UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA
RELATIONSHIP OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING WITH PERCEIVED STRESS, COPING STYLES, AND SOCIAL SUPPORT
AMONGST UNIVERSITY UNDERGRADUATES
ANNETTE ANANTHI ARULRAJAH
FPP 2000 20
RELATIONSHIP OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING WITH PERCEIVED STRESS, COPING STYLES, AND SOCIAL SUPPORT AMONGST
UNIVERSITY UNDERGRADUATES
By
ANNETTE ANANTHI ARULRAJAH
Thesis Submitted in Fu lfi lment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in the Faculty of Educational Studies
Universiti Putra Malaysia
May 2000
DEDICATION
To the one person who bel ieved that all th ings are possib le for her ch i ldren , to my greatest mentor, encourager and prayer warrior - MUM!
Th is thesis is a toast to the passion you have inspired me with .
II
Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfi lment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science
RELATIONSHIP OF PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING WITH PERCEIVED STRESS, COPING STYLES, AND SOCIAL S UPPORT AMONGST
UNIVERSITY UNDERGRADUATES
By
ANNETTE ARULRAJAH
May 2000
Chairman : Dr. Li ly Mastura Haji Harun
Faculty : Educational Studies
The psycholog ical well-being of undergraduates in Malaysia in relation to
their perceived stress, coping styles , and social support has not been
thorough ly investigated. The a ims of the study are (a) to explore the level
of psycholog ical wel l-being , perceived stress , coping styles , and social
support; (b) to get an accurate description of the demographic variables;
(c) to explore the relationships between psycholog ical well-being , perceived
stress , coping styles , and social support; (d) to exp lore the relationships
between psychologica l wel l-being, perceived stress, coping styles, and
social support after control l ing for the possible intervening (demog raph ic)
iii
variables; and (e) to explore the differences in psycholog ical well-being ,
perceived stress , coping styles , and social support with reference to gender,
status of learner, and rel ig iosity each in its turn .
A random stratified cluster sample of 422 from the facu lty of
Educational Studies was taken , as a representative of undergraduates in
that particular facu lty in Un iversiti Putra Malaysia . The sample came from
each of the six programmes in the faculty - the Physical Education
programme, the Agricultura l Sciences programme, Teaching English As A
Second Language programme, Gu idance And Counseling prog ramme, the
Home Sciences programme, and Teaching Malay As A First Language
prog ramme.
It was found that coping styles and social support had a positive
relationship with psycholog ical well-being, whi le perceived stress had a
negative relationship after having controlled for al l other variables.
Intervening variab les such as gender, rel igiosity, and status of learner did
not have any relationship with all the major variables like perceived stress ,
coping styles, social support and psycholog ical wel l being . There was one
exception though , there was a relationship between status of learner and
psycholog ical well-being .
iv
On the whole, the Malaysian undergraduates were found to be
psychologically wel l . Enhancing the social support of the undergraduate in
h is natural community, as well as providing tra in ing skil ls in positive intrusive
thoughts as well as problem-focused coping is strongly recommended. The
need for cou nselors in each faculty is also strongly advocated.
v
Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat U n iversiti Putra Malaysia sebagai memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Master Sains
HUBUNGAN KESIHATAN PSIKOLOGI DENGAN PERSEPSI TEKANAN, STAlL MENANGANI TEKANAN, DAN SOKONGAN SOSIAL 01 KALANGAN PElAJAR UNIVERSITI
Oleh
ANNETTE ANANTH I ARULRAJAH
Mei 2000
Pengerusi: Dr. Lily Mastura Haji Harun
Fakulti Pengajian Pendid ikan
Kesihatan psikolog i para mahasiswa di Malaysia berhubung dengan
persepsi tekanan, stai l menangani tekanan , dan sokongan sosial masih
belum lag i dite l iti dengan bersungguh-sungguh . Objektif kaj ian ini adalah
(a) untuk menentukan tahap kesihatan psikolog i , persepsi tekanan , stai l
menangani tekanan serta sokongan sosial;(b) untuk mendapat gambaran
yang tepat mengenai pembolehubah-pembolehubah demog rafi; (c) untuk
menentukan hubungan antara kesihatan psikolog i , persepsi tekanan , stai l
menangani tekanan , dan sokongan sosial; (d) untuk menentukan hubungan
antara kesihatan psikolog i , persepsi tekanan, stai l menangani tekanan, dan
sokongan sosial setelah mengawal pembolehubah luaran (demografi); dan
(e) untuk menentukan perbezaan dalam kesihatan psikolog i , persepsi
tekanan , stai l menangani tekanan, dan sokongan sosial dibanding dengan
pembolehubah jantina, status pelajar, dan keagamaan.
vi
Satu persampelan kelompok secara rambang seramai 422 orang
daripada Faku lti Pengajian Pendidikan telahpun diambi l untuk mewakili
pelajar di fakulti tersebut, di Un iversiti Putra Malaysia . Sampel in i telah
dipil ih daripada enam program dalam Fakulti Pengajian Pendidikan , iaitu -
program Pendidikan Jasman i , program Sains Pertanian , program Mengajar
Bahasa I nggeris Sebaga i Bahasa Kedua, program Bimbingan dan
Kaunseling , program Sains Rumahtangga , serta prog ram Mengajar Bahasa
Melayu Sebaga i Bahasa Pertama.
Didapati bahawa stai l menangani tekanan serta sokongan sosial
mempunyai perhubungan yang positif dengan kesihatan psikolog i .
Manakala pula, persepsi tekanan mempunyai hubungan yang negatif
setelah pembolehubah lain dikawal . Pembolehubah seperti jantina ,
keagamaan , serta status pelajar tidak mempengaruh i pembolehubah
pembolehubah utama seperti persepsi tekanan , stai l menangan i tekanan,
sokongan sosia l , serta kesihatan psikolog i . Hanya satu pengecualian iaitu ,
didapati h ubungan antara status pelajar dan kesihatan psikolog i .
Secara keseluruhan , didapati bahawa golongan mahasiswa adalah
s ihat dari seg i psikolog i . Memperbaiki sokongan sosial dalam komuniti sedia
ada mahasiswa, serta memberi latihan cara-cara menangan i tekanan -
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seumpamanya cara-cara mempunyai fikiran positif, dan cara-cara
menyelesaikan berfokuskan masalah telahpun dikemukakan . J uga ,
keperluan kaunselor d i setiap fakulti telah disuarakan .
vi i i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
An artist knows that behind every one of h is work of art , there were
many moments of inspiration and hope . This thesis is a lso a modest piece of
art by an amateur. Many are the persons who added their flavor of
inspiration.
I recal l that my concerns were b i rthed in a Commun ity Counsel ing
class. Dr. Li ly , you i nspired and challenged me to take issues in our
community seriously. Tru ly, you have been a g reat lecturer as wel l as a
mentor. I q uivered when g iving you my drafts knowing that your sharp eyes
would note everyth ing . Yet, I thrived on the critique and enjoyed the process
of being stretched . Dr. Rusnan i , your encouragement and "other"
perspective enriched my understanding . Dr. Rohan i , the statistics you taught
and your presence has stood me in good stead . Thank you .
A special bouquet of thanks to you, Professor Emeritus from Ohio
State U n iversity Dr. David McCracken , for the fou ndations you laid in
research methodology. You were also an inspiration in shaping my thoug hts ,
concerns, and my research topic and hypotheses. Your u rg ing me to try
Structure B and your bel ief in me gave me confidence . Also to Dr. Kenneth
Nowack, you read ily shared your instrument (The Stress Assessment
ix
Profi le) with me. Thank you for the pointers and encouragement through the
electronic mai l .
To the commun ity I stud ied , the undergrad uates! Your struggles,
aspirations, and your l ife was another school I enrol led in - the school of l ife!
You taught me with your strugg les to grow on . I was inspired . Thank you .
To m y col leagues, you have been a brick. Thank you Yoke Yee for
the many words of encouragement and redipping my q uestionaire. Same to
the 'g irls' - Lean Sze and G lory. To Mary, your help i n locating resources
was such a b lessing . To Lee Ang , who helped me complete my keying in of
data - that was a g reat rel ief. To Kim Cheng who typed in my bib l iography,
that was patient of you . To the rest who prayed me through , I have fin ished
thanks to your prayers. Al l your labor of love is appreciated .
To mum and Johnathan, you were the ones who knew my dark
nights . You u rged me on , even when I was on the verge of qu itting . This
thesis is testimony that you saw me throug h .
Final ly , to my Lord Jesus, thank You . Creativity , i nspiration ,
knowledge , friends, teachers have al l been g ifts from You .
x
I certify that an Examination Committee met on 17th May 2000 to cond uct the final examination of An nette Ana nthi Aru l rajah o n h e r Master of Science thesis e ntitled "Relationship of Psychological Well-being With Perceived
Stress, Coping Styles, And Social S u pport Amongst University Undergrad uates" in accordance with Universiti Pertania n Malaysia (Hig her Deg ree) Act 1980 and Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (Hig her Deg ree) Reg ulations 1 981 . The Committee recommends that the ca ndidate be awarded the relevant degree. Members of the Exa min ation Committee are
as follows:
HABIBAH ELIAS, PhD.
P rofesor Madya Facu lty of Ed ucation al Studies University P utra Malaysia (Chairman)
LILY MASTURA HAJI HARUN, Ph.D
Lecturer, Facu lty of Education a l Studies Universiti P utra Malaysia (Member)
ROHANI AHMAD TARMIZI, Ph.D
Lecturer, Faculty of Education a l Studies Universiti P utra Malaysia (Member)
RUSNANI BT. ABDUL KADIR, Ph.D
Lecturer, Faculty of Ed ucation a l Studies Universiti P utra Malaysia (Member)
Date: 24 MAY 2000 xi
This Thesis was submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and was accepted as fulfi l lment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science .
xii
f&i� KAMI A'WANG, Ph.D, Associate Professor Dean of Graduate School , Universiti Putra Malaysia
Date : 1 3 JUt 2000
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the thesis is based on my orig inal work except for quotations and citations which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted for any other degree at UPM or other institutions.
Candidate. Annette Ananthi Arulrajah
Date : 1 7th May 2000
xiii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
pages
[)E:[)IC;I\TI()� ----------------------------------------------------------------- i i I\B S TRI\ C; T -------------------------------------------------------------------- i i i I\BSTRI\� ---------------------------------------------------------------------- vi 1\ C � N () WL E: [) G E: M E: � T --------------------------------------------------- I X I\P P R ()V I\L S HE: E:TS ------------------------------------------------------ xi [)E:CLI\RI\ TI()� F()RM ---------------------------------------------------- xiv LIST ()F T I\BLE:S ----------------------------------------------------------- xix LI S T () F F IG U R E: S --------------------------------------------------------- xx i LIST ()F I\BBRE:VII\ TI()�S ---------------------------------------------- xxi i i
Chapter
INTFtO[)LJCTION ---------------------------------------------------- 1 Background ()f The Study --------------------------------------- 1
Health I n 1\ �ew E:ra ------------------------------------------- 1 C;ontextualizing The Population's Health ----------------- 1 0 Health I\s 1\ Transactional Variable ----------------------- 1 6 The Cancer ()f Mental Health ------------------------------ 1 8 Commun ity Counsel ing I\nd Priority To Prevention --- 22 I\n I nteg rated Perspective To Psycholog ical
We I I-be in g ------------------------------------------------ 25 Statement ()f The Problem ------------------------------------- 29 Research ()bjectives --------------------------------------------- 32 Research Q uestions ---------------------------------------------- 33 Research Hypotheses -------------------------------------------- 34 [)efi n iti 0 n ()f Term s ----------------------------------------------- 38
Psychological Wel l-being ----------------------------------- 39 Perceived Stress --------------------------------------------- 39 Coping Styles ------------------------------------------------- 40 Social Support ----------------------------------------------- 4 1
Sign ificance ()f The Study -------------------------------------- 4 1 Limitations ()f The Study ---------------------------------------- 43 [)el imitations ()f The Study ------------------------------------ 44
xiv
I I LITERATURE REVIEW ---------------------------------------------- 46 I ntrod uctio n ------------------------------------------------------------- 46 Psych 0 I og i ca I We 11-be i n g -------------------------------------------- 53 Perce iv ed Stress ------------------------------------------------------- 68 Cop i n g Sty les ------------------------------------------------------------ 84 Social Support ---------------------------------------------------------- 1 00
Demographic Variables ----------------------------------------------- 1 1 3 Gender --------------------------------------------------------------- 1 1 3 Status Of Learner ------------------------------------------------- 1 1 7
Relig ios ity ----------------------------------------------------------- 124 Co n cI u s ion -------------------------------------------------------------- 1 27
I I I METHODOLOGY --------------------------------------------------- 1 29 I ntrod u ctio n ----------------------------------------------------------- 1 29 Resea rch Des ig n --------------------------------------------------- 1 3 1 I n stru m e ntati 0 n ------------------------------------------------------ 1 35
Measuring The Variable --------------------------------------- 1 35
Backgrou nd Of The I nstrument ----------------------------- 136 Research Questionaire --------------------------------------- 138 Val id ity And Rel iabi l ity Of The I nstrument ---------------- 1 4 1 Scoring Method -------------------------------------------------- 1 42 Pilot Test ------------------------------- --------------------------- 1 45
Data Collection Procedures -------------------------------------- 1 48 Population And Sampl ing Procedures ------------------------- 1 49
Pop u lati on --------------------------------------------------------- 1 49 Sampl ing Procedures : S ize ---------------------------------- 150 Sampl ing Proced ures : P lan Of Action --------------------- 1 53
Data An a I ys i s --------------------------------------------------------- 1 54 Descriptive Analysis -------------------------------------------- 156 I nferential Analysis ---------------------------------------------- 160
The Actual Cond itions Of Sampl ing ---------------------------- 174 Limitations ------------------------------------------------------------- 175
xv
IV RESEARCH FINDINGS --------------------------------------------- 178 I ntrod uctio n ------------------------------------------------------------- 178 Descriptive Analysis -------------------------------------------------- 178 Descriptions On Demograph ic Variables ----------------------- 179 Description Of The Major Variables ----------------------------- 181 I nferential Analysis ---------------------------------------------------- 184
Relationsh ips Between Psycholog ical Wel l-being And The I ndependent Variables ---------------- 184
Relationsh ips Between The I ndependent Variables ---- 187 I nterven ing Variables I n Relation To Psycholog ical
Wel l-being -------------------------------------------- 189 I nterven i ng Variables I n Relation To Perceived Stress - 191 I nterven ing Variables I n Relation To Coping Styles ----- 192 I nterven ing Variables I n Relation To Social Support ---- 193 Differences I n Gender, Status Of Learner, Rel ig iosity -- 194 Multiple Regression And Semi-Partial Correlation Of
Psycholog ical Factors On Psycholog ical Wel l-being - 206 Multiple L inear Equation For Psycholog ical Wel l-being -- 217
Conclusion ---------------------------------------------------------------- 219
V DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS AND 221 RECOMMENDATIONS The Research Problem Revisited -------------------------------- 221 D iscu ss ion -------------------------------------------------------------- 223
The General Health Environment As Seen From The M a j 0 r Va ri abies ---------------------------------------------- 223
Psycholog ical Wel l-being I n The Context Of Its R e lati 0 n s h ips ------------------------------------------------- 226
Oth e r I nte r -re I ati 0 n s h ips ---------------------------------------- 231 I nte rv en i n g Va ri a b I es -------------------------------------------- 233 Relationship Of Psychological Wel l-being With
Perceived Stress, Coping Styles, And Social Support Among U n ivers ity U nderg raduates - 237
I mpl ications - Where Do We Go From Here? ------------------ 238 Recommendations - Pushing Back The Frontiers Of
Research ------------------------------------------------------- 242 Sum mary ---------------------------------------------------------------- 246
xvi
BIB LI OG RA P HY ------------------------------------------------------ 248
APPENDICES A Inventori Kesihatan --------------------------------- 278
B Permission To Translate And Use The Stress Assessment Profi le ------------------------ 289
\fllrA ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 290
xvii
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1 Summary of Valid ity and Reliabil ity Measures for the SAP --- 1 43
2 Summary of the Rel iab i l ity MeasureS for the I-K ---------------- 1 47
3 Summary of the Statistical Analyses Used I n Answering Research Q uestions and Hypotheses ----------------------------- 1 57
4: Status of the Demographic Variables I nvolved in the Study - 1 80
5 : Descriptive Measures of the Major Variables -------------------- 1 82
6: Correlation Matrix of Relationships Between the Major Variab les ------------------------------------------------------------------- 185
7 Correlation Coefficients of Coping Styles with Other Major Variab les ------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 87
8 Correlation Coefficients of I ntervening Variables in Relation to the Major Variables -------------------------------------------------- 1 90
9 t-test Examin ing Gender D ifferences For The Level Of Psycholog ical Wel l-being --------------------------------------------- 1 96
10 t-test Examin ing Gender Differences For The Level Of Perceived Stress --------------------------------------------------------- 1 97
1 1 t-test Examin ing Gender Differences For The Level Of Coping Styles ------------------------------------------------------------- 1 98
12 t-test Examin ing Gender Differences For The Level Of Social Support ------------------------------------------------------------ 1 99
13 t-test Examin ing Status Of Learner Differences For The Level Of Psycholog ical Wel l-being --------------------------- 200
14 t-test Examin ing Status Of Learner Differences For The Level Of Perceived Stress -------------------------------------- 201
xviii
15 t-test Examin ing Status Of Learner D ifferences For The Overall Level Of Coping Styles --------------------------------- 202
16 t-test Examin ing Status Of Learner D ifferences For The Level Of Social Support ------------------------------------------ 203
17 Analysis of Variance of Psychological Well-being Between D ifferent Relig iosity Levels -------------------------------------------- 204
1 8 Analysis of Variance Coping Styles Between Different Re Iig ios ity Levels -------------------------------------------------------- 205
1 9 Analysis of Variance Social Support Between Different Rei ig iosity Levels -------------------------------------------------------- 206
20 Multiple Reg ression of Psycholog ical Wel l-being Analysed in Two Sets --------------------------------------------------------------- 208
21 Analysis Of Variance And R2 of Perceived Stress, Coping Styles, Social Support In The Regression Of Psycholog ical We I I-b e i n g ---------------------------------------------------------------- 209
22 Analysis Of Variance And R2 of Perceived Stress, Coping Styles In The Reg ression Of Psycholog ical Wel l-being ----- 210
23 Analysis Of Variance And R2 of Perceived Stress, Social Support I n The Regression Of Psycholog ical Wel l-being -- 2 10
24 Analysis Of Variance And R2 of Coping Styles, Social Support I n The Reg ression Of Psycholog ical Wel l-being - - 2 10
25 Semi Partial Mu ltip le Regression Coefficients for the Un iq ues I ndependent Variables (Set B) After Control l ing for Other Independent Variables To Be Partialled Out (Set A) ------------------------------------------------------------------ 212
26 The Contribution Of The Partial Regression Coefficient AndThe Beta Weights Towards The Regression Eq uation --------------------------------------------------------------- 2 17
xix
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig ure Page
1 : A Simplified Model of the Ecology of Development ------------ 1 2
2 : A Transactional Model of Psycholog ical Wel l-being , Perceived Stress, Social Support and Coping Styles ---------- 1 8
3 : Schematic Model of the Psycholog ical Wel l-being of U ndergraduates with Relation to Perceived Stress, Coping Styles and Social Support ---------------------------------- 27
4 : An I ntegrative and Hol istic Model of the Various Theoretical U nderp inn ings Affecting Psychological Wel l-being , Perceived Stress , Coping Styles , and Social Sup port --------------------------------------------------------------------- 28
5 : Dohrendwend Model of the Process Whereby Psychosocia l Stress I nduces Psychopathology ---------------- 56
6 : The Dohrendwends' Six Competing Hypotheses --------------- 59
7 : The Social Readjustment Scale ------------------------------------- 7 1
8 : Stress Appra isal of S ituations ---------------------------------------- 77
9 : The Biopsychosocia l Stress Model --------------------------------- 83
1 0 : Transactional Model of Coping -------------------------------------- 88
1 1 : Rival Models of the Effect of Social Support on Health ------ 1 05
1 2 : Social Support and the Buffering Hypothesis i n Detai l ------- 107
1 3 : Sex Differences in the I ncidence of Atypical Development - 1 1 5
xx
14 : Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development --------------------- 119
15 : Schematic Model of the Relationsh ips U nder Study ---------------- 134
16: The Regression Ballantine for Extraneous Variables (Set A) with Perceived Stress, Coping Styles and Social Support (Set B) -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 167
17: The Semipartial Correlation Ballantine for Extraneous Variables (Set A) with Perceived Stress, Coping Styles and Social Support (Set B) ---------------------------------------------- 170
18: The Semipartial Correlation Ballantine for Extraneous Variables, Coping Styles and Social Support (Set A) with Perceived Stress (Set B) -------------------------------------------------- 171
19: The Semipartial Correlation Bal lantine for Extraneous Variables, Perceived Stress and Social Support (Set A) with Coping Styles (Set B) ------------------------------------------------------ 172
20: The Semipartial Correlation Bal lantine for Extraneous Variables, Perceived Stress and Coping Styles (Set A) with Social Support (Set B) ---------------------------------------------------- 173
21: The Ballantine For Coping Styles , and Social Support (Set A) With Perceived Stress (Set B) -------------------------------- 214
22: The Ballantine For Perceived Stress , Social Support (Set A) With Coping Styles (Set B) ------------------------------------ 215
23: The Ballantine For Perceived Stress , Coping Styles (Set A) With Social Support (Set B) --------------------------------------------- 216
24 : Relationship of Psychological Wel l-being with Perceived Stress , Coping Styles , Social Support and Demographic Va ri a b I es --------------------------------------------------------------------- 222
xxi
AFRO
DSM I I I R
DSM IV
ERIC
GAS
I-K
LES
MRC
NMHA
PF-SOC
SAP
SPSS
SSO
UPM
WB
WCC
WCO
WHO
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
African Reg ional Office
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental D isorders I I I R
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental D isorders IV
Educational Resources I nformation Center
Genera l Adaptation Syndrome
I nventori Kesihatan
Life Experiences Survey
Mu lt iple Regression I Correlation
N ational Mental Health Association
Problem-Focused Style Of Coping
Stress Assessment Profi le
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
Social Support Ouestionaire
U niversiti Putra Malaysia
World Bank
Ways of Coping Checkl ist
Ways of Coping Ouestionaire
World Health Organization
xxii
Health In A New Era
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Background Of The Study
We stand at the dawn of a new era. L ike the canvas of an
artist, this most important decade in the history of civi l ization is
coloured by stunn ing technolog ical innovations, economic
opportun ities as wel l as crashes, political reforms and g reat cultural
rebirths. Yet, l i ke the g l immering shadows i ncluded in the creative
work of an artist, increas ing ly we can feel the g nawing hunger pangs
for continued health and wel l-being as part of this whole new
dawning era.
This wi l l be a decade l ike none that has come before because
it wi l l culm inate i n the mi l len ium, the year 2000. What for centuries
has been a monumental symbol ic date that stood for the future and
what we would make of it, is fast seeing the l ig ht of day break. We
have fal len under its domin ion , and as we march towards the new
mil lenium, visions of excellence spur us towards breakthroughs. Yet,
l ike a growing chi ld throwing away the cloak of ch i ldhood , many who
march on do so in a spirit of realism , with a q uest not on ly for
success and grandeur but for psycholog ical , physical , and emotional
health or wel l-being . People are becoming more aware that health
exerts the power of determin ing how we l ive our l ives. Whilst not
everyone may consciously invest in health although that is a
phenomena fast changing , no one can deny that poor health wi l l
mean a deterioration of meaning , joy, and power for l iving , as wel l as
an inabi l ity to enjoy al l other conquests and breakthroughs.
Accord ing to Naisbitt ( 1 996) , the most excit ing breakthroughs
of the 21 st century wi l l occur n ot because of technology but because
of an expanding concept of what it means to be human . These words
come from the pen of an author who has spent a large portion of h is
l ife watch ing out for chang ing trends in the world and in Asia too .
Accord ing to him, as we approach the year 2000 , the mi l lenium is
reemerg ing as a metaphor for the future which ign ites our vision for a
better world , yet holds together with it our n ightmares of the world's
end . A better world , not just because of technology and g lobal ization
but because of robustness and wel l-being , a state of health and a
deepen ing u nderstand ing of what it means to be human encourages
us to confront and resolve our problems so we can meet the
mi l len ium with a clean state.
2
