. I have horse of my own. I call her Pretty Girl. She is intelligent animal, but she is not thoroughbred horse. I could never enter her in race, even if I wanted to. But I do not want to. She is companion, for my own pleasure. I took her swimming day or two ago.

2. Horse knows when he is going to race. How does he know? His breakfast was scanty. (He is angry about that.) He does not have saddle on his back. He is being led, not ridden, to grandstand. He is led under grandstand into unusual, special stall. Horse is nervous. Sometimes he does not know what to do when starting gate flies open and track is before him. If he does not begin to run instantly, other horses are already ahead of him. During race, when he sees another horse just ahead of him, he will try to pass him. Sometimes jockey holds him back to save his energy for last stretch. Eventually horse gets to run as fast as he can. Exercise boy, watching owner's favorite jockey riding horse he has exercised day after day, says nothing. Secretly, he is planning for day when he will be jockey himself, and his horse will be first to cross finish line.

3. Most people have fewer hours to give to time-consuming activities of clubs than they used to have, but most people in small town belong to club or two. One of clubs is likely to be social and benevolent organization, such as Rotary or Elks. Business people are likely to belong, also to either Kiwanis Club or Lions. Such business people's organizations may meet as often as once a week in one of private dining rooms of town's leading hotel for lunch. Theyhave good lunch, hear good program, and continue their fundraising program for worthy organization, such as local hospital.

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Grammar Focus:

Simple Present Tense

FORM

[VERB] + s/es in third person

Examples:

You speak English. Do you speak English?

You do not speak English.

Complete List of Simple Present Forms

USE 1 Repeated Actions

Use the Simple Present to express the idea that an action is repeated or usual. The action can be a habit, a hobby, a daily event, a scheduled event or something that often happens. It can also be something a person often forgets or usually does not do.

Examples:

I play tennis. She does not play tennis.

Does he play tennis?

The train leaves every morning at 8 AM.

The train does not leave at 9 AM.

When does the train usually leave?

She always forgets her purse.

He never forgets his wallet.

Every twelve months, the Earth circles the Sun.

Does the Sun circle the Earth?

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http://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/simplepresentforms.html

Grammar Focus:

USE 2 Facts or Generalizations

The Simple Present can also indicate the speaker believes that a fact was true before, is true now, and will be true in the future. It is not important if the speaker is correct about the fact. It is also used to make generalizations about people or things.

Examples:

Cats like milk. Birds do not like milk.

Do pigs like milk?

California is in America.

California is not in the United Kingdom.

Windows are made of glass.

Windows are not made of wood.

New York is a small city. It is not important that this fact is untrue.

USE 3 Scheduled Events in the Near Future

Speakers occasionally use Simple Present to talk about scheduled events in the near future. This is most commonly done when talking about public transportation, but it can be used withother scheduled events as well.

Examples:

The train leaves tonight at 6 PM. The bus does not arrive at 11 AM, it arrives at 11 PM.

When do we board the plane?

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The party starts at 8 o'clock.

When does class begin tomorrow?

Grammar Focus:

USE 4 Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)

Speakers sometimes use the Simple Present to express the idea that an action is happening or is not happening now. This can only be done with Non-Continuous Verbs and certain Mixed Verbs.

Examples:

I am here now. She is not here now.

He needs help right now.

He does not need help now.

He has his passport in his hand.

Do you have your passport with you?

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

You only speak English. Do you only speak English?

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Grammar Focus:

Present Continuous Tense

FORM

[am/is/are + present participle]

Examples:

You are watching TV. Are you watching TV?

You are not watching TV.

Complete List of Present Continuous Forms

USE 1 Now

Use the Present Continuous with Normal Verbs to express the idea that something is happening now, at this very moment. It can also be used to show that something is not happening now.

Examples:

You are learning English now. You are not swimming now.

Are you sleeping?

I am sitting.

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I am not standing.

Is he sitting or standing?

They are reading their books.

They are not watching television.

What are you doing?

Why aren't you doing your homework?

USE 2 Longer Actions in Progress Now

In English, "now" can mean: this second, today, this month, this year, this century, and so on. Sometimes, we use the Present Continuous to say that we are in the process of doing a longer action which is in progress; however, we might not be doing it at this exact second.

Examples: (All of these sentences can be said while eating dinner in a restaurant.)

Grammar Focus:

I am studying to become a doctor. I am not studying to become a dentist.

I am reading the book Tom Sawyer.

I am not reading any books right now.

Are you working on any special projects at work?

Aren't you teaching at the university now?

USE 3 Near Future

Sometimes, speakers use the Present Continuous to indicate that something will or will not happen in the near future.

Examples:

I am meeting some friends after work. I am not going to the party tonight.

Is he visiting his parents next weekend?

Isn't he coming with us tonight?

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USE 4 Repetition and Irritation with "Always"

The Present Continuous with words such as "always" or "constantly" expresses the idea that something irritating or shocking often happens. Notice that the meaning is like Simple Present, but with negative emotion. Remember to put the words "always" or "constantly" between "be" and "verb+ing."

Examples:

She is always coming to class late. He is constantly talking. I wish he would shut up.

I don't like them because they are always complaining.

REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs/ Mixed Verbs

It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Present Continuous with these verbs, you must use Simple Present.

Examples:

Grammar Focus:

She is loving this chocolate ice cream. Not Correct She loves this chocolate ice cream. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

You are still watching TV. Are you still watching TV?

Simple Present Vs Present Continuous Tense

Verb Tense Exercise 1

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1. Every Monday, Sally (drive) her kids to football practice.

2. Usually, I (work) as a secretary at ABT, but this summer I (study) French at a language school in Paris. That is why I am in Paris.

3. Shhhhh! Be quiet! John (sleep) .

4. Don't forget to take your umbrella. It (rain) .

5. I hate living in Seattle because it (rain, always) .

6. I'm sorry I can't hear what you (say) because everybody (talk) so loudly.

7. Justin (write, currently) a book about his adventures in Tibet. I hope he can find a good publisher when he is finished.

8. Jim: Do you want to come over for dinner tonight?

Denise: Oh, I'm sorry, I can't. I (go) to a movie tonight with some friends.

9. The business cards (be, normally ) printed by a company in New York. Their

Grammar Focus:

prices (be) inexpensive, yet the quality of their work is quite good.

10. This delicious chocolate (be) made by a small chocolatier in Zurich, Switzerland.

Verb Tense Exercise 2A Trekking Journal

November 12, 1997

Today (be) the second day of my trek around Mount Annapurna. I am exhausted

and my legs (shake) ; I just hope I am able to complete the trek. My feet (kill,

really) me and my toes (bleed) , but I (want, still) tocontinue.

Nepal is a fascinating country, but I have a great deal to learn. Everything (be) so

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different, and I (try) to adapt to the new way of life here. I (learn) a little bit of the language to make communication easier; unfortunately, I (learn, not)

foreign languages quickly. Although I (understand, not) much

yet, I believe that I (improve, gradually) .

I (travel, currently) with Liam, a student from Leeds University in

England. He (be) a nice guy, but impatient. He (walk, always)

ahead of me and (complain) that I am too slow. I (do) my best to keep up with him, but he is younger and stronger than I am. Maybe, I am just feeling sorry for myself because I am getting old.

Right now, Liam (sit) with the owner of the inn. They (discuss) the

differences between life in England and life in Nepal. I (know, not) the real name

of the owner, but everybody (call, just) him Tam. Tam (speak)

English very well and he (try) to teach Liam some words in Nepali. Every time

Tam (say) a new word, Liam (try) to repeat it. Unfortunately, Liam

(seem, also) to have difficulty learning foreign languages. I just hope we don't get lost and have to ask for directions.

UNIT 2Grammar Focus:

Prepositions

Prepositions are short words (on, in, to) that usually stand in front of nouns (sometimes also in front of gerund

verbs).

Even advanced learners of English find prepositions difficult, as a 1:1 translation is usually not possible. One

preposition in your native language might have several translations depending on the situation.

There are hardly any rules as to when to use which preposition. The only way to learn prepositions is looking

them up in a dictionary, reading a lot in English (literature) and learning useful phrases off by heart (study tips).

The following table contains rules for some of the most frequently used prepositions in English:

Prepositions – Time

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English Usage Example

on days of the week on Monday

in months / seasons

time of day

year

after a certain period of time (when?)

in August / in winter

in the morning

in 2006

in an hour

at for night

for weekend

a certain point of time (when?)

at night

at the weekend

at half past nine

since

from a certain point of time (past till now)

since 1980

for

over a certain period of time (past till now)

for 2 years

ago

a certain time in the past 2 years ago

before

earlier than a certain point of time before 2004

to telling the time ten to six (5:50)

past

telling the time ten past six (6:10)

to / till / until

marking the beginning and end of a period of time

from Monday to/till Friday

till/ until

in the sense of how long something isgoing to last

He is on holiday until Friday.

by in the sense of at the latest

up to a certain time

I will be back by 6 o’clock.

By 11 o'clock, I had read five pages.

Prepositions – Place (Position and Direction)

English Usage Example

in room, building, street, town, country

book, paper etc.

car, taxi

picture, world

in the kitchen, in London

in the book

in the car, in a taxi

in the picture, in the world

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English Usage Example

at meaning next to, by an object

for table

for events

place where you are to do somethingtypical (watch a film, study, work)

at the door, at the station

at the table

at a concert, at the party

at the cinema, at school, at work

on attached

for a place with a river

being on a surface

for a certain side (left, right)

for a floor in a house

for public transport

for television, radio

the picture on the wall

London lies on the Thames.

on the table

on the left

on the first floor

on the bus, on a plane

on TV, on the radio

by,next to,beside

left or right of somebody or something

Jane is standing by / next to / beside the car.

under

on the ground, lower than (or covered by) something else

the bag is under the table

below

lower than something else but aboveground

the fish are below the surface

over

covered by something else

meaning more than

getting to the other side (also across)

overcoming an obstacle

put a jacket over your shirt

over 16 years of age

walk over the bridge

climb over the wall

above

higher than something else, but not directly over it

a path above the lake

across

getting to the other side (also over)

getting to the other side

walk across the bridge

swim across the lake

through

something with limits on top, bottomand the sides

drive through the tunnel

to movement to person or building

movement to a place or country

for bed

go to the cinema

go to London / Ireland

go to bed

into enter a room / a building go into the kitchen / the house

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English Usage Example

towards

movement in the direction of something (but not directly to it)

go 5 steps towards the house

onto

movement to the top of something jump onto the table

from

in the sense of where from a flower from the garden

Other important Prepositions

English Usage Example

from

who gave it a present from Jane

of

who/what does it belong to

what does it show

a page of the book

the picture of a palace

by

who made it a book by Mark Twain

on

walking or riding on horseback

entering a public transport vehicle

on foot, on horseback

get on the bus

in entering a car / Taxi get in the car

off

leaving a public transport vehicle get off the train

out of

leaving a car / Taxi get out of the taxi

by

rise or fall of something

travelling (other than walking or horseriding)

prices have risen by 10 percent

by car, by bus

at for age she learned Russian at 45

about

for topics, meaning what about we were talking about you

(see the file at your dvd)

Exercise on Prepositions – Place 1

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Complete the exercise according to the picture.

1. the picture, I can see a woman.

2. The woman is sitting a table.

3. She is sitting a chair.

4. There is another chair the woman.

5. Her feet are the table

6. The woman is holding a cup her hands.

7. the table are a laptop, a paper, a calculator, an appointment calendar, two pens and a muffin.

8. The woman is looking her laptop.

9. The woman's bag is the table.

Grammar Focus:

Exercise on Prepositions – Place 2

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Complete the exercise according to the picture.

1. the picture, there are four people.

2. A couple is sitting the table.

3. They are sitting chairs.

4. The drinks are the table.

5. One woman is standing the table.

6. her is a man who is barbecuing.

Exercise on Prepositions – Place 3

Complete the exercise according to the picture.

Grammar Focus:

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1. the picture, there are three kids.

2. The girl is standing the two boys.

3. The boy with the green shirt is the right.

4. He has a gamboy his hands.

5. The kids are looking his gameboy.

Exercise on Prepositions – Place 4

Complete the exercise according to the picture.

1. the picture, I can see Santa Claus and a girl.

2. Santa is sitting a chair.

3. The girl is standing Santa.

4. Santa and the girl are looking each other.

5. The girl has a present her hands.

6. the girl, there is a Christmas tree.

7. There are more presents the tree.

8. Santa's big bag is lying the floor.

Grammar Focus:

Exercise on Prepositions – Place 5

Fill the gaps with the correct prepositions.

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1. We live London.

2. Would you like to go the cinema tonight?

3. No, thanks. I was the cinema yesterday.

4. We are going holiday next week.

5. There is a bridge the river.

6. The flight from Leipzig to London was Frankfurt.

7. my wall, there are many picture postcards.

8. Who is the person this picture?

9. Come the sitting room, we want to watch TV.

10. Munich lies 530 meters sea level.

Exercise on Prepositions – Time 1

Fill in the correct prepositions.

1. Peter is playing tennison

Sunday.

2. My brother's birthday is the 5th of November.

3. My birthday is May.

4. We are going to see my parents the weekend.

5. 1666, a great fire broke out in London.

6. I don't like walking alone in the streets night.

7. What are you doing the afternoon?

8. My friend has been living in Canada two years.

9. I have been waiting for you seven o'clock.

10. I will have finished this essay Friday

Exercise on Prepositions – Time 2

Choose the correct prepositions.

Grammar Focus:

What are you doing the weekend?

I don't know yet. Maybe I'll go to the cinema Saturday.

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That's interesting. I haven't been to the cinema so many years.

We could go there together the afternoon.

That would be great. But I would prefer to go there the evening. I am visiting my grandma

Saturday.

That's okay. The film starts eight o'clock.

I can pick you up half seven. How long does the film last?

It lasts two hours and forty-five minutes.

eight a quarter eleven.

That's right. But I must hurry home the film. I have to be home eleven o'clock.

Exercise on »since« and »for«

- since - if the starting point is given (two o'clock, last Friday, 1998)- for - if the period of time is given (twenty minutes, two days, one year)

Decide whether to use »since« or »for«.

1. I have been waiting 4 o'clock.

2. Sue has only been waiting 20 minutes.

3. Tim and Tina have been learning English six years.

4. Fred and Frida have been learning French 1998.

5. Joe and Josephine have been going out together Valentine's Day.

6. I haven't been on holiday last July.

7. Mary has been saving her money many years.

8. I haven't eaten anything breakfast.

9. You have been watching TV hours.

10. We have been living here 2 months.

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Grammar Focus:

Dates in Written English

British English

In British English the day is usually put before the month. If you wish, you can add the ending of the ordinal

number. The preposition of before the month is usually dropped. You can put a comma before the year, but this

is not common anymore in British English.

Example: 5(th) (of) October(,) 2004

American English

In American English the month is usually put before the day. If you wish, you can put the definite article before

the day. It is common to write a comma before the year.

Example: October (the) 5(th), 2004

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http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/vocabulary/date/written#p0

Using digits

You can also write the date by using numbers only. The most common forms are:

Example: 5/10/04 or 5-10-04

Note, however, that 5/10/04 usually means 5 October 2004 in British English and May 10, 2004 in American

English. To avoid any possible confusion, you should spell out the month or use the abbreviation.

Exercise on the English Date

Write down the date in the way you would write it (e.g. in a letter). Keep in mind that some words need to be capitalised.

→ 7/31/2004 (month/day/year)

Dates in Spoken EnglishIf you put the day before the month, use the definite article before the day and the preposition of before the

month.

5 October 2004 - the fifth of October, two thousand and four

If you put the month before the day, use the definite article before the day in British English. In American

English, the definite article can be dropped.

Grammar Focus:

October 5, 2004 - October (the) fifth, two thousand and four

Exercise on the English Date

Write down the date in the way you would say / read it. Write the numbers as words and keep in mind that some words need to be capitalised.

→ 1/19/2005 (month/day/year)

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YearsFrom 2000 onwards, years are pronounced like ordinary cardinal numbers.

2000 - two thousand2003 - two thousand and three

Earlier years are pronounced differently: the first two figures are a number and the last two figures are a

number. They can be joined by hundred and, which is only necessary, however, if the last two figures are 00

through 09.

1999 - nineteen (hundred and) ninety-nine1806 - eighteen hundred and six / eighteen oh six

If you want to give the year without an exact date, use the preposition in:

I was born in 1972.

To distinguish between dates before and after the birth of Christ, use BC und AD:

BC = 'Before Christ'AD = 'Anno Domini' (in the year of the Lord)

Date IN WRITTEN AND SPOKEN ENGLISH (EXAMPLE)

day: 1

month: 2

year: 2001 Show Date

written

Grammar Focus:

February 1, 2001

February 1st, 2001

February the 1st, 2001

1 February 2001

1st February 2001

1st of February 2001

spoken/read February the first, two thousand (and) one

the first of February two thousand (and) one

Origin of the Months of the Year

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Our calendar today originated in Roman times. This can still be seen in the names of the months that are Latin words or named after Roman gods. Try to find out the origin of each month.

1. This month is named after the Roman emperor Julius Caesar. -

2. This month is named after the Roman war god Mars. -

3. Before Julius Caesar decided that the year should begin in January (not March), this had been the

seventh month of the year (The Latin word for seven is septem). -

4. This used to be the tenth month of the year. (The Latin word for ten is decem.) -

5. This month is named after the Roman god Janus -

6. This used to be the eighth month of the year (eight = octo). -

7. The name of this month stands for the opening of the buds in spring. (to open = aperire) -

8. This month is named after the Roman emperor Augustus -

9. This month is named after the Roman mother goddess Maia. -

10. This month is named after the Roman festival of Februa. -

11. In the old Roman calendar this used to be the ninth month (nine = novem). -

12. This month is named after the Roman goddess Juno, Jupiter's wife. -

Origin of the Days of the Week

In ancient Greece, each day of the week was to honour a certain god. Romans took over the custom, but used the names of their own gods. In English some of the names were replaced by the names of nordic gods.

Grammar Focus:

Try to find out the origin of each day of the week.

1. This day is named after the sun. -

2. This day is named after the moon. -

3. This day is named after Saturn. -

4. This day is named after Freya, the Teutonic goddess of love and beauty. -

5. This day is named after Thor, the Norse god of thunder. -

6. This day is named after Tiu, the English / Germanic god of war and the sky. -

7. This day is named after Woden, the chief Anglo-Saxon / Teutonic god. -

Days of the week

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Have a look at James's last week's diary and answer the questions in complete sentences. Put the time expression at the end of the sentence.

Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun

football shopping meeting ring Jane buy flowers concert sailing

cinema tennis English Italian restaurant

1. When was his English course? →

2. When did he go shopping? →

3. When did he buy flowers? →

4. When was his meeting? →

5. When did he play football? →

6. When did he go to the Italian restaurant? →

7. When did he ring Jane? →

8. When did he go to the cinema? →

9. When did he play tennis? →

10. When was the concert? →

11. When did he go sailing? →

Grammar Focus:

What's the Time in English?

Explanation

There are two common ways of telling the time.

Formal but easier way

Say the hours first and then the minutes.

Example: 7:45 - seven forty-five

For minutes 01 through 09, you can pronounce the '0' as oh.

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Example: 11:06 - eleven (oh) six

More popular way

Say the minutes first and then the hours. Use past and the preceding hour for minutes 01 through 30. Use to and

the forthcoming hour for minutes 31 through 59, but .

Example: 7.15 - fifteen minutes past seven

Example: 7.45 - fifteen minutes to eight

Another possibility of saying '15 minutes past' is: a quarter past

Another possibility of saying '15 minutes to' is: a quarter to

Another possibility of saying '30 minutes past' is: half past

Example: 5:30 - half past five

Grammar Focus:

Watch

30

Note

Use o'clock only at the full hour.

Example: 7:00 - seven o'clock (but 7:10 - ten past seven)

In English ordinary speech, the twelve-hour clock is used.

Beispiel: 17:20 - twenty past five

For times around midnight or midday you can use the expressions midnight or midday / noon instead of the

number 12.

Beispiel: 00:00 - midnight

Beispiel: 12:00 - midday or noon

To make clear (where necessary) whether you mean a time before 12 o'clock noon or after, you can use in the

morning, in the afternoon, in the evening, at night. Use in the morning before 12 o'clock noon, after 12 o'clock

noon use in the afternoon. When to change from afternoon to evening, from evening to night and from night to

morning depends on your sense of time.

Example: 3:15 - a quarter past three in the morning OR a quarter past three at night

More formal expressions to indicate whether a time is before noon or after are a.m. (also: am - ante meridiem,

before noon) and p.m. (also: pm - post meridiem, after noon). Use these expression only with the formal way of

telling the time.

Grammar Focus:

Example: 3:15 - three fifteen a.m.

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http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/vocabulary/time#p0

It is not usual to use a.m. and p.m. with past/to.

Example: 3:15 - fifteen minutes past three OR a quarter past three

American English

Beside past Americans often use after.

Example: 06:10 - ten past/after six

But: in time expressions with half past it is not usual to replace past by after.

Beside to Americans often use before, of or till.

Example: 05:50 - ten to/before/of/till six

EgoClock – What’s the time?

It’s ……………………………………………..

time: 06:41

Exercise on Prepositions – Buses

Complete the exercise with the correct prepositions.

1. If you want to go bus, you have to go the bus stop.

2. You look the time table.

3. Then you wait your bus.

Grammar Focus:

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4. When the bus arrives, you get the bus.

5. You buy a ticket the driver or show your ticket the driver.

6. When you arrive your destination, you get the bus.

7. Sometimes you even have to change buses another bus stop.

Grammar Focus:

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Exercise on Prepositions – A picture

Complete the exercise with the correct prepositions.

1. Look this painting.

2. the painting, you can see a little girl.

3. So, it is a painting a girl.

4. A famous painter painted it. So it is a painting a famous painter.

5. My grandma once owned the painting, but she gave it to me on my birthday. So it is a picture

my grandma

Exercise on Prepositions – A photograph

Complete the exercise with the correct prepositions.

1. I got these photos my friend Jane.

2. These photos were taken her boyfriend, who is a hobby photographer.

3. these pictures you can see a giraffe.

4. So, these are pictures a giraffe.

5. Look these pictures. Aren't they wonderful?

Exercise on prepositions – The Wampanoag

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Fill the gaps with the correct prepositions.

1. The Wampanoag are the native American tribe that helped the Pilgrims the

Mayflower to survive their first year the New World.

2. The tribe was divided smaller groups, and each group was ruled a chief.

3. The Wampanoag lived villages the southeastern coast

North America. Their name means ‘people of the east’.

4. One member the Wampanoag, Squanto, knew English because several years before

he had been kidnapped and taken Europe.

5. Squanto was the first to meet the Pilgrims and he welcomed them English.

6. The Wampanoag shared their knowledge hunting and fishing the European settlers and showed them how to grow corn and beans.

7. autumn, the harvest was so good that the settlers invited the Wampanoag

a great feast that is now remembered as the first Thanksgiving.

8. A treaty the Wampanoag and the settlers secured peace about 40

years, but then the settlers claimed more and more land and treated the Wampanoag disrespect.

9. This finally led war the English and the Wampanoag (1675-1676)

which the Wampanoag were defeated.

10. The Wampanoag left their lands and moved the islands Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard.

11. Today there are only about 2,000 Wampanoag people living the United States.

Exercise on Prepositions – George Washington

Complete the exercise with the correct prepositions.

1. George Washington was born Virginia 1732.

2. the American Revolutionary War ( 1775 and 1783) he was the

Commander-in-Chief the American forces.

3. Washington played an important role the founding the United States.

4. He became the first President the United States.

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5. He was President 1789 1797.

6. George Washington died the age 67, the 14th

December 1799.

7. The capital the United States and one federal state are named George Washington

Exercise on Prepositions – Henry Ford

Complete the exercise with the correct prepositions.

1. Henry Ford was born the 30th July 1863.

2. He made his first car, the Quadricycle, June 1896.

3. 1903, he founded the Ford Motor Company.

4. Modern mass production cars was developed him1913.

5. Ford's Model T could then be assembled just 93 minutes.

6. 1927, 15 million Model T cars had been manufactured the Ford Motor Company.

7. Henry Ford became one the richest and best-known people the world.

Exercise on Prepositions – McDonald’s

Complete the exercise with the correct prepositions.

1. The first McDonald’s restaurant was opened Dick and Mac McDonald

the 15th May 1940.

2. The best selling products their restaurant were hamburgers.

3. So the McDonald brothers thought a way to produce hamburgers more quickly.

4. This was introduced 1948 and became known the Speedee Service System.

5. The first franchised McDonald’s restaurant was opened 1953, and today you can find

McDonald’s restaurants more than 100 countries.

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6. The meats the burgers vary the culture the country.

7. Franchisees and future managers McDonald’s restaurants are trained

Hamburger University, which is located Oak Brook, a suburb

Chicago.

8. McDonalds is also known its sponsorship various international sport events.

Exercise on Prepositions – Uluru

Complete the exercise with the correct prepositions.

1. Uluru is located central Australia.

2. The large sandstone rock formation is also known Ayers Rock

honour Sir Henry Ayers, who was a Premier South Australia

1873.

3. Uluru is listed a World Heritage Area both its natural and cultural values.

4. It is sacred the Aboriginal people the area.

5. different times the day, Uluru seems to change colour.

6. The sandstone is infused minerals that reflect the red light sunrise and sunset.

Simple Past

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FORM

[VERB+ed] or irregular verbs

Examples:

You called Debbie. Did you call Debbie? You did not call Debbie.

Complete List of Simple Past Forms

USE 1 Completed Action in the Past

Use the Simple Past to express the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the past. Sometimes, the speaker may not actually mention the specific time, but they do have one specific time in mind.

Examples:

I saw a movie yesterday. I didn't see a play yesterday. Last year, I traveled to Japan. Last year, I didn't travel to Korea. Did you have dinner last night? She washed her car. He didn't wash his car.

USE 2 A Series of Completed Actions

We use the Simple Past to list a series of completed actions in the past. These actions happen 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and so on.

Examples:

I finished work, walked to the beach, and found a nice place to swim.

Grammar Focus:

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http://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/simplepastforms.htmhttp://www.englishpage.com/irregularverbs/irregularverbs.html

He arrived from the airport at 8:00, checked into the hotel at 9:00, and met the others at 10:00.

Did you add flour, pour in the milk, and then add the eggs?

USE 3 Duration in Past

The Simple Past can be used with a duration which starts and stops in the past. A duration is a longer action often indicated by expressions such as: for two years, for five minutes, all day, all year, etc.

Examples:

I lived in Brazil for two years. Shauna studied Japanese for five years. They sat at the beach all day. They did not stay at the party the entire time. We talked on the phone for thirty minutes. A: How long did you wait for them?

B: We waited for one hour.

USE 4 Habits in the Past

The Simple Past can also be used to describe a habit which stopped in the past. It can have the same meaning as "used to." To make it clear that we are talking about a habit, we often add expressions such as: always, often, usually, never, when I was a child, when I was younger, etc.

Examples:

I studied French when I was a child. He played the violin. He didn't play the piano. Did you play a musical instrument when you were a kid? She worked at the movie theater after school. They never went to school, they always skipped class.

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http://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/usedto.html

Grammar Focus:

USE 5 Past Facts or Generalizations

The Simple Past can also be used to describe past facts or generalizations which are no longer true. As in USE 4 above, this use of the Simple Past is quite similar to the expression "used to."

Examples:

She was shy as a child, but now she is very outgoing. He didn't like tomatoes before. Did you live in Texas when you were a kid? People paid much more to make cell phone calls in the past.

IMPORTANT When-Clauses Happen First

Clauses are groups of words which have meaning but are often not complete sentences. Some clauses begin with the word "when" such as "when I dropped my pen..." or "when class began..." These clauses are called when-clauses, and they are very important. The examples below contain when-clauses.

Examples:

When I paid her one dollar, she answered my question. She answered my question when I paid her one dollar.

When-clauses are important because they always happen first when both clauses are in the Simple Past. Both of the examples above mean the same thing: first, I paidher one dollar, and then, she answered my question. It is not important whether "when I paid her one dollar" is at the beginning of the sentence or at the end of the sentence. However, the example below has a different meaning. First, she answeredmy question, and then, I paid her one dollar.

Example:

I paid her one dollar when she answered my question.

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

You just called Debbie.

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http://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/usedto.html

Grammar Focus:

Did you just call Debbie?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

Tom repaired the car. ACTIVE The car was repaired by Tom. PASSIVE

Verb Tense Exercise 1

Simple Past / Past ContinuousUsing the words in parentheses, complete the text below with the appropriate tenses.

1. A: What (you, do) when the accident occurred?

B: I (try) to change a light bulb that had burnt out.

2. After I (find) the wallet full of money, I (go, immediately) to the

police and (turn) it in.

3. The doctor (say) that Tom (be) too sick to go to work and that

he (need) to stay at home for a couple of days.

4. Sebastian (arrive) at Susan's house a little before 9:00 PM, but she (be, not)

there. She (study, at the library) for her final

examination in French.

5. Sandy is in the living room watching television. At this time yesterday, she (watch, also)

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television. That's all she ever does!

6. A: I (call) you last night after dinner, but you (be, not) there.

Where were you?

B: I (work) out at the fitness center.

7. When I (walk) into the busy office, the secretary (talk) on the

phone with a customer, several clerks (work, busily) at their desks, and two

managers (discuss, quietly) methods to improve customer service.

8. I (watch) a mystery movie on TV when the electricity went out. Now I am

never going to find out how the movie ends.

9. Sharon (be) in the room when John told me what happened, but she didn't

hear anything because she (listen, not) .

10. It's strange that you (call) because I (think, just) about you.

11. The Titanic (cross) the Atlantic when it (strike) an iceberg.

12. When I entered the bazaar, a couple of merchants (bargain, busily)

42

and (try) to sell their goods to naive tourists who (hunt) for

souvenirs. Some young boys (lead) their donkeys through the narrow streets

on their way home. A couple of men (argue) over the price of a leather belt. I

(walk) over to a man who (sell) fruit and (buy) a

banana.

13. The firemen (rescue) the old woman who (be) trapped on the

third floor of the burning building.

14. She was so annoying! She (leave, always) her dirty dishes in the sink. I

think she (expect, actually) me to do them for her.

15. Samantha (live) in Berlin for more than two years. In fact, she (live)

there when the Berlin Wall came down

Verb Tense Exercise 2

Simple Past / Past ContinuousUsing the words in parentheses, complete the text below with the appropriate tenses.

Last night, while I was doing my homework, Angela (call) . She said she (call)

me on her cell phone from her biology classroom at UCLA. I asked her if she

43

(wait) for class, but she said that the professor was at the front of the hall

lecturing while she (talk) to me. I couldn't believe she (make) a

phone call during the lecture. I asked what was going on.

She said her biology professor was so boring that several of the students (sleep, actually)

in class. Some of the students (talk) about their plans for

the weekend and the student next to her (draw) a picture of a horse. When

Angela (tell) me she was not satisfied with the class, I (mention)

that my biology professor was quite good and (suggest) that she switch to my

class.

While we were talking, I (hear) her professor yell, "Miss, are you making a

phone call?" Suddenly, the line went dead. I (hang) up the phone and went to

the kitchen to make dinner. As I (cut) vegetables for a salad, the phone rang

once again. It (be) Angela, but this time she wasn't sitting in class.

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Grammar Focus:

PUNCTUATIONQuestion markSemi colonFull stopApostropheBracket

Main uses of punctuation marksThe following passage shows the main punctuation marks in use.1. FULL STOP / . /

a) A full stop is used to end a sentence. The next sentence begins with a capital letter.b) An abbreviation ends in a full stop when the final letter of the abbreviation is not the last letter of the word. One editor is abbreviated to ed., but two editors are abbreviated to eds (without a full stop), since –s is the final letter of the word.c) A full stop is sometimes, but not always, used in acronyms (abbreviations of names). The S.L.C. is an important part of FlindersUniversity. You can make an appointment to see an S.L.C. advisor ifyou need help with essay writing or grammar. There is an ATM on the campus. You can find the ATM outside the bank.

2. COMMA / , /Together with the full stop, the comma is the most commonly used punctuation mark. Basically it separates parts of the sentence. It is used:

45

a) to separate a non-defining relative clause (a clause which adds extra information, introduced by a word such as that, which or who) from the rest of the sentence. It is years since I read Anna Karenina,which is my favourite novel. Anna Karenina, which is my favourite novel, was written by Tolstoy.b) when a subordinate (less important) clause comes before the principal clause. If you do not understand, please tell me.c) to separate phrases in apposition (describing the same person or thing mentioned earlier) from the rest of the sentence. Mr Gorbachev, the President, said that he approved of the policy.d) to separate some non-defining adjectival phrases from the rest of the sentence. The speaker, getting to his feet, began to introducehis talk.e) to separate items in many kinds of lists. I shall need a book, somepaper, a pencil and a ruler.f) to separate a number of connectives from the rest of the sentence: too, however, nevertheless, though, of course, then, etc. You can, however, do it if you wish. Nevertheless, these results must be interpreted within their context. This is, of course, the best action to take.g) before a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet) linking two main clauses, when this clarifies the meaning. The first vendor was selling ice cream with chocolate chips, and worms were available from the second vendor.

Grammar Focus:

h) between coordinate adjectives not joined by and. Informative, imaginative, appealing writing can sell your ideas.i) when some adverbs or adverbial expressions are placed within a sentence (instead of at the beginning or end of the sentence). They tried, in spite of my advice, to climb the mountain.

3. COLON / : /A colon is not often used. It indicates a fairly close interdependence between the units that it separates. The sentence before the colon should be complete in itself, not a sentence fragment.

a) It indicates that what follows it is an explanation or amplification of what precedes it. I have some news for you: John’s father has arrived.b) It can be used to introduce a list of items. Please send him the following items: a passport, a visa application and the correct fee.

4. SEMI-COLON / ; /a). A semi-colon joins two independent but related clauses or sentences. The lecture was badly delivered; it went on far too long. It is possible to avoid using the semi-colon here, by replacing it with a word such as and or because, or by creating two separate

46

sentences. The lecture was badly delivered and it went on far too long. The lecture was badly delivered. It went on far too long.b). It is used in lists to separate items made up of several words. To make a cake you will need a hundred grams of butter; a hundred grams ofsugar; a hundred grams of flour; a spoon of cocoa; and two eggs.c). It can separate main clauses joined by conjunctive adverbs such as however, therefore, moreover, nevertheless, then, thus. This applies even when the conjunctive adverb is moved. Ernest Hemingway was a master of style; however, opinions about his work vary widely. Ernest Hemingway was a master of style; opinions about his work, however, vary widely.

5. HYPHEN / - / DASH (OR EM RULE) / — / EN RULE / – /a) A hyphen separates, in some cases, the prefix from the second part of the word. co-optb) It also joins some compound words. self-control, twenty-one. Note: You should always check in a dictionary to see if a hyphen is needed.c) A dash is used to indicate a break, often informally, or to add parenthetical information. He received a prize — and a certificate aswell. His research output included two books — both on astronomy — as well as numerous articles. Note: Generally, it is better to avoid using a dash in academic writing.The two sentences above could be rewritten: He received a prize, and a certificate as well. His research output included two books (both on astronomy) as well as numerous articles.d) An en-rule indicates a range: 1939 – 1945

Grammar Focus:

6. APOSTROPHE / '/a) An apostrophe is most frequently used to indicate possessive singular or plural. When there is one owner, the apostrophe comes before the -s. When there is more than one owner the apostrophe comes after the -sThe student's car. (The car belonging to one student.)The students' car. (The car belonging to more than one student.)The student's books. (The books belonging to one student.)The students' books. (The books belonging to more than one student.)b) An apostrophe is also used to indicate that a letter is missing.It's a well-known fact. This use should be avoided in academic writing. It is better to say: It is a well-known fact.c) The apostrophe should always be included when telling the time. It is nine o’ clock. (This is short for ‘nine of the clock’.)

47

d) An apostrophe is not needed to indicate a plural. That shop sells bananas.NOT That shop sells banana's.

7. QUESTION MARK / ? /a) A question mark is used after a direct question. What time is it? Can you tell me the answer?b) It is not used after an indirect question. Please tell me what time it is. I need to find out where the books are.8. QUOTATION MARKS (QUOTES) OR INVERTED COMMAS. THEY MAY BE SINGLE / ‘ ’ / OR DOUBLE / “ ” / (SINGLE MARKS ARE MORECOMMON).a) They show when someone is being quoted directly. ‘We must put a stop to the illegal exportation of mahogony,’ said the Minister for the Environment. Ferdinand de Saussure separated language into ‘langue’ and ‘parole’.b) They show the titles of journal articles. ‘New methods of laser detection’ 1994, Laser Technology, vol. 25, p. 309.

9. EXCLAMATION MARK / ! /The exclamation mark is not often used in academic writing. It is usually appropriate after real exclamations or short commands.Oh dear!Get out!

10. BRACKETS (PARENTHESES) / ( ) /a) Brackets are used to clarify, or to avoid confusion. In your academic writing such confusion should not arise, and so this use of brackets will not be necessary. He (Mr Brown) told him (Mr Jones) that he (Mr Green) had been accepted for the job.b) They provide additional, non-essential information in a sentence. French, Italian and Spanish (but not Portuguese) may be studied at this university.c) They enclose author-date references in the text. A number of experiments (Smith1987; Tan 1990; Wong 1991) indicate that this is correct.

Grammar Focus:

d) They enclose the number for an equation, and bracket parts of anequation together. x = 2(a+b)

11. SQUARE BRACKETS /[ ]/

48

Square brackets are used within a quotation to explain, clarify or correct the original words. According to Smith (1998, p. 10), ‘the first use of wombats in [rocket]technology occurred in the 1987 guided missile programme’.

PUNCTUATION EXERCISESExercise 1In the following sentences, put the correct punctuation marks in the underlined spaces. Also add capital letters where necessary.a man has six items in his bathroom _ a toothbrush _ shaving cream _ a razor_ a bar of soap and a towel from the Holiday Inn _ the average number of items in the typical woman_s bathroom is 337 a man would notbe able to identify most of these itemswomen love cats _ men say they love cats _ but when women aren_t looking men kick cats_

Exercise 2Now add the correct punctuation marks in the following sentences. Remember to use capital letters where appropriate. a woman will dress upto go shopping water the plants empty the garbage answer the phone read a book and get the mail a man will dress up for weddings and funerals a successful man is one who makes more money than his wife can spend a successful woman is one who can find such a mana woman knows all about her children dentist appointments and romancesbest friends and worst enemies favorite foods secret dreams and fears and future hopes a man is vaguely aware of some short people living in the house when the bill for dinner arrives the men will each throw in $20 even though its only for $32.50 none ofthem will have anything smaller and none will actually admit they want change back when the girls get their bill out come the pocket calculators

Speaking & Listening Focus

See Student Manual of FOUNDATION ACADEMIC ENGLISH page 2/1

49

Teacher’s Note:

Reading & Writing Focus

See Student Manual of FOUNDATION ACADEMIC 2/2, 2,3, 2/4, 2/6

50

Teacher’s Note:

UNIT 3Grammar Focus:

51

Present PerfectFORM

[has/have + past participle]

Examples:

You have seen that movie many times. Have you seen that movie many times? You have not seen that movie many times.

Complete List of Present Perfect Forms

USE 1 Unspecified Time Before Now

We use the Present Perfect to say that an action happened at an unspecified time before now. The exact time is not important. You CANNOT use the Present Perfect with specific time expressions such as: yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when I lived in Japan, at that moment, that day, one day, etc. We CAN use the Present Perfect with unspecific expressions such as: ever, never, once, many times, several times, before, so far, already, yet, etc.

Examples:

I have seen that movie twenty times. I think I have met him once before. There have been many earthquakes in California. People have traveled to the Moon. People have not traveled to Mars. Have you read the book yet? Nobody has ever climbed that mountain. A: Has there ever been a war in the United States?

B: Yes, there has been a war in the United States.

Grammar Focus:

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How Do You Actually Use the Present Perfect?

The concept of "unspecified time" can be very confusing to English learners. It is best to associate Present Perfect with the following topics:

TOPIC 1 Experience

You can use the Present Perfect to describe your experience. It is like saying, "I havethe experience of..." You can also use this tense to say that you have never had a certain experience. The Present Perfect is NOT used to describe a specific event.

Examples:

I have been to France.THIS SENTENCE MEANS THAT YOU HAVE HAD THE EXPERIENCE OF BEING IN FRANCE. MAYBE YOU HAVE BEEN THERE ONCE, OR SEVERAL TIMES.

I have been to France three times.YOU CAN ADD THE NUMBER OF TIMES AT THE END OF THE SENTENCE.

I have never been to France.THIS SENTENCE MEANS THAT YOU HAVE NOT HAD THE EXPERIENCE OF GOING TO FRANCE.

I think I have seen that movie before. He has never traveled by train. Joan has studied two foreign languages. A: Have you ever met him?

B: No, I have not met him.

TOPIC 2 Change Over Time

We often use the Present Perfect to talk about change that has happened over a period of time.

Examples:

You have grown since the last time I saw you. The government has become more interested in arts education. Japanese has become one of the most popular courses at the university since the

Asian studies program was established. My English has really improved since I moved to Australia.

Grammar Focus:

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TOPIC 3 Accomplishments

We often use the Present Perfect to list the accomplishments of individuals and humanity. You cannot mention a specific time.

Examples:

Man has walked on the Moon. Our son has learned how to read. Doctors have cured many deadly diseases. Scientists have split the atom.

TOPIC 4 An Uncompleted Action You Are Expecting

We often use the Present Perfect to say that an action which we expected has not happened. Using the Present Perfect suggests that we are still waiting for the action to happen.

Examples:

James has not finished his homework yet. Susan hasn't mastered Japanese, but she can communicate. Bill has still not arrived. The rain hasn't stopped.

TOPIC 5 Multiple Actions at Different Times

We also use the Present Perfect to talk about several different actions which have occurred in the past at different times. Present Perfect suggests the process is not complete and more actions are possible.

Examples:

The army has attacked that city five times. I have had four quizzes and five tests so far this semester. We have had many major problems while working on this project. She has talked to several specialists about her problem, but nobody knows why she

is sick.

Time Expressions with Present Perfect

When we use the Present Perfect it means that something has happened at some point in our lives before now. Remember, the exact time the action happened is not important.

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Grammar Focus:

Sometimes, we want to limit the time we are looking in for an experience. We can dothis with expressions such as: in the last week, in the last year, this week, this month,so far, up to now, etc.

Examples:

Have you been to Mexico in the last year? I have seen that movie six times in the last month. They have had three tests in the last week. She graduated from university less than three years ago. She has worked for three

different companies so far. My car has broken down three times this week.

NOTICE

"Last year" and "in the last year" are very different in meaning. "Last year" means theyear before now, and it is considered a specific time which requires Simple Past. "In the last year" means from 365 days ago until now. It is not considered a specific time, so it requires Present Perfect.

Examples:

I went to Mexico last year.I WENT TO MEXICO IN THE CALENDAR YEAR BEFORE THIS ONE.

I have been to Mexico in the last year.I HAVE BEEN TO MEXICO AT LEAST ONCE AT SOME POINT BETWEEN 365 DAYS AGO AND NOW.

USE 2 Duration From the Past Until Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)

With Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, we use the Present Perfect to show that something started in the past and has continued up

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Grammar Focus:

until now. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Tuesday" are all durations which can be used with the Present Perfect.

Examples:

I have had a cold for two weeks. She has been in England for six months. Mary has loved chocolate since she was a little girl.

Although the above use of Present Perfect is normally limited to Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, the words "live," "work," "teach," and"study" are sometimes used in this way even though they are NOT Non-Continuous Verbs.

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

You have only seen that movie one time. Have you only seen that movie one time?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

Many tourists have visited that castle. ACTIVE That castle has been visited by many tourists. PASSIVE

Verb Tense Exercise 1

Simple Past / Present Perfect1. A: Did you like the movie "Star Wars?"

B: I don't know. I (see, never) that movie.

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2. Sam (arrive) in San Diego a week ago.

3. My best friend and I (know) each other for over fifteen years. We still get

together once a week.

4. Stinson is a fantastic writer. He (write) ten very creative short stories in the

last year. One day, he'll be as famous as Hemingway.

5. I (have, not) this much fun since I (be) a kid.

6. Things (change) a great deal at Coltech, Inc. When we first (start)

working here three years ago, the company (have, only) six

employees. Since then, we (expand) to include more than 2000 full-time

workers.

7. I (tell) him to stay on the path while he was hiking, but he (wander)

off into the forest and (be) bitten by a snake.

8. Listen Donna, I don't care if you (miss) the bus this morning. You (be)

late to work too many times. You are fired!

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9. Sam is from Colorado, which is hundreds of miles from the coast, so he (see, never)

the ocean. He should come with us to Miami.

10. How sad! George (dream) of going to California before he died, but he

didn't make it. He (see, never) the ocean.

11. In the last hundred years, traveling (become) much easier and very

comfortable. In the 19th century, it (take) two or three months to cross North

America by covered wagon. The trip (be) very rough and often dangerous.

Things (change) a great deal in the last hundred and fifty years. Now you can

fly from New York to Los Angeles in a matter of hours.

12. Jonny, I can't believe how much you (change) since the last time I (see)

you. You (grow) at least a foot!

13. This tree (be) planted by the settlers who (found) our city over

four hundred years ago.

14. This mountain (be, never) climbed by anyone. Several mountaineers (try)

to reach the top, but nobody (succeed, ever) . The climb is

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extremely difficult and many people (die) trying to reach the summit.

15. I (visit, never) Africa, but I (travel) to South America several

times. The last time I (go) to South America, I (visit) Brazil and

Peru. I (spend) two weeks in the Amazon, (hike) for a week near

Machu Picchu, and (fly) over the Nazca Lines.

Grammar Focus:

Verb Tense Exercise 2

Simple Past / Present PerfectSince computers were first introduced to the public in the early 1980's, technology (change)

a great deal. The first computers (be) simple machines designed

for basic tasks. They (have, not) much memory and they (be, not)

very powerful. Early computers were often quite expensive and customers often (pay)

thousands of dollars for machines which actually (do) very little.

Most computers (be) separate, individual machines used mostly as expensive

typewriters or for playing games.

Times (change) . Computers (become) powerful machines with

very practical applications. Programmers (create) a large selection of useful

programs which do everything from teaching foreign languages to bookkeeping. We are still

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playing video games, but today's games (become) faster, more exciting

interactive adventures. Many computer users (get, also) on the Internet and

(begin) communicating with other computer users around the world. We (start)

to create international communities online. In short, the simple, individual

machines of the past (evolve) into an international World Wide Web of

knowledge.

Grammar Focus:

Present Perfect ContinuousFORM

[has/have + been + present participle]

Examples:

You have been waiting here for two hours. Have you been waiting here for two hours? You have not been waiting here for two hours.

Complete List of Present Perfect Continuous Forms

USE 1 Duration from the Past Until Now

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We use the Present Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past and has continued up until now. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Tuesday" are all durations which can be used with the Present Perfect Continuous.

Examples:

They have been talking for the last hour. She has been working at that company for three years. What have you been doing for the last 30 minutes? James has been teaching at the university since June. We have been waiting here for over two hours! Why has Nancy not been taking her medicine for the last three days?

USE 2 Recently, Lately

You can also use the Present Perfect Continuous WITHOUT a duration such as "for two weeks." Without the duration, the tense has a more general meaning of "lately." We often use the words "lately" or "recently" to emphasize this meaning.

Grammar Focus:

Examples:

Recently, I have been feeling really tired. She has been watching too much television lately. Have you been exercising lately? Mary has been feeling a little depressed. Lisa has not been practicing her English. What have you been doing?

IMPORTANT

Remember that the Present Perfect Continuous has the meaning of "lately" or "recently." If you use the Present Perfect Continuous in a question such as "Have you been feeling alright?", it can suggest that the person looks sick or unhealthy. A question such as "Have you been smoking?" can suggest that you smell the smoke on the person. Using this tense in a question suggests you can see, smell, hear or feel the results of the action. It is possible to insult someone by using this tense incorrectly.

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REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs/ Mixed Verbs

It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings for Mixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Present Perfect Continuous with these verbs, you must use Present Perfect.

Examples:

Sam has been having his car for two years. Not Correct Sam has had his car for two years. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

You have only been waiting here for one hour. Have you only been waiting here for one hour?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

Grammar Focus: Recently, John has been doing the work. ACTIVE Recently, the work has been being done by John. PASSIVE

Verb Tense Exercise 3

Present Perfect / Present Perfect ContinuousRobin: I think the waiter (forget) us. We (wait) here for over half

an hour and nobody (take) our order yet.

Michele: I think you're right. He (walk) by us at least twenty times. He probably

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thinks we (order, already) .

Robin: Look at that couple over there, they (be, only) here for five or ten

minutes and they already have their food.

Michele: He must realize we (order, not) yet! We (sit) here for

over half an hour staring at him.

Robin: I don't know if he (notice, even) us. He (run) from table

to table taking orders and serving food.

Michele: That's true, and he (look, not) in our direction once.

Grammar Focus:

Verb Tense Exercise 4

Present Perfect / Present Perfect Continuous1. Judy: How long (be) in Canada?

Claude: I (study) here for more than three years.

2. I (have) the same car for more than ten years. I'm thinking about buying a

new one.

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3. I (love) chocolate since I was a child. You might even call me a "chocoholic."

4. Matt and Sarah (have) some difficulties in their relationship lately, so they

(go) to a marriage counselor. I hope they work everything out.

5. John (work) for the government since he graduated from Harvard

University. Until recently, he (enjoy) his work, but now he is talking about

retiring.

6. Lately, I (think) about changing my career because I (become)

dissatisfied with the conditions at my company.

7. I (see) Judy for more than five years and during that time I (see)

many changes in her personality.

Conjunctions

What are conjunctions?

A conjunction is a part of speech that joins two words, phrases or clauses together.

There are three types of conjunctions:

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CoordinatingConjunctions

Correlative Conjunctions Common Subordinating Conjunctions

and

but

or

nor

either...or

neither...nor

not only...but also

both...and

whether...or

after

before

although

though

even though

as much as

as long as

as soon as

because

since

so that

in order that

so

if

lest

even if

that

unless

until

when

where

whether

while

Coordinating conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions, also called coordinators, are conjunctions that connect two or more equal items.

Examples:

He plays tennis and soccer He works quickly but accurately

You'd better do your homework, or you'll get a terrible grade.

Grammar Focus:

Correlative conjunctions

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Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs.They work in pairs to coordinate two items. Examples of correlative conjunctions include both...and..., either...or, not only... but also...

Examples:

I didn't know that she can neither read nor write. You can either walk to school or take the bus.

Both Sara and James are invited to the party.

Whether you watch TV or do your homework is your decision.

Not only are they noisy but they are also lazy.

Subordinating conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions, also called subordinators, are conjunctions that join a dependent (or subordinating) clause to an independent (or main) clause.

Examples:

He reads the newspapers after he finishes work. Even if you get the best grade in the writing test, you'll need to pass an oral test.

Although he is very old, he goes jogging every morning.

She didn't go to school because she was ill.

They went to bed since it was late

As soon as the teacher had arrived, they started work.

Choose the correct conjunction.

1. I need to work hard I can pass the exam.

2. he was the best qualified party candidate, he didn't win the elections.

3. you come back from your trip, we'll meet to discuss the problem.

4. They said that the movie was fantastic, I watched it.

5. he was very ill, he didn't take any medicine.

6. I don't know I can buy a pair of jeans.

7. She went to the shops couldn't find anything she liked.

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8. Everybody likes him because he is nice helpful.

9. he was angry with her, he didn't utter a word.

10. Keep quiet go out.

Speaking & Listening Focus

See Student Manual of FOUNDATION ACADEMIC ENGLISH page 3/1, 3 / 4, 3/7

Teacher’s Note:

DEBATE

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Reading & Writing Focus

See Student Manual of FOUNDATION ACADEMIC ENGLISH page 3 / 4, 3/5, 3/6, 3 / 7

Teacher’s Note:

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UNIT 4Grammar Focus:

Past Perfect Tense

FORM

[had + past participle]

Examples:

You had studied English before you moved to New York. Had you studied English before you moved to New York?

You had not studied English before you moved to New York.

Complete List of Past Perfect Forms

USE 1 Completed Action Before Something in the Past

The Past Perfect expresses the idea that something occurred before another action in the past. It can also show that something happened before a specific time in the past.

Examples:

I had never seen such a beautiful beach before I went to Kauai. I did not have any money because I had lost my wallet.

Tony knew Istanbul so well because he had visited the city several times.

Had Susan ever studied Thai before she moved to Thailand?

She only understood the movie because she had read the book.

Kristine had never been to an opera before last night.

We were not able to get a hotel room because we had not booked in advance.

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A: Had you ever visited the U.S. before your trip in 2006?B: Yes, I had been to the U.S. once before.

Grammar Focus:

USE 2 Duration Before Something in the Past (Non-Continuous Verbs)

With Non-Continuous Verbs and some non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, we use the Past Perfect to show that something started in the past and continued up until another action in the past.

Examples:

We had had that car for ten years before it broke down. By the time Alex finished his studies, he had been in London for over eight years.

They felt bad about selling the house because they had owned it for more than forty years.

Although the above use of Past Perfect is normally limited to Non-Continuous Verbs and non-continuous uses of Mixed Verbs, the words "live," "work," "teach," and "study" are sometimes used in this way even though they are NOT Non-Continuous Verbs.

IMPORTANT Specific Times with the Past Perfect

Unlike with the Present Perfect, it is possible to use specific time words or phrases with the Past Perfect. Although this is possible, it is usually not necessary.

Example:

She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in1996.

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MOREOVER

If the Past Perfect action did occur at a specific time, the Simple Past can be used instead of the Past Perfect when "before" or "after" is used in the sentence. The words "before" and "after" actually tell you what happens first, so the Past Perfect is optional. For this reason, both sentences below are correct.

Examples:

She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in1996.

She visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996.

Grammar Focus:

HOWEVER

If the Past Perfect is not referring to an action at a specific time, Past Perfect is not optional. Compare the examples below. Here Past Perfect is referring to a lack of experience rather than an action at a specific time. For this reason, Simple Past cannot be used.

Examples:

She never saw a bear before she moved to Alaska. Not Correct She had never seen a bear before she moved to Alaska. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

You had previously studied English before you moved to New York. Had you previously studied English before you moved to New York?

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Past Perfect Continuous

FORM

[had been + present participle]

Examples:

You had been waiting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived. Had you been waiting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived?

You had not been waiting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived.

Grammar Focus:

Complete List of Past Perfect Continuous Forms

USE 1 Duration Before Something in the Past

We use the Past Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past and continued up until another time in the past. "For five minutes" and "for two weeks" are both durations which can be used with the Past Perfect Continuous. Notice that this is related to the Present Perfect Continuous; however, the duration does not continue until now, it stops before something else in the past.

Examples:

They had been talking for over an hour before Tony arrived. She had been working at that company for three years when it went out of business.

How long had you been waiting to get