UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT for BA Political... · School of Distance Education Modern World History Page...

MODERN WORLD HISTORY FROM A.D 1500MODERN WORLD IN TRANSITION- FROM

1500 A.D

Complementary Course ofI Semester

BA Political Science and BA English

CUCBCSS(2014 Admission Onwards)

UNIVERSITY OF CALICUTSCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

Calicut university PO, Thenjipalam, Malappuram-673635

942

School of Distance Education

Modern World History Page 2

UNIVERSITY OF CALICUTSCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

STUDY MATERIAL

Complementary Course of I Semester BA Political Science and BA English

MODERN WORLD HISTORY FROM A.D 1500MODERN WORLD IN TRANSITION- FROM 1500 A.D

Prepared by :1. Rejeesh V.M.,Koyilandy (Module I & II)2. Ajmal Mueen MA

Asst. Professor and HoD of historyMAMO College, Mukkam (Module III)

Scrutinized by:Ashraf Koyilothan KandiyilChairman, Board of Studies- - History (UG)Govt. College Mokeri

©Reserved



Syllabus

MODERN WORLD HISTORY FROM A.D 1500

HIS1C02 MODERN WORLD IN TRANSITION-FROM 1500 A.D

MODULE I:Transition from Medieval to Modern

Decline of Feudalism –growth of trade and Towns –development of Science and

Technolology -emergence of National consciousness.

Renaissance –causes-Humanism-features-Influence on science, Literature, art,

Architecture.

Reformation-Lutheranism-Anglicanism-Counter-reformation-Geographical

explorations-major explorations –Impact on world politics, economy and culture.

MODULE II-Developments in Political and Economy

Growth of Nation states- Development of Absolute monarchies- Divine right theory of

kingship-Louis XIV-European trading Companies in the east and Americas-

Mercantilism-commercial Revolution.

MODULE III: Dawn of Rationalism and Democracy

The English Revolution of 1688- The Bill of rights-The Enlightenment movement-

Francis Bacon- Locke- The American Revolution- Declaration of Independence.

Books for Reading:

1.Michael Beard- A history of Capitalism.2.Wallbank and Taylor- Civilization Past and Present3.C D M Ketelby-A history of Modern Times4.Wallerstain Emmanuel- The Modern World System5.Mark Ferrow- Colonialism:A world History6.E J Hobsbaum-The Age of Capitalism7.E J Hobsbaum –Nation and Nationalism Since 1780.8.E.J.Hobsbaum-Age of Revolution9.H.A.L.Fisher-History of Modern Europe10.David Thomson-World History.



MODULE PAGE NO.

I TRANSITION FROM MEDIEVAL TOMODERN

5

II DEVELOPMENTS IN POLITICS ANDECONOMY

29

III DAWN OF RATIONALISM ANDDEMOCRACY

38



Module I

TRANSITION FROM MEDIEVAL TO MODERNHistorians have divided the history of mankind into three periods the Ancient,

the Medieval and the Modern. The year 476 AD in which the last West RomanEmperor was deposed, is taken to mark the end of the ancient period and beginningof the middle ages. The middle age are supposed to have ended in 1453 AD., the yearof the fall of Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, into the handsof the Turks. The modern period is said to begin from this year. The theory of ‘socio-economic formation’ as basis for the periodization of history. The modern age can besaid to have begun with the development of capitalism in the world. As a new socio-economic formation capitalism first appeared in Western Europe. It was in the latemiddle ages, approximately between the 15th and 17th centuries, that Capitalism hadits embryonic origin. As far as Europe was concerned this was a period of Transitionfrom Feudalism to Capitalism.

The period witnessed a revolutionary change in the socio-economic structureof Europe. This change was reflected in a set of major inter related historicaldevelopments which were to stem the tide of capitalist expansion. as theRenaissance, the Reformation, the birth of modern science, the discovery of newcontinents and sea-routes resulting in the European colonization of globe’s vastregions etc. The existing feudal socio-economic formation began to be replaced bycapitalism. But the modern age was not merely one of victory of capitalist society. Italso proved the age of the rise of new forces

Decline of Feudalism

Feudal system was first emerged in Europe. The early name of Feudalism wasclientage. The word feudalism was originated from the Latin word ‘Feudum’ (meansFief’). Fief means land given to peasant. Feudalism was based on the ownership ofland by lords and their exploitation of the direct producers. The structure of feudalrelationship was like a pyramid. King was on top of the pyramid and slaves were atthe bottom. In short feudalism is a socio-politic and economic organization.



The unit of life in feudal Europe was the ‘manor’ or village. The serfs or villainswere the largest class in the feudal hierarchy forming base of feudal pyramid.Medieval life was overwhelmingly rural, nine out of ten coming within the agrarianframework. These villains were bound to the soil and were subject to the manifoldauthority of the lord. Their suffering was very real and often found in open revolts.Such revolts became a feature of European life in the 14th and 15th centuries.Examples – the peasants revolt in England and Germany, the Jacquerie in France andDolcino in Italy. Gradually, the villains emancipated from the clutches of their lords.The decline of feudalism gradually began with the emergence of new ideasparticularly with the disappearance of Barbarians from Western Europe. Protectionwas not required for the people and they were more conscious of their rights. Theywere trying to be free from the tyranny of feudal lords.

Many factors led to the decay of feudalism. Economic changes were moreimportant than political reasons. The revival of trade with the Near East and thegrowth of cities led to an expansion of commerce and industry which created newopportunities for the serfs in the towns. Secondly, rise in prices of agriculturalproducts resulted in the purchasing power of the new class. Many, peasants gainedfreedom in this way. The ‘Black death’, which swept over Europe in the 14th centuryalso took a heavy toll of life from the working classes, which severely resulted inscarcity of labour. Moreover, as the towns increased in power and wealth due totrade and industry, the exacted independence from their lords. The modernEuropean city owes its existence to its medieval ancestor. From the 10th centuryonwards towns began to spring up throughout Europe. Politically, the importantcause for the decay of feudalism was the rise of nation states, particularly Englandand France. Invention of gun powder revolutionized the methods of warfare.

The Crusades also contributed to the weakening of Feudalism by eliminatingpowerful nobles. Lastly, the religious cause for the decline of feudalism was the allpervading nature of the Roman Catholic Church. The church was a powerful antifeudal force. While feudalism was local, the church was universal. The people gaveallegiance to the church rather than to the feudal lord. This undermined thefoundation of feudalism throughout Europe. The revival of trade and rise of towns inEurope marked the beginning of a new civilization centered around cities. The mostimportant factor that aided the growth of towns was the economic factor, viz. thegrowth of trade and manufacturing. Town and trade had an interacting influenceupon each other, so that the revival of one meant the revival of the other. The mostimportant features of town life in Europe in the Middle Ages was the merchant andcraft guilds that regulated trade and manufacture.



The artisans and merchants in the towns gradually won freedom from thefeudal lords on whose domain the town stood. A self-governing city of this type wascalled a Commune. One striking change was the growth of wealthy class ofmerchants. The same change brought into being an urban proletariat. The economicchange fundamentally altered the organization of medieval society which was feudaland rural. Thus the economic and social aspects of feudalism died in the rising towns.

Effects of Crusades

Crusade means ‘battle of the Cross’. At first the term was applied to the warsfought by the Christians to liberate Jerusalem, the Holy city of the Christians, whichhas been captured by the Muslim Turks. The primary cause of the Crusades was, nodoubt, religious. There were four important Crusades. The Crusades helped for thedecay of Feudalism to some extent, but paved the way for the growth of Monarchy inEurope. Politically, an important effect of Crusades was the development ofnationalism that came as an aftermath of the Crusades. The crusades also led to thedevelopment of the towns, particularly Italian cities. An important theory regardingthe result of Crusades is that it resulted in the economic growth and commercialdevelopment of the west with the contact of the East. It is often said that ‘Tradefollowed the Cross’. Though the knights lost Palestine, the Italian merchants gainedfrom it. The maritime transport and commerce developed towards the West. Manyarticles of Commerce like silk, sugar and spices found their way to Europe. Newmarkets developed in Europe, particularly central around Italian cities.

The Crusades had began with an agricultural feudalism, inspired by Germanbarbarism, Crossed with religious sentiment; they ended with the rise of industry andthe expansion of commerce, in an economic revolution that heralded and financedthe Renaissance. Another important result of the Crusades was in the sphere of socialsystem. Crusades partially affected for the reversal of feudalism. The freedom of serfsfrom the barons was a good social result of the Crusade. The Eastern style of life andluxury of the East entered in Europe after the Crusades. Scholars consider crusades animportant causative factor for the cultural glory that Europe gained after them. It isstated that the most valuable elements of Islamic civilization were transmitted toEurope through the Crusades.



The Muslim Architecture, Literature, Philosophy, Medicine and Science directlyinfluenced European thought and culture in a big way which has been manifested inthe beginning of the Renaissance. Europe, after the crusades, generally imbibed manytechnical secrets of the manufacture of glassware, the knowledge of Mariner’sCompass, gun powders and printing technology. The later Gothic Cathedrals reflectthe influence of the new architecture entered into Europe. Another important resultof the Crusades was the geographical knowledge of the Europeans with regard toorient. This also resulted in the study of the Geography and later GeographicalDiscoveries

GROWTH OF TRADE AND TOWNS

During the 12th and 13th centuries, the use of money, rather than goods, as a meansof exchange led to a revival of commerce. A merchant class developed, renting land inplaces suitable for trade, often near a castle or abbey. These settlements oftenbecame thriving marketplaces for all sorts of goods. For a fee, a commercialsettlement could obtain a charter from the local lord, establishing it as a town andgiving it the authority to govern itself. Many lords were willing to grant charters toensure a market for agricultural produce near.

Developments of Science and Technology

Discoveries and inventions of the Modern Age that helped to modernize the lives ofthe people were:

Invention of the (Mariner’s) magnetic compass:

This instrument was used by navigators. It helped them to locate their direction rightin the middle of the sea. As this compass marked the two poles (north and south), ithelped them to choose the correct direction. Traders and travelers in the

middle Ages had no means to conduct their sea travels through safe courses. Due tothe invention of the magnetic compass, an era of adventurous navigation began.

The Invention of gun powder:

With the making of gunpowder, the art of warfare in Europe was modernized. Thishelped kings to strengthen their defense provisions. It made the crown independentand reduced the dependency of the crown on nobles.



The Art of Printing:

Soon after Europe entered the Modern Age, the art of modern printing wasdiscovered. Due to this, the scope of education broadened, and very soon modernlearning reached every corner of Europe. Acquiring knowledge became easier and aground for the latest ideas was created. This helped to bring about changes in almoksof human life.

Emergence of national consciousness

A national consciousness is a shared sense of national identity that is a sharedunderstanding that a people group shares a common ethnic/linguistic/culturalbackground. Historically, a rise in national consciousness has been the first steptowards the creation of a nation. Nationalism requires first a national consciousness,the awareness of national communality of a group of people, or nation. Nationalidentities in Europe and the Americas developed along with the idea of politicalsovereignty invested in the people of the state. In Eastern Europe, it was also oftenlinked to ethnicity and culture. An awakening of national consciousness is frequentlyascribed to national heroes and is associated with national symbols

Emergence of Nation States

By 1500 Western Europe began to organise itself in a way that is similar to presentday

Europe. The relationship of lord & vassal which, with the vague claims of the Pope &The Emperor (holy roman emperor) in the background, so long seemed to exhaustpolitical thought, gave way to idea of princely power over all the inhabitants of adomain. i.e. nation-state. Necessarily, the change to such state of affairs neither tookplace everywhere in the same way nor at the same pace. By 1800,France&Englandhad been centuries unified in a way that Germany & Italy were still not.

Causes for the emergence of Nation States:

I. France:

one of the first nation-states to cover anything like the area of their modernsuccessors, France''s existence as a separate kingdom date back as early as 9thcentury. During the 14th & 15th centuries the unity was gently enhanced by the so-called Hundred Years' war with England.



II. England:

A strong monarchy was established by William, the conqueror, in 11th century. Thepowers of the feudal lords were increased during the 12th & 13th centuries, but weregradually suppressed by the king during the 14th century; new additions to the infantEnglish national mythology during the Hundred Years' war. Feudalism ended inEngland due to the war of roses in the late 15th century & monarchy wasstrengthened by Henry VII & successive Tudor Rulers.

III. Spain:

a great measure of unity was achieved bythe end of the 15th cenutry due to the re-conquest (the long struggle against Islam); & Spanish nationalism was strengthenedduring the colonization of the new world.

RENAISSANCE

Renaissance in Italy

From early 14th to late 16th century witnessed in Western and Central European intense development in thought and culture. This intellectual and culturalmovement generally reflected the transition of Europe from Medieval to Modern age.Historians label this development as Renaissance of Europe chiefly referring to thenew trends in thinking, literature, arts and science.

The term ‘Renaissance’ (French term) means revival or rebirth. First applied bythe 15th century Italian intellectuals to describe the revived study of the Greeco-Roman classical learning. They believed that their are represented the rebirth ofculture and learning following an ‘age of darkness’ as the termed middle ages. Thepresent day historians however do not view either the medieval as ‘dark age’ or theinterest in ancient classical as fully non-existent in the middle Ages. The modernhistorians, while not rejecting the term Renaissance, use it in a different sense. Theyapply it to connote the pervasive cultural movement that originated from the verymedieval heritage in an age of transition from medieval to modern civilization. TheRenaissance marked a new interest in the worldly affairs which of course echoed theGreeco-Roman attitude towards life. So quite naturally the Renaissance men evinceda particular concern for the classical culture of ancient Greeks and Romans. But itwas only one aspect of Renaissance. In fact of Renaissance a vast movementrepresenting a new way of thinking and a new set of social ideas which were to formpart of modern civilization later.



The characteristic features of Renaissance can be summarized as follows:

A new world outlook, humanist approach in contrast of the theocentrism ofthe middle ages, anti-scholastic trends, rational and materialist explanation of reality,idea of individualism, new conception of state power independent of churchauthority etc.

Renaissance has its beginning in Italy which was historically the most favoredplace for it in Europe. Being part of any powerful empire, Italy was practically a landof several important city-states and some republican states. There were no powerfulfeudal lords or a priest politically dominate.

From 12th century on Italy had a dynamic urban society thriving on flourishingcrafts and profitable commerce with the East. Its prosperous cities like Venice, Genoa,Milan, Florence and Siena were dominated by great merchant and banker familieswho controlled politics too. The idea of citizenship had taken roots among this townspeople. That this middle class was mainly concerned with pleasures and activities ofthis world gave them a secular rather than a religious attitude. These commercialwealthy families showed particular interest to patronise the Renaissance artists andwriters. It is worthy of note that the earliest of the medieval European universitieswere founded in Italian towns (as Padua and Bologna). The growing contact with theByzantine and Islamic civilization strengthened by the crusades had familiarised theItalians with new currents of thought. That Italy was the homeland of Romancivilization, which had left abundant physical remains of it there, was a factor ofcultural inspiration in Italy.

Humanism

In medieval Europe Art, Science, Literature and Philosophy were bound upwith religion. Later scholars who drew inspiration from Greek literature andphilosophy replaced religion with man. The movement that started with man and hislife placed in the focus is known as humanism. Simply Humanism, which became thehallmark of European Renaissance, first appeared in Italy in the field of learning.Humanism represented a fundamental shift from the ‘God-centered’ world view ofthe middle ages to the ‘Man centered’ world outlook of the modern age.



The Italian poet Petrarch (1304-1374) of Florence, generally regarded as the‘Father of Humanism’, considered the classical authors distinctly ‘human’ becausethey were more concerned with man’s problems and possibilities on this earth thanwith the issues of God which interested medieval writers. His assertation was thatthere was much to be learnt which religious teaching could not give. These secularmatters could be learnt from the human literature of the ancient Greeks and Romans.Following this exhortation of Petrarch these occurred in Italy, First in Florence, avigorous search for and collection of manuscripts of forgotten ancient works.

Ancient works were arduously procured from Libraries’ and Monasteries ofdifferent regions particularly Constantinople and Levant. Hundreds of books byancient authors were copied in multiple numbers and distributed for reading not onlyto scholars, but also to wealthy middle class men, princes and clerics. It was thisrevived interest in the study of the human works of ancient that came to be knows ashumanism in Italy. Humanism in its technical sense promoted the study of thehumanities as part of formal education in Italian schools and the universities. Thehumanities which included subjects like Language, Literature, History, Philosophy,Ethics etc., were not directly associated with religion. The humanists, as the mastersof these subjects were called, brought in a revolution in the educational theory andpractice. Humanism that first developed in Italy was to have enormous influence onculture of other countries in Europe. It has a tremendous impact on Italian Literature,arts and science.

Renaissance in literature

The humanist writers of this period largely used secular themes for theircompositions. Prose and poetry began to be written in vernacular instead of Latin.After an initial imitation of classical literary forms like drama, epic, novel and satire,the Renaissance literature soon created. Such new forms as essay, short story andliterary criticism. The use of prose for all sorts of literary forms was a notable aspect.The Renaissance gave birth to a few really great litterateurs in Italy. The names ofDante, Petrarch, Boccaccio and Machiavelli are immortal among them.

Dante (1265-1321): He was an Italian writer who embodied the new spirit ofrationality and creativity. Essentially a poet, Dante wrote prose also and dealt variedsubjects as love, social life, philosophy, political theory and language. In this writingsDante supplanted the medieval allegories by deep human feelings. By for the most



celebrated work of Dante is ‘The Divine Comedy’, an epic poem providing the visionof Hell, purgatory and paradise. This work which is noted for its high moral quality isan ‘encyclopedia’ of the highest culture and knowledge of his age. The Divinecomedy, which set the standard of Italian language for the later writers, is generallyrecognised as the greatest work of Italian Literature.

Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374): “The founding father of humanism” is thefirst of the great humanist writers of Italy. Petrarch, who loved life and stood eagerlyinterested in everything around him, was the embodiment of ‘Renaissance man’. Afirst class humanist scholar, and a lyric poet, Petrarch wrote songs and poems inItalian. He is best known for his ‘Ilcanzoniere’, a series of love poems dedicated to hislove Laura. In 1341 the senate of Rome Crowned him as ‘poet laureate of Italy’.Petrarch’s writings have proved a major influence on many authors of the world.

Boccaccio (1313-1375): Boccaccio, whom Petrarch considerably influenced,was a Renaissance scholar, poet and prose writer in the tradition of humanism.Boccaccio has been hailed by some as ‘the father of Italian prose’. His masterpiece‘The Decameron’, a Series of Italian prose tales.

Niccole Machiavelli (1469-1527): Machiavelli is a typical Italian Renaissancewriter. He was writing at a time when Italian states were in their Political decline. Italywas being rocked by successive invasions from Spanish, French and German rulers. Astatesman, political theorist and historian, Machiavelli had served the republican citystate of Florence as an official for some time. Machiavelli wrote his famous politicalwork, ‘The Price’ in which he explains the theory and practice of despotism.

Renaissance in Art

The new awakening of Europe liberated of art from the clutches of medievalreligion. This can be learnt from the works of art of that period. Artists broke thechains of taboos and gave new expressions to humanism. Their works attainedharmony with nature. The Renaissance artists turned to classical examples forinspiration and often chose their subjects from Greco-Roman world. Indeed, the mostmemorable contribution of the Renaissance art could be seen in paintings. The artistlibrated painting from subordination to architecture.



Before the 16th century, most of the paintings were frescoes. Two styles orschools of painting flourished in Italy in the Renaissance period. The Florentine andthe venetian. The founder of Florentine School was Giotto. This School producedthree remarkable painters-Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael.

Leonardo da Vinci was a versatile genius. Besides a painter he was an architect,poet, musician, engineer and a mathematician. His masterpieces in painting are‘Mona Lisa’, ‘The Last Supper’. and ‘The Virgin of the Rocks’. Michelangelo wasoutstanding as a painter and architect. He is known for his paintings in the SistineChapel in the Vatican. His ‘Last Judgment’ and ‘The Fall of Man’ are among the mostfamous works of art in the world. Raphael, another Italian painter, is known for hispaintings of ‘Madonna’, the mother of Jesus Christ. The paintings of Venetian Schoolwere free from mysticism and spirituality. They were basically materialistic incharacter.

Architects of the Renaissance times adopted their building plans from theRoman churches. They discarded the Gothic Style. The Renaissance architecture wasbased on the cross-like floor plan with the decorative columns, arches and domes.Many good examples of Renaissance architecture are found among secular buildings.Music also flourished during the Renaissance period. Renaissance music was freefrom classical influence. Secularism and individualism reflected in music as well.

Renaissance in science

“Learn the truth of things rationally

through experiments and observations”.

- Roger Bacon

(Father of modern science).

The lines reveal the perspective that led to the development of modernsciences. During the medieval period the catholic church did not permit free thinkingand spirit of enquiry. But the new thirst for knowledge paved the way for scientificenquiry. Copernicus formulated the ‘Helio Centric Theory’ by modifying Ptolemy’s‘Geo-centric Theory’. Kepler widened the scope of the theory of Copernicus with thehelp of mathematics.



The inventions of the scientists, Isaac Newton and William Harvey paved theway for the development of modern science. The scientific spirit also led to importantinventions like the printing press, paper, mariner’s compass etc. mariner’s compassled to Navigation, Geographical Discovery, Colonization and the Spread of Commerce,and the later industrial and Commercial Revolutions. James Edgar Swain observes,“Renaissance is a collective term used to include all the intellectual changes that werein evidence at the close of the middle ages at the beginning of modern times.”

Renaissance outside Italy

The end of fifteenth century Renaissance had its appearance in otherEuropean countries north of Italy. The growth of industry rise and trade, theconsequent rise of a middle class and urban life in countries like Netherlands, France,Germany, Spain and England created the preconditions for the intellectual andcultural development there.

It was in the field of learning and literature that Renaissance had its bestexpression in northern Europe. Like Italian the modern European languages asFrench, German, English, Spanish etc., developed as literary languages during thistime. Certain specific features of Northern Renaissance are evident. Unlike theItalians, the Northern humanists were more inclined to base their modes of thoughton medieval tradition than on Greeco-Roman. They were more concerned withapplying ideas of Renaissance to the study of religion and modernization of Catholicdoctrines and practices.

Impact of Renaissance

Renaissance was definitely to influence the onward course of Europeancivilisation. Renaissance ideas of free-thinking, spirit of enquiry, critical evaluation,harmonious development of individual, avoid superstition etc., had spectacularresults in the course of history. Renaissance gave birth to a new system of educationwhose curriculum included humanities and science which substantially contributed tothe rise of modern culture. It greatly advanced the development of physical sciencesin Europe. Renaissance spirit promoted people to challenge traditional ideas,institutions and beliefs. That Renaissance paved the way of reformation is a generallyaccepted fact. Similarly it played a prominent part in creating the more radical free-thinking and atheism of the age of enlightenment.



REFORMATION

Meaning of Reformation

Martin Luther who started Reformation in Germany. He vehementlycriticised the evil beliefs and immoral practices of the church. By translating the Bibleinto German he propagated Christian philosophy. He criticised the ‘sale ofindulgence’ by Tetzel in Germany. He published Ninety Five theses against the evilsof the Catholic Church. Those who followed the principles of Luther are calledLutherans. Reformation in England was started under the leadership of Henry VIIIth ,in Switzerland Ulrich Swingli and John Calvin

The Reformation has been described as the child of Renaissance. Reformationis a general name given to a group of religious movement, which broke out in thelater Middle Ages and came to a climax in the 16th century, dividing Christians intotwo groups. One is Roman Catholics and Protestants. All these movements orupheavals were directed against the various drawbacks of the Church and theobjectionable practices of clergymen. The main target of these movements was thePope, the highest authority in the Church hierarchy.

The movements created a clear split in the Christian Church. Those whocontinued to remain loyal to the Pope at Rome were called Roman Catholics, andthose who revolted against him and broke away from the church at Rome were calledProtestants. The Reformation movement broke out in England, France, Germany,Czechoslovakia, Switzerland and Scotland. All Protestants did not share the samereligious beliefs or follow the same rituals or ceremonies. Much difference could benoted between the Protestants of one country and those of another. An extremeform of Protestantism was Calvinism. Presbyterianism of Scotland and Puritanism ofEngland were similar to Calvinism in simplicity, strictness and austerity. Though theProtestant movement was essentially religious, it was so complex and its results wereso far-reaching that it looked much more than a mere religious movement and breachin the Church.

The important of the Reformation can hardly be over-estimated. It was greatimportance in changing the course of history, because before the movement, theinfluence of the church pervaded every field of human activity. The Churchcommanded powerful influence over the lives of he people in the middle ages. It



regimented thought, influenced or actually controlled political institutions,hampered economic activities, and stunted literary and artistic developments. In theages of absolute faith and unquestioned loyalty to the church, whatever the churchdictated had to be accepted as gospel truth. The Reformation leaders wanted tochanged all this and bring about radical changes.

Causes of the reformation

The causes of the Reformation can be traced to the middle ages. Even in themedieval period, there were mutterings and murmurings against the Churchesauthority. But individuals, with all their correct attitude and reasoning, could do littleor almost nothing to correct the Church. The example of German emperors, whosuffered punishment and humiliation at the hands of powerful Popes in theInvestiture Struggle in the 11th and 12th centuries, must have silenced many men ofindependent thinking. Though Church authority continued long without beingchallenged seriously, a storm was slowly gathering.

The Reformation did not burst suddenly. Several causes were at work againstthe numerous abuses of the Church in the later meddle age.

1. Spirit of Inquiry: We may put the spirit of inquiry as the most important cause of theReformation, because without it the working of the Church could not be examined.Before the spirit of inquiry manifested itself, nobody could ever think of bringing theaffairs of the Church under any scrutiny. In the age of faith in which Churchmen couldget away with scandalous living and misuse of power, it was dangerous to criticise theChurch and point out its drawbacks.

In the middle ages, people were afraid to eroticize the Church openly as the Churchwas very rich and powerful, and could bend to its will even the proudest king ofEurope. The Church had all the means and machinery to punish or even put to deathall those who went against it, even though they might be right and the Church mighthave deserved condemnation.

Severe persecution was launched against the Waldersee, a religious seet organized insouthern France and northern Italy by Peter Waldo (1180). They began to deny theauthority of the Church and the efficacy of the sacraments. But they could not bewiped out. They had criticized the luxurious life led by the clergy and regarded theBible “as a sufficient guide to religious life”.



2. Interest in Political Affairs: The Church began to take more and more unwholesomeinterest in political affairs, and this was disliked by kings and people, who felt that theChurch should take interest only in the religious, spiritual and moral affairs. As theChurch wished to increase its political power and prestige, its efficiency as a religiousorganization was impaired. The emergence of the “Holy Roman Empire” made thePopes entertain grand ideas about their power. Owing to the bungling or themistakes committed by the so-called Holy Roman Emperors, The Popes were able tosucceeded in the Investiture Struggle between them and the Emperors and increasetheir own power.

3. Moral Decline of the Church: Many of the Clergy, if not all, were mad after moneyand power. They seemed to worship Mammon instead of God. The wealth of thechurch multiplied. It owned huge estates and cash everywhere, and its treasurieswere overflowing. The rapid increase of wealth inevitably led to increase in thecomforts and luxuries of priests. Luxury and worldliness had shaped the moralstrength of the Church. The people were looking forward to the Church to guide themmorally, but they found that the clergymen themselves, who were ignorant andineffective as priests, did not have high morals. The moral decline of the Churchshook the faith of the people, and they began to regard the Church as anotherorganization indulging in all worldly affairs including luxury. The Reformationmovement powerfully attacked the moral decay of the church.

The leaders of the movement could openly show how wealth and power had madethe clergy corrupt and unfit to be regarded as the servants of God. They said thatwhen the good things of a worldly and materialistic life entered the Church throughthe front door, spiritual and moral escaped through the hind door. It was openly saidthat the noble teachings of Christ were completely forgotten, and some of the clergyled such scandalous lives that people lost all respect for them.

4. Collection of Money: As observed earlier, the Church was very wealthy. But theclergy were collecting funds every now and then on various pretexts. The Popeordered his deputies to collect money for general or specific purposes. If a newcathedral was to be built, or an old one was to be repaired, appeals were made forfunds. The people were overburdened by the exactions of their kings and of thePopes. Kings resented the collection of funds by the Church, as it came in the way ofraising more taxes. Efforts were also made to collect large sums of money by sellingChristian antiques or relics, many of which were not genuine.



5. Great Schism: Ugly quarrels in the Church led to the Great Sehism (1378-1415), andthe Church further suffered loss of prestige. At one stage, instead of one Pope, therewere two Popes: one elected by the Italian Cardinals, and the other by the FrenchCardinals (1378). Thus, at the highest level of the Church there was a great split. Theconfusion was further increased in 1409, when a third Pope was chosen at a jointmeeting of the two groups of Cardinals. Loyalties of Christians were divided as aresult of the Schism. Many were confused, and did not know to which Pope theyshould be loyal. The confusion was, however, ended in 1417, when at an election,held by the Church Council at Constance, a new Pope acceptable to all Christians waselected.

6. Public Opinion against Pope: Gradually, if not all people, large sections of thepopulation belonging to different social classes were against the Pope for differentreasons. The strong manifestation of public opinion against the Pope weakenedPapacy.

Kings were against the Pope, as they resented Papal interference and collectedmoney from their subjects.

The people were against the Pope, as they were overburdened by payment, and feltthat the morally dealing Church did not deserve payment and loyality. Some did notlike the rituals and sacraments of the Church.

In Germany, Norway, Sweden and other countries, public opinion was expressingitself against all that was Latin or Italian in the Church.

7. Criticism by Scholars: Books by influential writers exposed all the weakness of theChurch and prepared the ground for the Reformation. The malpractices of the Churchwere subjected to stinging attacks by the Dutch scholar Erasmus in his reputed bookIn praise of Folly. The prejudices and superstitions of society and the pretences of theChurch were exposed to the most damaging criticism, and biting irony and sarcasm ofErasmus. The printing press multiplied the copies of the book, which travelled all overEurope. Every university felt the influence of Erasmus, and many scholars eagerlyread the book and came to know about the moral hollowness of the Church hiddenby beautiful veils. Though Erasmus would never join the side of Martin Luther inbreaking away from the Church, but wished to be loyal to it, his satirical writings didirreparable damage to the prestige of the Church.



Leaders of the Reformation

1. John Wycliffe

John Wycliffe (1320-1384) was an important early leader of the Reformation. He wasan English priest and professor at Oxford, who taught theology till 1382. He openlycriticized the Church and said that the humiliating agreement made by the EnglishKing John Lackland to pay tribute to the Pope need not be honored. He supported thestate and said that it was higher than the Church. He was appointed rector ofFillingham (1361) of Ludgershall (1374). He wrote pamphlets against the tributesdemanded by the Pope and went to Bruges in 1374 as a delegate for negotiations onthe matter.

Anti-Pope: He declared that the Pope was unworthy to become the representative ofGod on earth, as he was anti-Christ in spirit.

Monasticism: He affirmed that monasticism could not be regarded as a true part ofChristianity. The Bible was to be regarded as the only guide of Christians, who shouldput full faith in it. The Bible was translated into English by Wycliffe to enable theordinary man to understand it.

2. John Huss

John Huss (1369-1415), a priest and professor at the University of Prague in Bohemia,was strongly inspired by the Lollard movement of John Wycliffe.

He criticized image worship, and the multiplication of rituals and collection offees by priests for their services.

He said that Christ, not Pope, is the head of the Church. A Pope should beobeyed only when his orders are in harmony with the law of Christ. Rebelling againsta bad Pope was like obeying Christ.

Like Wycliffe, he also exposed the pretences of the worldly and luxury-lovingclergy, and emphasized the need for a check on the power of the Pope, throughvarious sermons and pamphlets. The ranks of the Hussites swelled, and this was acause of concern to the Pope.

All Christians were not prepared to agree with John Huss, who along with hisfollowers finally left Prague, and went to Leipzig, where they established the firstuniversity in Germany.



Against Indulgences: He criticized the sale of Indulgences by the Pope in 1411 forraising funds for a crusade against the king of Naples.

Sale of Indulgences: Certain events in the Church revolutionized the life of Lutherand broke up the Church. Luther was shocked to see in Rome the great display ofopulence and grandeur. He felt that the Pope was hardly better than any of the Italianprinces. Pope Leo X (1513-1521), desired to raise money for completing St. Peter’sChurch in Rome. One of the steps of collection was the sale of Indulgences. Heextended an Indulgence by issuing a bull on March 31, 1515. Under the Papal bult,Tetzel, a representative of Pope Leo, was collecting money at Wittenberg by sellingIndulgences. It was believed that the purchaser of Indulgences did not make himtotally free from punishment for sins, but the rigour of punishment would bereduced. The sale was made so boldly and vulgarly that even laymen of averageintelligence were shocked. Honest people were shocked to learn that the Pope hadinstructed a banking firm to handle the income of the Indulgences, for which it wasallowed one-third of the proceeds as profit. He did not understand why the Pope,who was fabulously rich, did not spend money from his own treasury to build St.Peter’s.

Protestantism in Germany

In Germany Luther’s Protestant movement was successful, and the opponentsof the Church hailed him as a national hero. However, Luther’s reply to the Council ofWorms (1520-21) made the German emperor declare war on heretics. Luther’s sidewas not weak, and a large section of the German population decided to challenge theRoman Catholic openly.

Peasants’ Revolt: The reaction of the German princes was mixed. When the Peasant’sRevolt broke out in 1525, they were afraid of losing power, and hence theysuppressed it ruthlessly, by massacring about 50,000 peasants. Luther’s approach wasconservative, and his support was for the princes.

Civil War: In the civil war (1530-1555) Germany was divided. The northern states ofGermany were the Protestant followers of Luther, and the southern states wereCatholic.

In Germany Protestantism was legally recognized by the Peace of Augsburg(1555). By this the Holy Roman Emperor agreed to recognize Lutheranism side by sidewith Roman Catholicism as a legal religion. The ruler of a German state was free toaccept either Roman Catholicism or Lutheranism, and the people were to follow hisreligion.



Lutheran Doctrine: We may briefly refer here to the basic points of the Lutherandoctrine jointly drafted by Martin Luther and Philip Melanchthon, a scholar of theUniversity of Wittenberg.

Protestantism in Northern European Countries

Lutheranism spread in Northern European countries before long. The Kings ofSweeden, Denmark and Norway were against Roman Catholicism, and they tookseveral steps to establish and strengthen Protestantism. Roman Catholic churcheswere got rid of and Lutheran National Churches were established in their place. Theproperty of churches and monasteries was confiscated.

Protestantism in Switzerland

Calvinism: John Calvin was the reformer in Switzerland. He founded a more strictform of Protestantism which came to be called Calvinism, Calvin opposed theauthority of Pope and asserted that the Bible alone is true. With the document ofLuther he added the doctrine of pre destination. He held that the church must beindependent and the church was to have a democratic form of Government. InGeneva he established a self governing church. Calvinism spread more rapidly inEurope than Lutheranism. His religion became the dominant force of Protestantism inEngland (Puritans), Scotland (Presbyterians), Holland, West Germany and France(Huguenots). According to Will Durent, “Calvin’s influence was even greater thanLuther’s, but he walked in a path which Luther had cleared. Calvin gave toProtestantism in many lands an organization, confidence and pride that enabled it tosurvive a thousand trails”. The religious impact of Calvinism was inseparable from itspolitical impact. Calvin’s idea of lay representation and popular control of the Churchgave an impetus to popular government and republicanism.

Counter Reformation

The Reformation was a movement directed against the Roman CatholicChurch. After the Reformation gathered momentum and secured the support ofmillions of Protestants in different European countries, the Roman Catholic Churchitself launched a movement against the Reformation. This new movement was calledthe Counter Reformation.

The main aim of the Counter-Reformation was to check the growth ofProtestantism, and to reform, revitalize and strengthen the Roman Catholic Church.The Popes and their supporters felt that unless some concrete steps were taken, theRoman Catholic Church might weaken more and more, and even face extinction.



A concerted Counter-Reformation movement was launched with the four-foldpurpose of punishing, reforming, converting, and rendering social service. TheInquisition was to punish, the Council of Trent was to introduce reforms and theSociety of Jesus was to render service to God and society, and convert people toChristianity.

Inquisition: The Inquisition was a Roman Catholic tribunal first formed in 1210 forconducting inquiry into cases of heresy and meting our punishment. The firstInquisitor General was St. Dominic. In 1233, Pope Gregory IX established a committeein each Parish to discover heretics, who were to be examined. If found guilty, theywere excommunicated and given over to the civil arm for punishment, which includedtorturing and execution by burning. The Spanish Inquisition, which was a civil court,was set up in Castile in 1478. In 1483, the Inquisition was firmly established in Spain.

The Inquisition was relentless and brutal in its methods, and it soon became anengine of cruelty and oppression. Its techniques of torture and punishment wererevolting, barbarous and inhuman. People dreaded it and shivered to think of itsprocedures. Spain, which provided the seat of the Inquisition, became unpopular, andit invited the wrath and rebellion of people, who were oppressed. The northernprovinces of Netherlands, which were under the iron heel of Spain, revolted andmade themselves independent in 1609.

Church of Reform: Paul III, Paul IV, Pius V, Sixtus V and other Popes earnestly desiredto introduce reforms in the Roman Catholic Church and improve its moral tone. Somezealous and intellectually inclined Roman Catholics advocated far-reaching reforms,which would not only improve the Church, but also reunite the Catholic andProtestant Churches on certain basic common principles.

Failure of the Rotisbon Conference: The Ratisbon Conference convened in Germanyin 1541 by Pope Paul III had great objectives no doubt, but it was impossible toresolve the difference and strike a common ground. On the failure of this conference,the wide gap between the Roman Catholic and Protestant Churches continued.

Reforms of the Council of Trent: The Council of Trent (1545-1563) held on the borderof Italy and Germany was attended by Roman Catholic leaders. The deliberationscontinued at various sittings over a period of 18 long years, and certain broaddecisions were taken.



1. The Pope was regarded as the head of the Roman Catholic Church, and he wasthe final interpreter of all Christian doctrines.

2. A clear statement of the Church doctrines without making any compromisewas issued. New Church service books, and the Vulgate, a new Latin edition ofthe Bible which became the official Bible of the Roman Catholics, wereprepared.

3. A set of disciplinary rules was prepared for Church officials with a view toremove corruption and malpractices. The pernicious system of Simony and saleof Indulgences were condemned. Proper training was to be given to the clergyin schools.

4. An index of books, which were unworthy of being read by Roman Catholics,was prepared.

5. The Inquisition was revived to punish offenders.

Consequences of the Reformation

1. Division of Christianity: It broke up the Unity of Christendom. Europe came tobe divided into two groups, the Catholic group consisting of France, Spain, Italyetc. and the Protestant group including North Germany, Denmark, England,Holland etc.

2. Religious intolerance and wars. The rivalry between Catholicism andProtestantism led to intolerance and serious religious wars. This also gave wayfor religious persecution. The Thirty Year’s War (1618-1648) broke out inGermany on the issue of religion. It ruined Germany and thwarted Germanunification for two hundred years. Internal and International politics came tobe hopelessly intermingled with religion. Many Christian groups like Lutherans,Calvinists, Puritans, Huguenots, Presbyterians, Anabaptists, Pentecost’s etc.have sprung up in different parts of Europe and America. The religious rivalryparty came to an end with The Edict of Nantes in 1598 which gave aremarkable degree of toleration to the Huguenots in France.

3. Politically the Reformation and the Counter Reformation movement dividedEurope into several fragments. It gave strength to Nation States, royalabsolutism and Democratic and Republican spirits. Powerful nationalmonarchies in Europe particularly France, Austria, Prussia and England sprang



up. Protestants encouraged democracy even in the churches Calvinismadvocated a democratic form of Government for the church and the state. TheCalvinists were Champions of Democracy.

4. There were some economic results with the rise of Reformation. Reformationitself was partly due to the outbreaks and revolts among the peasantry. InGermany the peasant’s revolts accelerated the works of Lutherans. A newfavourable atmosphere for economic growth created by the Reformation washighly congenial for the all round social and economic progress. TheReformation encouraged a new attitude of individualism in economic mattersand a new business class sprang up in many parts of Europe. The greatsociologist Max Weber sees this economic development as indispensable inthe development of modern capitalism.

5. Another important result of the Reformation was the secularization of life andSociety. The unending religious controversy led to a sort of indifferencetowards religion which finally resulted in the secularization of Life and Society.

6. Protestantism promoted freedom of the mind unfamiliar to the Catholic. TheProtestant Revolt left a rich legacy to the individual. It also led to the laterEuropean Enlightenment. As Will Durent observes, “Reformation renderedgreat services to Enlightenment. It broke the authority of dogma, generated ahundred sects that would formerly have died at the stake, and allowed amongthem such virile debate that reason was finally recognized as the bar beforewhich all sects had to plead their cause unless they were armed withirresistible physical force. In that pleading, by attack and defense, all sectswere weakened, all dogmas; and a century after Luther’s exaltation of faith.Francis Bacon proclaimed that knowledge is power, “Moreover Reformationgreatly influenced later 17th century thinkers like Descartes, Hobbes, Spinozaand Locke who offered philosophy as a substitute or basis for religion.Protestant Revolt was favorable to the spirit of critical, unfettered enquiry thatwas to culminate in the 18th Century Enlightenment. In short, the Reformationbegan with ideas and ended with force. An era of liberal thought closed in afever of war; and methods; of blood and iron supplanted the force of Reason.



Discoveries of New Trade Routes

The Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation, the geographicalexplorations of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries had a great effect on the courseof history. Before these explorations, there was contact between Western andOriental countries, but this was through land. It was difficult to cover vast distancesthrough mountains and deserts, and brave and adventurous travelers took a longtime, sometimes even the major part of their lives to reach their destination. Thenagain, even when land contacts had been established, to most of the Europeans,many Oriental countries were closed books. In the later middle ages, bold andenterprising men of Europe sailed in the unknown seas and discovered new searoutes and new continents.

Geographical discoveries, like other forces, put great power in the hands ofEuropeans and illustrated in one more way how Europe marched ahead at abreathless pace, while Oriental countries became stagnant and were left far behindthem.

Owing to the relatively early expulsion of the Moors from Spain, Politicalstability, and comparative peace. Portugal was the better placed than any otherEuropean nation to take a lead in making geographical explorations. As the naturalresources of Portugal were poor, the Portuguese were looking forward overseas forthe luck of exploration, trade and colonization.

Sea Routes



Results of Geographical Discoveries

These explorations later brought about tremendous socio-economic changes inAfro-Asian and Latin American countries. What could they be? Colonisation,Economic exploitation, Trade revelry, Emergence of new culture, spread ofChristianity etc. In short it inaugurated a new era of commerce and colonisation. Theexpansion of the world gradually led to the expansion of man’s mind and speeded upthe intellectual revolution started by the Renaissance. The discovery of new routesdiverted the course of commerce from Mediterranean to the Atlantic ocean. Thecentre of gravity of trade and commerce is now shifted from the Mediterranean tothe Atlantic. Italian cities, Venice and Genoa, lost their commercial supremacy andsome European cities came into prominence. The geographical discoveries let toEuropean colonisation all over the world, especially in America and Asia. It changedthe economic life of Europe and marked the beginning of Capitalism. Moreover, thediscoveries resulted in the spread of Christianity into Asia, Africa and America.

Finally by the discoveries, the Europeans were able to establish colonies in thenew world and in India. America was soon Europeanised. But one pathetic result ofthe explorations was the cruel treatment of the natives in the new world particularlyin Africa. Slave trade increased. The European powers like Britain, France, Germanyetc. began to compete for colonies.

Growth of International Trade and Market –Commercial revolution

Geographical discoveries brought about radical economic changes. It led totremendous increase in the volume of trade. Regular trade contacts amongcontinents were established and trade became global. The growth in the volume oftrade and the associated changes brought about what is called the commercialRevolution.

The emergence of ‘Nation states with strong monarchies also gave a greatimpetus to the growth of markets and the consequent commercial Revolution. Thenew colonies meant new markets. The colonies acted as a fertile source for gettingraw materials and also a good Market. The beginning of Capitalism also could be seenwith advancement of trade and market. The newly emerged independent middleclass and its profit motive economic culture resulted in more investments in thissphere of commerce. There was a total change in the means of production and



distribution. Big business and big business dealings controlled the markets. The newconcept of ‘Laissez-faire’ which stressed individualism also helped the growth ofcommercial Revolution.

Commonly accepted coin system also used this trade and commerce. Thecommercial Revolution imparted a new economic phenomenon of money andexchange with surplus usage of Capital. The large scale of production effected by theemergence of Industrial Revolution, Factory system and agricultural Revolutionbrought about a new class of capitalists who finally started to control both the marketand the colonies. This economic phenomenon of commerce and colonisationultimately led to the imperialistic schemes of European powers in the followingcenturies, especially in Asia, Africa and Latin America.



ModuleII

DEVELOPMENTS IN POLITICS AND ECONOMYRise of Nation-States

Towards the end of medieval period in Europe, strong dictators rose to powerin France, England and Spain. They suppressed the feudal lords with the support ofmiddle class. Such countries are known as Nation State. Nationalism is a modernphenomenon that appeared along with the origin and development of capitalism inthe world. It is an ideological and political principle which came into existence in theprocess of the formation of nations. A nation is a historical community of peopleestablished on the basis of a common economic life combined with a commonlanguage, territory and culture. Normally a nation is formed by overcoming the feudaldisunity and developing Capitalist production system which consolidates economicties between regions and merges local markets into a national market.

Nation-state is the basic form of the political organisation of the modern times.In that sense it replaces the political system of the middle ages. It was in the latemedieval Europe that modern nations, nationalism and nation-states had its firsthistorical development in the world. It was the decline of feudalism that created thematerial conditions for the rise of nationalism and nation-state in Europe. Feudalpolitical structure had provided no space for any sense of common nationality. Inmedieval period people speaking the same language and inheriting the same culturewere generally distributed in different feudal states. As a classic example, the HolyRoman Empire consisted of, besides the chief people Germans, Several linguistic andethnic sections of people. Secondly, the kings of states, who could been the naturalleaders of their nations, hardly possessed any power.

The growth of trade and urban life along with an assertive middle class playeda principal role in creating formation of Nations in Europe. The merchants and othernew economic classes who found both feudal exactions and anarchy detrimental totheir interests, preferred strong central authority. Hence this middle class sought tostrengthen the monarchs over feudal lords by financing them to build up their ownarmy and administrative machinery. The European Kings, with the middle classsupport, now tried to establish their supremacy over feudal lords. A process of thedestruction of the power of feudal lords began.



The introduction of gun powder in Europe at this time proved to be ofimmense help in this process. The impregnable feudal castles and fortresses now layimportant before the fire arms used by the kings. A favorable political condition wasnow created for powerful national monarchy. The Renaissance and Reformationprovided a powerful ideological backing to nationalism and Nation-state. The growthof national language and literature, promoted by Renaissance writers, was a notablefactor in this respect. It can be noted that Machiavelli, the prominent politicalthinkers of Renaissance period, was an upholder of strong monarchic state.

The Reformation involved national and political issues is an historical fact. Thusin the new economic and social milieux, the political process of the formation ofnations and nation-states became widespread in Europe. The people inhabiting adefined territory and owning common language and culture, began to emerge assingle nations and constitute themselves into states under national monarchs. At thattime, monarchy was the main form of nation-state. The first nation-states of Europewere France, England and Spain, then Portugal and Holland.

Development of absolute Monarchies

Modern Revolutions or democratic revolutions mainly stood for popular participationin government, setting up of parliaments and the extension of the existing ones andenforcing Universal adult franchise. The contradiction between the interests ofnational monarchs and that of the rising middle class was the basic cause of thedemocratic revolutions. The rulers of nation-states, who had gradually became rigidautocrats, denied the people their basic rights. The allied with the aristocracy andchurch and passed many unjust laws restricting freedom and civil rights. The people,including those the sections who earlier supported strong monarchs, began to protestagainst these unjust laws and against the despotic powers of the monarchs. Thebourgeoisie played the most significant role in the struggle against absolutism. Theyopposed absolutism and demanded a share in the state power. Hence, theserevolutions expressed the interests and political ambitions of the middle class. Hewas in this context that democratic revolutions took place in England, America,France and throughout Europe.



The English revolution-absolutism in England

In 17th century absolute monarchs in European countries like England andFrance by attractive terminologies as ‘Grand monarchy’. Stuart King of England werestaunch exponents of feudalism. The parliament, on the other hand, represented theinterests of the bourgeoisie. Interestingly, the English Revolution began in the form ofa conflict between the King and Parliament over the question of political power. TheStuart Kings or parliament the supreme authority of the state. The struggle over thisquestion raged intermittently throughout the Stuart period and ended only whenJames-II, the last Stuart ruler, was deposed. The persistent struggle between the Kingand the parliament created two Revolutions in England. The civil war (1642) and TheGlorious Revolution of 1688. These revolutions established the parliamentarysupremacy in England.

Stuart Kings were absolute rulers. They upheld the theory of ‘Divine Right’ ofKings. The doctrine that Kings are appointed by God and that for their actions theyare responsible to him alone and not to parliament. The early Stuarts tried to developtheir Privy Council into a strong executive agency composed of ministers and officialspersonally devoted to the King. They tried to monopolies the power to make laws.They tried to use the highest royal courts to punish the opponents of their policies.They tried to impose taxes without consulting the parliament. They maintain astanding army to enforce the royal will. Above all, the tried to monopolise thevarious organs and functions of the government. The absolutism of Stuarts, therefore,made a struggle with the parliament inevitable. The parliament had became anindependent and assertive body during the Stuart period. It was dominated byPuritans, the champions of liberty.

Parliament claimed supreme sovereignty and held that the King wassubordinated to it. It rejected the Divine Right theory held by the Stuarts. Theparliament asserted that The King had no right either to impose new taxes or to makelaws. The conflicting interests of Stuart and their parliament thus prepared theground for this Revolution.



Divine right theory of kingship

One of the old theory of kingship a sovereign derives his authority from god byvirtue of his royal birth. therefore he is responsible to god alone. people have no rightto overthrow even a bad monarch. the oppressive rule of cruel king must be taken adivine punishment of the people for their sins and crimes. in England the Stuart kingswere the upholders this right divine of kings to govern wrong. The English parliamentopposed this theory and the rivalry culminated in the execution of Charles one andexpulsion of James second.

Louis XIV

Louis XIV (1638-1715) was king of France from 1643 to 1715. He brought theFrench monarchy to its peak of absolute power and made France the dominantpower in Europe. His reign is also associated with the greatest age of French cultureand art.

After the chaos of the Wars of Religion, the French monarchy had beenreestablished by Louis XIV's grandfather, Henry IV. Successive rulers and ministers(Henry himself, Louis XIII, Cardinal Richelieu, and Cardinal Mazarin) had done all intheir power to make the king absolute ruler within France and to make France,instead of the Hapsburg coalition of Spain and the empire, the dominant power inEurope. By the time Louis assumed personal control, the groundwork for final successhad been laid. It was Louis who brought the work to completion, enforcing his willover France and Europe to an unprecedented extent and establishing theadministrative machinery that made France a modern state.

Louis was born at Saint-Germain on Sept. 5, 1638, the son of Louis XIII and hiswife, Anne of Austria. His birth was greeted with immense national rejoicing, and hewas hailed as le Dieudonné, "the God-given." On May 16, 1643, his father died, andLouis became king. As he was only 4, the country was governed by his mother asregent; this meant, in effect, by Cardinal Mazarin, with whom Anne was in love. Thesuccessive rebellions known as the Fronde failed to dislodge Mazarin, although theyleft the boy king with a lifelong horror of rebellion and a resentment of Paris, wherethe uprising had started. Mazarin remained in power for the rest of his life, and onlywhen he died, on March 9, 1661, did Louis astonish the court by announcing thathence-forward he would direct his government himself. He meant what he said. Thegovernment remained under Louis's personal control for the next 54 years.



European Trading Companies in the East

The important European trading companies are Dutch East India company, EnglishEast India Company, French East India Company, etc.

Dutch East India Company:

This company was formed in 1502, by a group of Amsterdam merchants in theNetherlands. In 1595Cornelius Houtman, a Dutch trader came to India and returned acouple of years later with a rich cargo that yielded huge profits. This encouragedmany Dutchmen to sail to India and set up trading companies. in 1602 all Dutchcompanies were amalgamated and the United-East India company of Netherlands orsimply the Dutch east India company, was established by the state general of theNetherlands.

English East India company:

This company, popularly known as John company. founded by the Royal charter ofQueen.Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600,became one of the most powerfulcommercial enerprisesin its time.the company was founded by a group ofenerprisingand influential businessmen,who obtained the crown’s charter for exclusivepermision to trade inthe East indiesfo 15 years.in england the company had securedthe backing of the english monarchs and political leaders by giving them valuablegifts.

The French East India Company(1664):

Among the Europeans,the french were the last to enter india for trade.thoughindividual french merchants and travellerslikeBernier and Tavernir had visited indiabefore this date there was no great enthusiasm among Frech people for easterntrade.in 1644 Colbert,the minister of Luis XIV,encouraged the founding ofv the EastIndia Company with a capital of 15 million francs,one fifth of which was advanced bythe State.

Mercantilism

One of the economic nationalism for the purpose of building a wealthy and powerfulstate. Adam Smith coined the term “mercantile system” to describe the system ofpolitical economy that sought to enrich the country by restraining imports andencouraging exports. This system dominated Western European economic thought



and policies from the 16to the late 18centuries.The goal of these policies was,supposedly, to achieve a “favorable” balance of trade that would bring gold and silverinto the country and also to maintain domestic employment. In contrast to theagricultural system of the physiocratsor the laissezfaire of the 19and early20centuries, the mercantile system served the interests of merchants and producerssuch as the British East India Company, whose activities were protected orencouraged by the state. The most important economic rationale for mercantilism inthe 16was the consolidation of the regional power centers of the feudal era by large,competitive nation states. Other contributing factors were the establishment ofcolonies outside Europe; the growth of European commerce and industry relative toagriculture; the increase in the volume and breadth of trade; and theincrease in theuse of metallic monetary systems, particularly gold and silver,relative to bartertransaction. During the mercantilist period, military conflict between nationstateswasboth more frequent and more extensive than at any other time in history. Thearmies and navies of the main protagonists were no longer temporary forces raised toaddress a specific threat or objective, but were full time professional forces. Eachgovernment’s primary economic objective was to command a sufficient quantity ofhard currency to support a military that would deter attacks by other countries andaid its own territorial expansion. Most of the mercantilist policies were the outgrowthof the relationship between the governments of the nation states and theirmercantile classes. In exchange for paying levies and taxes to support the armies ofthe nation states, the mercantile classes induced governments to enact policies thatwould protect their business interests against foreign competition. These policiestook many forms. Domestically, governments would provide capital to newindustries, exempt new industries from guild rules and taxes, establish monopoliesover local and colonial markets, and grant titles and pensions to successful producers.In trade policy the government assisted local industry by imposing tariffs, quotas, andprohibitions on imports of goods that competed with local manufacturers.Governments also prohibited the export of tools and capital equipment and theemigration of skilled labor that would allow foreign countries, and even the coloniesof the home country, to compete in the production of manufactured goods. At thesame time, diplomats encouraged foreign manufacturers to move to the diplomats’own countries. Shipping was particularly important during the mercantile period.With the growth of colonies and the shipment of gold from the New World into Spainand Portugal, control of the oceans was considered vital to national power. Because



ships could be used for merchant or military purposes, the governments of the eradeveloped strong merchant marines. In France, Jean Baptiste Colbert, the minister offinance under Louis XIV from 1661 to 1683, increased port duties on foreign vesselsentering French ports and provided bounties to French ship builders. In England, theNavigation Act of 1651 p rohibited foreign vessels from engaging in coastal trade inEngland and required that all goods imported from the continent of Europe be carriedon either an English vessel or a vessel registered in the country of origin of the goods.Finally, all trade be between England and its colonies had to be carried in eitherEnglish or colonial vessels. The Staple Act of 1663 extended the Navigation Act byrequiring that all colonial exports to Europe be landed through an English port beforebeing re exported to Europe. Navigation policies by France, England, and otherpowers were directed primarily against the Dutch, who dominated commercialmarine activity in the16thand 17thcenturies.During the mercantilist era it was oftensuggested, if not actually believed that the principal benefit of foreign trade was theimportation of gold and silver. According to this view the benefits to one nation werematched by costs to the other nations that exported gold and silver, and there wereno net gains from trade. For nations almost constantly on the verge of war, drainingone another of valuable gold and silver was thought to be almost as desirable as thedirect.

Commercial Revolution

Geographical discoveries led to tremendous increase in the volume of trade.Regular trade contacts among continents were established and trade became global.The growth in the volume of trade and the associated changes brought about what iscalled the commercial Revolution.

The emergence of ‘Nation states with strong monarchies also gave a greatimpetus to the growth of markets and the consequent commercial Revolution. Thenew colonies meant new markets. The colonies acted as a fertile source for gettingraw materials and also a good Market. The beginning of Capitalism also could be seenwith advancement of trade and market. The newly emerged independent middleclass and its profit motive economic culture resulted in more investments in thissphere of commerce. There was a total change in the means of production anddistribution. Big business and big business dealings controlled the markets. The newconcept of ‘Laissez-faire’ which stressed individualism also helped the growth ofcommercial Revolution.



Commonly accepted coin system also used this trade and commerce. Thecommercial Revolution imparted a new economic phenomenon of money andexchange with surplus usage of Capital. The large scale of production effected by theemergence of Industrial Revolution, Factory system and agricultural Revolutionbrought about a new class of capitalists who finally started to control both the marketand the colonies. This economic phenomenon of commerce and colonisationultimately led to the imperialistic schemes of European powers in the followingcenturies, especially in Asia, Africa and Latin America.

Towards the end of medieval period in Europe, strong dictators rose to powerin France, England and Spain. They suppressed the feudal lords with the support ofmiddle class. Such countries are known as Nation State. Nationalism is a modernphenomenon that appeared along with the origin and development of capitalism inthe world. It is an ideological and political principle which came into existence in theprocess of the formation of nations. A nation is a historical community of peopleestablished on the basis of a common economic life combined with a commonlanguage, territory and culture. Normally a nation is formed by overcoming the feudaldisunity and developing Capitalist production system which consolidates economicties between regions and merges local markets into a national market.

Nation-state is the basic form of the political organisation of the modern times.In that sense it replaces the political system of the middle ages. It was in the latemedieval Europe that modern nations, nationalism and nation-states had its firsthistorical development in the world. It was the decline of feudalism that created thematerial conditions for the rise of nationalism and nation-state in Europe. Feudalpolitical structure had provided no space for any sense of common nationality. Inmedieval period people speaking the same language and inheriting the same culturewere generally distributed in different feudal states. As a classic example, the HolyRoman Empire consisted of, besides the chief people Germans, Several linguistic andethnic sections of people. Secondly, the kings of states, who could been the naturalleaders of their nations, hardly possessed any power.

The growth of trade and urban life along with an assertive middle class playeda principal role in creating formation of Nations in Europe. The merchants and othernew economic classes who found both feudal exactions and anarchy detrimental totheir interests, preferred strong central authority. Hence this middle class sought to



strengthen the monarchs over feudal lords by financing them to build up their ownarmy and administrative machinery. The European Kings, with the middle classsupport, now tried to establish their supremacy over feudal lords. A process of thedestruction of the power of feudal lords began.

The introduction of gun powder in Europe at this time proved to be ofimmense help in this process. The impregnable feudal castles and fortresses now layimportant before the fire arms used by the kings. A favorable political condition wasnow created for powerful national monarchy. The Renaissance and Reformationprovided a powerful ideological backing to nationalism and Nation-state. The growthof national language and literature, promoted by Renaissance writers, was a notablefactor in this respect. It can be noted that Machiavelli, the prominent politicalthinkers of Renaissance period, was an upholder of strong monarchic state.

The Reformation involved national and political issues is an historical fact. Thusin the new economic and social milieux, the political process of the formation ofnations and nation-states became widespread in Europe. The people inhabiting adefined territory and owning common language and culture, began to emerge assingle nations and constitute themselves into states under national monarchs. At thattime, monarchy was the main form of nation-state. The first nation-states of Europewere France, England and Spain, then Portugal and Holland.



Module- III

DAWN OF RATIONALISM AND DEMOCRACYThe English Revolution of 1688

The Glorious Revolution constitutes a turning point in the history of England.We have already seen the limited monarchical position of Charles II, who has beenrestored in 1660. He was cautious and diplomatic and never wanted to invite thedispleasure of the parliament. In 1685 he was succeeded by his brother James-II.James II, in his short reign of three years, got opposition from all sides. He was astaunch Catholic and a firm believer in absolute monarchy. Hence he met with betterexperiences from the parliament and the people. The real reason for the revolution of1688 was James’ attempt to re-establish Catholicism and absolutism in England. There-catholisation attempt in all offices, particularly in the Universities in England byjames-II, greatly antogonised the people in the parliament.

James II granted complete toleration to Catholics of Scotland and issued adeclaration of indulgence in favour of Catholics and Dissenters which invited muchCriticism in England. Mean while, his Queen gave birth to a son to the embarrassmentof the parliament and to the people with a possible ‘danger’ catholic succession. Thisalso thwarted the prospect of Mary, daughter of James, who married to William ofOrange. This danger to the protestant succession of England has been solved factfullyand diplomatically by the parliament by inviting Mary and her husband Wiliam ofOrange as the joint rulers of England. This peaceful change of power over England isknown as ‘Bloodless’, or ‘Glorious Revolution’. The real Glory of the revolution wasthat it was without Army, Civil War or Bloodshed. A new era in English History wasinaugurated. In short, the revolution of 1688 resulted in the establishment ofconstitutional monarchy in England.

Bill of Rights

Some of the ideas of the English Bill of Rights were incorporated in the FrenchDeclaration of the Rights of Man in 1789. The English Revolution made significantchanges in the British Political system. For the first time in European history, arbitraryroyal rule based on Divine Right was replaced by a constitutional monarchy with amassive transfer of power to parliament. Before becoming King, William had to



accept a number of drastic limitations on the royal power. These limitations werethen incorporated into the Bill of Rights, which was enacted in 1689. The Bill of Rightswas almost a short written constitution. Its most important provisions were:maintaining a standing army without the consent of parliament is illegal, parliamentshould meet frequently, making or suspending any law without the consent ofParliament is illegal, English men have the right to petition to sovereign, levying taxeswithout the consent of Parliament is illegal, Elections of members of parliament mustbe free, Excessive bail should not be demanded, There must be freedom of speechesin Parliament and the right to participate in its debates.

An Indirect result of the revolution was the growth of Cabinet system. The Billof Rights was one of the most important documents in the political history of Britain.It reaffirmed and extended the rights of Englishmen a set forth in Magna Carta. Itgave a permanent constitutional form to all the restraint that parliament had tried toput on the Stuart Kings. If raid down the essential principles of parliamentarysupremacy control of the purse, prohibition of the royal power of dispensation andfrequent meetings of parliament. Bill of Rights thus confirmed the revolution byshifting Sovereignty from the crown to parliament. After 1832, a large number ofreforms were carried out in various fields.

Enlightenment:

18th Century is commonly described as the age of Enlightenment.Enlightenment was an intellectual and cultural revolution. Philosopher R.G.Collingwood described the ‘Enlightenment as a Crusade against religion.’ TheEnlightenment or the Age of Reason, as it came to be known subsequently, marked asharp break with the past. Its leaders revolted against the traditional outlook andideology and challenged many of the old institutions of European societies.

Enlightenment thus announced the commencement of modern age.Enlightenment was the product of the Scientific Revolution of the 17th century. Rapidgrowth of science and the development of scientific method brought about a radicalchange in human approach. Science came to be seen as system of knowledgecapable of explaining everything related to the physical universe. This precipitatedthe revolution called Enlightenment, which embodied the intellectual and scientificdevelopments of the early modern world. The more intellectually sections of themiddle class began to feel that their societies were defective, and sought to bring



change by changing ideas. This led to a much more far-reaching attack on prejudiceand superstition than had occurred in the renaissance and reformation. The resultwas a current of ideas called Enlightenment.

The concept of Enlightenment

In a sense, Enlightenment was a revolt against tradition and a leap towardsmodernity. It led a crusade against irrational tradition, prejudice, obscurantism,Superstitions or revelation and oppression. It questioned blind obedience toauthority, whether that of the priest or the ruler. Enlightenment used the scientificmethod of enquiry to launch a systematic attack on tradition. The principal targetswere religion and the domination of society by a hereditary aristocracy. TheEnlightenment men attempted to undermine the centrality accorded to religion andhierarchy in social and political life. The Enlightenment was based on the concept ofReason. Its exponents believed that human reason could be used to combatignorance, superstition and tyranny and to build a better world.

The Enlightenment embodies the spirit of optimism. Its advocates believed that theylived in a world marked by greater well being and happiness of all. The thought thathuman beings were able to create a world in which freedom, liberty and happinesswould prevail over all else. This vision was clearly evident in the writings of Voltaire,Diderot, d’Alembert, Condorcet, Adam smith, David Hume and Immanual Kant

Important features of Enlightenment are,

1. The idea of progress

2. Rationalism

3. Secularism

4. Naturalism

5. Humanitarianism

6. Liberalism

7. Utilitarianism

8. Romanticism

The Enlightenment Philosophers like Hobbes,Francis Bacon John Locke, Diderotand the central figures of the age of Enlightenment are Rousseaue, Voltaire andMontesquieue.



John Locke

Locke (1632- 1704) was one of the philosophers of England and he was a criticof political absolutism. ‘Essay Concerning Human Understanding,’ he advanced hisarguments against absolute monarchy. John Locke propounded his own version of thesocial contract theory. In his ‘Two Treatises on Government’ John Locke inflicted adeath blow to the doctrine of Divine Right. Locke pointed out that the ruler ruled notby Divine Right, but by virtue of a contract with his people. He proclaimed a new testfor good Government, namely the happiness of the subjects and welfare of the state.This was the initial stage of the theory of Enlightenment despotism.

Francis Bacon

Francis Bacon was born on 22 January 1561 in London. He was the son of Sir NicholasBacon, keeper of the great seal for Elizabeth I. Bacon studied at Cambridge Universityand at Gray's Inn and became a member of parliament in 1584. However, he wasunpopular with Elizabeth, and it was only on the accession of James I in 1603 thatBacon's career began to prosper. Knighted that year, he was appointed to asuccession of posts culminating, like his father, with keeper of the great seal.

However, Bacon's real interests lay in science. Much of the science of the period wasbased on the work of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. While manyAristotelian ideas, such as the position of the earth at the centre of the universe, hadbeen overturned, his methodology was still being used. This held that scientific truthcould be reached by way of authoritative argument: if sufficiently clever mendiscussed a subject long enough, the truth would eventually be discovered. Baconchallenged this, arguing that truth required evidence from the real world. Hepublished his ideas, initially in 'Novum Organum' (1620), an account of the correctmethod of acquiring natural knowledge.

Bacon's political ascent also continued. In 1618 he was appointed lord chancellor, themost powerful position in England, and in 1621 he was created viscount St Albans.Shortly afterwards, he was charged by parliament with accepting bribes, which headmitted. He was fined and imprisoned and then banished from court. Although theking later pardoned him, this was the end of Bacon's public life. He retired to hishome at Gorham bury in Hertfordshire, where he continued to write. He died inLondon on 9 April 1626.



American War of Independence

Causes of the Revolution:

American was of Independence popularly known as American Revolution(1775-83) was the revolt of the 13 colonies of England in North America to be freefrom their mother country which was following a policy of Imperialism. The war ofindependence is regarded as an indirect result of the Seven Years War. In that War,the colonists in America became conscious of their strength. So the possibilities ofUnion among themselves had gained experience and training as soldiers and officers.

1. Mercantilism:

2. Navigation Laws: The Navigation Laws passed by Great Britain were detrimental tothe interest of the colonies in 1650. The Laws insisted that all goods from the coloniesto be shipped in British vessels alone, and some goods were to be sold exclusively toBritish merchants only.

3. Sugar Act: The British government now came to the view that since the war wasfought for the defense of the colonists also, the latter had to bear a part of theimperial burdon. Britain first began to strictly enforce the Navigation Acts with thehelp of the increased number of British official said troops. It then passed a series ofacts to raise revenues from the colonies. The first of these was the Revenue Act of1764, generally known as Sugar Act. The Sugar Act increased the import duty onrefined sugar and taxed imported items like wine, coffee, silk and linen. Shocked bythe sudden vigour of imperial control after decades of ‘salutary neglect’, the colonistsprotested against the Sugar Act. They argued that the British parliament had no rightto tax them.

4. Stamp Act: England passed several laws against colonial smuggling. She alsoproposed to station a force of ten thousand in America “for the defense of thecolonies”. About one third of the defense cost was to be borne by the colonies andthe amount was to be raised by a stamp duty on all legal documents, newspapers,pamphlets etc. This stamp Act was passed in 1765. This Act provoked anger andviolence. The liberty loving Americans immediately raised the cry “No taxationwithout representation”. This meant that the colonists wanted not to be ruled by aparliament three thousand miles away. They wanted to have their own parliamentand rule themselves. Riots broke out in America. Effigies of stamp collectors wereburnt. Later, the Stamp Act was repealed in 1766. But at the same time a DeclaratoryAct was passed asserting that Great Britain had the right to tax the colonies.Additional troops were sent to enforce the right of taxation.



5. Boston Tea Party: The Import Duties Act passed in 1767 by Charles Townshend, theChancellor of Exchequer of England. decided to increase the revenue of the state bylevying a tax on tea, glass and paper entering American ports. There was a storm ofprotest against this Act and many riots occurred in Boston. In 1769 the duties of glassand paper were withdrawn but retained the duty on tea. Some patriots in America, bythis time, started agitation against Britain. The people of Boston attacked someBritish soldiers and in the clash four townsmen were killed. The colonists magnifiedthe incident as a massacre (The Boston Massacre, 1773). The revolutionaries enteredinto some ships of English East India Company bearing tea coming to the port ofBoston and a few chests of tea were thrown into the sea. This incident, the “BostonTea Party” in 1773 instigated the British and they soon closed down the Port ofBoston. They also sent troops to suppress the revolutionaries.

Persuasive Speech and persistent agitation by leaders like James Otis, PatrikHenry, Samuel Adams and Thomas Paine, greatly helped the movement towards Warand Independence. George Washington was a leader of the revolutionaries whomade the revolution to a positive end. He was supported ably by leaders likeHamilton, Thomas Jefferson, Frankline and others. Washington was leading an armywhich was short of many things including food and dress. A writer comments,Gerorge Washington’s route in the revolutionary movement can be detected easily bythe bloodstains found in the land, because they have no enough shoes or even amoiety of a shirt”. It was really his courage and determination that won therevolution.

In June 1776 many of the delegates of the colonies met in series of congresseswhich met at Philadelphia drew up the famous Declaration of Independence,initiated by Thomas Jefferson. The declaration dealt with the ‘inalienable rights’ ofmen to secure their life, liberty and happiness by organizing their own Governmentbased on the consent of the people. Very soon they declared the freedom of the 13colonies from the mother country. The War broke out in 175 and lasted for abouteight years. The war ended by the Treaty of Paris in 1783. The 13 colonies becamefree and in 1789 the United States of America (USA) was born as a Republic with anew constitution.



Results of the Revolution - Formation of the constitution of USA

George Washington was the First President of USA. A new constitution wasdrawn up with the efforts of Alexander Hamilton and other leaders. The Constitutionmade the American people a nation and it defined the respective powers of theCentral Government and Federal States. The Central Government was given thecontrol of the army and the navy, and the power to make war and peace, and theissue of currency. The US constitution highlighted the following things: (1) An electedPresident (2) A written constitution (3) Separation of Church and State (4) Separationof powers, particularly, Executive and judiciary (5) A Federal Republic. The newconstitution of USA fully imbibed the spirit of the Declaration of Independencepassed in 1776.

Historical significance

The American War of Independence was the fuller expression of the inalienable rightsof men and the accommodation of the age long ambition of national freedom. Therevolution discredited the principle of absolutism and emphasized the right of thepeople to overthrow any oppressive Government. The Declaration of Independenceemanated that “all men are equal” which in later even influenced the FrenchRevolutionaries. The new Republican Government in USA was a political experimentwith many novel features, inviting to the study of political scientist.

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