University of the Southern Caribbean
School of Education & HumanitiesGraduate Education Department
“Leadership Theories & Theorists”
(Unit # 2B)
Professional Online Presentation for Course:
EDAL 664 School Leadership
By
Franklyn Baldeo, Ph.D
1
Leadership Theories and TheoristsOverview and Rationale
Great Man Theory
Trait Theory
Behavioural Theory
Theory X and Theory Y
Contingency Theory
Situational Leadership
Path- Goal Leadership Theory
Leader-Member Exchange Theory
Transactional Leadership
TransformationalLeadership
Servant- Leadership Theory
Authentic Leadership
OVERVIEW AND RATIONALE OF
LEADERSHIP THEORY
Overview and Rationale:
A Case for Leadership Theory The challenges of conceptualizing leadership
“There is no universal theory of leadership and no precise formula for producing leaders, and the answers are elusive.” (Henman, n.d.)
Theory is "a result of a tested hypothesis over time, producing consistent results" (Owings & Kaplan, 2012)
Improving leadership outcomes by using theoretical framework as a frame of reference for conceptualizing and understanding leadership
How is theory related to Educational leadership?
EPM (Owings & Kaplan, 2012)
Explain, Predict, and Manipulate
Successful leadership requires more than just
assigning tasks to the team.
It calls for a leader who can inspire team members to
achieve their full potential.
People want to be guided by a person they respect,
someone who has a clear sense of direction.
To be that person, there are certain things that you
must be, know and do, and that’s the rationale what
developing leadership theory and skills are all about.
This Unit seeks to enlighten these concepts.
Theory can provide proven consistency and
explanation on leadership to aid individuals in
conceptualizing and concretizing their understanding
on the tenets of leadership.
What is important to note, however, is that there is
no one theory that will solely speak to what
constitutes as leadership.
According to Owings and Kaplan (2012) theories can
be used to “explain, predict, and manipulate
variables to increase the likelihood of certain
outcomes occurring.”
HOW CAN THEORY BE APPLIED TO
EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION?
Theory and Educational Leadership
"When school leaders can explain how and why leadership
works in various situations or what leadership model applies
in a given circumstance, they increase the probability of
successful outcomes.” (Owings & Kaplan, 2012)
The following looks at twelve (12) Leadership theories and their
associated theorists:
1.
GREAT MAN THEORY
Assumptions/ Tenets “Great leaders are born, not made.”
Capacity for leadership is inherent as leaders are born possessing certain traits that make them great leaders.
Great leaders are portrayed as heroic, mythic and “intended to increase to leadership when is essential” (Madanchian et al., 2016). Great men “can arise when the need for them is great.”(Villanova University, 2019)
These great leaders are “…born with the attributesnecessary to set them apart from those around themand that these traits enable them to assume roles ofauthority and power…[they] accomplish great featsagainst the odds on behalf of followers [and]… those inpower deserve to lead because of the traits they’ve
been endowed with.
Sir Thomas Carlyle (1795-
1881)
On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and The Heroic in History
(1841)“Universal History, the history of whatman has accomplished in this world, is atbottom of the History of the Great Menwho have worked here. They were theleaders of men, these great ones; themodellers, patterns, and in a widesense creators, of whatsoever thegeneral mass of men contrived to door to attain; all things that we seestanding accomplished in the world areproperly the outer material result, thepractical realization and embodiment, ofThoughts that dwelt in the Great Mensent into the world: the soul of thewhole world's history, it may justlybe considered, were the history ofthese.”
Other Proponents Galton (1870, 1890)- Great leaders inherit
their capacity to lead
Woods (1913)- A leader and his abilities canmake and shape a nation
Wiggam (1913)- An adequate supply of leadersis dependent on high birth rates amongst thetitled classes
Dowd (1936)- Leaders are always moreintelligent, energetic and superior than theirfollowers
Limitations
Outdated, classist, sexist and elitist view
It is not an empirically-validated theory.
According to Herbert Spencer the theory “childish, primitive and unscientific” (Villanova University, 2019)
Leadership was, at the time, thought of as a male quality (especially in terms of military leadership).
Gender and Leadership- Fails to recognize women and their ability to become leaders and can hold positions of leadership
Nature versus nurture debate (heredity versus environment). Spencer- “before a ‘great man’ can remake his society, that society has to make him” (Villanova University, 2019)
Fails to recognize that leadership can be LEARNED
2.
TRAIT THEORY OF
LEADERSHIP
Trait Theory in Leadership
One of the first systematic attempts to study leadership
“explores the traits, qualities, and characteristics that an individual must
have in order to be a great leader.” (Northouse, 2004)
Similar to “Great Man” theory but unlike “Great Man” theory, Trait theory
attempts to categorize the characteristics that distinguish leaders from
followers.
Some key leadership traits include
Intelligence (a leader’s ability to see reason)
Self-confidence (a leader’s ability in himself and his abilities)
Determination (how a leader is resolute in meeting a goal or
finishing a project at all costs)
Integrity (a leader’s ethical standards and abilities to be truthful )
Sociability (a leader’s ability to create pleasant relationships with
others) (Northouse, 2004)
Assumptions/ Tenets
There are innate personality characteristics in all leaders.
Individuals inherit certain traits or qualities that make them
better suited for leadership.
These traits differentiate them from followers or those they
lead.
“Leadership traits cannot be fixed with certainty for all
leaders. But a leader cannot be effective unless he
possesses certain basic qualities.” (Northouse, 2004)
Sir Thomas Carlyle (1795-
1881)
Proponents Trait theory often linked to the tenets of
“Great Man” theory, as espoused by
Carlyle and the subsequent work of
Galton.
Galton put forward two important notions
with regards to leadership:
It is a unique ability, possessed by
certain extraordinary individuals, and
their opinions and decisions are
capable of bringing about radical
changes.
These unique attributes are part of
their genetic makeup; therefore,
leadership is hereditary.
(BusinessBalls, n.d.)
Sir
Francis
Galton
(1822-
1911)
Other Proponents
Ordway Tead (1953) postulates ten (10) qualities of a good leader:
(a) Physical and nervous energy
(b) Sense of purpose and direction
(c) Enthusiasm
(d) Friendliness and affection
(e) Integrity
(f) Technical mastery
(g) Decisiveness
(h) Intelligence
(i) Teaching skill
(j) Faith.
Other ProponentsKeith Davis (1972)
Intelligence: Leaders tend to have higher intelligencethan their followers.
Social maturity and breadth: Leaders have atendency to be emotionally mature and to have a broadrange of interests.
Inner motivation and achievement drives: Leaderswant to accomplish things; when they achieve one goal,they seek out another. They are not primarily dependenton outside forces for their motivation.
Human relations attitudes: Leaders are able, to workeffectively with other persons. They respect individualsand realize that to accomplish tasks they must beconsiderate to others.
R.M. Stogdill (1904-1978)
Leadership is situational, interactional and in constant flux
Personal Factors Associated with Leadership: A Survey of the Literature (1948)
1. Physical characteristics such as age, appearance, height and weight
2. Social background - education, social status and mobility
3. Intelligence - superior judgement, decisiveness, knowledge and fluency of speech
4. Personality - alertness, self-confidence, personal integrity, self- assurance and dominance needs
5. Task related characteristics - high need for achievement and responsibility, initiative and a high task orientation
6. Social characteristics
Limitations Findings have been inconsistent.
The existence of certain traits in individuals may give theimpression that they are leaders when, in fact, they arenot.
Trait leadership theory usually only focuses on howleader effectiveness is perceived by followers (Lord etal., 1986) rather than a leader's actual effectiveness(Judge et al., 2009)
Trait leadership's focus on a small set of personalitytraits and neglect other traits and skills (social skills,problem solving, decision making, etc.)
Trait leadership often fails to consider the integration ofmultiple traits when studying the effects of traits onleader effectiveness (Zaccaro, 2007)
3.
BEHAVIOURAL THEORY
Assumptions/ Tenets/ Proponents
Examines behaviours that make leaders effective
Focuses on the actions of leaders
Individuals can LEARN leadership skills through observation and teaching
Examples of Behavioural Theories
Leadership/ Managerial Grid Theory by Blake and Mouton (1964) and Blake and McCanse(1991)
X-Y Theory on Leadership Behaviour by Mc Gregor (1960)
Two leadership
behavioural
dimensions
Concern for People:
this is the degree to which a
leader considers team
members' needs, interests
and areas of personal
development when deciding
how best to accomplish a
task.
Concern for Production:
this is the degree to which a
leader emphasizes concrete
objectives, organizational
efficiency and high
productivity when deciding
how best to accomplish a
task.
Leadership/ Managerial Grid
Leadership/
Managerial
Grid
1, 1- Impoverished
Management
9, 1- Authority
Compliance
Management
5, 5- Middle of the
Road Management
1,9- Country Club
Management
9,9- Team
Management
Leadership Grid Theory Behaviour
Descriptions Impoverished Management: mostly ineffective; “low results, low
people”, disorganization, dissatisfaction disharmony; Leader/manager is “indifferent” and has “a low regard for creating systemsthat get the job done, and with little interest in creating a satisfyingor motivating team environment” (Mind Tools, n.d.)
Authority Compliance Management: Authoritarian managers whoview team members as “means to an end” and secondary toproductivity; “produce or perish management”; These managershave “strict work rules, policies and procedures, and can viewpunishment as an effective way of motivating team members.”(Mind Tool, n.d.); impressive production results at first but low teammorale and motivation.
Middle of the Road Management: “medium results, mediumpeople”; “status quo manager”; tries to balance results and peoplebut achieves mediocrity as the manager “fails to inspire highperformance and also fails to meet people's needs fully
Leadership Grid Theory Behaviour
Descriptions Country Club Management: “high people, low results”;
“accommodating” style of manager; This style of manager“is most concerned about her team members' needs andfeelings… ‘[and] assumes that, as long as they are happyand secure, they will work hard.” (Mind Tool, n.d.); relaxedand fun work environment but “there is a lack of directionand control” (Mind Tool, n.d.)
Team Management: most effective leadership style; “highproduction, high people”; “sound” and inspiring teammanagers who “commit to their organization's goals andmission, motivate the people who report to them, and workhard to get people to stretch themselves to deliver greatresults” (Mind Tool, n.d.); they feel respected, empoweredand motivate others.
4.
THEORY X AND THEORY Y OF
MANAGEMENT
Assumptions/ Tenets/ Proponents Douglas McGregor, MIT Professor, American social
psychologist
Produced work in 1960 entitled “The Human Side of Enterprise”
Theory important for organizational development and improving
organizational culture and performance (Businesss Balls, n.d.)
Theory X:
Authoritarian management style where mangers believe that
the average person dislikes work and will avoid it if he/she
can
Therefore, most people must be forced with the threat of
punishment to work towards organisational objectives.
The average person prefers to be directed; to avoid
responsibility; is relatively unambitious, and wants security
above all else.
The Theory X Manager
Results-driven and deadline-driven, to the
exclusion of everything else
Intolerant; distant and detached
Issues deadlines and ultimatums
Aloof and arrogant; anti-social; elitist
Short temper; shouts
Issues instructions, directions, edicts
Issues threats to make people follow
instructions
Demands, never asks
Does not participate; does not team build
■ Unconcerned about staff welfare, or
morale
■ One-way communicator and poor listener
■ Proud, sometimes to the point of self-
destruction
■ Fundamentally insecure and possibly
neurotic
Vengeful and recriminatory, unhappy
Withholds rewards, and suppresses pay and remunerations levels
Scrutinizes expenditure to the point of false economy
Seeks culprits for failures or shortfalls
Seeks to apportion blame instead of focusing on learning from the experience and preventing recurrence
Does not invite or welcome suggestions; does not thank or praise
Takes criticism badly and likely to retaliate if from below or peer group
Poor at proper delegating - but believes they delegate well
Thinks giving orders is delegating
Holds on to responsibility but shifts accountability to subordinates
Relatively unconcerned with investing in anything to gain future improvements
Source: Business Balls (n.d.)
Theory Y
Participative style of management
Managers think work is a source of satisfactionand they, in turn, want the responsibility.
Proper leadership can bring about self-direction,creativity, responsibility and other positivequalities in workers, without the threat ofpunishment
Criticisms/ Limitations of Behavioural
Theories
Differences and inconsistencies amongst the
myriad studies as to what traits constitute effective
leaders
No one trait is effective or superior over the other
“The styles that leaders can adopt are far more
affected by those they are working with, and the
environment they are operating within, than had
been originally thought” (TechnoFunc, n.d.)
The theory provides “little guidance as to what
constitutes effective leadership in different
situations.” (TechnoFunc, n.d.)
5.
CONTINGENCY THEORY
Assumptions/Tenets
Successful and effective leadership is hinged upon anumber of variables, which include leadership style,qualities of the followers and other key aspects of thesituation.
“A leader is effective when his or her style of leadership fits with the situation (Fiedler’s Contingency Model, n.d)
One cannot ‘engineer’ the situation to make it more favorable for the leader. (Owings & Kaplan, 2012)
Leadership effectiveness may be improved by changing the leadership situation. Position power, task structure, leader- member relations can be changed to make the situation more compatible with the characteristics of the leaders.
Least Preferred Coworker Scale
(LPC) Can be used to measure leadership style
18 sets of adjectives
Scores of 57 or less- Task motivated (Low LPC)- more
effective when situations are very favorable or
unfavourable for leaders
58-63: Middle LPC (Socio-independent leaders, self-
directed and not overly concerned with task or with
how others view them)
64 or above- High LPC- Relationship motivated leaders
who will be effective in moderately favourable
conditions
Leadership styles are either task motivated or
relationship motivated
Situations have three factors: leader-member relations,
task structure and position power
Leader-member relations: Good or Poor. Refers to level
of mutual trust, respect, & confidence the group has for its
leader
Task structure: High or Low. Refers to extent to which
task requirements are clear & communicated effectively.
Position power: Strong or Weak. Refers to amount of
legitimate power/authority in leader’s position to give
rewards or punishments to groups or individuals.
Terminology associated with
Contingency Theory
Contingency Theory
Contingency Leadership When leader-member relations are good, task structure is
clear, and position power is strong the situation is defined
as favorable.
When leader-member relations are poor, task structure is
low, and position power is weak situations are least
favorable
When factors are rated in the middle areas, situations are
moderately favorable.
Source: McKenzie & Love, n.d.
6.
SITUATIONAL
LEADERSHIP
Situational Theory “An approach built less around the person and more
around the situation in which the person functions.”
(Gorton et al., 2007)
No one leadership style is the ‘best’
Two major propositions:
1. The leadership approach employed by an
individual should be relative to the situation; and
2. Different situations demand different kinds of
behavior from the leader.
(Yukl, 2002, as cited in Gorton et al., 2007)
Assumptions Type of leadership needed in a situation:
Nature of problem/ task
Characteristics of the people to be led
Obstacles and constraints
Characteristics of the organization
Contingency Model of Leadership
Situational Leadership Theory
Path-Goal Theory
Leader- Member Exchange Theory
Assumptions/ Tenets and
Proponents
Leaders adapt their leadership behaviour to followers’
“maturity”, based on their willingness and ability to
perform a specific task. (Marzano et al., 2005)
The effective leader is skilled in all four styles and knows
the ability level of those they lead, along with the
willingness of followers to perform specific tasks.
The effective leader, in this instance, realizes that no one
leadership style is appropriate for all followers and all
situations (Marzano et al., 2005)
Proponents: Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard
Situational Leadership
Telling (S1): In this leadership style, the leader tellspeople what to do and how to do it.
Selling (S2): This style involves more back-and-forthbetween leaders and followers. Leaders "sell" their ideasand message to get group members to buy into theprocess.
Participating (S3): In this approach, the leader offersless direction and allows members of the group to take amore active role in coming up with ideas and makingdecisions.
Delegating (S4): This style is characterized by a lessinvolved, hands-off approach to leadership. Groupmembers tend to make most of the decisions and takemost of the responsibility for what happens.
SLII Leadership Style Model
Directing (S1): High on directing behaviors, low on
supporting behaviors.
Coaching (S2): High on both directing and supporting
behaviors.
Supporting (S3): Low on directing behavior and high on
supporting behaviors.
Delegating (S4): Low on both directing and supporting
behaviors.
“…not one of these four leadership styles is best.
Instead, an effective leader will match his or her behavior
to the developmental skill of each subordinate for the
task at hand.” (Cherry, 2019)
7.
PATH- GOAL
LEADERSHIP THEORY
This theory focuses on the leader-follower relationship and how
leaders motivate those they lead to accomplish a goal (Northouse,
2004).
The behaviour of the leader is determined by two main situational
factors:
personal characteristics of subordinates
The nature of the task
The theory is also dependent on the leader’s ability to:
Provide necessary direction and guidance
Clarify goals
Remove obstacles
Support followers
Provide training
Ensure that their goals are compatible with overall goals of
organization
House (1971) identifies four main types of leadership behavior:
Directive leadership involves letting the subordinates know
exactly what is expected of them and giving specific directions
to them. The subordinates are expected to follow rules and
regulations.
Supportive leadership involves a friendly and approachable
manner, displaying concern for the needs and welfare of the
subordinates.
Participative leadership involves consulting the subordinates
and the evaluation of their opinions and suggestions before
the manager makes the decision.
Achievement-oriented leadership involves setting
challenging goals for the subordinates, seeking improvement
in their performance and showing confidence in their ability to
perform well.
The Path-Goal Theory
8.
LEADER-MEMBER
EXCHANGE THEORY
(LMX)
Assumptions/Tenets/ Proponents
Also known as Vertical Dyad Linkage Theory
It describes how leaders maintain their position in groups and how
they develop relationships with other members that can contribute to
growth or hinder development. (Janse, 2019)
For effective leadership to occur, leaders and followers develop
strong relationships with social exchanges or transactions in which
each party benefits. (Northouse, 2004)
“…leadership consists of several dyadic (two-way) relationships that
connect the leader to the members. The quality of the relationship is
measured by means of the level of trust, respect, support and
loyalty.” (Janse, 2019)
Proponents: George B. Graen and Mary Uhl-Bien (late 1970s)
Terms in Leader-Member Exchange
Theory Stranger: Followers do not necessarily trust the leader
but are willing to follow the leader (Northouse, 2004)
Acquaintance: Members begin to trust each other while,
at the same time they test relationship boundaries to
determine if they can depend on one another (Northouse,
2004)
Partnership: Characterized by high-quality exchanges,
negotiations, reciprocating influences and group-
interested motives (Northouse, 2004)
Involves Role Taking, Role Making and Routinization
Role taking: This is the very start of the relationship, when both the
manager and the employee are just starting to get to know each other.
the manager will be able to observe what the employee is capable of
and then use that information to hand out future responsibilities.
Role making: Critical stage where employees will either earn the trust
of the manager, or lose it - maybe forever.
Routinization: a routine is established in which the manager and
employee generally know what to expect from each other.
In Group- An exclusive, typically small, group of people with a shared interest or
identity.
Out Group- Those people who do not belong to a specific in-group.
(Janse, 2019)
Leader-Member Exchange
Theory Process
Limitations/Criticisms of Situational
Approaches to Leadership Theories
Empirical evidence is not always conclusive (Gorton et al.,
2007)
“Many administrators are influenced in their choice of a
leadership style and in the way they behave as a leader by
their own personality and need disposition, which tend to
rather consistent and unchanging over time and in
different situations… although the nature of the demands
for leadership in education frequently changes, an
administrator’s basic personality may not make it possible
to adapt individual leadership style to a new situation”
(Gorton et al., 2007)
9.
TRANSACTIONAL THEORY
Assumptions/Tenets
Also known as “Management theory”
Focuses on the role of supervision, organization and
group performance. “quid pro quo”
Frequently associated with autocratic leadership
Transactional leadership refers to the behaviors that
establish the conditions of the exchange relationship
between leaders and followers.
Transactional leaders exert influence in terms of
specifying expectation, clarifying responsibilities,
negotiating contracts, providing feedback, and
exchanging rewards and recognitions for
accomplishments (Bass, Avolio, Jung, & Berson, 2003).
Proponents/ Criticisms/ Limitations
Proponents: Weber (1947) and Bass (1981)
It assumes a very simplistic view of motivation, which fails
to account for individual differences.
Heavy reliance on leader
Can lead to low morale, motivation and even unhappiness
amongst employees (Benjamin, n.d.)
This leader uses his formal authority to instruct others on
what to do, and is unwilling to consider anything other than
the traditional organizational hierarchy. (Benjamin, n.d.)
10. TRANSFORMATIONAL
THEORY
Assumptions/ Tenets/ Proponents
Also known as “Relationship theory,” it focuses on
connections, especially between leaders and those they
lead
James MacGregor Burns (1978)- historian and political
scientist
Other proponents include Bass (1985), Bass and Avolio
(1994) and Leithwood (1994)
Transformational leaders are focused on the performance
of group members, where the leader is desirous of each
person achieves his/ her full potential.
Transformational leaders are highly ethical and possess
strong moral values
Bass and Riggio (2006) and Bass
and Bass (2008) Idealized influence: Leader’s ability to use personal power impact
followers’ loyalty to leader & organization. (charisma)
Inspirational motivation: leader is able to communicate a vision
which motivates workers to increasingly higher levels of
accomplishment through shared expectations & actual achievements.
Intellectual stimulation: The degree to which leaders challenge
organizational assumptions & have followers confront own beliefs &
behaviors to permit creative problem solving
Individualized concern: the degree to which leaders attend to
followers’ individual needs through coaching or mentoring
Source: Owings and Kaplan (2012) Leadership and organizational behavior in
education: Theory and practice
Transformational Leadership
According to Owings and Kaplan (2012), transformational
leaders:
Articulate a vision and builds awareness of this vision
while also meeting followers’ needs, concerns and motives
Help followers by building teams’ moral and technical
capacities
Are “moral exemplars”
In the school setting, transformational leaders are able to
“identify and articulate a school vision, motivate others
through example, support a culture of intellectual stimulation,
and provide support and development to individual staff
members” (Shatzer et al., 2014)
Transformational Leadership: The school
setting
According to Gorton et al. (2007), transformational leadership in
the school setting comprises the following:
A collaborative, shared decision-making approach
An emphasis on teacher professionalism and empowerment
An understanding of change, including how to encourage
change in others
Leaders need important skills such as being able to see the
‘complete’ picture, to concentrate on continuing school
improvement, to foster a sense of ownership within the school
community, and to create and work in teams
Criticisms/ Limitations of
Transformational Leadership Theory
Lacks conceptual clarity
May not work at all levels and all types of organizations
(military, para-military, etc.)
Transformational leadership “lends itself to amoral self
promotion by leaders” (Juneja, n.d.)
The theory is very difficult to be trained or taught because it
is a combination of many leadership theories. (Juneja, n.d.)
Followers might be manipulated by leaders and there are
chances that they lose more than they gain. (Juneja, n.d.)
11.
SERVANT LEADERSHIP
THEORY
Assumptions/ Tenets
Effective leadership “emerges from a desire to help others”
(Marzano et al., 2005) [Nurturer]
Servant- leader is at the centre rather than the top of the
organization
Servant leadership encompasses:
Understanding the personal needs of those within the
organization
Healing wounds caused by conflict within the
organization
Being a steward of the resources of the organization
Developing the skills of those within the organization
Being an effective listener
Criticisms/ Limitations
“Not fully embraced as a comprehensive theory” (Marzano
et al., 2005)
Works against traditional authority as leader must be willing
to give up absolute authority (Quain, 2018)
Possibility of losses in motivation and productivity as
leaders “fix everything” (Quain, 2018)
Decreases managerial authority (Quain, 2018)
One size doesn’t fit all organizations (military, para-military,
etc.)
Takes a lot of time to establish relationships as it is hinged
upon trust, team building, etc.
12.
AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP
THEORY
Assumptions/Tenets
Practicing authentic leadership means being comfortable “inone’s own skin” and calls for extensive and on-goingreflection about values, ethics, goals, philosophy & howthese apply to the work setting. (Owings & Kaplan, 2012)
Key Characteristics
Antecedent events: those events that have previously taken place in our lives that shape us into who we are now
Personal history: how we were raised, our role models, our education & work experiences
Trigger events: those significant personal & occupational events that have spurred personal growth & development
Self-awareness: Self-knowledge; Results from self-reflection, trust in their values, identity, emotions, & goals
Self-regulation: Self-knowledge guides and limits the leaders’ behavior to be in synch with leaders’ values, emotions, & goals; balanced processing of information
Limitations/ Criticisms
A relatively new topic, definitions vary and it is difficult totranslate into a coherent theory (Owings &l Kaplan, 2012)
Requires consistency and reflection and not all leaders arereflective (Owings & Kaplan, 2012)
“The authentic leadership model refuses to acknowledge theimperfections of individuals and despite its attestations toseeking ‘one’s true, or core self’” (Ford & Harding, 2017)
“The authentic leader will be a moral person who, being moral, isgood ‘on the inside’; through revealing their inner goodness thisperson will be an authentic leader. The immoral person may tryto hide their inner evil, may try to give the impression of being‘good’, of being moral, but will be found out by those who seekto ‘unlock the mask’ behind which ‘pseudo’ or inauthenticleaders hide” (Ford & Harding, 2017)
“It privileges a collective (organizational) self over an individualself and thereby hampers subjectivity to both leaders andfollowers.” (Ford & Harding, 2017)
References Bass, B.M. (1990). “From Transactional to Transformational Leadership:
Learning to Share the Vision,” Organizational Dynamics, Winter, pp. 19-31.
Benjamin, T. (n.d.) Transactional leadership limitations. Retrieved from https://smallbusiness.chron.com/transactional-leadership-limitations-35903.html
Business Balls. (n.d.). Trait theory- Carlyle and Galton. Retrieved from https://www.businessballs.com/leadership-models/trait-theory-carlyle-and-galton/
---. (n.d.). McGregor’s XY Theory of management. Retrieved from https://www.businessballs.com/improving-workplace-performance/mcgregors-xy-theory-of-management/
Cherry, K. (2019). The situational theory of leadership. Retrieved from https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-the-situational-theory-of-leadership-2795321
(2019). Understanding the trait theory of leadership. Retrieved from https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-the-trait-theory-of-leadership-2795322
Cordeiro, P.A. & Cunningham, W.G. (2013). Educational leadership: A bridge to improved practice, 5th edition. Pearson Education, Inc.
Ford, J. & Harding, N. (2017). ‘The impossibility of the ‘true self’ of authentic leadership. Sage Journals 7(4). Retrieved from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1742715011416894
Gorton, R., Alston, J.A. & Snowden, P. (2007). School Leadership andAdministration. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, Ltd.
Henman, L. (n.d.). Leadership: Theories and Controversies. Retrievedfrom https://henmanperformancegroup.com/lessons/leadership-theories-and-controversies/
House R J. “A Path-Goal Theory of Leadership Effectiveness”,Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol.16, Sep.1971, pp.321-338.
Janse, B. (2019). Leader-Member Exchange Theory (LMX). Retrievedfrom https://www.toolshero.com/management/leader-member-exchange-theory-lmx/
Juneja, P. (n.d.). Transformational Leadership Theory. Retrieved fromhttps://managementstudyguide.com/transformational-leadership.htm
Madanchian, M. et al. (2016). Leadership theories, an overview of theearly stages. Retrieved from:https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305323677_Leadership_Theories_an_Overview_of_Early_Stages/link/57886ba608aecf56ebcb5d3a/download
Marzano, R.J. et al. (2005). School leadership that works: Fromresearch to results. Alexandra, VA: ASCD.
McKenzie, L. & Love, K. (n.d.) Contingency theory of leadership.Retrieved fromhttps://oer.missouriwestern.edu/rsm424/chapter/contingency-theory-of-leadership/
Mind Tools. (n.d.). The Blake Mouton Managerial Grid: Leading peopleand producing results. Retrieved fromhttps://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_73.htm
Northouse, P.G. (2004). Leadership: Theory and practice, 3rd edition.Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE
Owings, W.A. & Kaplan, L.S. (2012). Leadership and organizationalbehavior in education: Theory into practice, 1st Edition. PearsonEducation, Inc.
Quain, S. (2018). Problems with servant leadership model. Retrievedfrom https://smallbusiness.chron.com/problems-servant-leadership-model-50586.html
Shatzer, R.H. et al. (2014). ‘Comparing the effects of instructional andtransformational leadership on student achievement: Implications forpractice.’ Educational Management Administration & Leadership,42(4), pp. 445-459.
Sudbrack, b. & Trombley, S. (2007). ‘Lost: A Survival Guide toLeadership Theory’. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 9(2),pp. 251-268.
TechnoFunc. (n.d.). Behavioral theories of leadership. Retrieved from
http://www.technofunc.com/index.php/leadership-skills-2/leadership-
theories/item/behavioral-theories-of-leadership
Villanova University (2019). The Great Man Theory. Retrieved from
https://www.villanovau.com/resources/leadership/great-man-theory/
Zaccaro, S. J., Kemp, C., & Bader, P. (2004). Leader traits and
attributes. The nature of leadership. (pp. 101–124). Thousand Oaks, CA,
US: :Sage Publications, Inc.
Zaccaro, S. J. (2007). Trait-based perspectives of leadership. American
Psychologist, 62(1), 6-16.
