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270

In deuterostomes, the blastopore develops into an anus.

Cleavage is radial, and an enterocoelom develops.

The echinoderms have evolved radial symmetry,

an internal skeleton, gills, a nerve ring, and a water vas-

cular system. The sea star is a major echinoderm show-

ing these specializations.

Chordates have evolved a notochord, a dorsal hol-

low nerve cord, and pharyngeal pouches at some point in

their life history. Only lancelets show all of these char-

acteristics as adults. The vertebrates develop a verte-

bral column in place of a notochord.

Vertebrates are divided into superclasses: the ag-nathans (jawless fishes) and the gnathostomes (jawed

vertebrates). There are six classes of jawed vertebrates:

cartilaginous fishes (e.g. shark); bony fishes (e.g. trout,

cod, tuna); amphibians (e.g. frogs and salamanders); rep-

tiles (e.g. snakes, lizards, turtles); aves (birds); mam-

mals (e.g. dogs, cats, humans).

The evolution of vertebrates is still being studied.

The hagfishes and lampreys are descendants of the orig-

inal jawless fishes. Sharks are modern representatives

of the cartilaginous fishes. The original bony fishes di-

verged into two groups: the ray-finned fishes and the

lobe-finned fishes.

Amphibians, which evolved from lobe-finned fishesduring the Devonian period, reached their greatest size and

diversity in the swamp forests of the Carboniferous pe-

riod. Most amphibians return to the water to reproduce.

Reptiles, which are believed to have evolved from

the amphibians, have a shelled amniote egg. A shelled egg

along with extraembryonic membranes makes repro-

duction on land possible. Stem reptiles gave rise to di-

nosaurs and birds. The mammals trace their ancestry to

another reptilian line of descent.

While amphibians and reptiles are ectothermictheir

body temperature is the same as that of the environment

both birds and mammals are homeothermicthey meta-

bolically produce a constant body temperature. Adaptations

of birds include feathers and hollow bones, both adap-

tations for flight. Mammals have evolved hair and mam-

mary glands. Monotremes are egg-laying mammals, and

marsupials are pouched mammals which give birth to very

immature young. While the young of placental mammals

are more developed at birth, they still require parentalcare to survive.

Among mammals, primatesprosimians, mon-

keys, apes, and humansare adapted for living in trees.

Monkeys leap but apes swing from limb to limb. This

may have been an adaptation that led to bipedalism in

hominids. The first hominid (humans and immediate an-

cestors) wasA. afarensis, which could walk erect but had

only a small brain. Later-appearing australopithecines

may have manufactured stone tools, but H. habi lis cer-

tainly did.H. erectus was the first fossil to have a brain

size of more than 1,000 cc. H. erectus migrated from

Africa into Europe and Asia. They used fire and may

have been big-game hunters.Most likely,H. sapiens evolved in Africa but then

migrated to Europe and Asia, where this species sup-

planted the archaic humans living there. One of these

species was H. sapiens neanderthalens is . The Nean-

derthals did not have the physical traits of modern humans,

but they did have culture.

31ANIMALS: PART II

CH A P T E R RE V I E W

STUDY EX E R C I S E S

Study the text section by section as you answer the questions that follow.

31.1 ECHINODERMS (P. 644) Echinoderms (e.g., starfish) and chordates (e.g., vertebrates) are both deuterostomes.

In deuterostomes, the second embryonic opening becomes the mouth, and the coelom develops by

outpocketing from the primitive gut.

Echinoderms have radial symmetry and a unique water vascular system for locomotion.


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1. Complete the following table to describe the characteristics of echinoderms:

Characteristic Description

type of symmetry

skeletal system

respiration

nervous system

water vascular system

2. Label this diagram of a sea star with the following terms (some are used more than once):

ampulla

anus

arm

cardiac stomach

central disk

coelomic cavity

digestive gland

endoskeletal plateseyespot

gonads

pyloric stomach

radial canal

sieve plate

skin gill

spine

tube feet

3. Trace the path of water in the water vascular system: sieve plate to a.____________________canal

tob.

____________________canal to radial canal toc.

____________________feet . Each of these feet hasa(n) d.__________________. The function of the water vascular system is e.__________________.

4. A sea star has a two-part stomach. Describe how the sea star feeds on a clam, mentioning both parts of the

stomach.

31.2 CHORDATES (P. 646)

All chordates have a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, and pharyngeal pouches sometime during their

life history; in vertebrates, the notochord is replaced by the vertebral column.

27

e.

f.

g.h.

d.

c.

b.

a.

r.

q. p.

o.

n.

m.

l.

k.

j.

i.


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5. Label this diagram with the three primary chordate characteristics, plus another that also distinguishes

chordates.

272

c.

d.

a.

b.

6. Which two chordate characteristics do hemichordates have? a._____________________________

and b._____________________________

What evidence suggests that hemichordates and echinoderms are related? c.

8. Complete the following table to describe the invertebrate chordates:

Name Chordate Characteristics Appearance

tunicates

(subphylum Urochordata)

lancelets

(subphylum Cephalochordata)


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8. Complete this evolutionary tree of the chordates by filling in the name of the subphylum/class in the

arrowheads. Place these terms in the ovals: limbs, mammary glands and hair, jaws, lungs, amnion, feathers,

vertebrae


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31.3 VERTEBRATES (P. 649)

There are three groups of fishes. One group is jawless, but the other two groupsthe cartilaginous and bony

fishes (ray-finned and lobe-finned)have jaws.

Amphibians (e.g., frogs and salamanders) evolved from lobe-finned fishes and have limbs, an adaptation for

locomotion on land.

The shelled egg of reptiles, which contains extraembryonic membranes, is an adaptation for reproduction on

land.

Both birds, which can fly, and mammals, which have hair and mammary glands, evolved from reptiles and are

able to maintain a constant body temperature.

9. Place a check in front of the characteristics that distinguish the vertebrates.

a. bilaterial symmetry in all

b. radial symmetry in some

c. tube-within-a-tube plus coelom

d. segmented

e. vertebral column replaces embryonic notochord

f. open/closed circulatory system

g. cephalization with compound eyes

h. living endoskeleton

Fishes (p. 950)

10. Associate each statement below with the three living classes of fishes:jawless fi shes (JF),cartilaginous fishes (CF), and bone fishes (BF)

a. have jaws (choose two)

b. are parasitic

c. sharks, rays, and skates

d. hagfishes and lampreys

e. ray-finned and lobe-finned

11. In bony fishes, what is the purpose of

a. lateral line sys tem _______________________________________________________________________________

b. swim bladder ___________________________________________________________________________________

c. gills ___________________________________________________________________________________________

d. single circulatory loop ___________________________________________________________________________

e. pai red fins _____________________________________________________________________________________

Amphibians (p. 651)

12. Describe each of these features of amphibians.

skin a.__________________________________________

lungs b.__________________________________________

body temperature c.__________________________________________

life cycle d.__________________________________________

heart e.__________________________________________

13. Describe each of these features of reptiles.

skin a.

lungs b.

body temperature c.

type of egg d.

heart e.


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14. How do the following characteristics of birds contribute to their ability to fly?

feathers a.

horny beak b.

keel c.

four-chambered heart d.

one-way flow of air in lungs e.

15. Match the types of mammals to the following descriptions (some descriptions are used more than once):

1 All have hair and mammary glands.2 All lay eggs.

3 All have pouches.

4 All have internal development to term.

a. monotremes

b. marsupials

c. placental mammals

16. Name a type of mammal adapted to each of the following:

flying in air a.

running on land b.

swimming in the ocean c.

preying on other animals d.

living in trees e.

31.4 HUMAN EVOLUTION (P. 659)

Primates (e.g., prosimians, monkeys, apes, and humans) are mammals adapted to living in trees.

Human evolution diverged from ape evolution in Africa about four million years ago. The australopithecines

were the first hominids.

Homo habil is could make tools,Homo erectus migrated out of Africa and was a big game hunter.

Cro-Magnon is the name given to modern humans who made sophisticated tools and definitely had a culture.

17. List an adaptation for arboreal life in relation to the following:

vision a.

digitsb.

brain size c. _______________________________________________________________________________________

birth number d. ____________________________________________________________________________________

Hominids (p. 660)

18. Australopithecines were the first a.______________. The oldest one, dated about 4.4 MYA in the fossi l record

and known as b.______________, represents a transitional stage between c.______________ and

d.______________. Australopithecines walked e.______________, but their brain was f.______________. They

exhibit mosaic evolution, meaning that their g.

The next australopithecine in the fossil record is h.______________, who was a common ancestor for the rest of

the australopithecines and i.______________.A. afarens is andA. africanus are termed gracile because they are

slight in appearance. j.______________ and k.______________ are termed l.______________ because they had

larger facial bones, most likely due to larger teeth and chewing muscles.


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OFFICE BUILDING ONE

A fourteen story office building is possible.

Key Onea. Protozoa

b. Porifera

c. Cnidaria

d. Platyhelminthes

e. Nematoda

f. Annelida

g. Mollusca

h. Arthropoda

i. Echinodermata

1. sea star (starfish)

2. clitellum

3. flame cells

4. eggnymphadult

5. organ system level of organization6. ampulla

7. fluke

8. jellyfish

9. leech

10. octopus

11. jointed appendages

19. Match theHomo species with the following phrases that describe their way of life (numbers can be used more

than once):

1 brain size less than 1,000 cc

2 brain size 1,000 cc or larger

3 more likely scavenged meat

4 more likely hunted animals

5 certainly had speech and culture

6 most likely had speech and culture

7 perhaps had speech and culture

8 made tools9 had upright posture

Homo habil is a.______________

Homo erectus b.______________

Neanderthals c.______________

Cro-Magnons d.______________

20. Which hypothesisthe out-of-Africa hypothesis or the multiregional continuity hypothesisstates thatH.

erectus and then, later on, humans left Africa? a.______________ Which hypothesis states thatH. erectus left

Africa and that then modern humans simultaneously arose in Europe, Asia, and Africa? b.______________ With

which hypothesis would you expect more similarity between fossils dated between 300,000 BP and 100,000

BP? c.______________ The fossil record shows several varieties of humans in Asia and Europe dated prior to

100,000 BP. These are called d. ______________H. sapiens . One example of an archaicH. sapiens is

e.______________.

Constructing Office Buildings

The object of this game is to construct an office building by matching the numbered terms with the organisms in the

key (some numbers should be matched to more than one letter). Five correct answers in a row gives you one story.

Any wrong answer is a natural disaster that forces you to start from the ground again.

12. tube feet

13. elephantiasis

14. soft body

15. five hearts16. bilateral symmetry

17. muscles

18. water vascular system

19. medusa

20. cellular level of organization

21. muscular foot

22. five arms

23. earthworm

24. nerve net

25. clam

26. setae

27. Trichinella

28. ladder-type nervous organization

29. horseshoe crab30. stone canal

31. pseudocoelom

32. coelom

33. mesoglea

34. pore bearers

35. polychaete


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36. squid

37. segmentation

38. closed circulatory system

39. open circulatory system

40. mesoderm

41. collar cells

42. trachea

43. trochophore larva

44. hydra

45. Hirudo46. Malpighian tubules

47. mantle

48. Dirofi lariafilarial worm

49. nematocysts

50. metamorphosis

51. gills

52. typhlosole

53. Ascaris

54. sieve plate (madreporite)

55. hermaphroditic

56. acoelomate

57. pseudocoelomate

58. pyloric stomach

59. worms60. molting

61. nephridia

62. visceral mass

63. cephalization

64. spicules

65. green gland

66. exoskeleton

67. wings

68. sessile

69. sac body plan

70. tube-within-a-tube

How many s tories is your building? _______

OFFICE BUILDING TWO

An eight-story office building is possible.

Key Two

a. sponge

b. hydra

c. planarian

d. Ascaris

e. clam

f. earthworm

g. lobster

h. sea star

i. grasshopper

j. Obelia

1. diploblastic

2. coelomate

3. segmented

4. nematocyst

5. sac body plan

6. tube-within-a-tube body plan

7. bilateral symmetry

8. radial symmetry

9. organs

10. closed circulatory system

11. insect

12. belong to the same phylum

13. flame cells

14. Malpighian tubules

15. green gland16. nephridia

17. tracheal tubes

18. gills

19. body wall for respiration

20. skin gills

21. spicules

22. shell

23. carapace

24. spiny skin

25. planula larva

26. metamorphosis

27. nymph

28. molt

29. ovipositor30. asexual reproduction

31. alternation of generations

32. clitellum

33. bilateral larva but radial adult

34. nerve ring

35. ganglia in foot and visceral mass

36. dorsal hollow nerve cord

37. ventral solid nerve cord

38. no nervous system

39. nerve net

40. ladder-type nervous organization


OFFICE BUILDING THREE

A ten-story office building is possible.

Key Three

a. jawless fishes

b. cartilaginous fishes

c. bony fishes

d. amphibians

e. reptiles

f. birds

g. mammals

1. four-chambered heart

2. frogs and salamanders

3. air sacs

4. lampreys and hagfish

5. infant dependency

6. Chondrichthyes

7. hair

8. smooth, nonscaly skin


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CH A P T E R TE S T

9. ectothermic

10. two-chambered heart

11. differentiated teeth

12. some are parasitic

13. highly developed brain

14. feathers

15. fish, but no operculum

16. evolved from amphibians

17. homeothermic

18. snakes, lizards19. primates

20. epidermal placoid (toothlike) scales

21. shelled egg

22. whales and dolphins

23. class Aves

24. lateral line system

25. mammary glands

26. some are filter feeders

27. metamorphosis

28. sharks, rays, and skates

29. marsupials

30. Osteichthyes

31. ray-finned fishes

32. monotremes

33. scales of bone

34. dinosaurs

35. operculum

36. evolved from reptiles

37. lobe-finned fishes

38. double circulatory loop

39. paired pelvic and pectoral fins

40. one-way path through lungs41. three-chambered heart

42. lungs

43. expandable rib cage

44. gills as an adult

45. wings

46. single circulatory loop

47. molt

48. usually four limbs

49. amniote egg

50. cartilaginous skeleton


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OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

Do not refer to the text when taking this test.

1. Each is a vertebrate characteristic EXCEPT

a. bilateral symmetry.

b. coelom development.

c. open circulatory system.

d. segmentation.

2. The earliest vertebrate fossils came from the

a. amphibians.b. bony fishes.

c. cartilaginous fishes.

d. jawless fishes.

3. Modern humans are more closely related to

a. monkeys than apes.

b. African apes than Asian apes.

c. Neanderthals than Cro-Magnon.

d. whales than prosimians.

4. The skin of amphibians functions mainly for

a. circulation.

b. excretion.

c. reproduction.

d. respiration.

5. The extraembryonic membrane in the reptile egg

promotes

a. additional reinforcement from drying out.

b. complete independence from the water for re-

production.

c. enhanced elimination of wastes from the

embryo.

d. increased hardness to prevent breakage.6. Bird feathers are modified

a. fish fins.

b. mammalian hair.

c. reptilian scales.

d. vertebrate teeth.

7. The hair of mammals is an adaptation for

a. camouflage in all species.

b. control of body temperature.

c. faster locomotion.

d. regulation of waste elimination.

8. The most successful mammals are the

a. marsupials.

b. monotremes.

c. lancelets.d. placentals.


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9. Which is true of echinoderms?

a. contain a dorsal hollow nerve cord

b. have internal organs in a visceral mass

c. move by a water vascular system

d. All of these are true.

10. Which is found only among echinoderms?

a. deuterostome developmental pattern

b. radial symmetry

c. exoskeleton

d. tube feete. ventral mouth

11. Which feature is NOT found among fishes?

a. endoskeleton

b. closed circulatory system

c. warm blood

d. dorsal hollow nerve cord

12. The most important reason amphibians are in-

completely adapted to life on land is that

a. they depend on water for external

fertilization.

b. they must reproduce in water.

c. the skin is more important than the lungs for

gas exchange.

d. their means of locomotion is poorlydeveloped.

13. A four-chambered heart is seen among

a. fishes.

b. amphibians.

c. birds.

d. mammals.

e. Both c and dare correct.

14. Which pair of statements correctly contrasts birds

and mammals?

a. Birds are cold-blooded. Mammals are warm-

blooded.

b. Birds are egg-laying. No mammals are egg-

laying.c. Birds have air sacs in addition to lungs. Mam-

mals have no such sacs.

d. Birds lack a septum between the ventricles.

Mammals have such a septum.

15. What do echinoderms and chordates have in

common?

a. radial symmetry

b. pharyngeal pouches

c. second embryonic opening is the mouth

d. All of these are correct.

16. Extraembryonic membranes

a. are found during the development of all

vertebrates.

b. are found during the development of reptiles,

birds, and mammals.

c. have exactly the same function in all vertebrates.

d. Both a and c are correct.

e . Both a and b are correct.

279

17. Which is NOT a distinguishing feature of ver

tebrates?

a. dorsal notochord

b. jointed internal skeleton

c. extreme cephalization

d. open circulatory system

e. efficient respiration

18. The type of mammal that lays eggs while nour

ishing its young with milk is called

a. a monotreme.b. a marsupial.

c. placental.

d. hermaphroditic.

19. Which is NOT true of echinoderms?

a. external skeleton

b. tube feet

c. skin gills

d. gonads in arms

20. Which is NOT an echinoderm?

a. sea l ily

b. sea urchin

c. sea cucumber

d. sea horse

21. Australopithecinesa. were apelike below the waist and humanlik

above the waist.

b. were humanlike below the waist and apelik

above the waist.

c. were generally apelike.

d. were generally humanlike.

22. The out-of-Africa hypothesis says that

a. Homo etectus migrated out of Africa and re

placed archaic human species in Europe an

Asia.

b. no interbreeding took place between differen

types of humans.

c. modern humans arose in Africa in several different places.

d. Neanderthals, and alsoH. erectus, migrate

out of Africa.

e. all of these


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AN S W E R KE Y

280

STUDY EXERCISES

1.

Description

radial

spine-bearing, calcium-rich plates in an

endoskeleton

gas exchange across skin gills and tube feet

central nerve ring plus radial nerves

a series of canals that ends at tube feet; a means of

locomotion

2. See Figure 31.2b, page 645, in text. 3. a. stone b. ring

c. tube d. ampulla e. locomotion 4. The sea star evertsits cardiac stomach, puts it in the shell, and secretes en-

zymes; partly digested food is taken up, and digestion is

completed in the pyloric stomach. 5. See page 646 in

text. 6. a. dorsal nerve cord in collar and trunk

b. gill slits in pharynx c. The larvae of hemichordates and

echinoderms are similar.

7.

Chordate Characteristics Appearance

all three (larva); gill slits thick-walled, squat

(adult) sac

all three lancet

8. 2. See Figure 31.3, page 647, in text. 9. a, c, d, e, h

10. a. CF, BF b. JF c. CF d. JF e. BF 11. a. senses pres-

ence of other organisms b. buoyancy c. respiration

d. movement of blood to gills first e. balancing and pro-

pelling body in water 12. a. smooth, nonscaly, and used

for respiration b. small and poorly developed c. ec-

tothermic d. undergo metamorphosis from tadpole to

adult e. three chambers 13. a. thick, dry, scaly b. moredeveloped than in amphibians c. ectothermic d. am-

niote e. nearly or completely four chambered 14. a. pro-

vide broad, flat surfaces b. reduces weight c. attaches

flight muscles d. provides good delivery of oxygenated

blood to muscles e. provides good oxygenation of blood

15. a. 1, 2 b. 1, 3 c. 1, 4 16. a. bat b. horse c. whale

d. lion e. monkey 17. a. eyes forward with stereoscopic

vision b. nails, not claws, and opposable thumb c. large,

well developed d. single offspring at a time 18. a. hominids

b.A. ramidus c. apes d. humans e. erect f. small g. body

parts evolved at different rates h.A. afarensis i. humans

j.A. robustus k.A. boisei l. robust 19. a. 1, 3, 7, 8, 9 b. 2,

4, 6, 8, 9 c. 2, 4, 6, 8, 9 d. 2, 4, 5, 8, 9 20. a. out-of-

Africa b. multiregional continuity c. multiregional con-tinuity d. archaic e. Neanderthal

OFFICE BUILDING ONE

1. i 2. f 3. d 4. h 5. d, e, f, g, h 6. i 7. d 8. c

9. f 10. g 11 . h 12 . i 13 . e 14 . c, d, f, g

15 . f 16 . d, e, f, g, h 17 . d, e, f, g, h, i 18 . i

19 . c 20 . a, b 21 . g 22 . i 23 . f 24 . c 25 . g

26. f 27. e 28. d 29. h 30. i 31. e 32. e, f, g,

h, i 33 . c 34 . b 35 . f 36 . g 37 . f, g, h 38 . f

39. g, h, i 40. d, e, f, g, h, i 41. b 42. h 43. f, g, h

44 .c

45 .f

46 .h

47 .g

48 .e

49 .c

50 .h51 . g, h, i 52 . f 53 . e 54 . i 55 . d, f 56 . b, c

57. e 58. i 59. d, e, f 60. h 61. f 62. g 63. d, h

64 . b 65 . h 66 . g, h 67 . h 68. b, c 69 . c, d

70. e, f, g, h, i

THOUGHT QUESTIONS

Answer in complete sentences.

23. Compare the success of chordate evolution to arthropod evolution. What are the similarities and differences?

24. Compare the adaptations of amphibians and reptiles to a land existence.

Test Results: ______ Number right 24 = ______ 100 = ______ %


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OFFICE BUILDING TWO

1. b, j 2. d, e, f, g, h, i 3. f, g, i 4. b 5. b, c 6. d,

e, f, g, h, i 7. c, d, e, f, g, i 8. b, h, j 9. c, d, e, f, g,

h, i 10. f 11. i 12. b and j; g and i 13. c 14. i

15. g 16. f 17. i 18. e, g, h 19. f 20. h 21. a

22 . e 23 . g 24 . h 25 . b 26 . i 27 . i 28 . g, i

29 . i 30 . b 31 . j 32 . f 33 . h 34. h 35 . e

36. none 37. f, g 38. a 39. b, j 40. c

OFFICE BUILDING THREE

1. e, f, g 2. d 3. f 4. a 5. g 6. b 7. g 8. a, d

9. a, b, c, d, e 10 . a, b, c 11 . g 12 . a 13 . g

14 . f 15 . a, b 16 . e 17 . f, g 18 . e 19 . g

20 . b 21 . e, f 22 . g 23 . f, g 24 . b, c 25 . g

26 . b, g 27 . d 28 . b 29 . g 30 . c 31 . c 32 . g

33. c 34. e 35. c 36. f, g 37. c 38. c, d, e, f, g

39. c 40. f 41. d 42. d, e, f, g 43. e, f, g 44. a, b, c

45 . f 46 . a, b, c 47 . e 48 . d, e, f, g 49 . e, f

50. a, b

CHAPTER TEST

1. c 2. d 3. b 4. d 5. b 6. c 7. b 8. d 9.

10 . d 11 . c 12 . a 13 . e 14 . c 15 . c 16 .

17. d 18. a 19. a 20. d 21. b 22. a 23. Eac

phylum contains numerous diversified species adapted t

a variety of environments. Arthropods have more species

24. Amphibians reproduce in the water and have a larva

stage that develops in the water. The skin must be kep

moist because it supplements the lungs for gas exchangeReptiles reproduce on land because they lay a shelle

egg with extraembryonic membranes. The skin can pre

vent desiccation because it is dry and scaly. The lungs ar

moderately developed, and a rib cage helps ventilate th

lungs.

28

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