Unit 4

UNIT 4EFFECTIVE TEACHING ANDLEARNING STRATEGIES

Abg Izhar Abg Ahmad

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INTRODUCTION¢ What the trainer needs to do to maximize learning? ¢ Three main questions are of interest:� 1) Is the individual trainable?� 2) How should the training program be arranged to

facilitate learning?� 3) What can be done to ensure what was learned during

training will be retained and transferred from the job?¢ Answers : from what other designers and trainers have

learned from the conduct of their training programs, and from some findings from research.

¢ designers and trainers need some knowledge and understanding of learning principles and theories of motivation to guide them in deciding which strategies to use to effect learning.


TRAINABILITY: INTERNAL FACTORS TOFACILITATE TEACHING AND LEARNING

¢ What satisfies trainability?� ability and motivation

¢ 1) Ability : possess the aptitude or skills¢ What are some exampl es of skills or aptitude

that we are going to look for?� a) muscular coordination� b) visual acuity� c) personality characteristics (or traits)� d) mental ability


TRAINABILITY: INTERNAL FACTORS(CON’T)

¢ 2) Motivation : efforts, persistence and choi ces¢ What are some of the moti vational variables:� a) needs for achievement or competence� b) feelings of job involvement as well as their level of

career interest (Noe & Schmi tt, 1986: if training content and assignment were based on assessment of weakness ski ll of learners)

� c) individual’s expectancy that parti cipation in training will lead to desired outcome: higher pay, job security, status, stimulating colleagues or a good geographical location (Crandall, 1991)

� d) anxiety effects (facilitated or interfered depending on the types of l earning: simple or complex)


TRAINABILITY: INTERNAL FACTORS(CON’T)¢ Issues /Questions regarding the two variables:¢ 1) Must ability and motivation always be together?¢ 2) Can we isolate these two and say that abi lity is good

enough a criteria to select the trainee, or vice versa.¢ Performance = Abi lity x Motivation

¢ directly related to performance.¢ no or zero performance if either ability or motivation is absent ¢ performance also increases as each factor rises in value.¢ Train only individuals who possess both the ability and motivation


TRAINABILITY :TESTS FOR SELECTION OFPARTICIPANTS

¢ A. Trainability Tests¢ How do we assess whether l earners are trainable or

not?� 1) instruction and demonstrati on� 2) perform the task unaided� 3) noting errors on standardized error checklist,

usually on a 5-point scale.¢ Findings from trainability tests revealed the following

(Robertson & Downs 1989):� 1) scores produce a worthwhi le level of validity� 2) predicting subsequent success in training and job

performance


PERFORMANCE: MEASUREMENT DEVICES

¢ 1) A six-point scale measuring devise called a motivational instrument� e.g., a ten week trai ning program in SCUBA and

Deep Sea Air� trainee confidence measure i s significantly related to

eventual graduation of the program (Rei mer & Beisner, 1975).

¢ 2) Sampling of trainer’s ability level device (Gordon & Cohen, 1973)� task performance for entry-level work in various

vocational fields.� sampling of trainees’ ability level can be used as a

valid predictor of subsequent success in training


PERFORMANCE: MEASUREMENT DEVICES(CON’T)

¢ 3) “miniature job training and evaluation approach” (Riley & Manese, 1979)� a) sample of tasks using task analytic

procedures.� b) short training sessions (15 to 30 mi ns)� c) administering performance test which

measured the amount l earned by each appl icant during training.

� time to complete the mini-course and performance on several objective tests can be used to predict time to complete a training program.


EXTERNAL FACTORS TO FACILITATELEARNING

¢ learning conditions that are external to the learner.¢ environmental arrangements the trai ner can control

to facilitate learning¢ 1. Conditions of Practice� a) active practice� b) over-learning� c) massed vs. di stributed practice session� d) size of the unit to be learned

¢ 2. Feedback¢ 3. Meaningfulness of the Material¢ 4. Individual Differences¢ 5. Behavioral Modeling¢ 6. Maintaining Motivation


TRAINABILITY: EXTERNAL FACTORS (CON’T)¢ 1) Conditions of Practice¢ a) Active Practice� given the opportunity to practice what is being

taught� verbalization is not enough� need guidance from trainers at the early stages of

acquiring the new behavior, WHY?� to minimizes the risk of developing inappropriate

behaviors by the trainees.¢ b) Over-learning� providing trainees with continued practice far

beyond the point when the task has been performed correctly several times.

� example the US Air Force Training School’s Boldface Emergency Procedure


TRAINABILITY: EXTERNAL FACTORS(CONTD.)

¢ Why is over learning important?� i) it increases the length of time that training

material will be retained.� ii) it makes the learning more reflexive

(automatic)� iii) trainees will be more likely to maintain the

quality of their performance on their jobs during periods of emergency and added stress.

� iv) helps trainees transfer what they have learned during training to their job settings (transfer value)


TRAINABILITY: EXTERNAL FACTORS(CON’T)

¢ c) Massed versus Distributed Practice Session¢ How are we to di stribute or divide the time for

practice? Into segments or one conti nuos session?¢ depends on the nature of the task� i) For development of psychomotor skills?� ii) For learning factual information?� iii) For less meaningful material?� iv) How about l ong material?� vi) How about di fficult material?� vii) How about the l ess trainable the trainee

possess?



¢ d) Size of the unit to be learned¢ Issues to consider:� i) What is the optimum size of the unit to be

learned?� ii) Should we attempt to teach the enti re task at

each practice session?� iii) Is it more efficient in the long run to teach

individual subtasks initially and as the trainee starts mastering each subtask begi n the process of combining them?

¢ Three Basic Strategies (following Table)



_______________________________________________Phase Phase Phase Phase

1 2 3 4_______________________________________________Whole A+B+C A+B+C A+B+C A+B+C

Pure- A B C A+B+CPart

Progres- A A+B A+B+C A+B+Csive Part_______________________________________________



¢ Which strategy to use? � depends on: task complexity and task organi zation.� Task complexity: difficulty of each of the subtask

comprising the total tasks.� Task organization: refers to the degree of

interrelationship among the set of subtasks.� i) For highly organized task: whole method seems

to be more effi cient than part methods� ii) For lowly organized task: both part methods are

superior to the whole method� iii) As task complexity increases: same as above.

¢ Will there be any si tuation where a combi nation of the whole and part training can be utilized?



¢ 2) Feedback : Knowl edge of Results� without evaluative feedback: retardsl earning� critical for both learning and motivation� Forms of Feedback:� a) of verbal praises� b) productivity reports� c) test scores or performance measurement

¢ Functions of Feedback:� a) make necessary adjustments in the subsequent

behavior.� b) makes the l earning process more interesting for

the trainees, maximizing their willingness to learn



¢ c) leads to the setting of specific goals for maintaining and improving their performance (Locke & Latham, 1990).

¢ When do we give feedback?� as soon as possible after the trainee’s behavior.

¢ Is it necessary that feedback be i nstantaneous?� not necessary that feedback be instantaneous

(depends on the situation)¢ How much feedback do we give?� related to the time of giving feedback and capabilities

of the learner� too much (too l ittle) feedback at one ti me, or too

early: confusing and leads to a decl ine performance.



� therefore, for each trai nee and for each stage of learning, an optimum level of feedback shoul d be given.

¢ Should trainers provide negative feedback only?� positive feedback: usual ly strengthen the behavi or

(Latham ,1989; Latham & Wexley, 1991).� positive feedback: usual ly perceived and recal led

accurately and accepted more readily than negative feedback.

� negative feedback: is often denied with trainees who have low self esteem


TRAINABILITY: EXTERNAL FACTORS(CON’T)¢ From whom do trai nees usually accept negative

feedback?� from trainers whom they vi ew as trustworthy,

knowledgeable and powerful and has relatively close relationship with the trainee

¢ final analysis, trainers should provide both positive and negative feedback as long as negative feedback does not become a puni tive for the trainee.

¢ Error feedback: Is i t good to design our training programs so that trai nees have an opportuni ty to make errors? Are there advantages of doi ng this?

¢ can actually obtain positive effects from error training. ¢ to learn to deal with errors on both strategi c and

emotional level.



¢ Intrinsic feedback: the deri ved knowledge of results from the task i tself (intrinsic) as contrast to extrinsic (trainer).

¢ What are the effects of intrinsic feedback to learning?� will depend on their experience in the job being

taught and thei r particular level of self-esteem (Ilgen, et al., 1979

¢ Conclusion: include both intrinsic and extrinsic feedback



¢ 3. Meaningfulness of the Material� material that is rich in associations for the

trainees and is thus easily understood by them¢ How do we make sure that our training materials

can be understood by the trainees?� i) Provide overview: course outline� ii) Use familiar examples, terms and concepts;

visual aids.� iii) Sequence in a logical order


TRAINABILITY: EXTERNALFACTORS(CON’T)

¢ 4) Individual Differences� training needs:� demographic characteristics and rates of l earning

among individuals.¢ a) Demographi c characteristic

¢ i) Age: (Tucker, 1985)

¢ younger (40-49): preferred management training

¢ upper age group (50-59): preferred training in technological areas

¢ 60 & above: showed little interest in any kind of training


TRAINABILITY: EXTERNAL FACTORS(CON’T)¢ ii) Management hi erarchy: (Bernick et al 1984)¢ first line supervisors: technical factors such as book

keeping, written communication¢ mid-level managers: human resources courses such as

leadership skills, performance appraisal¢ upper management: conceptual courses such as goal

setting and planning skills¢ iii) Male-Female managers view of communication

and women managers trai ning needs courses in management (Berryman -Fink, 1986):

¢ both male and female: assertiveness, confidence building, public speaking and dealing with males.



¢ male managers: l istening, verbal skills, nonverbal communication and empathy and sensi tivity.

¢ iv) Government workers: (Tucker, 1984) ¢ need for human resource planning with regard to

organization.¢ b. Differences in Learning Rates¢ i) as a function of continued practice:¢ Figure 4.4: Four learning curves of four

trainees. (see handout)¢ therefore, be flexible enough to modi fy our training

strategies.



¢ ii) related to the rate of l earning among individuals is the question: when is learning highest and lowest? � learning progress follow the S-shaped pattern.� Figure 4.5: An S-shaped learning curve with a

plateau � Reasons for the plateau:

¢ may have reached the level of his or her capability

¢ interest may have waned temporarily

¢ maybe in the process of integrating levels of different skills

¢ may need a different method of instruction.



¢ iii) differences among trainees in abilities, motivation level, interest and prior history will affect performance and attrition (dropout) in training programs (Christal, 1974; Ghiselli,1973; Mumford, Weeks, Harding & Fleishman, 1988)� select applicants for training program who possess

trainability.¢ iv) individual differences in trainee abilities is related to

learning phenomena.� abilities are related to a number of different learning

phenomena such as performance during massed versus distributed practice session, whole versus part training as well as retention and transfer (Fleishman, 1965; Fleishman & Ellsion 1969; Fleishman & Parker, 1962)



� Implications are: ¢ shorter training program: if trainees are experienced and possessed

task-related activities.

¢ longer training programs: advisable for relatively inexperienced trainees (Fleishman & Mumford, 1989).

¢ vi) trainers differ in the kinds of “mental model” they formulate, and that these mental models affect how well they learn what is being taught.� “mental models” : schemata� employ a training approach which encouraged

trainee exploration and the active development of an integrated mental model


TRAINABILITY: EXTERNAL FACTORS(CON’T)¢ vi) on the average, older trainees require longer to

reach proficiency levels than younger trai nees and they may have devel oped alternative ways of organizing the information which could conflict with the requirements of the trai ning program. (Sterns & Doverspike, 1989).� Older trainees: need slower presentation rates,

longer periods for study, sequenci ng their learning from simple to complex tasks, greater hel p in the organization and memory processes, and the greater use of training techniques that provide active participation in the learning process (Belbin & Belbin, 1972; Mullen & Gorman, 1972; Schmidt, Murphy & Sanders, 1981)



¢ 5) Behavior Modeling� based on Bandura ‘s social learning theory� we can learn by imitating those actions of others

that we see as l eading desirable outcomes.¢ How is learning facilitated through the use of a model ?� a) Positive consequences, the model ’s action

functions as a cue to what consti tutes appropriate behavior.

� b) Modeling occurs: person imitated is seen as being competent, powerful , friendly and of high status within an organization (Identification).



¢ c) Modeling is increased: person to be i mitated is seen as being rewarded for how he or she acts as and when the rewards recei ved by the model (e.g. status, influence, friendship) are things that the observers would like for themselves.

¢ d) Observer identification with the models is maximized when the model is similar to the observer.

¢ e) Showing a trainee a negative model (showing trainee the wrong way of doing things) together with a positive model appears to facilitate transfer of learning to other situations.


TRAINABILITY: EXTERNAL FACTORS(CON’T)¢ 6) Motivation¢ What ways are there to moti vate trainees?¢ Two theories of motivation: goal setting and

expectancy theory¢ a) Goal Setting (Locke & Latham, 1984,1990)� a goal is anything an individual is trying to achieve� states that an i ndividual’s conscious goals or

intentions regulate one’s behavior.� hard goals result in higher performance than easy

ones� specific hard goals result in high performance tha do

no goals or the general ized goals as “do your best”


TRAINABILITY: EXTERNAL FACTORS(CON’T)¢ some research done on the i mportance of goal setting to

increase performance of employees:¢ i) Latham and Lee (1986) fi ndings:� Learning objectives of the training program should be

conveyed clearly to the participants at the outset of training and at various strategic points throughout the training process.

� Training goals should be difficult enough so that trainees are adequatel y challenged and thus are abl e to derive satisfaction from the achi evement of objectives.

� The distal goal of should be supplemented with periodic sub-goals during training such as trainer evaluation, work sample test and periodic quizzes.



¢ ii) Bandura (1982); Locke and Latham(1990):� show importance of goal setting for increasing self

efficacy because wi thout specific goals people have little basis for judging their capabilities.

� self-efficacy refers to the person ’s conviction that he or she can master a gi ven task (Bandura, 1986).

� low self-efficacy can resul t in a decreased level of performance.

� however, goal setting also leads depressive reactions since their adequacy of performance is measured against their personal standards.

� depressive reactions often arise from stringent self evaluation.


TRAINABILITY: EXTERNAL FACTORS(CON’T)¢ b) Expectancy Theory� instrumental ity theory� states that an i ndividual will be more motivated to

choose a behavi or alternative that is most likely to have favorable consequences.

� “What am I going to get out of that?� If the individual perceived that putting effort may

result in something of value then the individual is motivated to choose a particular behavior.

� The key concepts in the theory are¢ i) Outcome:¢ salary increase, promotion, dismissal, illness, injury, peer

acceptance, recognition and achievement.



� ii) Valence� desirability of or attractiveness of an outcome to the

individual.� iii) E ----- P Expectancy� employees perceived probabi lity that a given

amount of effort will result in improved performance that is quantity and/or quality of work.

� iv) P------ O Expectancy� perceived probabi lity that improved performance

will lead in turn to the attai nment of valued outcomes (e. g. bonus, pay i ncrease, promotion).



¢ the theory assumes that before deciding how much effort to exert employees ask themsel ves whether or not the following:� that the action has a high probability of leading to

better performance (E-P)� that improved performance will lead to certain

need-related outcomes (P -O)� that those need-related outcomes or organi zational

rewards are of val ue (valence).¢ here are two condi tions to effect the two expectanci es:� the P----O expectancy depends on a person ’s

perception of the rewards conti ngencies presently found in the organization.



� the E---P expectancy depends in part on relatively stable characteristics of the workers such as intelligence, motor abilities, and personal ity traits and the individual’s perception of what makes the successful employee of whether effort can be transformed into an effective performance.

¢ What are the implications of expectancy theory i n motivating trainees?� The trainee must bel ieve that “there’s something in

it for me” in terms of valued outcomes--higher wages, opportuni ties for advancement, ski ll acquisition, etc.), if not then training program will be viewed as a waste of ti me or will just lead them to nowhere.



� Trainers should not assume that thei r trainees have accurate percepti ons of reward contingencies.

� Organization should ensure that each trai nee has a high E-----P expectancy by providing effective instructors, el iminating obstacles to effective performance, provi ding accurate role perceptions and selecting trainees with requisite ability and motivation.

� Only high valence outcomes shoul d be used as incentives for superior trainee performance.



� in sum, the practi cal implications of the two theories are that they can be appl ied in motivating learning by making certain that :¢ trainers see the value for them of participating in the training¢ understanding the goals or target behaviors of the program¢ clearly perceiving the link between their actions during

training and their receipt of valued rewards.


RETENTION AND TRANSFER OF LEARNING

¢ Issue: “What can be done to ensure that what i s learned in training will be retained ad transferred to the job?”

¢ Transfer� the extent to whi ch what was learned during

training is used on the job.� three transfer possi bilities:� a) Positive Transfer: Learni ng in the training

situation results in better performance on the j ob� b) Negative Transfer: resul ts in poorer

performance on the job.� c) Zero Transfer: has no effect on job performance.


RETENTION AND TRANSFER (CON’T)¢ How can we opti mize the possibility of getting

positive transfer?¢ 1) Before� a) Conduct a needs analysis that includes

multiple constituencies.� b) Seek out supervi sory support for training.� c) Inform the trai nees regarding the nature of the

training.� d) Assign tasks prior to the training sessions.

¢ 2) During� a) Maximize the similarity between the trai ning

situation and the job situation.


RETENTION AND TRANSFER (CON’T)� b) Provide as much experi ence as possible with the

task being taught.� c) Have the trai nees practice their newly learned

skills in actual situation back on their jobs.� d) Provide a variety of examples when teaching

concepts or skills.� e) Label or identify important features of a task.� f) Make sure that general principles are understood

(and not merely memorized) before expecti ng much transfer.

� g) Provide trainees with the knowledge, skills and feelings of self-efficacy to self-regulate their own behaviors back on their jobs.


RETENTION AND TRANSFER (CON’T)

� h) Design the training content so that the trainees can see i ts applicability.

� i) Use adjunct questions to guide the trainer’s attentions.

¢ 3) After� a) After completing a training program, trainees

should be assigned specific behavioral goals. � In addition, the trainees and/or their supervisors

should complete behavioral progress reports to monitor the extent of the goal achievement back on the job.


RETENTION AND TRANSFER (CON’T)

� Post-training strategies for facilitating transfer of training:¢i) Assigned goal setting¢ii) Participative goal setting¢iii) Behavioral self management approach

� b) Have the trai ner collaborate with each of the trainees in using the applications plan principle.

� c) Make certain that the trained behaviors and ideas are rewarded i n the job situation.

� d) Use the relapse prevention strategy whi ch relies heavily on behavioral self-management . (Marx,1982)


ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS AFFECTINGTRANSFER OF LEARNING

¢ Factors that affect trainee outcome expectanci es (Latham & Crandal l, 1981) are pay and promotion policies and environmental constraints.

¢ 1. Pay and Promoti on Policies:� Research suggests that pay and performance

systems are effecti ve methods for about and sustaining performance (Heneman, 1990; Latham and Huber, i n press).

¢ 2. Environmental Constraints:� Have deleterious effect on trainee/s outcome

expectancies.


ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS (CON’T)

� Empirical investigations show the effect of environmental constraints on an individual’s behavior.

� Peter, et al (1982) found that three types of situational constraints affected performance on goal setting tasks:¢ a) completeness of task information, ¢ b) ease of use of materials and supplies, ¢ c) similarity of work environment to training environment

¢ To minimize the probability of low outcome expectanci es:� Conduct organizational assessment to identify any

barriers to transfer before training begins, in addition to the traditional organizational and person training needs assessment.


SOCIAL VARIABLES AFFECTING THETRANSFER OF LEARNING

¢ Other environmental variables are social in nature and stem from i nteractions with peers and supervisors.

¢ 1. Peer Group� The interactive dynamics between the individual

and his peers is a potent force i n the socialization process within an organization.

� Interaction can provide support and reinforcement for not onl y learning what is being taught in the training program but al so in applying what was learned in the job.


SOCIAL VARIABLES (CON’T)

¢ 2. Supervisory Support� To increase the probabi lity of transfer of training

to work in the workplace, supervisors need to reinforce the appl ication of what as learned in training to the job.

� Do this effectively by the following:� 1) The supervisors must be ful ly aware of the

training objectives as well as the training content for attaining the objectives.

� 2) Another way to publicize commitment to training objectives is to have the supervi sors and the trainees sign a contract.


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Unit 4

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