UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
CULTURE AND WOMEN ENTREPRENEURSHIP: A CASE STUDY OF
NABDAM DISTRICT
BY:
GOLDA ANAMBANE
(10550860)
THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD
OF MPHIL MARKETING DEGREE
JUNE, 2017
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DECLARATION
I do hereby declare that this thesis is the result of my own research and has not been
presented by anyone for any academic award in this or any other university. All
references used in the work have been fully acknowledged.
I bear sole responsibility for any shortcomings.
.................................................... ...............................................
GOLDA ANAMBANE DATE
(10550860)
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CERTIFICATION
We do hereby certify that this thesis was supervised in accordance with procedures laid
down by the University of Ghana.
………………………………….. ......................................
DR. KWAME ADOM DATE
(SUPERVISOR)
……………………………….. ……………………
DR. SAMUEL C. K. BUAME DATE
(CO-SUPERVISOR)
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DEDICATION
This work is in loving memory of my FATHER, Mr. Moses (Muvis) Awimbire
Anambane. I could not become the mathematician you wished I be: but certainly, I have
become a strong woman. Thoughts of whom you craved I become, keeps me striving.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my profound gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Kwame Adom. Thank you for
your timeless dedication, guidance, motivation, corrections, and insightful suggestions
throughout the supervision of this thesis. Further, I am thankful to my co-supervisor
Dr. Samuel C. K. Buame. Dr., I immensely appreciate your support, time, advice and
motivation which kept me through the period of undertaking this work. Also, I am
grateful to you Dr. Prince Kodua and Dr. Mark Boadu, for your support and advice.
Great acknowledgement again goes to all the women entrepreneurs in the Nabdam
District, especially those that were included in this study: thanks for your insights and
may God bless the work of your hands. Moreover, recognition goes to Madam Beatrice
Azure, as a single mother, you gave me good education despite the challenges: I
appreciate you. A big thanks once more goes to Madam Salomey Adofoli (departmental
secretary), Mrs. Victoria Mann (PhD student), and all lecturers of the Marketing and
Entrepreneurship Department for your assistance in countless ways. Nonetheless,
appreciation goes to my friends: Prince Olani Olabode Ola Norbert, Francisca Duah-
Agyeman and Melony Ankamafio, with whom I have shared ideas. Most importantly,
I am grateful to Gifty Akafabli Anambane, without whom, getting an Mphil at this stage
of my life would have been impossible: I say “THANK YOU.”
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TABLE OF CONTENT
Content Page
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA ........................................................................................... i
DECLARATION ........................................................................................................... ii
CERTIFICATION ....................................................................................................... iii
DEDICATION .............................................................................................................. iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................. v
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................ xi
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................... xii
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................... xiii
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................ 1
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 1
1.0 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Research Background .............................................................................................. 1
1.2 Research Problem .................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Research Purpose ..................................................................................................... 6
1.4 Research Objectives ................................................................................................. 6
1.5 Significance of the Study ......................................................................................... 6
1.6 Chapter Outline ........................................................................................................ 7
1.7 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................... 9
UNDERSTANDING CULTURE AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP: A LITERATURE
REVIEW ........................................................................................................................ 9
2.0 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 9
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2.1 The Concept and Definitions of Entrepreneurship .................................................. 9
2.2 Contributions of Entrepreneurship to Society: A Global Perspective ................... 12
2.3 Women Entrepreneurship Explained ..................................................................... 14
2.4 Assessing Women Entrepreneurship in Sub-Saharan Africa................................. 17
2.5 Holistic Evaluation of the Motivations of Women Entrepreneurs......................... 18
2.6 Gender Variations in Entrepreneurship ................................................................. 20
2.7 Nature of Women Owned Enterprises ................................................................... 22
2.8 Challenges Facing Women Entrepreneurs ............................................................. 24
2.9 Explaining Culture ................................................................................................. 27
2.10 Contrasting the Dimensions of Culture................................................................ 30
2.10.1 Geert Hofstede’s Dimensions of National Culture ....................................... 31
2.10.2 Ronald Inglehart’s Dimensions of Culture.................................................... 34
2.11 Explaining Culture and Entrepreneurship ............................................................ 35
2.12 The Stereotype Threat Theory ............................................................................. 38
2.3 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................. 41
CHAPTER THREE ..................................................................................................... 42
CONTEXT OF THE STUDY ...................................................................................... 42
3.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 42
3.1 Section One: Overview of the Nabdam District .................................................... 42
3.1.1 Nature of the Nabdam District ........................................................................ 42
3.1.2 Population Size, Structure and Composition................................................... 43
3.1.3 Economic Activity Status ................................................................................ 44
3.1.4 Culture of the Nabdams................................................................................... 45
3.2 Overview of Women Entrepreneurship in the Study Area .................................... 47
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3.2.1 Synopsis of Women’s Labour Force Participation in Ghana .......................... 47
3.2.2 Women Entrepreneurship in Ghana ................................................................ 47
3.2.3 Women Entrepreneurship in the Nabdam District .......................................... 49
3.2.4 Programmes Designed to Increase Women’s Entrepreneurship in Ghana ..... 50
3.3 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................. 51
CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................ 52
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY................................................................................. 52
4.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 52
4.1 Philosophical Approach ......................................................................................... 52
4.2 Research Design..................................................................................................... 54
4.3 Research Approach ................................................................................................ 55
4.3.1 Qualitative Approach ...................................................................................... 55
4.3.2 Quantitative Approach .................................................................................... 56
4.4 Sources and Types of Data .................................................................................... 57
4.5 Data Collection Methods ....................................................................................... 58
4.6 Data Collection Procedure ..................................................................................... 59
4.7 Study Population .................................................................................................... 60
4.8 Sample Size ............................................................................................................ 60
4.9 Sampling Technique .............................................................................................. 61
4.10 Data Analysis ....................................................................................................... 62
4.11 Data Reliability and Validity ............................................................................... 62
4.12 Ethical Considerations ......................................................................................... 63
4.13 Limitations of the Study....................................................................................... 63
4.14 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................ 64
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CHAPTER FIVE ......................................................................................................... 65
DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS .......................................... 65
5.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 65
5.1 Data Analysis ......................................................................................................... 65
5.1.1 Profile of Respondents .................................................................................... 65
5.1.2 Understanding Culture: The Community’s Perspective.................................. 68
5.1.3 Motives of Women Entrepreneurs in the Nabdam District ............................. 74
5.1.4 Evaluating Gender Stereotypes and Women Entrepreneurship ...................... 79
5.1.5 Cultural Practices and Women Entrepreneurship ........................................... 80
5.1.6 Analysing the Contributions of Women Entrepreneurs to Society ................. 86
5.1.7 Women Entrepreneurs Benefit too .................................................................. 89
5.2 Discussion of Findings ........................................................................................... 91
5.2.1 Culture Acts as a ‘Push’ Motivational Factor to Women Entrepreneurship ... 91
5.2.2 Culture as a Determinant of the Size and Sector of Business of Women
Entrepreneurs ........................................................................................................... 93
5.2.3 Culture as a Limitation to Women Entrepreneurs’ Growth and Expansion ... 94
5.2.4 Contributions of Women Entrepreneurs to Society Mainly Focus on Human
Development ............................................................................................................ 96
5.2.5 Spousal Support is Necessary for Women Entrepreneurs ............................... 97
5.3.6 Entrepreneurship is Perceived as a Preserve for the Uneducated in the District
.................................................................................................................................. 98
5.4.7 Majority Women Entrepreneurs are Ignorant of Business Registration/
Formalization ........................................................................................................... 98
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5.4.8 Women Entrepreneurship Have the Capacity of Reducing Rural-Urban
Migration .................................................................................................................. 99
5.3 Summary of Chapter .............................................................................................. 99
CHAPTER SIX .......................................................................................................... 100
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSISON & RECOMMENDATIONS ......... 100
6.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 100
6.1 Summary of the Study ......................................................................................... 100
6.2 Conclusion of the Study ....................................................................................... 101
6.3 Recommendations ................................................................................................ 103
6.4 Future Research Directions .................................................................................. 104
6.5 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................ 105
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 106
APPENDIX I: INTERVIEW GUIDE ........................................................................ 140
APPENDIX II: CROSS CASE ANALYSIS TABLE ............................................... 143
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.9.1: Definitions of culture ............................................................................... 29
Table 3.1.3.1 Self-employed population 15 years and older by employment status and
sex ................................................................................................................................ 45
Table 5.1.1.1: Profile of respondents ........................................................................... 66
Table 5.1.2.1 Cultural limitations of women ............................................................... 70
5.1.3.1 Motivations for business creation .................................................................... 74
5.1.5.1: Cultural practices that promote or limit women entrepreneurship ................. 81
Table 5.1.6.1 Contributions of women entrepreneurship ............................................ 86
Table 5.1.7.1 Benefits Gained from Entrepreneurship ................................................ 89
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.1: Map of the Nabdam District ...................................................................... 43
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ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to explore the role of culture in shaping the
entrepreneurial behaviour of women. It is believed that the disparities in the levels of
entrepreneurship across countries may be caused by differences in culture. However, it
appears women entrepreneurship is more responsive to cultural norms and values than
male entrepreneurship. In Sub-Saharan Africa especially, most countries have strong
cultural practices that traditionally impose restrictions on women and their
entrepreneurial behaviour and also create additional barriers for women that make it
more difficult for them to start or grow business enterprises. Yet, most existing studies
on culture and women entrepreneurship focus on the extent to which national cultural
values affect women entrepreneurship by employing quantitative methods, with little
probing into “the how”: to give a better understanding of the phenomenon. This study
starts to fill this gap by employing a qualitative research approach with the case study
design, using face-to-face in-depth interview of 20 women entrepreneurs. The key
finding of the study is that culture acts as a ‘push’ motivational factor of women
entrepreneurship and largely limit the growth and expansion of women-owned
enterprises. This therefore calls for programmes that will stimulate the growth and
development of women-owned enterprises, factoring in the predominant cultural issues
affecting women entrepreneurs in this area. This study has significant value and it is
original since it is the first known study that looks at culture and women
entrepreneurship in the Nabdam district (Ghana). The study has unearthed some critical
ideas as to how certain cultural practices are shaping entrepreneurial orientation of
women in the Nabdam District.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
This chapter covers the introductory issues in relation to the research phenomenon. It
contains the research background, research problem, research purpose, research
objectives, research questions, significance of the study, and the chapter outline of the
study.
1.1 Research Background
Huggins and Thompson, (2014) posit that the nexus between culture and development
is mediated by entrepreneurship. Several studies indicate the culture of a group of
people plays a vital role in their entrepreneurial behaviour (Aramand, 2012; Petridou &
Glaveli, 2008; Welter, 2011; Wennberg, Pathak & Autio, 2013). Berger (1991)
emphasizes that culture serves as the conductor, while the entrepreneur, the catalyst to
entrepreneurship. In light of this, Huggins & Thompson (2014), strongly attribute the
disparities in levels of entrepreneurship among localities to community culture. This is
because entrepreneurship occurs in a society and hence the norms, believes, values,
among others of the people affect it.
However, one of the difficulties in studying the role of culture in relation to
entrepreneurial activity is the lack of a precise and commonly understood definition of
culture (McGrath, MacMillan, Yang & Tsai, 1992) as several authors suggest different
definitions and views. According to Woodside, Bernal and Coduras, (2016), culture
represents a complex whole of attitudes, beliefs, values, and behaviour. Their definition
propose attitudes, beliefs, values, and behaviour as the elements of culture. An in-depth
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study by Hofstede (1980; 1984; 2001) propounds six dimensions of national culture
based on value systems which are labelled: individualism versus collectivism, power
distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity versus femininity, long-term versus short-
term orientation, and indulgence versus restraint. Additionally, it appears women
entrepreneurship is more responsive to cultural norms and values than that of men
(Baughn, Chua & Neupert, 2006; Global Entrepreneurship Monitor, 2015; Langowitz
& Minitti, 2007). All over the world, women exhibit similar features in terms of how
institutional arrangements define their position in society in which culture, class, race,
among several others, shape their roles (Della-Giusta & Phillips, 2006).
Besides, entrepreneurship, just like culture, has varying definitions. According to
Zacharis, Bygrave and Shepherd (2000), entrepreneurship refers to any effort to create
a new business enterprise or to expand a current one by an individual, a team of
individuals, or an established business. Therefore, the term “Women Entrepreneur”
refers to women who accept challenging roles to meet their personal needs and become
economically self-sufficient through enterprise creation (Manjunatha, 2013). Women
entrepreneurs have been identified as unexploited resource for economic growth and
development (Minniti & Naudé, 2010; Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development, 2012). It is therefore not surprising that there is an increasing interest in
women entrepreneurship: both in research and in practice (Denanyoh, Adjei & Owusu,
2013; Singh & Bewal, 2008; Sullivan & Meek, 2012). Women entrepreneurship has
been found capable of providing jobs for more women and consequently contributing
to gender equality, economic stability and economic development (Allen, Elam,
Langowitz & Dean, 2008; Aramand, 2012; Singh & Bewal, 2008) which is necessary
for national development.
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In 2012, a Forbes report admonished government of various countries to focus on
gaining foreign investment for women entrepreneurs who are key drivers for economic
growth rather than concentrating on obtaining foreign aid (Isaac, 2012). This points out
the significant contributions of women entrepreneurs in poverty alleviation and
development (Adom, 2015; Buame, Asempa & Acheampong, 2013; Roy, 2010; Signh
& Bewal, 2008). For instance, Dzisi (2008) postulates that the entrepreneurial activities
of Ghanaian women have contributed substantially to the economic growth of Ghana
in terms of innovation, job creation, and reduction in poverty and unemployment
(see, Adom, 2015).
Globally, more than two hundred and twenty-four (224) million women are estimated
to be engaged in entrepreneurial activities (GEM, 2012). However, across countries and
regions, women’s engagement in entrepreneurial activity differ. Sub-Saharan Africa
has the highest level of female Total Entrepreneurial Activity (TEA) with about 27%
of the female population engaging in entrepreneurship. Latin America/Caribbean
economies display fairly high levels of female TEA (15%). The Middle East and North
America (MENA) and Mid-Asia region have the lowest female TEA levels among
women with only 4% of women engaging in entrepreneurship. Although Sub-Saharan
Africa reports the highest level of female TEA, the region records the highest level of
business discontinuance among women entrepreneurs (GEM, 2012). Due to the
significant growth in women entrepreneurship, some scholars argue that their
contributions to economic growth is higher than that of their male counterparts (Minniti,
2009). Irrespective of this growth, more males still own enterprises than females
(Bosma & Levie, 2010; Vossenberg, 2013; Rubio-Banón & Esteban-Lloret, 2016) as it
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is estimated that men make up 52% of all entrepreneurial activity, compared to 48% of
women worldwide (GEM, 2012). However, at the national levels, some countries have
more women than men engaging in entrepreneurship. In Ghana for instance, 55% of
entrepreneurial activities are done by women (GEM, 2012). The underlying factors for
such an outstanding difference in women entrepreneurship in Ghana is worth exploring.
Nonetheless, entrepreneurship is considered a necessary tool for rural development and
growth (OECD, 2006; Paul & Sharma, 2013; Saxena, 2012). In developing nations,
rural entrepreneurship accounts for about 25% of full-time rural employment and 40%
of rural incomes (Nguyen & Fredrick, 2014). It is considered as a platform by which
the relative hardship of women in rural areas could be lessened and also a means of
using the untapped economic development potential of rural women (Anthopoulou,
2010; Driga, Lafuente & Vaillant, 2009). Majority of the rural poor are women.
Therefore if more people, especially rural women are encouraged and supported to
engage in entrepreneurship, rural poverty could be reduced.
1.2 Research Problem
Also, although global statistics suggest that one-third of entrepreneurs are women,
literature on entrepreneurship contains relatively few studies which are focused on
women entrepreneurs as Bhatnagar, Bhardwaj & Gupta, (2013) and Brush, (2006)
indicate. The few existing studies on women entrepreneurship primarily tend to focus
on women’s contributions to financial growth and performance (Adom, 2015;
Mitchelmore, Rowley & Shiu, 2014), women’s motivations for entrepreneurship
(Orhan & Scott, 2001; Robinson, 2001), among others, with little done on a relevant
and predominant issue such as culture. Also, generally, studies on culture and
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entrepreneurship do not consider gender differences (see Autio, Pathak & Wennber,
2013; George & Zahra, 2002; Huggins & Thompson, 2014; Kreiser, Marino, Dickson
& Weaver, 2010) though research has established that male and female entrepreneurs
differ in terms of their motivations, access to finance, barriers, and others (OECD, 2013;
Perez-Perez & Aviles-Hernandez, 2016; Sabarwal & Terrell, 2008). Therefore culture
could have differing effects. The relatively few studies focusing on women
entrepreneurship and culture are either conceptual papers (see Przybyszewska, 2014;
Tongel, 2016) or rely on quantitative methods (see; Guiso & Rustichini, 2011; Rubio-
Banón & Esteban-Lloret, 2015). This does not really show “how” culture affects
women entrepreneurs from an empirical perspective.
Further, according to Nguyen & Frederick (2014), women entrepreneurship in rural
regions is generally under-researched. In Africa especially, although women constitute
majority of the total population, the entrepreneurial world of rural African women is
still a very limited one (Islam, 2009). Irrespective of various calls for attention to be
paid to the economic activities of rural women, little has been done; both in research
and in practice. Though the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against
Women (CEDAW), admonishes member countries to take account of the significant
roles rural women play in the economic survival of their families (CEDAW article 14),
little has been done in that regards. In 2014, during the 59th session of CEDAW in
Geneva, Ghana’s representatives were probed as to why there is a lack of recognition
and value placed on women’s economic activities in rural Ghana (Vibes Ghana, 2014).
This indicates that Ghana as a country pays little attention to rural women
entrepreneurship. This study therefore seeks to fill these gaps by employing a
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qualitative research approach to explore the role of culture in women entrepreneurship
in the context of a rural area.
1.3 Research Purpose
The primary purpose of this study is to explore the role of culture in women
entrepreneurship in the Nabdam district: found in the Upper East Region of Ghana.
1.4 Research Objectives
The objectives of this study are:
1. To determine the role of culture in the enterprise start-up intentions/behaviour
of women.
2. To identify the cultural practices that have effects on women entrepreneurship.
3. To understand the contributions of women entrepreneurship to society
1.5 Significance of the Study
This study contributes to existing literature as it seeks to fill the research gap of culture
and women entrepreneurship especially in Ghana and Sub-Saharan Africa. For policy
makers, this study will turn the attention on the essence of an integrated approach for
promoting female entrepreneurship that does not relegate the predominant cultural
structures and gender unevenness due to culture. This could lead to a reduction in
female rural-urban migration in the study area. Also, to the women entrepreneurs, this
study will enable them understand the sources of some of the challenges they face by
providing insights on how cultural factors facilitate/hinder the growth of their
enterprises.
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1.6 Chapter Outline
This study is presented in six main chapters as follows:
Chapter one entails the general introductory issues of the research topic which consists
of an introduction, background of the study, statement of the problem, objectives of the
study, research questions, significance of the study, as well as the chapter disposition.
This is followed by chapter two which reviews existing literature on the concept and
definitions of entrepreneurship, contributions of entrepreneurship to society, women
entrepreneurship, women entrepreneurship in Sub-Saharan Africa, gender variations in
entrepreneurship, nature of women owned enterprises, challenges facing women
entrepreneurs, explaining culture, contrasting the dimensions of culture, as well as
explaining culture and entrepreneurship. The chapter also highlights the Stereotype
Threat Theory as the theoretical foundation of the study to help explain the research
phenomenon.
In chapter three, the study examines the context of the study. The chapter also covers
an overview of entrepreneurship in Ghana and the Nabdam district as well as gives an
overview of the Nabdam district.
Chapter four provides detailed information on the methodology used for the study. That
is, the various methods that were applied in acquiring data for the study in order to find
answers to the research questions. It discusses the philosophical assumptions for the
study, the research design, sources of data, data collection instruments, among others.
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The data analysis and discussion of findings is captured in chapter five. A thorough
analysis is done as well as the appropriate interpretations given.
Chapter six comprises summary, conclusion and recommendation of the study. This
determines whether the research questions were answered and the objectives of the
study fulfilled. Also, recommendations for future research is presented in this chapter.
1.7 Chapter Summary
This chapter introduced the study. It began by giving a general background to the study
and also presented the research problem, research objectives, research purpose and a
brief layout of the study.
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CHAPTER TWO
UNDERSTANDING CULTURE AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP: A
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
This chapter entails a review of extant literature on the broad concepts of women
entrepreneurship and culture in relation to the objectives of the study. The meaning of
entrepreneurship and culture is explored through a review of various definitions and
conceptualizations presented by scholars. The chapter also reviews literature along the
following thematic areas: the role of entrepreneurship in economic development, the
concept of women/female entrepreneurship, gender variations in entrepreneurship,
women entrepreneurship in Sub-Saharan Africa, nature of women-owned enterprises,
challenges of women entrepreneurs, dimensions of culture, as well as culture and
entrepreneurship. The chapter also examines the stereotype threat theory and how it
relates to the nature and current state of women entrepreneurship especially within the
context of the study.
2.1 The Concept and Definitions of Entrepreneurship
Sexton (1988) questions if the field of entrepreneurship is growing or just getting
bigger. This concern is iterated by Gartner (1990) as he probes if entrepreneurship is
just a buzzword, or has particular characteristics that can be identified and studied. The
relevance of these questions today cannot be overlooked since there is no single
universally accepted definition of entrepreneurship in literature over the years
(Adomako, Danso & Ampadu, 2015; Bruyat & Julien, 2001; Bula, 2012; Carland,
Carland & Carland, 2002; Holzl, 2010). One reason for the lack of a universally
accepted definition of entrepreneurship is its multidisciplinary nature. Researchers from
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different academic fields such as economics, psychology, and sociology have used
different philosophical assumptions in analysing and creating meaning for the field
(Audretsch, Boente & Tamvada, 2007; Low & Macmillan, 1988; Penedar, 2009; Shane
& Venkataraman, 2000).
The definition and meaning of entrepreneurship are disparate as per the views of Orhan
& Scott (2001). According to Vesper (1982), entrepreneurship refers to the creation of
new independent businesses. Carton, Hofer and Meeks (1998), present similar view of
entrepreneurship by defining it as the means by which new organizations are created
with their consequential job and wealth creation. To Zacharis et al. (2000),
entrepreneurship is the attempt to create a new business enterprise or to expand an
existing business by an individual, a team of individuals, or an established business.
Huggins and Thompson (2014) further include the social embededness of
entrepreneurship by defining it as the creation of new organizations which occurs as a
context-dependent, social and economic process. This definition points that context and
environment are crucial and serve as the bedrock to entrepreneurship.
However, to Reynolds (2005), entrepreneurship is the unearthing of opportunities and
the ensuing creation of new economic activity, often through the construction of a new
organization. Likewise, as per Onuoha (2007), entrepreneurship is the practice of
beginning new organizations or invigorating mature organizations, normally in
response to identified opportunities. It can also be considered as an act of starting,
creating, building and expanding an enterprise or organization, building an
entrepreneurial team and gathering other resources to exploit an opportunity in the
market place for long-term gain (Van Aardt, Hewitt, Bendeman, Bezuidenhout & Van
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Rensburg, 2011). However, the concept of “opportunity” recognition as highlighted by
the preceding definitions is vague and subjective. Therefore it is only business owners
who can tell if they are entrepreneurs (if the creation of their enterprises is as a result
of an opportunity recognition).
Additionally, some scholars view entrepreneurship as the ability to create something
new (innovation). Schumpeter (1934), is one of the earliest scholars to propose the idea
of innovation in entrepreneurship. In line with that, Morris and Sexton (1996) identify
three underlying scopes of entrepreneurship: innovativeness, calculated risk-taking and
pro-activeness. To emphasize these preceding opinions, Hisrich (2004), describes
entrepreneurship as a process of creating something different with value by devoting
the necessary time and effort, assuming the accompanying financial, psychological and
social risks and receiving the resulting rewards of monetary and personal satisfaction.
Hindle (2010) express similar thoughts by proposing that entrepreneurship is the
process of evaluating, committing to and achieving under contextual constraints, the
creation of new value from new knowledge for the benefit of defined stakeholders. The
idea of innovation being entrepreneurship is however problematic. This is because it is
challenging to define what exactly innovation constitutes. Even so, if innovation is the
basis for entrepreneurship, then at what level of innovation must one’s enterprise
achieve or reach to be qualified as entrepreneurial? It is in this light that Hanson (2009)
queries what constitutes innovation.
In view of the foregoing discourse, the study adopts the definition by Zacharis et al.
(2000), as the meaning of entrepreneurship for the study. This is because it presents a
broader perspective of what entrepreneurship is and allows all kinds of entrepreneurs
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(formal or informal, necessity-driven or opportunity driven) to be accorded the
recognition as such. Hence, for this study, entrepreneurship refers to any attempt to
create a new business enterprise or to expand an existing business by an individual, a
team of individuals, or an established business (Zacharis et. al, 2000).
2.2 Contributions of Entrepreneurship to Society: A Global Perspective
Poverty is one critical issue affecting a large proportion of the world's population
(Bruton, Ketchen & Ireland, 2013). Coupled with high rate of unemployment, poverty
is widespread in developing countries especially, which pose as a challenge to
economic growth and development (Rodrik, 2014; Okah-Efogo & Timba, 2015).
However, one remedy to poverty is the growth of the private sector through
entrepreneurship (Bruton, et al., 2013; Okah-Efogo & Timba, 2015). This is evident in
the fact that most of the better performing economies in the world are achieved through
vibrant entrepreneurial sectors (Abor & Quartey, 2010). Accordingly, there has been a
dramatic increase in the acceptance and interest in entrepreneurship worldwide
(Heilman & Chen, 2003).
In recent years, entrepreneurship has gained increasing attention around the world, as
it is closely linked with economic development and well-being of societies (Langevang
& Gough, 2012; Maden, 2015; Soriano & Peris-Ortiz, 2011). De Vita, Mari, and
Poggesi, (2014) indicate that entrepreneurship plays a leading role in economic
development worldwide. Hence it is widely acclaimed that entrepreneurship is a
platform for economic development and job creation (Audretsch & Fritsch, 2003;
Sriram & Mersha, 2010) and thus some authors suggest that a substantial causal
relationship exists between entrepreneurship, economic growth and poverty reduction
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(Rupasingha & Goetz, 2013; Stephens & Partridge, 2011). Entrepreneurship is capable
of eliminating all the vices connected with economic growth, social inequalities and
unemployment (Singh & Bewal, 2008). It is also perceived as a source of economic
development, innovation and growth (Rubio-Banon & Esteban-Lloret, 2016). It
provides millions of job opportunities, increases national prosperity, and makes it
possible for consumers to have alternative goods and services. Hence, it is seen as an
important factor in the socio-economic growth and development of nations (Zahra,
1999).
Hereafter, many authors believe that in this contemporary times, the transformation and
economic progression of world economies is highly dependent on entrepreneurship
(Boz & Ergeneli, 2014; Lee & Peterson, 2000; Soriano & Huarng, 2013). For this
reason, the United Kingdom government in 2011, proposed a strategy that clearly
identified entrepreneurship and enterprise development as the solution to the “twin
economic aims”: growth and employment, which the country set to achieve (HM
Treasury, 2011). Huggins and Thompson (2014) however specify that though
entrepreneurship is positively linked with economic growth (which is also linked to
other factors), entrepreneurship unaided by other factors is unlikely to be adequate to
resuscitate struggling economies.
Aside economic development, entrepreneurship contribute to the developmental level
of societies (Cantzler & Leijon, 2007; Duman, Beduk, Koyluoglu & Ay, 2015) by way
of improved standard of living and reduced poverty levels through the creation of
employment (Rwigema & Venter, 2004). When people are employed, they are able to
provide better food, better education, better healthcare, among others, for themselves
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and their families and this improves their standard of living. According Stephens and
Partridge (2011), the positive role of entrepreneurship in economic growth is better felt
when a nation has a greater share of opportunity-driven entrepreneurs (highly creative
and innovative individuals who identify and exploit opportunities) than necessity-
driven entrepreneurs (individuals who are compelled to start businesses as a result of
lack of work – Acs, 2007). They however add that, the most important thing is having
more people engage in entrepreneurship by starting their own businesses rather than the
distinction between necessity-driven versus opportunity- driven entrepreneurs. Also,
Delmar and Davidson (2000) present that higher rates of education result in higher
levels of entrepreneurship in economies. Harper (1991) then recommends that countries
that are less developed, should encourage entrepreneurship as an instrument to trigger
economic growth.
2.3 Women Entrepreneurship Explained
Isaac (2012) emphasizes that if people/governments want to change societies for the
better, then they should start with entrepreneurship for women. This points out the
relevance and importance of women entrepreneurship to societies. It is therefore not
surprising that there is an increasing interest in women entrepreneurship globally: both
in research and in practice (Achtenhagen & Tillmar, 2013; Bernard & Victor, 2013;
Bjerke, 2013; Teoh & Chong, 2014). Reports indicate that female entrepreneurship is
growing at a faster rate than male entrepreneurship (Kelley, Brush, Greene & Litovsky,
2013; Miniti & Naude, 2010). According to Manjunatha, (2013), the term “Women
Entrepreneur” refers to women who accept challenging roles to meet their personal
needs and become economically self-sufficient through enterprise creation. Although
male entrepreneurship is higher than female entrepreneurship currently, the significant
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role of women in entrepreneurship cannot be overemphasized (De Vita et al., 2014;
Rubio-Banon & Esteban-Lloret, 2016). Women entrepreneurs continue to make great
contributions to world economies (Revell-Love & Revell-Love, 2016).
In the global setting, women entrepreneurship has become a key driving force for the
economic development and wealth creation (Adom & Asare-Yeboah, 2016; Knorr,
2011) and have been identified as an important ‘untapped source’ for economic growth
and development (Madichie & Gallant, 2012; Minniti & Naude, 2010; OECD, 2012).
The World Economic Forum (2012) also identifies women entrepreneurs as “the way
forward” in terms of building strong economies. Isaac (2012, p1) iterates this by stating:
“forget aid, focus on foreign investment in women entrepreneurs as key drivers for
growth and development”. These views suggest that the general wellbeing (economic,
social, among others) of a nation depends on the work of its women and when more
women work, societies grow. In support of this, Welsh, Memili and Kaciak, (2016),
document that women entrepreneurs contribute to the economic well-being of countries
by reducing poverty and increasing the overall level of family income, which leads to
better education and health for their children. In developing countries, women
entrepreneurs are deemed as “rising stars” and the “new instruments” for growth of
economies (De Vita et al., 2014; Vossenberg, 2013). This is because they are taking
leading roles in establishing and developing noteworthy enterprises that contribute
significantly to poverty reduction and job creation (Buame et al., 2013; De Vita et al.,
2014).
Also, women entrepreneurship aids in achieving gender equality and has been noted as
a means through which developing countries can boost economic growth (De Vita et
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al., 2014). Dzisi (2008), highlights that aside contributing to better economies, women
entrepreneurs contribute positively to the social environment they find themselves. It is
therefore in the right direction as Reynolds, Camp, Bygrave, Autio and Hay (2002),
suggest that the greatest initiative any country can put in place to hasten its pace in
entrepreneurship is to encourage more of its women to be entrepreneurial.
The United States Census Bureau (2008) predict that the percentage of women
entrepreneurship will increase by fifty-five percent (55%) by the year 2025. Anna,
Chandler, Jansen and Mero, (2000) specify that female entrepreneurs usually aim at
balancing home life with their business while male entrepreneurs usually have higher
career expectations of amassing wealth. Again, women entrepreneurs are less likely to
notice opportunities for entrepreneurship, are more limited by the fear of failure, and
are less likely to have the intent of starting a business (Brush, De Bruin, Gatewood &
Henry, 2010). This explains why male entrepreneurs outnumber female entrepreneurs.
They also tend to be more risk averse and less innovative than their male counterparts
(Thomas & Mueller, 2000; Wagner, 2007) and this seem to limit the growth
opportunities of their enterprises. Nonetheless, necessity driven entrepreneurship is
predominant among women; especially those in poor countries, indicating the role of
inequality and exclusion of women in entrepreneurship (Malach, Lerner & Schwartz,
2010). Extant literature presented above imply that women entrepreneurship has
become a necessary tool for nations which wish to attain economic progress and
prosperity.
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2.4 Assessing Women Entrepreneurship in Sub-Saharan Africa
In Sub-Saharan Africa, women do most of the work ranging from agricultural activities
to household chores (Jiggins, 1989). This portrays the hardworking nature of African
women. Women in Sub-Saharan Africa are extending this hardworking nature into
business creation in order to cater for their increasing need for cash (Jiggins, 1989).
Consequently, Sub-Saharan Africa is making remarkable progress in the arena of
women entrepreneurship. The GEM (2015) indicates that half of the entrepreneurs in
Sub-Saharan Africa are women. The region has the highest level of female Total
Entrepreneurial Activity (TEA) as compared to other regions of the world: with about
27% of its female population engaging in entrepreneurship (GEM, 2012). Irrespective
of this progress, the region also records the highest level of business discontinuance
among women entrepreneurs (GEM, 2012).
The GEM (2015) women’s report, holds that globally, ten countries (Ghana, Nigeria,
Uganda, Zambia, Brazil, Vietnam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, and El- Salvador)
have more women entrepreneurs than men entrepreneurs or have equal number of
women entrepreneurs to men entrepreneurs. Four countries (Nigeria, Ghana, Uganda,
and Zambia) out of these ten are Sub-Saharan African countries, giving the impression
that Sub-Saharan Africa is a leader in women entrepreneurship in terms of numbers.
Alas, despite the high numbers of women entrepreneurship in Sub-Saharan Africa,
women entrepreneurs still face demoralising array of challenges which emanate from
the socio-cultural, economic, political, technological and legal environment in which
they find themselves (Amine & Staub, 2009). These place extra encumbrances on
women who crave to become entrepreneurs or expand their businesses. Women
entrepreneurs in Sub-Saharan Africa have a higher rate of operating businesses alone
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without employees and also a higher rate of operating unregistered businesses as
compared to their male counterparts (Hallward-Driemeier, 2013). Nonetheless, the
relevance and attention given to the contributions of female entrepreneurship towards
economic development in Sub-Saharan Africa is of recent (Adom, 2015). Also,
according to Madichie & Hinson (2014), women entrepreneurs in Sub-Saharan Africa
show both similarities and differences in relation to what motivates them to start
businesses as well as their concerns about the future of the business, despite variations
in their level of education, family structure, and nature of business.
2.5 Holistic Evaluation of the Motivations of Women Entrepreneurs
Over the years, scholars state that individuals, groups or institutions engage in
entrepreneurship as a result of the trigger of one factor or the other (see Minarcine &
Shaw, 2016; Stephan, Hart, Mickiewicz & Drews, 2015). However, the pull–push
model has been widely used to explain the factors that stimulate entrepreneurship (Itani,
Sidani & Baalbaki, 2011; Jamali, 2009; Verheul, Stel & Thurik, 2006).
On one hand, pull factors to entrepreneurship emanate from fundamental expectations
that entrepreneurship is beneficial, with non-economic motivates frequently being the
most dominant factors, especially for women (Ulhaner & Thurik, 2010). Pull factors
range from the need for self-accomplishment, to the desire to help others (Robinson,
2001; Verheul et al., 2006). Scholars in support of the ‘pull’ perspective consider
entrepreneurship to be largely influenced by individual choice and other factors, where
people willingly seek out greater freedom, trial and success (Baughn et al., 2006). In
relation to women entrepreneurship, studies propose that due to family responsibilities
which put more burden on women (Loscocco & Bird, 2012), they are possibly pulled
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into the entrepreneurship field in order to be able to attend to responsibilities associated
with motherhood (Itani et al., 2011).
Theoretically, the ‘pull’ factors discourse for entrepreneurship is buttressed by the
social approval/legitimation viewpoint (Freytag & Thurik, 2007), and the
materialism/post-materialism view (Ulhaner & Thurik, 2010). The legitimation/social
approval philosophy explains that people are pulled into entrepreneurship when the
culture of the country they live in exhibits high legalization of and support for
entrepreneurship, thereby increasing entrepreneurial events (Etzioni, 1987). However,
the materialism/post-materialism squabble is based on the proposition that
entrepreneurship is connected to the economic developmental levels in any country
(Baughn et al., 2006; Verheul et al., 2006). It suggests that the economic progress of a
country’s citizens is positively connected to the value for non-material life-goals
(Inglehart, 1997). Post-materialism denotes the degree to which a society encourages
its members to value life-goals which are non-material such as self-esteem, desire for
meaningful and personal development, over material goals (Inglehart, 1997).
On the other hand, push factors force people into entrepreneurship due to a “conflict
between one’s current and one’s desired state” (Ulhaner & Thurik, 2010: 3). They are
usually related to negative circumstances which spring from low income, job
dissatisfaction, strict working hours as well as lack of job opportunities (Robinson,
2001). By this argument, individuals consider entrepreneurship when there is a
displeasure with organisational issues such as lack of flexibility (Jamali, 2009) or
changes in the organization arising from restructuring that lessen the job security of
mainstream employment (Hughes, 2003). Push factors also emanate from population
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issues, such as urbanisation rate, population growth, age structure and unemployment
rates (Verheul et al., 2006), as well as cultural values and beliefs, and gender inequality
(Aidis, Welter, Smallbone & Isakova, 2007; Baughn et al., 2006).
According to Itani et al., (2011) and Jamali, (2009), considering organisational
discrimination against women, push factors could play a role in directing their interest
away from mainstream employment to entrepreneurship. Adom (2014) finds no/low
levels of education as a push motivational factor to women entrepreneurship. Therefore,
Tambunan (2009) suggests that higher levels of education among women could lead to
lower levels of women entrepreneurship. Moreover, Noorderhaven, Thurik, Wennekers
& Stel, (2004) suggest that in a predominantly non-entrepreneurial culture, a clatter of
values may transpire between some people and the major cultural values, resulting to
the rejection of mainstream employment for entrepreneurship. Again, research posit
that the need for survival motivate women more than men in becoming entrepreneurs
(Adom, 2014; Lock & Smith, 2016). As a result, the informal sector of most countries
especially developing countries are dominated by women (Adom, 2015; De Vita et al.,
2014).
2.6 Gender Variations in Entrepreneurship
All over the world, women’s participation in entrepreneurship is lower than that of men
(Hattab, 2012; Malach et al., 2010). Malach et al., (2010) submit that countries with
smaller per capita income and countries where women have limited options to making
a living tend to have higher percentages of women entrepreneurs. Statistics also indicate
that, globally, one-third of entrepreneurs are women (Dela-Guista & Phillips, 2006).
They dominate traditional sectors such as services and trading, which are
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predominantly characterized by relatively fewer growth opportunities and tougher
competition (Brush, 2006).
Additionally, studies on entrepreneurship from a gendered perspective disclose notable
differences in the levels of participation, entrepreneurial orientations, motives and
business opportunities of men and women in entrepreneurship (Perez-Perez & Aviles-
Hernandez, 2016; Quaye, Acheampong, & Asiedu, 2015). Globally, women and men
differ in terms of access to resources, and this continues to affect the ability of women
to start and grow businesses (The Gender Global Entrepreneurship and Development
Index, 2013). Studies in advanced economies identify unconditional performance gaps
between men and women entrepreneurs (Sabarwal & Terrell, 2008; OECD, 2013).
Similarly, Justo, DeTienne and Sieger, (2015) find that women entrepreneurs exit from
entrepreneurship more often and voluntarily than men. A study by Aterido, Beck and
Iacovone, (2013), reveal that, in Sub-Saharan Africa, women entrepreneurs make use
of lesser financial services, earn less, and have less education and these constitute an
unconditional gender gap. In contrast, Robb and Watson (2012), find no existing
performance gaps between women and men entrepreneurs likewise, Bardasi, Blackden
and Guzman, (2009) who studied gender gaps in performance in established businesses
in several African countries such as South Africa, Kenya, Namibia, and Botswana.
However, the gendered assumptions regarding “female enterprise under-performance”
have been criticised by Al- Dajani and Marlow, (2010) and Zolin, Stuetzer and Watson,
(2013). Marlow and McAdam (2013) also argue that the claim that women-owned
enterprises do not perform well as compared to male-owned ones reflects a gendered
prejudice within the entrepreneurial discourse where femininity is equated to under-
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performance. In their view, the “female under-performance” notion is invalid. Other
studies also challenge the female underperformance assumption and reveal that women-
owned businesses do not under-perform (Robb & Watson, 2012; Zolin et al., 2013).
Consequently, Carter, Anderson and Shaw, (2001) point out that gender has no impact
on the success of entrepreneurs.
Nonetheless, literature advocate that female and male entrepreneurs react differently to
the same environment as a result of the characteristics attributed to gender
dissimilarities (Croson & Gneezy, 2009). This is in line with the Asia Pacific Economic
Cooperation (APEC) Project (2013), which testify that cultural norms concerning the
role of women in family and labour market are major confining factors for
businesswomen. Culturally, women are perceived to be less capable than men and not
deserving the same opportunities as men (Teoh & Chong, 2014). Hence, cultural
practices create additional barriers for women that make it more difficult for them to
start or grow business enterprises (Female Entrepreneurship Index, 2015; GEM, 2015).
Also, factors such as family constraints and gender differences strongly influence the
decision of women to engage in entrepreneurship (De Vita et al., 2014). Social structure
and cultural values affect women entrepreneurs and the extent to which they do, is
country-specific (De Vita et al., 2014). In Africa, most countries have strong cultural
practices that traditionally impose restrictions on women and their behaviour: hence
their entrepreneurial behaviour (GEM, 2015).
2.7 Nature of Women Owned Enterprises
The study of the differences between female and male entrepreneurs has existed since
the 1980s (see Hisrich & Brush, 1987). Research indicate that women and men-owned
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enterprises differ in terms of motivation for engaging in entrepreneurship, management
style, choice of industry or business sector, among others (Huarng, Mas-Tur & Yu,
2012; Stevenson, 1990). However, Halkias, Nwajiuba, Harkiolakis and Caracatsanis,
(2011) assert that just a little or no significant differences exist between male and
female entrepreneurs. Irrespective of the increasing interest and participation in women
entrepreneurship, it appears women entrepreneurs still dominate less profitable sectors.
Carter and Marlow (2007) note that women-owned enterprises are concentrated in
congested and low-value adding sectors (Hallward-Dremier, 2013), have the capacity
of employing just few employees, earn less profits and have less market share.
Akehurst, Simarro and Mas‐Tur, (2012) point out that women operate in less value-
adding and small business as a result of difficulty in gaining finance and lack of skills.
The employees of women-owned enterprises are usually unskilled relatives (Belwal,
Tamiru & Singh, 2012). Women-owned ventures usually have smaller start-up capital
(Coleman & Robb, 2012; Fairlie & Robb, 2009) and only a few are found in the formal
sector as compared to men-owned enterprises (Brixiova & Kangoye, 2016). This
iterates the findings of Hallward-Dremier (2013) and Adom (2015) that women owned
enterprises dominate the informal sector.
Besides, women mostly operate retail and service businesses and there are only a few
operating in sectors such as construction, wholesale, finance, insurance, and real estate
(Blake & Hanson, 2005). Also, it is evident that there are less women operating
businesses in the technology sector (Wiederhold, 2014). Consequently, enterprises
owned by women are characterized by lower revenues and profits (Kelley, et al., 2011;
Morris, Miyasaki & Watters, 2006). In terms of size, women own relatively smaller
businesses as compared to those owned by men (Belwal et al., 2012; Hallward-Dremier,
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2013). Blake (2006) buttresses this finding by specifying that women-owned businesses
are mostly small scale, have fewer employees, and have less access to capital. As such,
Sabarwal and Terrell (2008), observe that women usually own small sized businesses
because they are capital constrained and also operate in sectors with small potential for
growth. Therefore, the nature of women-owned businesses seem to have created a
protected feminised niche where men could not intrude or control (Al-Dajani &
Marlow, 2013). Nonetheless, in relation to their male colleagues, female/women
entrepreneurs are more likely to operate their businesses on part-time basis, more likely
to use their homes as their business centres, less likely to be registered for the purpose
of tax, and also less likely to own more than one business (Mason, Carter & Tagg,
2011).
2.8 Challenges Facing Women Entrepreneurs
In society, women seem to have a weak position and this has a strong negative effect
on women entrepreneurship (Pettersson, 2012). United Nations Conference for Trade
(2001) finds that customs and cultural practices, coupled with legal imbalances in the
legal structure are the root cause of the problems women entrepreneurs face. Women
entrepreneurs face challenges that are different from their male counterparts (Ahl, 2006;
Mirchandani, 2005). These challenges include: inadequate access to capital/finance
(Asiedu, Kalonda-Kanyama, Ndikumana & Nti-Addae, 2013; Vossenberg, 2013;
World Bank, 2012), insufficient training and access to information (Belwal et al., 2012;
Chirwa, 2008), family and household responsibilities (Amine & Staub, 2009; Cesaroni
& Sentuti, 2014; Mordi, Simpson, Singh & Okafor, 2010; USAID, 2010), lack of
support and recognition from society (Jamali, 2009; Singh, Mordi, Okafor & Simpson,
2011) cumbersome legal procedures (Jamali, 2009), difficulty finding a suitable
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location (Halkias et al., 2011) inadequate professional networks, motherhood (Brush,
De Bruni, & Welter, 2009) and culture (Aramand, 2012; FEI, 2015; GEM, 2015).
To begin with, Brush, Carter, Greene, Hart, & Gatewood, (2002), discover that female
entrepreneurs have fewer opportunities to obtaining credit than male entrepreneurs.
This drives them to run traditional, home-based, and small businesses (Haan, 2004).
Contrary to this finding, Belwal et al. (2012), reveal that women have more
opportunities to gain credit than men in Ethiopia. They indicate that women
entrepreneurs have 14.9% chances of gaining access to credit as against 7.7% for male
entrepreneurs. This results from the readiness of most micro-finance institutions to lend
to women due to trust and also the realization of the importance of women
entrepreneurship (Chirwa, 2008).
Roddin, Sidi, Yusof, Mohamed and Razzaq, (2011) indicate that one major challenge
of women entrepreneurs is the conflict between work and family (work-family conflict)
and this causes business failure among women. The Women entrepreneurs who face
this challenge the most are those that operate home-based businesses and lack support
from their spouses (Hashim, Ho-Abdullah, Raihanah, Yusof, Hamdan & Jamsari, 2012;
Schoff, 2012). Family/spousal support for women entrepreneurs is instrumental in the
success of women entrepreneurs. It reduces financial burdens and emotional
breakdowns among women (Mordi et al., 2010; Verheul et al., 2006) and hence enables
them build and grow better businesses. To the United Nations Industrial Development
Organization (2010), family support is a major factor that has an impact on women-
owned ventures in terms financial support, network support, or unpaid human resource.
Zamberi (2011) therefore finds strong family ties to be influential in the success of
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women entrepreneurs. According to Casaroni and Sentuti (2014) the inability of women
to properly balance their personal, family and professional life affects the success of
their enterprises. Hence, Shelton (2006) notes that properly balancing the demands of
both work and family continue to be challenge for female entrepreneurs and this
worsens the work-family conflict which affect the well-being of these women in an
undesirable manner.
Another strong factor that pose challenges to women entrepreneurs is culture
(Aramand, 2012; Mordi et al., 2010; Siringi, 2011). Itani et al., 2011 and Jennings and
McDougald (2007) maintain that women, particularly in developing countries, have
more family and household responsibilities which affect women entrepreneurship.
These responsibilities are usually as a result of socio-cultural traditions and gender
stereotypes (Zeidan & Bahrami, 2011). They often make most women wrongfully
believe that they do not have the right opportunities and know-how to operate their own
businesses due to the limiting nature of these socially constructed roles and
responsibilities (Bruin, Gherardi & Poggio, 2004; Ellis, Coutura, Dione, Gillson, &
Manuel, 2007).
Additionally, women have less freedom to engage in physical mobility than men
(Sullivan & Arthur, 2006; USAID, 2010). Resultantly, women entrepreneurs have
insufficient social networks (Hattab, 2011; World Bank, 2012) which they can leverage
on for benefits such as the ability to gain resources such as finance (Batjargal, 2003;
Sengupta, 2011). Rutashobya, Allan and Nilsson, (2009) demonstrate that women have
little contact with business partners, colleagues and people belonging to the same tribe
as compared to men, making them have fewer social networks. Furthermore, the lack
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of confidence on the part of women limits their ability to start and operate their own
businesses (Baughn, et al., 2006; Sengupta, 2013; Zeidan & Bahrami, 2011).
Additionally, a key barrier to successful women entrepreneurship in most economies
results from negative social attitudes towards women entrepreneurs as Woldie and
Adesua (2004) indicate. Moreover, the lack of adequate information, technical
capability, and proper managerial skills on the part of women entrepreneurs, limit them
in undertaking value-adding businesses such as manufacturing (Belwal et al., 2012).
This explains the reason for the dominance of women in low value-adding business
sectors like retailing. It appears that women entrepreneurs face challenges ranging from
those that emanate from the home to those that are caused by society and the business
environment.
2.9 Explaining Culture
Defining culture is not an easy task as per Hofstede (2015). This is because it is a very
multifaceted concept which cannot be fully understood on the surface (Yeganeh, 2013).
According to Hofstede (2015) culture can be examined using the following as a
reference frame: country, language, religion, value, ethics, among others. Useiner and
Lee (2005) also note that culture has so many sources such as language, education,
nationality, social class, gender, ethnicity, religion, organization, profession, and
family. This means that everything that constitute human life and behaviour is
influenced by culture. However, this influence could either be direct or indirect and/or
enduring or temporary (Craig & Douglas, 2005). Craig and Douglas (2005) maintain
that culture is so intertwined with all aspects of human life such that it is often difficult
to determine the extent of its impact on human life. Culture is vague, complex and
problematic (Barber & Badre, 1998). It is also an abstract notion which evolves over
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time and its influences also change (Usunier & Lee, 2005). This emphasizes the
dynamism of culture. Though culture is dynamic, its change is not overnight (Braidford,
Stone & Tesfaye, 2013) but takes a while. Progressively, culture is being penetrated by
elements from other cultures causing cultural contamination, cultural pluralism, and
cultural hybridization and this is making culture a more difficult phenomenon to study
(Craig & Douglas, 2005).
Also, there are different conceptualizations of culture among different disciplines,
authors and schools of thought. This led to so many definitions of culture without a
single universally accepted definition. Originally, the word “culture” is French and was
defined by Emile Littre to mean cultivation and farming activity in the nineteenth
century dictionary (Usunier & Lee, 2005). Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1952) finds more
than 160 different definitions of culture in literature. This huge number of definitions
did not prevent them from developing their own. Although there are many definitions
of culture, not all of them are accepted and used in literature. Hence, some of the
accepted definitions are presented below:
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Table 2.9.1: Definitions of culture
Source: Literature Review, 2017
Author Definition Dimensions
Tylor (1871) Culture is the complex and interrelated sets of elements, comprising
knowledge, beliefs, and values, arts, law, manners and morals, and all
other kinds of skills and habits acquired by a human as a member of a
particular society.
Knowledge,
beliefs, values,
manners, morals,
arts, law, habits
Linton (1945) Culture is the configuration of learned behaviour and results of
behaviour whose component elements are shared and transmitted by the
members of a particular society.
Behaviour
Kluckhohn
(1951)
Culture consists of the patterned ways of thinking, feeling and
reacting, acquired and transmitted mainly by symbols, constituting
the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their
embodiments in artefacts.
Thinking, feeling,
reacting
Kroeber and
Parsons (1958)
Culture is the transmitted and created content and patterns of values,
ideas and other symbolic-meaningful systems as factors in the shaping
of human behaviour and the artefacts produced through behaviour.
Values, ideas,
symbols, artefacts
Goodenough
(1971)
Culture is a set of beliefs or standards shared by a group of people, which
help the individual decide what is, what can be, how to feel, what to do
and how to go about doing them.
Beliefs
Barnow (1973) Culture is the configuration of stereotyped patterns of learned behaviour
which are handed down from one generation to the next through the
means of language and imitation.
Language,
behaviour
Child and Kieser
(1977)
Culture is the pattern of thought and manners which are widely shared. Thought, manners
Hofstede (1980;
1984)
Culture refers to the collective programming of the mind which
distinguishes the members of one human group from another and
includes systems of values.
Values
Herbig (1994) Culture refers to a set of shared beliefs, values and expected behaviours. Beliefs, values
Thomas and
Muller (2000)
Culture is the underlying system of values peculiar to a specific group
or society, which shapes the development of certain personality traits
and motivates individuals in that society to engage in behaviours that
may not be evident in other societies.
Values
Craig and
Douglas (2005)
Culture is a pervasive influence which underlies all facets of social
behaviour and interaction.
Social behaviour
and interactions
Beugelsdijk and
Maseland
(2011)
Culture is the collective identity of communities. Identity
Duman et al.,
(2015)
Culture is the common features of people in group and it is transmitted
from generation to generation.
Common features
Hofstede (2015) Culture means shared and transferable perceptions, values or practices. Perceptions,
values, practices
Woodside et al.,
(2016)
Culture signifies a complex whole of attitudes, beliefs, values, and
behaviour.
Attitudes, beliefs,
values.
Behaviour.
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A look at the above definitions imply that culture is all about behaviour, beliefs and
values as these are the dominant aspects or dimensions of culture.
Nonetheless, culture is a process and not a distinctive whole and is identifiable by the
sum of its elements (Useiner & Lee, 2005). Culture is a process in that it provides people
within a society with directions for use in their daily lives. However, differences exist
both between cultures and within cultures (Huggins & Thompson, 2014). This can be
observed in modern societies particularly, where people have different professions and
people live in large groups. Even though culture is peculiar to a group of people in a
society, people within that group still have some degree of individuality (Linton, 1945)
and each individual within that group cultivates his own unique thoughts and actions
(Donmezler, 1990). One difficulty in the study and application of culture is the ability
to identify the boundaries of social collectivity within which the sharing of beliefs,
values, behaviour, manners, and so on occur. Hence, referring or considering
class/regional/community culture may be appropriate than national culture.
2.10 Contrasting the Dimensions of Culture
Extant literature suggest that culture is multi-faceted (Yeganeh, 2013) and has different
dimensions. Different authors propose different dimensions of culture (see Hofstede,
1980; 1984; 2001; House, Javidan, Hanges & Dorfman, 2002; Inglehart, 1997; 2007;
2008; Trompenaars, 1993) but the most influential one is that of Geert Hofstede. The
different dimensions of culture are discussed below:
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2.10.1 Geert Hofstede’s Dimensions of National Culture
Hofstede (1980; 1984; 2001) conducted one of the most comprehensive studies on how
cultural values affect workplace values in particular. His work has been influential in
most studies related to culture. Despite the fact that Hofstede’s work is constructed
around a specific survey of respondents within one large international organization
(IBM), his findings have been modified and applied to different settings, especially at
the national level of culture (Huggins & Thompson, 2014). He proposes that the culture
of a nation can be described in six dimensions. These are: individualism versus
collectivism, masculinity versus femininity, power distance, uncertainty avoidance,
long-term versus short-term orientation, and indulgence versus restraint.
To begin with, individualism versus collectivism as a dimension of culture denotes the
relationship the individual has with the group of people within which he/she finds
himself or herself. It describes the degree to which people in a given society are unified
in groups. Whereas some societies are individualistic, others are collectivist. An
individualistic society is one in which the individual is mainly responsible for defining
his/her beliefs and behaviours. However, a collectivist society is one that has its
members being loyal towards one’s job, family, and country and these tend to determine
the attitudes of individuals. In individualist cultures, ties between individuals are not
tight and each individual is expected to protect himself or herself and his or her
immediate family. However, a collectivist culture is characterised by people being
integrated into strong groups (usually from birth) which often are the extended families.
And from these groups, they gain protection in exchange for absolute loyalty. McGrath
& MacMillan (1992) state that more entrepreneurs can be found in individualistic
cultures than collectivistic cultures.
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Secondly, the power distance dimension of culture describes issues pertaining to
inequality which prevails within the society. It considers the extent to which the
members of a society or institution (family) who are less powerful, accept and expect
that power is distributed unequally. The Power distance dimension suggests that both
leaders and followers of a society or institution are responsible for the level of
inequality in that society. Hence, the level of inequality taking place in a society is not
caused by only the leaders but the followers as well.
However, people within different cultural settings respond differently to uncertain
events. Hence, Hofstede adds the Uncertainty avoidance dimension of culture to depict
this. Uncertainty avoidance denotes the degree to which individuals within a particular
culture feel endangered by unexpected events, and the subsequent degree to which
society make rules, promotes absolute truth, and refuses to go against nature in order to
avoid risks. It depicts a society’s acceptance for ambiguity. Uncertainty avoidance
designates the extent to which a particular culture makes its members to feel either
comfortable or uncomfortable in unplanned situations. In uncertainty avoiding cultures,
people try to limit the possibility of unplanned situations occurring by instituting and
adhering to strict behavioural codes, laws and rules, as well as promoting the
disapproval of deviant opinions.
Another dimension of culture proposed by Hofstede is masculinity versus femininity.
This dimension denotes the distribution of values between genders. A masculine culture
is characterized by higher concerns for achievement, promotion, and challenges in
work. A feminine culture, however, is dominated by the establishment of good
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relationships, work security and a good living environment that are considered the most
important (Hofstede, 1980, 2001). A country could have a masculine or feminine
culture. In feminine countries, women have similar modest and caring values as the
men in same country. But, women in masculine countries tend to be assertive and
competitive, but not as much as the men (Hofstede, 1998).
Nonetheless, a fifth dimension was later introduced by Hofstede (1991): long-term
orientation versus short-term orientation. Originally, this fifth dimension was labelled
“Confucian Dynamism”. It mirrors the Confucian nature of the values it encompasses.
However, in 1991, Hofstede renamed it: “Long-term versus short-term orientation”.
Cultures which score high on long-term orientation appear more future oriented, and
accept delayed satisfaction of material and social needs. However, cultures that are
short-term oriented place much value on respect for tradition and social obligations.
Further, Hofstede, Hofstede & Minkov (2010) introduce a sixth dimension: Indulgence
versus Restraint. This dimension was originally discovered by Minkov (2007). It
reflects the degree to which societies have strong norms regulating and suppressing the
instant fulfilment of human desires. It focuses on aspects that are not captured in the
other five dimensions. The indulgence dimension represents a society that tolerates
comparatively the fulfilment of basic and natural human desires that are related to
enjoying life and having fun. However, the restraint dimension represents a society that
controls gratification of human desires and needs and regulates it by using strict social
norms.
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Hofstede’s framework on cultural values dominates quantitative research. However, the
economic development of countries and the modernization theory speculate shifts in
cultural values. This probably will affect the scores of countries on Hofstede’s work-
related value dimensions and brings to mind the relevance and true reflection of
countries’ scores on Hofstede’s framework in today’s world (Beugelsdijk, Maseland &
Hoorn, 2015).
2.10.2 Ronald Inglehart’s Dimensions of Culture
In explaining cultural and social differences across countries, Inglehart (1997),
Inglehart & Baker (2000), and Inglehart & Welzel (2005), used two main dimensions
of cultural values: traditional versus secular-rational and survival versus self-expression
values.
The traditional versus secular-rational value dimension describes the difference
between societies in which tradition and religion are very important and those in which
they are not (Inglehart, 2008; Inglehart & Baker, 2000; Inglehart & Welzel, 2005).
According to Inglehart (1997; 2007; 2008), traditional societies are ones that value the
following: parent/child ties in families, respect for authority, and absolute moral
standards. They also strongly reject divorce, abortion, euthanasia, and suicide.
Waldinger, Aldrich, Ward and Blaschke (1990) posit that values such as close family
and ethnic ties, and group trust enable certain ethnic groups to succeed in business.
However, secular societies possess secular-rational values which do not place
importance on parent-child ties, and see acts such as abortion, divorce, and euthanasia
as permissible. They are branded by rational, secular and bureaucratic values.
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Furthermore, Inglehart’s second dimension of national cultural values is the survival
versus self-expression values. To him, societies that are characterized by survival
values display relatively low levels of subjective wellbeing, are materialist, show
relatively poor health, and are intolerant towards people that do not fall within their
group (e.g. foreigners, women, homosexuals). They also rank relatively low on
interpersonal trust, and stress on hard work rather than imagination. In contrast,
societies that are characterized by self-expression values place increasing emphasis on
subjective well-being, self-expression and quality of life (Inglehart, 2008; Inglehart &
Baker, 2000; Inglehart & Welzel, 2005).
2.11 Explaining Culture and Entrepreneurship
Authors maintain that entrepreneurship and culture are closely related (Aramand, 2012;
Welter, 2011; Wennberg et al., 2013). Different cultures have different attitudes
towards business formation (Shapero & Sokol, 1982). However, entrepreneurship
appears to thrive better within certain cultures than others (Landes, 1953; Lee &
Peterson, 2001), causing the levels of entrepreneurship to vary across countries. Extant
research establish that the level and type of entrepreneurship in a society or country is
as a result of the cultural structure of that country (Begley & Tan, 2001). The link
between culture and entrepreneurship stems way back to Mark Weber’s (1930) work
on the protestant work ethics. Over the years, researchers rely on national cultures to
help explain the varying levels of entrepreneurship across countries (Stephan & Pathak,
2016). It is in line with this that Thomas and Mueller (2000) admonish the study of
entrepreneurship should be extended to international markets in order to explore the
conditions and characteristics that promote entrepreneurial activity in different
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countries and regions. To them dominant values of national culture have effects on
entrepreneurship.
All social behaviour and therefore entrepreneurship is embedded in certain social
contexts and is linked to extremely cherished values and beliefs (Pheng &Yuquan,
2002). The establishment of new businesses occur as a context-dependent process
(Buame, 1996; Porfírio, 2016). Landes (1953) posits that to a large extent, culture
determines the supply of entrepreneurship within society. He argues that the poor
economic performance of France in the nineteenth century could be explained by the
conservativeness and timidity of French entrepreneurs which resulted from their
culture. The French entrepreneurs consider business as an integral part of family status
rather than as an end in itself (Landes, 1949). The cultural values of a society indicate
the extent to which that society considers entrepreneurial behaviours, which include
risk taking and independent thinking. Cultures that value and reward risk taking,
independent thinking, and others are likely to groom more entrepreneurs. But cultures
that promote conformity, group interests, and control over the future are likely to
have fewer numbers of entrepreneurs (Herbig,1994; Hofstede, 1980).
In addition, literature note the important role culture plays in entrepreneurship. For
example, Bates (1995) advocates that the different types and levels of entrepreneurial
opportunities and resources across cultures is due to the differences in cultural values.
Also, Hofstede (1980) points that greater opportunities for entrepreneurship typically
exist in long-term oriented cultures such as China, Taiwan, Korea, and Japan. Likewise,
Busenitz and Lau (1996) suggest that entrepreneurship flourishes in cultures where less
value is placed on power distance. Sawyer (1954) puts it that the relatively higher
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encouragement for entrepreneurship in the United States of America is as a result of the
perseverance of puritan values and the frontline spirit in the American society. Also,
there have been arguments that the noteworthy transformation of Meiji Japan in the late
nineteenth century could be attributed to entrepreneurs who were “community-centred”
and placed national development over personal interest (Hirschmeier, 1964; Ranis,
1955).
Nonetheless, there are varying findings concerning the relationship that exists between
entrepreneurship and some dimensions of culture. Bowen and De Clercq (2008) and De
Clercq, Danis & Dakhli (2010) report that there is a negative relationship between
uncertainty avoidance and entrepreneurship. Similarly, Hayton, George and Zahra,
(2002) conclude that an expected negative relationship exist between collectivism,
uncertainty avoidance, and entrepreneurship. Also, Autio et al. (2013) finds no
relationship between uncertainty avoidance, individualism and entrepreneurship. In
contrast, Hofstede, Noorderhaven, Thurik, Uhlaner, Wennekers and Wildeman, (2004)
and Wennekers, Thurik, Stel and Noorderhaven, (2007) indicate uncertainty avoidance
is related to entrepreneurship. Finally, Barnett (1953) asserts a positive correlation
exists between the individualism of a society and its potential for innovation. The
reason is that the greater an individual has the freedom to explore and express his/her
opinions, the greater the probability of new idea generation. In answer to these
contradictory findings, researchers such as Stephan and Uhlaner (2010), propose that
cultural values may only have an indirect impact on entrepreneurship causing the lack
of clear and unified findings. Also, Stephan & Pathak (2016) believe the reason for
these inconsistent findings is as a result of the broad and general nature of cultural
values. Again, the use of different measures of entrepreneurship (opportunity-driven,
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nascent, necessity-driven, innovation driven) may be the reason for the contradictory
findings (see Bosma, 2013, Terjesen, Hessels & Li, 2013).
2.12 The Stereotype Threat Theory
The stereotype threat theory as coined by Steele and Aronson (1995) highlights the
effect of negative stereotypes on the motivations and performance of target stereotyped
group(s). They define stereotype threat as the risk of confirming a negative stereotype
about one's social group through self-characteristics. The stereotype threat theory
emphasizes that people show low aspirations and perform poorly in stereotyped tasks
associated with their social group(s). Davies, Spencer and Steele, (2005) postulate that
when people are conscious of the stereotypes associated with their social group and
believe they may be adjudicated based on these stereotypes, they tend to become
threatened by that stereotype. Research indicate that people tend to psychologically
disengage from stereotyped tasks that are associated with them and this results in
decreased performance on the stereotyped task (Davies et al., 2005; Steele, 1997).
Steele and Aronson, (1995) reveal that black Americans perform poorly when they take
a test that have previously exhibited racial differences, which they are conscious of.
Similarly, Spencer, Steele and Quinn, (1999) make it known that women perform badly
in mathematics tests when they are made conscious of the commonly-held gender
stereotypes which position women to be bad at maths.
Nonetheless, in as much as the number of women entrepreneurs has improved
significantly over the years (Wilson, Kickul & Marlino, 2007), entrepreneurship still
remains an area dominated by men (de Bruin, Brush & Welter, 2006). Additionally, it
is continually reported that women exhibit lower entrepreneurial intentions (Zhao,
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Seibert & Hills, 2005). This proposes that the gender gap in entrepreneurship is not
likely to end soon without any intervention. However, research show that gender-role
stereotypes is a key influencing factor in women’s entrepreneurial intentions (Baron,
Markman & Hirsa, 2001). According to Lama (2000, p2) gender is “a set of ideas,
performances, practices and social prescriptions that a culture develops from the
anatomical difference between women and men, to symbolize and socially build what
is ‘own’ of the men (masculine) and ‘own’ of the women (feminine)”. This proposes
that gender is culturally and socially constructed. Therefore, gender roles are socially
and culturally distinct guidelines and beliefs relating to the behaviour and emotions of
men and women (Anselmi & Law, 1998).
Over the years, entrepreneurship has been stereotypically positively associated with
masculine characteristics and negatively associated with feminine characteristics (Ahl,
2006). Gupta, Turban, Wasti and Sikdar (2009) stress that entrepreneurs are usually
described in stereotypically masculine terms using masculine characteristics such as
“strong-willed” and “firm”, while feminine characteristics such as “emotional”,
“gentle”, and “shy” are the direct opposites of entrepreneurial traits. This is iterated by
Buame et al., (2013), who state that the attributes and skills such as being goal oriented,
pragmatic, self-confident, and resolute are necessary for the success of women
entrepreneurs. Generally, scholars argue that entrepreneurship is an activity that
demands a sense of dominance associated to philosophies of masculinity (Bruni, et al.
2004). Hence, the ventures of women entrepreneurs face negative prejudice in society.
In Ghana for instance, an Akan (an ethnic group in Ghana) proverb says: “women sell
garden eggs and not gunpowder” (Adom, 2015 p19). This is society’s expectation that
women should engage in small and less risky businesses. Also, Buttner and Rosen
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(1988) finds that American loan officers regard women as less "successful"
entrepreneurs as compared to their male counterparts on the following scopes:
leadership, risk-taking, autonomy, endurance, readiness for change, lack of
emotionalism, and low need for support, indicating a gender prejudice. This creates the
impression that women do not fit the image of a typical entrepreneur (de Bruin et al.,
2006). It should therefore be noted that the ability of stereotype threat leading to
individuals or groups disengaging from stereotyped tasks means that it can also lead
them to disengage from traditionally stereotyped careers such as entrepreneurship.
Hence, the general low levels of women entrepreneurship and the perceived under-
performance of women enterprises could be as a result of entrepreneurship being a
stereotyped career for men.
Furthermore, researchers stress that, stereotype threat, is a “situational predicament”
which occurs only when the negative stereotype applies to the individual(s) involved
(Steele, 1997). When people notice that a negative stereotype about their social group
is pertinent in a situation, they disengage from the task, thus confirming the stereotype
(Steele & Aronson, 1995). However, since the effect of stereotype threat is situational,
the removal of the situational factors that cause the threat would aid lessen the threat.
Therefore, Davies et al. (2002) argue that the eradication of the factors that generate
stereotype threat will allow people to psychologically involve in the task again and
subsequently perform better to their real potential. This is confirmed by Spencer et al.
(1999), who reveal that women perform better in difficult math tests when they are
informed that the math test is not known to show any gender differences. This means
that gender stereotypes can be invalidated by making women aware that there are no
gender differences in the earlier stereotyped tasks. Therefore, making women aware
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that entrepreneurship is not gender prejudiced would improve their entrepreneurial
intentions and also their performance in entrepreneurship. This will help close the
gender gap in entrepreneurship.
In the Nabdam district, women entrepreneurs are not relieved from the effects of the
stereotype threat. Entrepreneurship in the study area is generally considered as a male
endeavour with women expected and considered to be less successful in the
entrepreneurial domain. Women in the district generally operate small businesses in
less risky and low value-adding sectors such as retailing/trading and services.
Resultantly, their ventures appear stagnant, which designates poor performance. This
poor performance could be linked to psychological disengagement from entrepreneurial
activities by women entrepreneurs as a result of the gender stereotype attached to
entrepreneurship in the community.
2.3 Chapter Summary
The chapter firstly reviewed relevant literature on the research phenomenon. Extant
literature were reviewed along a number of thematic areas including: concept and
definition of entrepreneurship, contributions of entrepreneurship to society, women
entrepreneurship, as well as gender variations in entrepreneurship. The chapter then
proceeded to present the theory (stereotype threat theory) underpinning the study.
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CHAPTER THREE
CONTEXT OF THE STUDY
3.0 Introduction
This chapter is divided into two main sections. The first section presents an overview
of the Nabdam district in order to create an understanding of the current issues in the
district in relation to the research topic. However, the second section gives an overview
of women entrepreneurship within the study area.
3.1 Section One: Overview of the Nabdam District
This section gives a description of the Nabdam district. It takes into consideration the
nature of the district, the population size, structure and composition, the economic
activity status of the district, as well as the culture and social structure of the district.
3.1.1 Nature of the Nabdam District
The Nabdam district is a relatively new district found in the Upper East Region of
Ghana. It was carved out of the then Talensi-Nabdam District Assembly in the year
2012 and is divided into three area councils: Nangodi, Sakoti and Zoliba, of which
Nangodi is the district capital. The district is bordered to the North by the Bongo
District, South by the Talensi District, to the East by the Bawku West District and to
the West by the Bolgatanga Municipality. The Nabdam district, has nineteen
communities. The district map is presented below:
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Figure 3.1: Map of the Nabdam District
Source: GSS (2014, p2)
3.1.2 Population Size, Structure and Composition
According to the Ghana Statistical service (2012), the population of Nabdam District
stands at 33,826 which represents 3.2% of the total population of the Upper East region.
Out of this total district population, 16,871 are males, constituting 49.9%. Female
population stands at 16,955 which represents 50.1% of the total district population. This
depicts a slight predominance of the female population. The district is predominantly
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rural and has a youthful population as indicated by the GSS (2014). The youth makes
41.7% of the population. This gives the impression that there are vibrant economic
activities going on in the district since the youth are full of energy which can be exerted
in doing so.
3.1.3 Economic Activity Status
The Nabdam district consists of both economically active and non-economically active
population. Whereas the economically active population consist of the employed and
unemployed persons, the non-economically active persons are those who are not
working and are not seeking for any work. It includes full time students, the aged, and
children. 14,879, representing 75.4% of the total district population are economically
active. Out of this, 7,583 (50.9%) are male while 7,296 (49.1%) are female. However,
of the economically active, 14,623 are employed. It can be inferred that women in the
district are striving to create a means of survival for themselves. The economic
activities that residents of the Nabdam District engage in include agriculture, civil
service, services, crafts, shea butter extraction, small-scale mining, among several
others. Additionally, with regards to employment status, 50.3% of the workforce in the
district are self-employed without employees while only 1.3% have employees. Data
on the employment status of the district is presented below:
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Table 3.1.3.1 Self-employed population 15 years and older by employment status
and sex
Employment Sector Both sexes Male Female
Number Percentage Number Percentage Number Percentage
Total 7,551 100 4,459 59 3,092 41
Self-employed without
employee(s)
7,357 97.4 4,368 59.4 2,989 41.6
Self-employed with
employee(s)
194 2.6 91 47 103 53
Source: Ghana Statistical Service, (2012, p37)
From the data presented in the table, it can be deduced that 3,092 women are self-
employed and own businesses which is the population of the study.
3.1.4 Culture of the Nabdams
Ghana as a whole has a rich and vibrant culture with many positive elements such as
diversity, respect and consideration for others notwithstanding age and status, and a
preference for compromise instead of conflict. The Nabdam culture though dynamic is
not too different from the Ghanaian national culture. In relation to Hofstede’s scores of
national cultures, the Ghanaian culture was originally not captured (see Hofstede 1980;
1984). But based on the ratings attached to similar countries, rankings have been
developed for Ghana through the lens of 6D-Model of national culture (Hofstede, n.d)
Ghana is rated 80% on power distance, 15% on individualism, 40% on masculinity,
65% on uncertainty avoidance, 4% on long-term orientation, and 70% on indulgence.
This holds true for the Nabdam culture, though differences could exist due to within-
group variations.
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The Nabdam culture is collectivist: it is family oriented with a strong cultural identity
and social cohesion. Also, group conformism is accentuated, and people in the
community are expected to alter their personal goals to meet or achieve the goals of the
community. Much respect is given to the elderly and the male gender. Women are
generally considered inferior to men. This is as a result of the patrilineal system
practiced in the community. Due to this patrilineal system, men are seen as those that
continue a family’s lineage and hence the preference for male children. Therefore, the
Nabdam culture is male-dominated. Gender roles within the culture are firmly
demarcated and distinguished. It is expected of men to be firm and decisive and women,
spontaneous and fixated on building quality relationships and life. Notwithstanding the
modernisation that the Nabdam society has witnessed through acculturation during the
past decade, its culture is still traditional and male-controlled. The patriarchal facet of
the Nabdam culture burdens males in the family (usually the father) the duty of
providing for and shielding the family, as well as power over the family’s decision. The
inclination for masculinities encourages shrill differences in gender roles and restricts
the role of women to the domestic frontiers of their homes and that of men to work
outside the home as main breadwinners.
The indigenes of the district hold their culture in high esteem. Customs, norms, values,
and taboos are greatly revered. However, culture is used at all levels of the Nabdam
society as an excuse to discriminate against women. Culture is supposed to belong to
the whole society but women are often expected to comply with cultural practices than
men. Just like most African countries, most of the cultural practices of the Nabdam
district seem to limit women and construct barriers which limit their potentials. Some
of these cultural practices include the relegation of women in the inheritance system,
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gender stereotypes, widowhood rites which seem to degrade the dignity of the women
involved, among others. The culture of the people of Nabdam depict high levels of
collectivism and power distance as well as short-term orientation. The indigenes of the
district are Nabit speaking people and belong to the Nabdam ethnic group.
3.2 Overview of Women Entrepreneurship in the Study Area
This section consider the issues relating to women entrepreneurship in Ghana as a
whole and in the Nabdam district.
3.2.1 Synopsis of Women’s Labour Force Participation in Ghana
Women, especially in Africa, are hardworking (Jiggins, 1989). They engage in a variety
of tasks ranging from unpaid work (such as agricultural activities, household chores) to
paid work. This is evident in the 2010 population census of Ghana which indicates that
out of the 10,939,923 people who were employed, 5,567,544 (51%) were females. This
portrays that Ghanaian women are very active in the labour force. However, the
International Labour Organisation (2014) reports that in the year 2013, there was an
unequal participation between women and men in the labour force in Ghana. Whereas
the male employment-to-population ratio stood 72.2%, the ratio for females stood at
47.1 %. It is important to note that most economically active women in Ghana operate
in the informal economy (Adom, 2015).
3.2.2 Women Entrepreneurship in Ghana
Women entrepreneurship in Ghana is making significant progress and has received
recognition and attention both in industry and academia. Scholars such as Adom (2015),
Adom and Asare-Yeboah (2016), Buame et al., (2013), Dzisi, (2008), and Denanyoh
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et. al., (2013) have written on the subject of women entrepreneurship within the
Ghanaian context. Ghanaian women have been and continue to be enterprising and
industrious across various sectors of business. For instance, they introduced a different
recipe for preparing noodles (indomie) which is different from the original recipes
given by manufacturers. By adding pepper, cabbage, carrots, eggs, and other spices to
their preparations, these noodles became tastier and desired by many, thereby leading
to the springing up of so many indomie sales outlets (indomie joints). The influence
and impact of women entrepreneurs in the transformation of the Ghanaian economy
cannot be over emphasized.
GEM (2015) reports that there are more women entrepreneurs in Ghana than their male
counterparts. The growth of female entrepreneurship in Ghana could be resultant from
the broader process of social change which is noticeable through increases in the
number of women in the workforce (including women in business), increased education
for women, postponement of early marriage, smaller family sizes and the increased
aspiration of women for financial independence. Currently, entrepreneurship is an
accepted and arguably a preferred career path for most women in Ghana. This is
because it is capable of offering flexibility and independence that women love to
experience, which typical employment does not offer (Dzisi, 2008). The nature of
businesses Ghanaian women entrepreneurs engage in are predominantly low value-
adding businesses like retailing, wholesaling, services, among others. Dzisi (2008),
notes that Ghanaian women are engaged in seven major business sectors namely:
trading (26%), services (21%), agro-processing (16%), manufacturing (12%), textiles
and fabrics (12%), agriculture (5%), and construction (4%).
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Despite the argument that the institutional, legal and regulatory frameworks for
business development in Ghana are gender neutral, some social-cultural factors and
structural situations continue to work against women entrepreneurs. They face much
time burdens, are poorer and are likely to be less literate as compared to their male
counterparts (Owusu, Quartey & Bawakyillenou, 2014). In the Ghanaian cultural
setting, women are expected to play the role of caretakers of homes. This role often
conflicts with being a business owner and women usually find it difficult to balance the
time it takes to run a business and the expectations of society in meeting family
obligations. The cultural practices in relation to land and property ownership as well as
limited access to start-up capital and credit are some of the challenges of women
entrepreneurs in Ghana. Despite the diverse responsibilities and challenges these
women entrepreneurs face, their tenacity, resilience, commitment, passion, ingenuity,
vision and exploits are worth recognizing and celebrating.
3.2.3 Women Entrepreneurship in the Nabdam District
Women in the Nabdam district engage in a range of businesses including catering,
sewing, trading, weaving, extraction of shea butter, and manufacturing of soap, among
several others. According to the GSS (2014), three thousand and ninety-two (3,092)
women in the Nabdam district are self-employed with only one hundred and three (103)
of these women having employees. Whereas some women in the district operate
businesses from their homes, majority operate at the market square. The district has two
major market squares where these women mostly ply their trade. These markets are
located at Kongo and Pelungu. It is important to note that the district capital (Nangodi)
has no market or main business centre. The markets have different market days which
comes off every three days. Some women sell their wares at both market squares
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(Kongo and Pelungu market). Women from other districts, especially the surrounding
districts also trade at these market squares. The women operate relatively small
businesses that yield smaller profits. A careful observation of the ventures of women in
the Nabdam district depict they are stagnant. Many women owned ventures in the
district have not experienced growth in terms of physical expansion and number of
employees. As a result, quite a number of women are unemployed and often resort to
rural-urban migration where they mostly migrate to the southern part of Ghana to seek
for work.
3.2.4 Programmes Designed to Increase Women’s Entrepreneurship in Ghana
Over the years, various governments with other donor support agencies have made
cognizant efforts towards implementing programmes that promote women
entrepreneurship in Ghana. Notable among them are the following:
To begin with, through the Ministry of Trade and Industry, the Government of Ghana
strengthened the National Board for Small Scale Industries (NBSSI), the GRATIS
Foundation, and the Microfinance and Small Loan Centre (MASLOC) in order to
improve entrepreneurship, most essentially, the informal sector. This is impacting
women entrepreneurship.
Secondly, the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection developed and
promoted a National Gender Policy which seeks to encourage gender equality and
freedom of women and men as well as girls and boys from discrimination on the basis
of social or economic status. This policy was launched in the year 2015. It propagates
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the inclusion of gender and mostly women issues into all programmes and projects in
Ghana, and this includes entrepreneurship programmes (Government of Ghana, n.d).
Additionally, as part of Government’s efforts to reduce poverty and improve living
conditions in rural Ghana, the Rural Enterprises Programme (REP) was implemented
in 1995. The programme provides matching grants/funds for micro small enterprises as
well as offer training on different sectors of business (Ministry of Trade and Industry,
n.d.).
Lastly, a land tenure reform pilot programme, known as Land Administration
Programme (LAP) has been initiated since 1999. Its purpose is to streamline, strengthen
and decentralise the administration of land in Ghana. This is perceived to adequately
address the problem of women’s access and control over land in Ghana (Women’s
Manifesto for Ghana, 2004).
3.3 Chapter Summary
The chapter gave an overview of the current nature of women entrepreneurship in
Ghana and the Nabdam district. It also presented an in-depth synopsis of the Nabdam
district in order to create a picture of the current issues in the district relating to the
research problem.
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CHAPTER FOUR
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.0 Introduction
This chapter entails the issues relating to the research methodology. It captures the
approaches followed to find answers to the research questions posed by the study.
Therefore, the chapter discusses the research paradigm, research design, research
approach, data collection methods, sources and types of data, study population, sample
size, sampling technique, data analysis, data presentation, as well as ethical
considerations.
4.1 Philosophical Approach
A key decision a researcher needs to make when undertaking a study is stating a
knowledge claim. This involves grounding the study on certain assumptions about what
will be learnt and how it would be learnt during the study. According to Lincoln and
Guba (2000), knowledge claims are also known as research paradigms. One of the
earliest authors to propose the idea of research paradigms is Thomas Khun (1970).
Research paradigms provide guidance for carrying out studies (Jonker & Pennink,
2010). Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2012), define research paradigms as
assumptions and beliefs that govern the way a researcher views the world. Different
paradigms embody different ideas about reality and how knowledge about that reality
can be gained (see Creswell, 2003). It is relevant to note that they differ radically in
their assumptions and implications (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). Procter (2005) maintains
that philosophical assumptions in academic research can be broadly categorized into
two extreme dimensions; positivism and phenomenology. However, different authors
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propose different names for these assumptions. For instance, Holden and Lynch (2004)
label their philosophical positions as objectivism and subjectivism whereas Malhotra
and Birks (2007) name theirs; interpretivism and social constructivism.
To begin with, positivism as a research paradigm advocates that the social world exists
as an external environment where definite structures affect people in similar ways and
at the same time, in different ways. Hence its elements should be measured through
objective methods, rather than subjective (Proctor, 2005). The knowledge obtained
through a positivist lens is based on careful observation and measurement of the
objective reality that exists in the world (Creswell, 2003). However, phenomenological
perspective of research (also known as social constructivism or interpretivism)
emphases on subjective views rather than objective views. Proponents of this paradigm
believe that, knowledge or access to reality is socially constructed through the meanings
people attach to them. Phenomenology aims at generating an understanding of the
context within which people live and the process by which the people influence and are
influenced by the context (Easterby-Smith, Lyles & Tsang, 2008). Additionally,
interpretivist consider themselves as part of the phenomenon under study and are
consequently able to develop their ideas through the use of multiple data gathering tools
such as the use of interviews, focus group discussions, and observations to investigate
samples (Creswell, 2003; Proctor, 2005).
Therefore, this study adopts the phenomenological worldview of research to analyse its
research problem. The focus of the study is on the specific context within which women
entrepreneurs in the Nabdam district live and work, in order to understand the cultural
settings and how it affects them. To achieve this, the research needs the subjective
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views of the women entrepreneurs on how they view and the meaning they create for
the role of culture in their entrepreneurial activities. This was done by conducting in-
depth interviews which allowed respondents express their subjective views on the
issues of interest.
4.2 Research Design
A research design is necessary for every study. Creswell & Plano-Clark (2007) define
research design as the procedure(s) involved in collecting, analysing, interpreting and
reporting data in research. It depicts how a researcher plans to practically conduct a
research (Cresswell, 2012). The aim of a research design is to structure a research in
order to gain accurate answers to the research questions (McGivern, 2006). However,
some scholars refer to research design as “research strategy” (see Creswell, 2003). On
one hand, research designs/strategies available for quantitative studies include
experiments, and surveys. On the other hand, designs/strategies such as ethnography,
grounded theory, case study, phenomenological research, and narratives are used for
qualitative studies (Creswell, 2003). However, this research embraces a case study
design/strategy.
The use of a case study design enables a researcher explore a program, an event, an
activity, a process, or one or more individuals (Cresswell, 2003). According to Yin
(2009), the case study strategy is appropriate if the phenomena under study are complex
and deeply integrated in the organizational context of an establishment. Case studies
are mostly used in explanatory and exploratory studies with the ability to answer the
'why', 'what' and 'how' questions (Saunders et al., 2012). A single case or multiple cases
could be used in studies (Creswell, 2003). This study used a single case study strategy
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where the entire district was considered as one case, considering the unified culture
persisting in the district. However, twenty women entrepreneurs were interviewed at
their respective business centres within the district. This allowed them express
themselves in their own language and in their natural environment.
4.3 Research Approach
The selection of an appropriate research approach for a study is determined by the aim
of the research in question and not just the researcher’s intuition or preference (Babbie,
2004; Fossey, Harvey, McDermott & Davidson, 2002). Scholars such as Vanderstoep
and Johnston, (2009) and Denzin and Lincoln, (2000) propose two main
methodological approaches that could be applied in research; quantitative and
qualitative. Quantitative and qualitative research are considerably different in their
procedures for data collection and analysis (Marshall, 1996; Saunders et al., 2007).
According to Bell and Bryman (2007), while qualitative research is inductive,
quantitative research is deductive in its observation on the connexion between research
and theory.
4.3.1 Qualitative Approach
According to Maanen (1983), a qualitative research is an approach that aims at
describing, decoding, and translating phenomena in terms of meaning rather than
frequency. To Malhotra and Dash (2013), qualitative research seeks to gain
understanding of the underlying reasons and motivations for a phenomenon. It provides
insight and understanding of complex psychosocial issues and are most useful for
answering humanistic 'why?' and 'how?' questions (Fossey, et al, 2002). Qualitative
approach aid researchers understand people and the social and cultural contexts within
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which they find themselves (Blaikie, 2010). Qualitative studies also allow researchers
gain insights about people’s feelings, thoughts as well as experiences (Rubin & Rubin,
1995). It therefore involves a close contact with a small sample over an extended period
of time (Malhotra & Dash, 2013). Generally, qualitative studies are unstructured: they
start with broad research problems and use relatively unstructured data collection
instruments such as interviews and observations (Boateng, 2014). Qualitative approach
allows flexibility in all activities of the research process (Boateng, 2014). Another
advantage of qualitative approach to research is that it provides insights into a research
problem which leads to better understanding. It also creates openness by encouraging
people to expand on their responses which consequently enable studies unearth issues
they initially did not intend to find. However, there are some disadvantages associated
with qualitative research. Firstly, qualitative researches usually study fewer people
which makes it more difficult to generalize their findings. Also, collecting qualitative
data is generally more time consuming as compared to collecting quantitative data.
4.3.2 Quantitative Approach
Quantitative research approach is used for testing objective theories by examining the
relationship between or among determined variables (Creswell, 2014). The aim of
quantitative studies is to test pre-determined hypotheses and produce generalizable
results. This is made possible due to the huge samples used. Quantitative approach is
more useful for answering mechanistic 'what' questions (Fossey et al., 2002). Saunders
et al., (2009), point out that quantitative approach relies on quantification and statistics
in its data collection and analysis. According to Boateng (2014), this approach seeks to
determine the extent to which a problem exists or the relationship that exists between
aspects of a phenomenon by quantifying variations. Undertaking a quantitative study
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entails the testing of data to either support or disprove a proposed relationship between
two or more aspects of a phenomenon. Hence, quantitative studies usually start by
developing hypotheses and this makes them structured (Boateng, 2014). Nonetheless,
the element of generalizability in quantitative studies is one of its strengths. However,
Yin (2009) and Wisker (2007) argue that the weakness of quantitative studies lie in the
fact that their analysis do not apply to specific situations. Also, they lack the ability to
give insight or understanding into a given research problem.
Since the aim of this study is not to find the relationship existing between culture and
women entrepreneurship but rather to explore how culture plays a role in women
entrepreneurship in the Nabdam district, the qualitative approach is considered
appropriate. The research phenomenon is arguably new in the study area. This brings
about the need to gain deeper insights into the research problem rather than just
gathering frequencies. Indeed, the qualitative approach allowed the respondents express
themselves in their own words and language which subsequently enabled the research
achieve its exploratory purpose.
4.4 Sources and Types of Data
Scholars postulate that there are two main sources from which data can be gathered for
research; primary and secondary sources (Saunders et al., 2009; Yin, 2009). Therefore,
there are two types of data: primary and secondary data. According to Yin (2009)
primary data refers to data that are collected for a specific purpose which was pre-
determined. They originate from the researcher for the specific purpose of addressing a
research problem (Malhotra & Birks, 2007). Also, they are usually collected by the
researcher based on the research purpose and questions through observation,
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interviews, experiments, or surveys from the sample or target population (Ghauri &
Gronhaug, 2005). An advantage of using primary data is that it helps a research stay in
focus since the data was collected for that purpose.
However, secondary data refers to data that were collected for a different purpose other
than the research problem in question (Malholtra, 2008; Malhotra & Birks 2007). They
are usually obtained from sources such as publications, personal records, census, and
company documents which provide information which may have been collected for
other purposes (Hair, Anderson, Basin & Black, 2010). Some advantages associated
with the use of secondary data include; it cost lesser to acquire, it is less time consuming
to collect, and can easily be accessed as compared to primary data. The study uses
primary data which were acquired through in-depth interviews with women
entrepreneurs in the Nabdam District. This was because, the specific purpose of the
study required specific information/data that were not readily available in secondary
sources.
4.5 Data Collection Methods
This study used a semi-structured interview guide as its data collection instrument. The
use of this instrument is justified on the basis that it allows for more flexibility by giving
room for follow up questions where necessary (Malhotra & Birks, 2007). It therefore
made it possible for interviewees to give other relevant information which were initially
not captured on the interview guide.
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4.6 Data Collection Procedure
As indicated earlier, data for this study were collected with the use of a semi-structured
interview guide. However, before the design of the interview guide, literature were
reviewed thoroughly which provided guidance in developing the guide. The research
ensured that the interview guide was objective and consistent to ensure standardization
of the research process as well as subjectivity on the part of the respondents. Most of
the interviews were conducted at two major market squares in the district (Kongo and
Pelungu market) and a few were done at the other business centres of respondents.
Majority of the women entrepreneurs within the district mostly ply their trade at the
market squares. Therefore, in order to get them to help gain answers to the research
questions, they were tracked at their various business centres. All respondents were
engaged in face-to-face interview which each on average lasting for 25 minutes. With
permission from them, the interview sessions were audio recorded. Notes were also
taken manually for the purpose of creating a backup. The recorded audio enabled the
research transcribe and analyse the data accurately without leaving out key discussions.
Though the respondents did not expressly request that their identity be kept anonymous,
the research developed codes to protect their identities. Therefore, the respondents were
referred to as respondent 1 to respondent 20 (R1-R20). However, all the respondents
spoke “Nabit” (the language of the Nabdams) and that created the need for transcription
through translation. Nonetheless, the research ensured that data did not lose its meaning
by using effective summary where necessary.
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4.7 Study Population
Every research work has a study population. Babbie (2008), defines a study population
as the collection of elements from which the sample is essentially drawn. Similarly,
Kumekpor (2002) highlights that the population of a study is the total number of units
of the phenomena to be investigated that exist in the area of investigation. Therefore,
the population for this study was all women entrepreneurs within the Nabdam District.
Firstly, the study focused on women entrepreneurs because, all over the world,
especially Africa, women are expected to conform to cultural practices than men
(Women’s Manifesto for Ghana, 2004); meaning that culture affect women than men.
The situation is not different in the Nabdam district and this could be playing a key role
in their entrepreneurial behaviour and activities. The study therefore sought to explore
if culture had effects on women entrepreneurship. Lastly, the Nabdam district was
chosen because of easy access to information as well the stagnant nature of women-
owned ventures.
4.8 Sample Size
In conducting research, selecting a sample size is a very crucial step due to the fact that
it is mostly impractical and inefficient to study the whole population of a study.
Therefore, researchers usually select some units or members of the population to be a
representation of the entire population. This is known as sampling. A sample is a subset
of the population of a study. According to Vernoy and Kyle (2002) a sample is a
relatively small representative group drawn from the population of a study. Denzin and
Lincoln (2005) present that qualitative research seeks to make meaning of or interpret
phenomena with respect to the meanings people ascribe to events and hence generally
rely on small samples. Therefore, the study used a sample size of twenty (20), which
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was enough to gain answers to the research questions (Marshall, 1996) since the focus
of a qualitative study is more on sample adequacy than sample size (Bowen, 2008).
Also, the choice of a sample size of twenty (20) is in line with a proposal made by
Creswell (2003) that the ideal sample size for a qualitative study is between five (5) to
twenty-five (25) respondents. In a qualitative study, sufficiency of sample size is
measured by the depth of data rather than frequencies and therefore the sample for this
study consisted of participants who best represented the research topic (Morse, Barrett,
Mayan, Olson & Spiers, 2002). The participants were a true representation of the study
population because they were able to give in-depth insights into the research problem.
4.9 Sampling Technique
The choice of any sampling technique is dependent on factors such as the aim of the
study, the adopted research approach, the time available to the researcher, as well as the
nature of the study population (Marshall, 1996). The sampling technique adopted by
this study is the purposive sampling technique where selection of respondents is based
on the researcher’s judgment. This technique is deemed appropriate for this study
because it offers researchers greater freedom and flexibility in selecting the sample
units (Tongco, 2007). Further, the purposive sampling was used because the research
had to ensure that participants of the study were those with the required knowledge and
relevant information. Hence, the study included twenty (20) women entrepreneurs who
were within the age group of twenty-four (24) to fifty-nine (59). This is because GEM
(2015) notes that women within the age range of eighteen (18) to fifty-nine (59) are
those that are actively engaged in entrepreneurship. The study believes that women
between the age of twenty-four (24) to fifty-nine (59) are those that are matured enough
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to have experienced the role of culture in their entrepreneurial journey and are more
likely to give relevant information.
4.10 Data Analysis
In analysing qualitative data, there is the need for preparing and organizing data through
transcripts, reducing the data into themes through a process of coding, and finally
presenting the data through analysis and discussions (Creswell, 2012). Hence,
recordings of the interviews were first transcribed through translation from the “Nabit”
language into English. Thereafter, data were explored without any prior assumptions in
order to identify themes that will emerge from the data. Data were then analysed in
accordance with these themes in order to generate meaning (Robson, 2002). The
thematic analysis technique was chosen as the analytical method for this study due to
its ability to make reasonable inferences in interpreting data (Vaismoradi, Turunen &
Bondas, 2013). However, the thematic categorization reflects the research objectives
and aided to find answers to the research questions. The goal of the data analysis was
not just to describe the data but to interpret, explain and understand the meanings given
to the research phenomenon. After analysing the individual cases or the responses of
individual respondents, a cross case analysis was done in order to test the comparability
of findings across the stories of respondents (Flick, 2002). This cross analysis has been
depicted in the appendix section of the research.
4.11 Data Reliability and Validity
To ensure data reliability and validity, five (5) respondents were contacted to verify or
confirm their views after data transcription. All the five (5) sampled respondents
approved the transcripts as a reflection of their thoughts. This proved that the data
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collected did not lose its meaning after transcription. Also to increase the reliability and
validity of this study, the research followed appropriate research procedures such as the
philosophical underpinnings and the research methodology. Nonetheless, the themes
by which data were analysed emerged from the data and not from the researcher’s own
constructs. Moreover, a pre-test of the interview guide was done by using three (3)
interviewees before data collection. The interview guide was then modified to help the
research achieve its aim.
4.12 Ethical Considerations
The study employed different ways to ensure the ethics of research were followed.
Firstly, the research ensured that the interviewees remained anonymous as possible.
This was achieved by ensuring that, the names and identity of respondents did not
appear in the study and were replaced with codes (R1 to R20). Secondly, respondents
were informed about the purpose of the study and their consent was sought before
interviews. Lastly, the research assured the respondents that the information given was
solely for academic purpose and this was adhered to by using the data as such.
4.13 Limitations of the Study
This research is limited in scope. Firstly, it studied only women entrepreneurs in the
Nabdam district. This does not give an understanding of how culture affects general or
male entrepreneurship in the district. Secondly, only the Nabdam district was used as
the study area. It is therefore not known if the findings are applicable to the Upper East
Region as a whole since different ethnic groups in the region such as “Gurenes”,
“Talensis” and the “Kusasis” seem to have similar cultures as the Nabdams.
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4.14 Chapter Summary
This chapter described the research methodology. It began with an introduction of the
chapter and discussed the research paradigm for the study. It proceeded to discuss the
research design, research approach, and sources of data. Other issues that were
discussed in this chapter include; data collection methods, sampling techniques, data
analysis, data presentation, and ethical considerations. It also presented the limitations
of the study.
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CHAPTER FIVE
DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
5.0 Introduction
This chapter consists of two main sections. The first section presents an analysis of the
data collected from the study area while the second section discusses the findings with
extant literature. To carry out a thematic analysis, the research identifies themes from
the data.
The emergent themes are the following:
1. Understanding culture: The community’s perspective
2. Motives of women entrepreneurs
3. Gender stereotype and women entrepreneurship
4. Cultural practices and women entrepreneurship
5. Contributions of women entrepreneurs to society
6. Benefits of entrepreneurship to women
5.1 Data Analysis
This section analyses the data in accordance with the themes identified.
5.1.1 Profile of Respondents
The profile of respondents presented in this study covers the age, marital status,
educational level of respondents, as well as age, type, legal and employment status of
business.
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Table 5.1.1.1: Profile of respondents
Profile Measurement Percentage
Age 24-28 15%
29-33 20%
34-38 15%
39-43 10%
44-48 15%
49-53 15%
54-59 10%
Current marital status Single 10%
Married 90%
Single 20%
Marital status at the inception of
business
Married 80%
Level of education No formal
education
65%
Basic 20%
Secondary 10%
Tertiary 5%
Age of business 1-5 45%
6-10 20%
11-15 5%
16-20 20%
31-35 10%
Type of business Service 55%
Retail 35%
Manufacturing 10%
Legal status of business Unregistered 95%
Registered 5%
Offered employment No 75%
Yes 25%
Source: Field Data, 2017
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The respondents of the study are between the ages of twenty-four (24) and fifty-nine
(59). The age of respondents is not skewed towards any age group and this suggests
that women entrepreneurship in the district is an endeavour for all women within these
age bracket. In relation to marriage, 90% of the respondents are married. However,
80% of the total respondents indicate that they started their businesses after marriage.
This proposes that marriage as a cultural value plays a key role in women
entrepreneurship thereby making spousal support essential. With regards to level of
education, 65% of the respondents have never been to school, 20% have basic
education, one-tenth have secondary education, and one-twentieth have tertiary
education. Though quite a number of women in the district have relatively higher levels
of education such as senior high school certificates, teachers training certificate,
degrees, among others, they are largely absent from the entrepreneurship field, making
the field dominated by women with no or low levels of formal education. Additionally,
majority (65%) of the women entrepreneurs have been in business for less than 11
years. It can therefore be inferred that women-owned enterprises in the district are
relatively young. A reason for this could be a high rate of business discontinuance
among women entrepreneurs or that the idea of women engaging in entrepreneurship
is relatively new in the district. Notably, women who operated businesses for more than
16 years reportedly waddled between or among different kinds of businesses, signifying
a lack of stability in business.
Predominantly, women entrepreneurs in the study area engage in service and retail
businesses with only 10% in the manufacturing sector. There is therefore a preference
for low value-adding businesses among women in the district. Again, all but one of the
respondents run unregistered ventures and hence operate in the informal sector:
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majority of the respondents cite that they have no idea they are supposed to register
since they pay market toll. The study further probes if the respondents provide
employment opportunities for others. The study reveals that majority (75%) have no
employees either in the past or currently. They either operate alone, with their children,
or other family members who receive no pay. This percentage is slightly lower than the
district figure of 96.7% given by the Ghana Statistical service (2012). A reason for this
slight difference could be the sample size involved.
5.1.2 Understanding Culture: The Community’s Perspective
It is imperative to discover or understand the culture of the study area and its effects on
women’s life and business. To achieve this, the study asks the respondents, “What is
culture”. In response, they showcase the broadness, uniqueness, and learnedness of
culture. To them, culture is basically about the way of life of a group of people which
is passed on from one generation to another. This depicts the learnedness of culture.
Additionally, they mention that the culture of their community differ from that of
others: iterating the existing notion of the uniqueness of culture. However, different
elements of culture, which are largely missing in literature are identified: traditions and
taboos. Most extant literature on culture in relation to definition were written based on
western cultures. It can therefore be said that the elements of culture is context
dependent and hence in the African culture, other elements such as traditions and taboos
are integral. Therefore, culture is the way of life of a group of people, which is learned
and expressed in language, values, attitudes, norms, behaviour, traditions, and taboos.
In support of the foregoing discourse, sample responses are presented below:
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According to R10, “Culture is expressed in our language, our festivals, funerals and
traditions. It is generally about the way of life of the people of this land which we are
all supposed to live by.”
Similarly, R1 express: “To me, culture is broad. We have things that we do with respect
to different things like funerals, marriage, and what is expected and prohibited of us in
this community. It is also how important we view certain things relating to life. Well,
our culture here is not the same as the culture of those from southern Ghana and even
those from ‘Navrongo’ which is nearby.”
However, R13 simply states: “I think culture is about what the people in a society do.”
Further, the study probes the nature of the Nabdam culture with respect to women. It
discovers that the Nabdam culture is highly discriminatory against women. All
respondents indicate they experience gender inequality and stereotyping in several
aspects of their lives. This discrimination is evident in the biased distribution of wealth,
inadequate recognition and respect for women’s work, exclusion of women in decision-
making, as well as limitation on the movement of women, especially the married.
However, most respondents state more than one discriminatory element. Therefore, the
table below depicts each factor against the total sample size (20).
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Table 5.1.2.1 Cultural limitations of women
Discriminatory factors Percentage
Unequal distribution of wealth (inheritance system) 85%
Inadequate recognition for women’s work 75%
Lack of inclusion of women in decision making 60%
Limitation on the movement of women 30%
Source: Field data, 2017
There is an unequal distribution of wealth among men and women in the district which
is as a result of culture. In the Nabdam culture, women are excluded from inheritance
and prohibited to own landed properties. Irrespective of how rich a woman’s father or
husband might be, she inherits nothing from him. Also, culturally, any property a
woman owns automatically belongs to her husband. By virtue of marriage, a woman
belongs to another family: once a woman is married, her husband’s family has an upper
hand in matters of her life than her family of birth. Therefore, giving an inheritance to
a woman means enriching another family, hence the exclusion of women in matters of
inheritance. Interestingly, it is a taboo for a woman to own a dog within the Nabdam
culture. It is believed that a dog is “human” because of the spirituality attached to it.
For this reason women are perceived to lack the ability to handle it. However, women
nurture these dogs they cannot own. This depicts the extent to which women are limited
by culture. Additionally, women do not own lands since traditionally, lands are
inherited and they are excluded. This unequal distribution of wealth makes women
poorer than men. In events where they decide to start entrepreneurial endeavours, it
limits the availability of sources of capital to them as compared to their male
counterparts who could easily raise capital personally by selling off some properties. It
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also limits women in terms of the sector(s) to operate in. In support of the foregoing
dialogue, the submissions of R12 and R3 are submitted below:
“To me, there is discrimination in the inheritance system. Then as a lady, I gained
nothing from my father when he died because of my gender. So I had no financial
support when I was starting this. At least, getting a piece of land could have helped me
when I wanted to start this business. I would have sold it to get capital. Instead, it took
me like two years to start this business from the time I conceived the idea: I was looking
for capital.” - R12
“The business I desired to venture into was farming. But I could not get the land since
culturally we are not entitled to some. Besides, in accordance with culture, even the
food that a woman cultivates on her husband’s land belongs to him (husband). So
farming was out. I then settled on this ‘kooko’ (porridge) business.” - R3
Again, there is an attitude of lack of recognition and respect for women’s work in the
community. The work most women do are not respected; both formal and informal
work. As such, small and unproductive activities are referred to as “Bompork toubd” –
which literally means “a woman’s work”. Hence the culture of the study area portrays
women as people who should engage in less profitable activities and employment. With
this, women entrepreneurs are often tempted to keep the status quo of running small
size businesses and in low value-adding sectors. The submission of R2 highlights the
lack of respect for women-owned ventures:
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“When I wanted to expand my business by moving into this container, I faced resistance
in terms of where to situate it. I was asked to go see the owner of the land for space for
that expansion. He was always tossing me around without giving me any concrete
answer. So I was told to contact another man within that same family who had an upper
hand. After gaining permission from the second man, a fight ensued between the first
and the second. I ignored their fight and still developed the foundation and placed my
container on it. It became a big issue which ended up at the chief’s palace. They also
reported me to my father’s people who said that a market is a place meant for women
to sell little by little in order to feed and not for one woman to cover the whole place
with a container. As we speak, the case is still at the chief’s palace.” – R2
Further, decision-making is considered as a duty of men in the study area. Hence,
women within the community are usually excluded in making relevant decisions. This
is due to the believe that women are weak and emotional and do not have the ability to
make critical decisions. These decisions are sometimes related to these women and their
wellbeing. Even the decisions of women to venture into entrepreneurship are usually
finalized by their spouses or fathers (in cases of single ladies). If the decision-makers
decide otherwise, then the women have to unfortunately overturn the intention of self-
employment. Hence, spousal support is a necessary element to progressive women
entrepreneurship. As such, R9 and R5 state respectively:
“Our culture here seems to make women backwards. For instance, I do not have a say
in matters of my family. I even needed to seek permission from my husband before
starting this business. So assuming he said no, where would I have been today? […].
These are the unfairness I find in the culture.”
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“Our culture mostly favour the men and discriminate against us. For instance, in terms
of decision-making, we are left out. Meanwhile, I could probably have been the one to
contribute great ideas to solve the issue. This brings some kind of sadness in us because
it makes it look like we women are useless. This makes us less anxious to bring out our
potentials. Eeeheeem, so it helps the men.”
Lastly, culturally, women: especially the married, have the duty of seeking permission
from spouses before embarking on journeys. Also, the time of the day a woman, is
expected to be outside the home is regulated. It is considered inappropriate for women
to stay out of home during late hours. This creates a restriction in the movement of
women. Subsequently, it determines the time of close of work, as well as the places to
visit for business purposes. Hence, R3 laments:
“When you look at it, it is the women that are usually pressurized to conform to culture
than men. So our culture is unfavourable to women. Can you imagine first-borns who
are female are not supposed to take chicken? They say it is a taboo. But male first-
borns can. Why should that be? They say a married woman should not be outdoors
during certain late hours, but the married men roam in town till the next day. So you
even feel uncomfortable staying late to do your business because you will be given a
negative tag.”
From the foregoing discussion, it is gathered that the discriminatory nature of the
Nabdam culture determines the sectors and size of business women operate, and in this
case, small sizes and in low-value adding sectors such as retailing and services.
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5.1.3 Motives of Women Entrepreneurs in the Nabdam District
There is the need to ascertain the reasons behind the enterprise creation of respondents.
This is to enable the study identify the significance of culture in women start-up
intentions. The key motivation mentioned by each respondent is used in the analysis.
5.1.3.1 Motivations for business creation
Motive Percentage
Lack/low levels of education 35%
Cultural issues 30%
Utilization of talent 15%
Inborn trait 10%
Spotted an opportunity 10%
Total 100%
Source: Field Data, 2017
Undeniably, the underlying aim of every business is to make money/profit. But beyond
the monetary motivations, the study discovers that women entrepreneurs in the Nabdam
district are motivated by lack of education, cultural issues, desire to utilize a talent,
inborn trait, as well as opportunity recognition.
To begin with, majority (35%) of the respondents were motivated to start ventures as a
result of the lack/low levels of education. To those women, entrepreneurship is the only
available option since securing jobs in the formal employment sector demands some
form of formal education. The profile of respondents reveal that 85% of them have
no/low levels of education. This is a result of the lack of value for girl-child education
in the study area in the past. Formal education was initially considered as the pursuit of
men. Most females where therefore denied access to education as the ‘kitchen’ was
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regarded as their suitable place rather than the classroom. Thankfully, due to
acculturation which led to the introduction of the “Free Compulsory Basic Education”
(FCUBE) during the 1990’s in Ghana, female children are now given the opportunity
to formal education in the area.
“I started this business because I didn’t go high in school. My siblings are many…..
My father couldn’t cater for us all in school. So I decided to drop out of school and
learn a trade. I thought that this is a means to also have something doing because no
one would employ me in government sector.” – R4
“I considered the fact that I am not educated. And wouldn’t have anything to rely on in
future to cater for myself and my children.” – R6
On one hand this may well lead to reduction in the number of women venturing into
entrepreneurship in future since high educated women are not visible in the female
entrepreneurship arena. One the other hand, it may promote women entrepreneurship
as an alternative to formal employment since these educated women could now conduct
environmental analysis to spot viable business opportunities.
Additionally, some cultural issues motivate women into entrepreneurship. These cover
the fear or effects of some cultural practices. For instance, the fear of widowhood rites,
unequal distribution of wealth, and the burdens of numerous traditional rites are
identified as the cultural factors that motivate women to start ventures. In the study
area, widows are tasked to select a man from the kindred of the deceased husband. The
purpose of this is to have someone to cater for the widow as well as her kids; if any.
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However, the respondents observe that women who are financially liberated receive
little pressure with regards to this practice. They opine that once a widow is able to
prove she can cater for herself and children, the elders of the husband’s family do not
pressurize her since she would not be a burden on them. Hence, one way of achieving
this financial liberation and subsequent escape of widowhood rites is entrepreneurship.
In view of this, R1 indicates:
“For me, I thought that anything could happen in my marriage: like me becoming a
widow. In that case I will still be living in my husband’s home to take care of my kids.
I would not get anyone to help me. And most importantly it is our culture that when
your husband passes on, you choose another man from his kindred to be with, which I
find appalling. Usually, women who succumb to this are those who have no source of
livelihood. If I have an employment, I can just stay as a widow without a man. Even
when the elders see that you are self-dependent, they would not even bring such a
suggestion.”
Again, the unequal distribution of wealth as expressed in the unfair inheritance system
continue to make women poorer. It also mean they have no support from home and
need to create their own wealth. This continuous poverty trigger a desire to make a
living. This then motivates some women in the district to try entrepreneurship in order
to lessen their poverty levels.
Lastly, the Nabdam culture embeds the performance of numerous traditional rites such
as funerals rites, marriage rites, and other rites associated with religious beliefs. The
desire to have the financial capacity to perform all these rites is found to be the
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motivation behind the creation of some businesses. With respect to this, excerpts from
the in-depth interview with R10 is presented below:
R10: “The issue is that some of our cultural demands here makes one to always be in
need of money. Something like our funeral rites. For our funeral rites, they have to take
some things out. They are too involving and demand money. […] Now, if they are to
perform the funerals of the others, whether I have money or not, I have to buy a lot of
things like Bambara beans, beans itself, two gallons of cooking oil, four bars of key
soap, plus bathing soap….aaaaah, I can’t even count them all. Then I now have to add
a pig.
Interviewer: Mmaaa (mother), is it not guinea fowl?
R10: “‘Kurikuri’ (A pig)! […] So when I carefully looked at these cultural
responsibilities, there was the need to have a source of livelihood. So that when these
arise, I can fulfil them. We wish this culture wasn’t existing, but they say it is culture.
Though it is not a force to do these, but we usually consider what friends and family
will say. So these responsibilities have become the norm.”
Further, the desire to use one’s talent in a meaningful way is a motivational factor to
women’s entrepreneurship. As such, those who are motivated by this, establish
businesses in sectors that require the use of the specific talent they have. Hence, R13
emphasize:
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“As a kid, I admired sewing and was good at it. I was not also doing well in school. So
I decided to drop out and learn the sewing. […] So after that I decided to start this
business using my talent. I felt it was a God-given talent and it will prosper.”
Even so, some women entrepreneurs in the district are pursuing entrepreneurship
because of inborn traits. They have the inward passion for entrepreneurship. These
respondents are mainly women who started their entrepreneurial journey at tender ages.
According to R14,
“I started running a business at a very tender age like 10. I starting by taking kola nuts
on credit to sell. Then I pay the supplier after selling. It was something I enjoyed doing
aside the financial benefits I was getting from it. […] So I believe the skill of business
is a gift from God.”
Nonetheless, the identification of opportunities lead some women into
entrepreneurship. After observing that a particular kind of business is not being
operated by anyone, they mobilize resources and start that business. In this vain, R16
specifies:
“When I got back from Kumasi I realized no one was doing ‘indomie’ (noodles)
business here. So I decided to take that opportunity to make money. And that is how
come I became a business owner.”
From the foregoing discussion, it can be deduced that predominantly, culture is a
motivational factor to women entrepreneurship in the district. The fear or effects of
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some cultural issues, coupled with the lack/low levels of education (which is as a result
of negative attitude towards female education in the past) provide extrinsic motivations
to entrepreneurship. Considering that only one-tenth of the respondents mention
intrinsic motivational factor like inborn traits. It can therefore be concluded that the
culture of the people largely ‘push’ than ‘pull’ women into entrepreneurship, thereby
breeding more necessity-driven women entrepreneurs.
5.1.4 Evaluating Gender Stereotypes and Women Entrepreneurship
The Nabdam community is not exempted from Gendered stereotypes in relation to
entrepreneurship as all respondents indicate. Successful entrepreneurship is viewed as
a male pursuit since it involves time, physical and emotional strength, financial
management, and the ability to take risks which women are perceived to lack. Hence,
women owned-ventures are expected to be within small limits in terms of growth. From
the interview session,
R7 indicates: “Well, my father-in-law and husband kicked against my venturing into
business. They said chasing money is not for women. It was a fight and was frustrating.
It took the plea of my mother-in-law to get me out here. Truthfully, it got to a point I
nearly gave-up.”
Similarly R11 expresses: “Well, the mind-set of the people here is that a successful
business woman achieved that through voodoo or witchcraft. Errrrrrrn….. It is the
women you hear being accused of using that for business prosperity. They never speak
such of male business owners.”
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However, R 8 adds: “When I wanted to start this business I sought capital from my
brother. He asked me if I could I answered the affirmative. It was clear he did not
believe in my ability and therefore advised I start very small at home to test my strength.
And that was what happened”
The study further asks the respondents the effects of the gendered stereotype in relation
to entrepreneurship on their businesses. In response, 85% specify it negatively affects
their ventures while the remaining 15% opine they are able to handle it. For instance,
R7 posits: “Yes. But with me it was the start-up stages. I nearly decided not to anymore
because of the opposition I faced at home. So I decided to start small. And right now, I
am alright doing my business.”
R11 adds: “Well, I don’t mind because I know what I get from it though I sometimes
get worried upon hearing such negative comments.”
The study therefore observes that the women entrepreneurs are psychologically affected
by these gendered stereotypes and this lead them to operate small businesses in low-
value adding in order to keep the status quo. Hence, the stereotype threat theory holds
in the study context.
5.1.5 Cultural Practices and Women Entrepreneurship
The study explores the specific cultural practices that have effects on the ability of
women to successfully engage in entrepreneurship. In effect, 35% out of the total
respondents cite some practices that are helpful in the running of business. The
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remaining 65% see no cultural issue that help or promote their ventures. However, all
respondents mention some cultural practices which they feel are detrimental to the
growth and expansion of their businesses.
5.1.5.1: Cultural practices that promote or limit women entrepreneurship
Practice Percentage
Cultural practices beneficial to WE
Strong family ties 35%
Cultural practices detrimental to WE
Social cohesion (value for funerals) 70%
Traditional belief about the role of women in
families
60%
Limitation on the movement of women
(especially the married)
55%
The believe on the small and less profitable
nature of businesses women should operate
45%
Negative attitude towards industrious women 35%
Source: Field Data, 2017
The strong family ties existing in the community enables women entrepreneurs gain
support from home. As a result of the value for the extended family system, women
entrepreneurs gain support from home which enable them in operating their businesses.
Through strong family ties, women entrepreneurs are able to gain unpaid human
resource. It is therefore not surprising that three-quarters of the women entrepreneurs
have no paid employees. Similarly, others explain that by virtue of the extended family,
their burdens at home in terms of household chores lessened. In their absence, there are
people who cook, and do other works and this gives them more time to spend at the
business premises. They however quickly add that enjoying this benefit is dependent
on the good relationship one creates with the other members of the family and did not
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necessarily mean one has no responsibilities at home; it only lessened. This is what R13
and R18 have to say:
“Ok. I will say our value for the extended family is helping my business. In that, I live
in a family house and I relate well with the other women at home. So when it comes to
household chores, they help me. Of course, it isn’t every house work that they will do
in my stead. But they are very helpful. […]. This gives me more time at the shop and I
run my business with a relaxed mind, knowing things are in order at home. If I were
living with just my husband and kids, I wouldn’t have had such a privilege.” - R13
“I get help from my family in terms of workers in my shop. I live in an extended family
house and they help me. So I do not need to employ someone. I believe that is helping
my business save money.” – R18
However, on the cultural issues or practices that are detrimental to women
entrepreneurship, respondents mention time consuming funeral rites, limitations on
movement of women, especially the married, position and role of women in families,
the believe on the small and less risky nature of businesses women should operate and
the negative attitude towards industrious women.
Out of 100%, 70% of the respondents state that the number of days spent in performing
funeral rites are too much and affects their ventures. According to them, it takes three
and four days to perform the funerals of men and women respectively. However, these
days could be extended depending on the financial capability of the family, especially
children of the deceased. The value placed on funerals means that funerals are not a
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family affair but a community’s, and full participation is expected. These relatively high
number of days spent at the funeral houses have a toll on businesses, especially those
who have no support in terms of human resource. It is added that leaving a business in
the care of someone else yields insufficient results. This is stressed by R2 as she says:
“Well, specifically, I will say our funeral rites are too involving and usually take many
days. If you don’t participate in them too, they say heeey! […]And in our culture, a
funeral is not just a family affair. The community supports so we usually have to be
actively involved. So you can imagine what will happen if I have to attend a funeral,
perhaps in my father’s house. I will have to either lock up the shop or leave it in the
care of my daughters who are not experts like I am. This is slowing the growth of my
business because it is not once or twice that I go for these funerals during the season
for funerals.”
Also, the role of women in the family as wives, mothers, and care takers of the family
as created by culture poses as a challenge to women entrepreneurs. Aside the
responsibility of household chores, women are to take care of children, the elderly, and
the sick in families. As a result, women entrepreneurs have limited time to concentrate
on business. In some cases, women have to temporarily discontinue business to handle
family responsibilities. This results in the loss of business capital or customers. In
support of the foregoing discussion, the response of two respondents are depicted
below:
“I have much responsibilities at home and it affects my business paaaa. My husband,
my children and others are all on me. Also, though I run my own business, I still engage
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in farm work. So my business gets disrupted especially during rainy seasons because
there is usually much farm work to do. So today you are out selling, tomorrow you are
not. How will the business grow? But since you are a woman you have no power to say
that you would leave the work and rather come out to attend to your business.” – R3
“There was a time my mother fell ill. I had to go take care of her in Accra for more
than three months because I am her only female child. I locked my shop. As a result, I
lost my capital. […]I struggled to revive my business.” – R10
Over two-thirds of the respondents mention the limitation on the movement of women
as described earlier, as a cultural factor affecting the ventures of women entrepreneurs.
The ability to travel to other areas for business purposes depends on another person
(husbands, in most cases). And when permission is not granted, plans with respect to
the journey must change. This is in accordance with culture. This, as the respondents
indicate sometimes affects the replenishment of stock in their businesses. Also, it
affects the time they close from work since they are not expected to stay outside the
home at certain “odd hours”, of which some businesses such as beer bars thrive better
during these hours.
R4 therefore laments: “Women are deemed inferior to men and our culture demands
we the married ones always seek permission form our husbands before taking any step.
For instance, these already-made clothes you see hanging belong to me. I go to Kumasi
to pick them. But sometimes my husband denies me the go ahead to travel when I really
need to. This all is affecting my business. Again, in our culture, the needs and wants of
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the men is what is considered as priority and we the women have no right and no say
in decision making. So we need to abide.”
Moreover, the community expects women to engage in small and less risky businesses.
Certain business sectors are exclusively for men. This probably is a deliberate effort to
limit the financial progress of women since it is perceived that financially successful
women are disrespectful. As a result, women find it difficult to engage in vibrant
business sectors that yield much profit like men do. It is observed that gold mining and
gold-trading is the current brisk business ongoing in the district. Alas, no woman is
involved in this business because of the idea that that kind of business is not for women.
Out of curiosity, the research enquires why women are not in the gold-trading business,
in response, R4 believes:
“Abaaaaaa, that one is a man’s business.”
Nonetheless, the negative attitude exhibited towards industrious women is worrying.
Women who are perceived to be too industrious are tagged as irresponsible women who
have substituted their homes for business. The local cliché is that “she has married the
business”. This is probably because schedules of business do not permit them to fully
concentrate on their homes. They are then considered as being too money conscious to
the detriment of their homes. Apparently, some men do not wish to have such spouses.
Hence, most women entrepreneurs are only just seeking ‘daily bread’ from their
business. This attitude in limiting them in terms of business expansion and growth, as
well as preventing new entrants into the entrepreneurial space since they want to focus
on their families so to gain a good name. To climax the negative disposition towards
women entrepreneurship, the story of R2 is presented:
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“They don’t like industrious women here ooo. After I married, I wanted to learn how
to sew. I told my husband. He agreed and bought me a sewing machine. But my father
in-law kicked against it and said their family do not accept women who search for
money. So he sold it. I felt he was not in support because his son bought the sewing
machine. So I travelled to Kumasi to work and bought my own sewing machine from
the money I made. My father-in-law still kicked against it. So I decided to change a
business by stubbornly starting to sell little little provisions. He still had a problem with
me. He used to say that my husband sells in the market and I as a woman have also
neglected the house by selling in the market. But I turned a deaf ear to his complaints.”
5.1.6 Analysing the Contributions of Women Entrepreneurs to Society
The study discovers the contributions of women entrepreneurs to society. The
contributions given include helping the needy, tax contributions, and reduction in social
vices. Some respondents mention more than one contribution. Therefore, each
contribution mentioned is tabulated against the sample size.
Table 5.1.6.1 Contributions of women entrepreneurship
Contribution Percentage
Helping the needy 50%
Tax 35%
Reduction of social vices 25%
Role modelling 20%
Developmental infrastructure 10%
Employment 10%
Variety 5%
Source: Field Data, 2017
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Seemingly, the desire to help the needy is key to most women entrepreneurs in the study
area as half of the respondents state it as their contributions to society. This is done
thorough lending or dashing out items to people in need. This is an indication that
charity is a virtue in the Nabdam culture. Aside, helping the needy, some respondents
deem the payment of tax to the district assembly through market tolls as a contribution
to society. They believe that the tax contributions contributed to not just the
developmental issues of the district only, but Ghana as a whole. However, through
entrepreneurship, women are able to provide the needs of their children, thereby
reducing the social vices they could have engaged in. Aside keeping their children from
social vices, some respondents believe the help they offer to the needy also help reduce
social vices. Since one could easily borrow an item, it reduces the burden to gain cash
to purchase items which could push one into a social vice. Again, the idea of role
modelling is important in society. As such, some women entrepreneurs indicate they
have become role models to others, especially younger generations. They specify that
through them, other women would realize the essence of women in self-employment
and emulate. This will help in poverty alleviation in the society. The contribution
towards infrastructure in the community is also named. Situating the business in the
township of the community help beautify the community as one-tenth of the
respondents state. This beautification is part of infrastructural development of the
community. Most importantly, a tenth of the respondents remark that their contribution
to society lies in the provision of employment. As a result, some other people now have
a source of livelihood. Only a respondent makes it known that her business is helping
offer variety to customers because without it, customers would have limited sellers to
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choose from. Comments from the in-depth interview are shown below to support the
foregoing discourse:
“Though my business might not have helped the community in any big way, it has
helped individuals. For instance, I usually give my provisions out on credit to people
who are really in need of it. And when I used to sell “yor ke gari” (gari and beans), a
lot of people were benefiting from it by eating for free. Also, at least, I have been able
to train my children with the money I make from this business. Perhaps they would have
been criminals if I were not able to take care of them. Which would have been
detrimental to society. But now they are responsible individuals and that has been my
little contribution to the society.” – R2
“My business has helped the community to have variety to choose from. Also it has
helped to beautify this community in terms of development.”- R9
“I have employed people in this community who would have otherwise been idle. Now,
they are also able to feed themselves and their families. I also pay toll to the district
assembly which I believe goes to government coffers for developmental projects, even
if not in this community, elsewhere.” –R11
“I am able to help others that I feel need help. Some buy on credit from me. I feel this
is help to the society because if I had insisted on cash, it could have pushed the person
into a social vice in order to be able to afford. And even at church, the last time there
were raising funds for a building. I was able to contribute. All because I have a trade.”
- R12
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The contributions majority of the respondents indicate seem to border on human
development. To the women entrepreneurs, human existence is paramount. This
portrays a human orientation in the district where people are rewarded for being kind,
caring and unselfish.
5.1.7 Women Entrepreneurs Benefit too
The act of entrepreneurship is beneficial to women. All respondents in the study area
indicate entrepreneurship has been of great help to them.
Table 5.1.7.1 Benefits Gained from Entrepreneurship
Benefit Percentage
Ability to provide basic needs 80%
Opportunity to be own boss 30%
Opportunity to socialize 5%
Source: Field Data, 2017
Largely, entrepreneurship has made it possible for women entrepreneurs to provide
basic needs such as food, clothing, better health care and education for themselves and
their children. Almost all of the respondents highlight this, indicating that the ability to
provide basic needs is the most important gain these women desire from
entrepreneurship. This explains why necessity-driven entrepreneurs dominate the
women entrepreneurship arena in the district. Perhaps, the focus on the ability to
provide basic needs through entrepreneurship is as a result of the lack of high need for
achievement among women as constructed by culture. Hence,
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R2 states: “As for me this my business has helped me oooo. It is through it that my
children have been able to go to school. We also feed, wear, and bath through it.”
Similarly, R1 indicates: “It has been helpful. Why am I saying this? If my child goes
hungry, he could end up in social vices which are detrimental to society. This business
has helped us in our feeding. What is more than feeding? That alone, I am grateful to
God.”
Also, the opportunity entrepreneurship offers to individuals to be their own boss is
identified by the respondents as a benefit. Resultantly, these women no longer have to
travel to other parts of the country, especially Kumasi to work for others. This means
that developments in women entrepreneurship could help reduce rural-urban migration,
a phenomenon government is battling with, and promote local development.
“My children have become better in terms of feeding and schooling. And I work for
myself. I need not go to Kumasi to work for someone again. Wherever I go, I can use
this trade to work to help myself.” – R13
Lastly, a respondent is happy to state that her involvement in entrepreneurship gives
her the opportunity to socialize with others thereby promoting social cohesion and
reducing conflicts. She says:
“[…]. And also, it has improved my social life. Because I operate a business and not
always at home, I get to meet new people to socialize with which was not the same at
home.” – R4
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5.2 Discussion of Findings
This section discusses the findings of the study with existing literature.
5.2.1 Culture Acts as a ‘Push’ Motivational Factor to Women Entrepreneurship
The culture of the Nabdam district is found to largely force women to be
entrepreneurial. The study finds the culture to be one motivational factor to women
entrepreneurship. To begin with, the inability of women to gain inheritance and own
landed properties, increases the poverty levels of women. This creates the need for
financial liberation, leading to the choice of entrepreneurship as a means of reducing
these poverty levels. This inability of women to gain inheritance and own landed
properties is an indication of gender inequality in the district. Hence, gender inequality
coerces women into entrepreneurship. This finding is similar to that of Aidis et al.,
(2007) and Baughn et al., (2006) who find that gender inequality pushes women into
entrepreneurship. Also, the fear of widowhood rites is a key motivational factor to
women entrepreneurship. As observed by the respondents, women who are financially
cable and can demonstrate the ability of taking care of themselves and their children
are usually not forced to practice some traditions relating to widowhood. To attain
financial ability and hence escape this tradition, some women opt for entrepreneurship.
Moreover, the lack or low levels of formal education among most women above the
age of 25 in the district, which is a result of the lack of value placed on educating the
female child in the past, led most of the respondents into entrepreneurship. In the past,
culturally, formal education for the female child was deemed unnecessary and the male
child was given preference. The respondents therefore feel that since they lack the
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necessary skills for employment in the formal/government sector, the last resort is self-
employment, mimicking marginality thesis (Adom, 2014). The discourse of women
venturing into entrepreneurship as a result of lack/low levels of education reverberates
the findings of Adom (2015) who finds lack of education as a key motivation to women
entrepreneurship.
Hence, the culture of the people in the Nabdam district breed more necessity-driven
than opportunity-driven women entrepreneurs, making the women entrepreneurship
arena dominated by necessity-driven entrepreneurs. This resonates with the findings of
Malach et al. (2010) that necessity-driven entrepreneurship is predominant among
women; especially those in poor countries depicting the role of inequality and exclusion
of women in entrepreneurship.
The foregoing cultural issues identified as being push motivational factors to women
entrepreneurship in the district tend to depict a high degree of power distance (Hofstede,
1984) and the traditional value dimension of culture (Inglehart, 1997; Inglehart &
Baker, 2000; Inglehart & Welzel, 2005). It can therefore be said that cultures with
relatively high power distance breed more entrepreneurs, of which most are necessity-
driven entrepreneurs, than cultures with low degrees of power distance. This
disconfirms the findings of Busenitz and Lau (1996) who suggest that entrepreneurship
thrives in cultures where less value is placed on power distance.
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5.2.2 Culture as a Determinant of the Size and Sector of Business of Women
Entrepreneurs
Culture plays a key role in the size and sector of business women operate as per the
findings of this study. Women entrepreneurs in the study area largely operate small
businesses in low value-value adding sectors such as retailing and services. This holds
an Akan (an ethnic group in Ghana) proverb: “women sell garden eggs and not
gunpowder” to be true per Adom (2015 p19). Culturally, women are expected to show
modesty in most areas of life: business inclusive. This has had an impact on the size of
business women operate as they tend to feel more comfortable operating small
businesses in sectors that are less profitable and demand little or no value addition to
end-products.
Also, traditionally, some sectors of businesses are carved for women and are hence
female dominated. Again, the general impression of entrepreneurship being a career
path for men than women, tend to make women have less faith in their ability to succeed
in such a field. To minimize risk, they tend to start and operate small firms in less risky
sectors. Carter and Marlow (2007) and Hallward-Dremier, (2013) note that women-
owned enterprises are concentrated in congested and low-value adding sectors such as
services and trading, which this study iterates, attributing the cause to culture rather
than lack of ability. Also, Brush, (2006) and Evers & Walters, (2000) also mention that
women usually operate in more traditional sectors such as services. Therefore it can be
concluded that the cause of the dominance of women in micro, small and traditional
sectors like retailing and services is more of cultural than factors such as difficulty in
gaining finance and lack of skills. Hence, the findings of Akehurst et al., (2012) which
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attribute the female dominance in less value adding and small sectors to difficulty in
gaining finance and lack of skills is disconfirmed.
5.2.3 Culture as a Limitation to Women Entrepreneurs’ Growth and Expansion
The study discovers that culture largely limit the growth and expansion women-owned
businesses. This echoes the findings of GEM (2015) and FEI (2015) who posit that
culture creates additional barriers for women entrepreneurs, making it difficult for them
to run businesses. For instance, the culture of the study area places much respect and
value for the dead. This has resulted in the spending of relatively many days in funeral
performance: it takes three and four days for men and women respectively. Due to this
strong value, people in the community are expected to engage fully in the performance
of these funeral rites, making most women entrepreneurs usually absent from their
business premises attending to these social obligations to the detriment of business. The
expectant involvement of all and sundry depicts social cohesion in the community.
Also, the limitation on the movement of women, especially the married, is detrimental
to women entrepreneurship. This limits their ability to engage in business in other
communities, affect their stock replenishment rate, and exposes them to limited social
networks. This finding highlights USAID (2010) who reveal that the lack of mobility
of women entrepreneurs restricts them from running businesses at desired places as
well as limit their direct interaction with customers. Similarly, Sullivan and Arthur
(2006) maintain that women have less freedom in their mobility and this negatively
affects their engagement in business.
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Additionally, the position and role of women as wives, mothers, and care takers in the
family is detrimental to women entrepreneurship. As a result of these duties, women
entrepreneurs have limited time to concentrate on business. This is an iteration of the
findings of USAID (2010), De Vita et al., (2014) as well as Cesaroni and Sentuti (2014)
who report that women, especially in developing countries play the role of family
caregivers as defined by traditional values and norms, and this necessitates the
integration of business with domestic activities, which most women are unable to
handle. Moreover, the negative attitude towards industrious women is a challenge to
the growth and expansion of women-owned enterprises. Industrious women are tagged
with irresponsibility and are considered to substitute family responsibilities for money
seeking ventures. This negative tag is causing most women entrepreneurs to aim less at
business growth and expansion. This therefore confirms the findings of Woldie and
Adesua (2000) who reveal that women entrepreneurs face additional barriers to success
arising from negative social attitudes towards them.
However, strong family ties is found to be key in the success of women entrepreneurs.
This is in line with the findings of Waldinger et al., (1990) and Zamberi (2011) who
find that strong family ties is instrumental in the success of women entrepreneurs.
Through strong family ties, which is evident in the value for the extended family
system, women entrepreneurs gain free or cheaper human resource from family
members of which Belwal, et al., (2012) state that the employees of women-owned
enterprises are usually unskilled relatives. It also resonances the discoveries of UNIDO
(2010) that family support is one of the most vital factors impacting women in business,
whether for financial or network support, or as unpaid manpower. This reduces the
operational cost of these women-owned ventures. Additionally, strong family ties
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enable some women entrepreneurs to have lesser responsibilities in terms of household
chores at home since they live with other women as a unified family. This gives them
some ample time to concentrate on business. It must however be stated that the
availability of this help depends on how well one related with the other members of the
family.
5.2.4 Contributions of Women Entrepreneurs to Society Mainly Focus on Human
Development
Women entrepreneurs contribute significantly to societies. Their contributions in the
study area tend to focus more on the human development. This however could be due
to the humane orientation in the area. The contributions of women entrepreneurs cover;
helping the needy, reducing social vices, serving as role models, tax contribution,
provision of employment, providing infrastructural development, as well as providing
variety for customers to choose from. Majority of the women entrepreneurs are more
concerned about help to the needy by lending items to people who cannot readily afford
and giving out items for free. This they believe results in reduction in social vices since
it lessens the burdens of people to have ready cash before they are able to access some
necessities of life. Also, by virtue of entrepreneurship, most women have been able to
give better life and education to their children. This prevents them from engaging in
social vices which are detrimental to society. This is in tune with the revelation of Dzisi
(2008) that the engagement of women in entrepreneurship has positive social
ramifications on the social environment within which they find themselves.
The women entrepreneurs also believe they serve as role models to others. This they
hold as a contribution to society because when more women get into the entrepreneurial
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arena, the poverty levels of society will lessen. Also, women entrepreneurs in the study
area contribute to the revenue of the country through taxes. As a result of the informal
nature of most of their businesses, taxes are paid by way of ‘market tolls’. This they
believe contribute to the developmental issues of the district and the country as a whole.
Additionally, the ventures of women provide employment for themselves as well as
others. This resonates with the discoveries of Buame et al., (2013), Singh & Bewal,
(2008), De Vita et al., (2014) and Welsh et al.,(2016), who state that women
entrepreneurs contribute significantly to poverty reduction and job creation. Lastly,
through the creation of enterprises by women, consumers have variety of products or
shops to choose or buy from.
5.2.5 Spousal Support is Necessary for Women Entrepreneurs
Spousal support is discovered to be a necessary tool in the success of women
entrepreneurs. This acmes the results of Mordi et al., (2010) and Verheul, et al., (2006)
that family/spousal support for women entrepreneurs is instrumental in their success as
it reduces financial burden and emotional breakdowns among women. For this study,
the decision of women to tread the entrepreneurial pathway is dependent on spouses.
This makes spousal support vital because once a spouse is not in support of a woman’s
entrepreneurial intentions, she must disband that intention in accordance with culture.
Also, the fact that the movement of women in the study area is determined by their
spouses means that the lack of spousal support could lead to business discontinuance
or poor performance.
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5.3.6 Entrepreneurship is Perceived as a Preserve for the Uneducated in the
District
In the study area, majority of the women entrepreneurs either have no or low levels of
formal education. Hardly are women who have relatively higher levels of education
such as senior high school certificate and above engage in entrepreneurship. This
presupposes that entrepreneurship is meant for uneducated women. Within the ethnic
group of the district, educated people are expected to be employed in government
sector. Hence, entrepreneurship and therefore self-employment is perceived as a resort
for the uneducated who have no means to formal employment. It therefore means that
higher levels of education among the female populace in the district is likely to cause a
decline in female entrepreneurship as suggested also by Tambunan (2009). This is
however contrary to the findings of Delmar and Davidsson (2004) who propose that
higher rates of education leads to higher rates of entrepreneurship.
5.4.7 Majority Women Entrepreneurs are Ignorant of Business Registration/
Formalization
Majority of the women entrepreneurs are ignorant of business registration and hence,
formalization. This could however be as a result of the no/low levels of education
among them. Generally, the women entrepreneurs express that they have no idea they
are to register their ventures with the registrar general’s department in order to
formalize it. They think the payment of market fees is an indication of the registration
and formalization of their businesses. This ignorance is more of a result of lack of
education than gender. The outcome may hinder the formalisation of the informal
economy agenda by the government of Ghana.
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5.4.8 Women Entrepreneurship Have the Capacity of Reducing Rural-Urban
Migration
Importantly, the study finds that women entrepreneurship has the key to reducing rural-
urban migration in the district. The women entrepreneurs state that through the
engagement in business they are able to provide their basic necessities and have stopped
travelling to the southern part of the country to seek employment. The norm has been
that women travel to the southern part of Ghana to work as head porters (popularly
known as “kayayo or kayaye in Ga language) especially during the dry seasons (when
there are no farming activities). It is relevant to state that rural-urban migration which
promotes Kayayo is a menace facing the Ghanaian government. Hence, the
development of women entrepreneurship, especially in rural areas is likely to have a
positive impact in curbing this peril.
5.3 Summary of Chapter
This chapter analysed data in accordance with the themes that were derived from the
data. These themes are: understanding culture; the community’s perspective, motive of
women entrepreneurs, gender stereotypes and women entrepreneurship, cultural
practices and women entrepreneurship, contributions of women entrepreneurs to
society, and benefits of entrepreneurship to women. It also analysed data on the profile
of respondents which presented their characteristics in order to understand the research
issue from their perspective. Findings of the study emerged after data analysis. These
findings were then discussed in relation to existing literature.
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CHAPTER SIX
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSISON & RECOMMENDATIONS
6.0 Introduction
This chapter presents a summary of the research findings, conclusions of the study,
recommendations (for policy makers, opinion leaders and other stakeholders) as well
as proposed future directions on this research topic.
6.1 Summary of the Study
The study explored the role of culture in women entrepreneurship in the Nabdam
district in the Upper East Region of Ghana. It specifically sought to determine the role
of culture in the enterprise start-up intention/behaviour of women, identify the cultural
practices that have effects on women entrepreneurship, as well as understand the
contributions of women entrepreneurs to society. In this regard, literature was reviewed
regarding the concept and meaning of entrepreneurship, the contributions of
entrepreneurship to society, women entrepreneurship, motives of women
entrepreneurs, gender gap in entrepreneurship, nature of women owned-businesses,
challenges of women entrepreneurs, culture, culture and entrepreneurship, among
others. Also, the stereotype threat theory was used to give meaning to the
entrepreneurial world of women in the Nabdam district. Further, an overview of the
Nabdam district and women entrepreneurship in the Nabdam district was given.
The study adopted a qualitative research approach using a single case study design.
Data were collected from some women entrepreneurs through in-depth interviews using
a semi-structured interview guide. Interview sessions were audio recorded and
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transcribed through translation since all the respondents responded in Nabit (the
language of the Nabdam ethnic group). Subsequently, the transcribed data was analysed
thematically. The findings of the study as derived from the analysis of data were then
presented and discussed in relation to existing literature.
6.2 Conclusion of the Study
In line with the main objective of the study which is to find out the role of culture in
women entrepreneurship, the following findings emerged:
Firstly, the study reveals that culture pushes women into entrepreneurship through the
fear of some cultural practices and the desire to escape them, lack of value for girl-child
education in the past, and the gender unevenness that has increased the poverty levels
of women within the study area. Also, culture determines the size and sectors of
business women engaged in; in this case small size businesses in low value-adding
sectors such as retailing and service business. Due to gender stereotypes, inadequate
recognition for women and their work, among others, women tend to be oriented
towards and feel more comfortable operating smaller enterprises and in less risky or
challenging sectors. In relation to the effects of culture on women entrepreneurship, the
study ascertains that the culture of the Nabdams largely limit the growth and expansion
of women-owned enterprises. The predominant social cohesion, limitation on the
movement of women, role of women in families, and the negative gender stereotypes
relating to entrepreneurship, among others are found as factors that pose barriers and
restrictions to women and their businesses. However, strong family ties is found as key
to success of women entrepreneurs.
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Further, the contributions of women entrepreneurs mainly focus on human
development. Though women entrepreneurs contribute to tax contributions,
employment and infrastructural development of the community, contributions such as
helping the needy, serving as role models, and reducing social vices, which border on
human development are paramount and of importance to them. Hence, the betterment
of the lives of the people in the community is of utmost importance to women
entrepreneurs. Moreover, spousal support is discovered to be necessary in the triumph
of women entrepreneurs. Not only do women entrepreneurs need spousal support at the
inception of business, they need it throughout the lifespan of the business. The lack of
it could lead to business discontinuance as well as business stagnation.
Again, the women entrepreneurship arena in the district is perceived as a reserve for
the uneducated. This is due to the norm of educated women seeking only formal
employment and ignoring self-employment. It is important to add that majority of the
women entrepreneurs operate informal businesses. They however indicate they are
unaware that business registration for formalization purposes differ from paying market
tolls and going under health screening by sanitation officers. This ignorance, perhaps,
is as a result of the lack or low levels of formal education among these women
entrepreneurs. Lastly, the study finds that women entrepreneurship has the potential of
reducing rural-urban migration in the district. Women entrepreneurs who engaged in
this practice in the past have discontinued since they now run their own businesses.
The findings of this study as presented above is an indication that the study has achieved
its main objective. It aimed to find out the role culture plays in women entrepreneurship.
Hence, the study has been successful in achieving its objectives.
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Nonetheless, based on the findings, the research concludes that the culture of the
Nabdams is not favourable for the progress of women entrepreneurs. Though it creates
a desire which they sought to satisfy through entrepreneurship, it works against the
growth and expansion of their enterprises. This means that the culture breeds more
necessity-driven women entrepreneurs who face limitations as a result of that same
culture. Hence, the “female business under-performance” thesis could be a result of
culture rather than inability of women. Women-owned businesses are generally
underperforming as a result of cultural barriers and not because women entrepreneurs
lack business and managerial skills or the strength and intelligence to run their own
enterprises.
6.3 Recommendations
On the basis of the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made:
Firstly, there is the need for an integrated approach for fostering female
entrepreneurship that does not relegate the predominant cultural structures and gender
unevenness due to culture. Whenever policy makers are rolling out programs to
stimulate entrepreneurship, especially in rural areas and hence the Nabdam district,
attention should be paid to the specific cultural issues affecting women or women
entrepreneurs. Hence, programs should be implemented to tackle such issues. For
instance, in relation to the rural enterprise program by the Ghana government, special
programs or models could be established for only women and these programs could
target making women break the status quo of operating in less profitable and low-value
adding sectors by offering training in more challenging sectors in order to equip them
for that.
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Secondly, women entrepreneurs in the district need education on the importance of
business registration and hence formalization since Ghana is looking forward to
formalize its informal sector. This education could enlighten them on the need for and
the processes involved in business registration.
Thirdly, the opinion leaders in the various communities of the district need to promote
a cultural orientation that is favourable to women entrepreneurship. The discrimination
and gender stereotypes that affect the work of women in the communities should be
minimized if not abolished, in order to promote women entrepreneurship. This is
because women entrepreneurship appears to be the key to societal development.
Lastly, more educated women within the district need an entrepreneurial orientation in
order to understand that entrepreneurship is not only an endeavour for the uneducated
women. The district needs this intervention because in about a decade to come, more
women are likely to gain higher education and this could lead to fewer women
becoming entrepreneurs. This is likely to affect the constant efforts by government to
promote entrepreneurship.
6.4 Future Research Directions
The study recommends that researchers who intend studying this research area in future
could extend the scope of the study by including other districts especially within the
same region. Also, a study could be conducted to ascertain how the Ghanaian national
culture affect entrepreneurship. Again, a research could be conducted on culture and
entrepreneurship in general which would include both male and female entrepreneurs
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in the district. This will provide insights into the effects of culture on general
entrepreneurship. Lastly, a comparative study could be done to ascertain the differential
effects of culture on male and female entrepreneurs since studies have revealed that
male and female-owned ventures face different constraints of which culture is one.
6.5 Chapter Summary
This chapter summarized the study by stating the aim of the study and how it was
carried out. It went further to conclude the study by indicating the findings of the study
and whether the key research question was answered. Recommendations were also
made for policy makers and opinion leaders especially. Lastly, the chapter made
suggestions in relation to future research.
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APPENDIX I: INTERVIEW GUIDE
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA BUSINESS SCHOOL
MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY IN MARKETING
QUESTIONNAIRE:
Dear Respondent,
This questionnaire is designed to assist the researcher to explore “culture and women
entrepreneurship in the Nabdam district”. This exercise is essentially academic and as
part of the requirements for the award of an Mphil degree in Marketing. Your response
is of utmost importance and your contributions would be treated with the maximum
confidentiality.
In the case of any queries or comments regarding this study, kindly contact me on
0540848984 or e-mail at [email protected]
Thank you
SECTION A: PROFILE OF RESPONDENTS
1. What is the name of your business?
2. What is your age?
24-28 [ ] 29-33 [ ] 34-38 [ ] 39-43 [ ] 44-48 [ ] 49-53 [ ] 54-59 [ ]
3. Are you married?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
4. Were you married at the time of starting this business?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
5. What is your Educational level?
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No formal education [ ] Basic [ ] Secondary [ ] Tertiary [ ]
6. How long has the business been in operation?
1-5 [ ] 6-10 [ ] 11-15 [ ] 16-20 [ ] 31-35 [ ] above 35 [ ]
7. Which sector does your business operate in?
Retailing [ ] Wholesaling [ ] Manufacturing [ ] Services [ ]
8. Have you registered your business?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
9. If not registered why?
10. Do you have employees?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
11. If no, whom do you work with?
12. Do you pay those you work with?
Yes [ ] No [ ]
SECTION B: CULTURE AND WOMEN ENTREPRENEURSHIP
1. In your opinion, what is culture?
2. What is the nature of your culture? Is it discriminatory against any gender?
3. If yes, how?
4. Are there gender stereotypes in this community that are related to women and
entrepreneurship?
5. If yes, how are they affecting you and your business?
6. What motivated you to start your own business?
7. Did you face challenges from your family and the society in starting your
business because of your gender?
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8. What are some of the cultural practices within your community that influenced
your intention to start your business?
9. Are there cultural practices in this community that are promoting the growth of
your business?
10. If yes, how do they?
11. Are there cultural practices in this community that are limiting the growth of
your business?
12. If yes, how do they?
13. What contributions have your business made to society so far?
14. Have you benefited from entrepreneurship in any ways?
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APPENDIX II: CROSS CASE ANALYSIS TABLE
ANALYSING THE FINDINGS ACROSS CASES
R
1
R
2
R
3
R
4
R
5
R
6
R
7
R
8
R
9
R
10
R
11
R
12
R
13
R
14
R
15
R
16
R
17
R
18
R
19
R
20
Culture acts as a
push
motivational
factor to
Women
Entrepreneurshi
p
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Strong family
ties aid the
progress of
women
entrepreneurs
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Generally,
culture limits
the growth and
expansion of
women-owned
enterprises
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Women
entrepreneurship
is a preserve of
uneducated
women
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Contributions of
women
entrepreneurs to
society mainly
focus on human
development
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Spousal support
is necessary for
women
entrepreneurs
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Majority women
entrepreneurs
are ignorant of
business
registration/
formalization
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Women
entrepreneurship
have the
capacity of
reducing rural-
urban migration
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
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