This article was downloaded by: [69.132.232.33]On: 29 March 2015, At: 18:40Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Click for updates

Kappa Delta Pi RecordPublication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ukdr20

Using Cue Cards Throughout the K12 CurriculumGreg Condermana & Laura R. Hedinaa Northern Illinois UniversityPublished online: 14 Jan 2015.

To cite this article: Greg Conderman & Laura R. Hedin (2015) Using Cue Cards Throughout the K12 Curriculum, Kappa Delta PiRecord, 51:1, 24-30, DOI: 10.1080/00228958.2015.988561

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00228958.2015.988561

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the Content) contained in thepublications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations orwarranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinionsand views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of orendorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independentlyverified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arisingdirectly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematicreproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone isexpressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

24 KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD JANMAR 2015

AbstractAs a flexible instructional tool, cue cards offer sup-port for students with and without disabilities. By providing different amounts of support, they also can be used to differentiate instruction in a variety of subject areas and grade levels. This article describes various strategies for using cue cards and includes examples from K12 classrooms.Key words: differentiated instruction, inclusive education, special ed/non-GT

Using Cue Cards Throughout the K12 Curriculumby Greg Conderman and Laura R. Hedin

Kappa Delta Pi Record, 51: 24-30, 2015Copyright Kappa Delta PiISSN: 0022-8958 print/2163-1611 onlineDOI 10.1080/00228958.2015.988561

Elementary teacher Miss Brobst (all names are pseudonyms) wants her kindergarten students to become more independent while transition-ing into their morning routine. Similarly, middle school special educator Mr. James wonders how to help students remember their homework and other required daily classroom supplies. Addition-ally, Mrs. Hetzler has noticed that many students in her high school Algebra 1 class are confusing or forgetting the steps for solving a basic algebra

Differentiated Instruction

Dow

nloa

ded

by [6

9.132

.232.3

3] at

18:40

29 M

arch 2

015

KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD JANMAR 2015 25

problem. Each of these teachers may discover that cue cardsindex cards, cardstock, laminated sheets or pieces of paper, or even class posters containing written or visual steps, procedures, instructions, or guidelineswill help students reach these goals.

Teachers such as Miss Brobst, Mr. James, and Mrs. Hetzler are seeking evidence-based prac-tices to improve their instruction and advance student outcomes. At the same time, they are increasingly assuming responsibility for teaching students with a wider range of skills and abilities, such as those who are gifted and talented, those who are developing at grade level, those with disabilities, and those who do not speak English as their first language. Consequently, teachers must differentiate instruction and support each students learning (Tomlinson & McTighe, 2006). Although not a new method, teachers may find the use of cue cards especially appropriate given this increase in student diversity. In this article, we define cue cards, describe advantages of cue cards, list instructional steps for using cue cards, and provide examples of types of cue cards that teachers and students can use throughout the K12 curriculum.

What Are Cue Cards?Cue cards are written reminders, steps, classroom posters or displays, or pictorial supports for all students, a small group of students who need additional support or reminders, or an individual student. Because of their small size, they are usu-ally portable, private, and easily stored. Students can keep cue cards in their binders, backpacks, or the inside door of their lockers, or use them as bookmarks. They also are inexpensive to de-velop and often can be constructed on-the-spot. Although most cue cards are written on portable index cards, teachers can create electronic ver-sions by developing or loading the cue card on a students laptop, iPad, or other mobile device. Class-wide cue cards, larger in size, are displayed for all students in the class. These might display a list of classroom expectations, steps in the writ-

WWW.KDP.ORG

Using Cue Cards Throughout the K12 Curriculum

Greg Conderman is a Professor of Special Education at Northern Illinois University. His research interests in-clude co-teaching, strat-egy instruction, and methods for students with disabilities. He is a former special educa-tion teacher and educa-tional consultant. Email: GConderman@niu.edu

Laura R. Hedin is an Associate Professor of Special Education at Northern Illinois Univer-sity. Her research inter-ests include co-teaching, literacy methods, and science instruction. She is a former elementary teacher. Email: LHedin@niu.edu

ing process, shapes and sequence of the alphabet letters, numerals on a number line, vocabulary words and their definitions, chemistry or math formulas, and other charts or tables such as the periodic table of the chemical elements.

A students individualized cue card, the focus of this article, may appear slightly different from those on the wall, because it can include a col-umn or space to check off each step after or dur-ing completion. Recording completion promotes students self-regulation and provides the teacher the ability to monitor progress, check outcomes, and redirect unsuccessful efforts (Berk, 2003). Individualized cue cards are especially helpful for students with learning disabilities or atten-tion deficit disorders who need support manag-ing academic and behavioral tasks (Harris, Reid, & Graham, 2004) and for students who need help developing a schema, arranging thoughts, managing behavior, or organizing knowledge (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001).

Teachers across various grade levels and subjects use cue cards to effectively support instructional practices, backed by research, for students with and without disabilities in special and general education classrooms (Mason, Har-ris, & Graham, 2002). For example, teachers use cue cards with students with disabilities to help them remember steps for math problems (Joseph & Hunter, 2001); monitor reading comprehen-sion strategies (Sencibaugh, 2008); understand expository texts (Mason, Snyder, Sukhram, & Kedem, 2006); establish writing goals and improve written compositions (Baker, Chard, Ketterlin-Geller, Apichatabutra, & Doabler, 2009); and improve self-management skills (Murphy & Korinek, 2009). Cue cards also are effective for students without disabilities to help them learn reading strategies (Pilonieta & Medina, 2009); understand expository texts (Mason et al., 2006); learn tennis skills (Iserbyt, Madou, Elen, & Behets, 2010); transition from concrete to semi-concrete representation in mathematics (Bahr & de Garcia, 2010); and plan and edit writing products (Harris, Graham, Mason, & Friedlander, 2008).

Dow

nloa

ded

by [6

9.132

.232.3

3] at

18:40

29 M

arch 2

015

26 KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD JANMAR 2015

Differentiated Instruction

Advantages for StudentsCue cards offer several key advantages for stu-dents. First, cue cards accommodate individual students areas of concern. For example, some students have long- or short-term memory issues that impact their ability to complete assignments, perform well on tests, or contribute meaningfully to class discussion (Smith, Polloway, Patton, & Dowdy, 2006). Cue cards provide memory sup-ports that promote student independence in these tasks by listing daily assignments, test-taking strategies, or ways to appropriately participate in class. Similarly, students who do not have their multiplication facts memorized could use individualized math fact cards that include only facts they still need to learn; and students who do not have all letter sounds mastered could benefit from a cue card with the letter and an associated picture cue (e.g., the letter m and a picture of a mountain). In these examples, the cue card serves as an accommodation for the memory issue and allows the student to complete work independently.

Second, cue cards help students access the general education curriculum, as required by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improve-ment Act (2004) and the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (2003). Students with disabilities are increasingly receiving a greater proportion of their instruction in general education settings where they are expected to meet rigorous academic and behavioral expectations (U.S. Department of Edu-cation, 2009). Cue cards can help these students organize and structure complex information. For example, if noted as an accommodation on a stu-dents Individualized Education Program (IEP) or Section 504 Plan, a student who confuses parts of a plant cell could refer to a labeled diagram while writing a science lab report or even when taking a science quiz. Similarly, a student who confuses the sequence of historical events could benefit from a cue card in the form of a timeline. Used in these ways, cue cards not only can make assignments or assessments easier, but also allow students to ap-ply higher-level thinking skills while responding

to and focusing on the big ideas of the curriculum (Tomlinson & McTighe, 2006).

Third, as suggested in earlier examples, cue cards help students become more independent. Using individualized cue cards, students rely less on others and may complete tasks with less adult or peer support. To illustrate, a student who is not yet English proficient could use a cue card that includes critical vocabulary words in his or her na-tive language along with the English equivalents to support comprehension of text, discussion, a video, or a PowerPoint presentation. A student with vision issues who cannot see classroom post-ers could be given a large-print or braille cue card with detailed classroom procedures for a fire drill or other classroom events. A student who is gifted may complete a project that has some structure but also includes open-ended tasks while referring to a cue card which states the project goal and requirements (e.g., timeline and number or type of materials).

Optimally, students use of particular cue cards will fade as they master the skills or knowl-edge; yet for some students, a certain cue card may be needed for a considerable amount of time. Teachers can gradually diminish students dependence on a cue card by encouraging them to memorize steps, teaching them to test themselves by covering up familiar or mastered cue card steps, introducing a mnemonic to remember the steps, or having students quiz one another with a partner or in small groups.

Instructional StepsCue cards are not appropriate for every student or every situation. For example, cue cards would be inappropriate if the goal is for students to explore or generate various approaches to solv-ing math problems or design an original piece of art, music, or creative writing using discovery or self-expression. Their use is appropriate when students are learning a multistep process or pro-cedure they must complete in a specific order or when students confuse or forget steps (Reid & Lienemann, 2006).

Dow

nloa

ded

by [6

9.132

.232.3

3] at

18:40

29 M

arch 2

015

KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD JANMAR 2015 27

WWW.KDP.ORG

In situations appropriate for cue card use, just providing a cue card does not guarantee student use or benefit. Some students require explicit teacher instruction on using the cue card. In fact, several researchers (Deshler & Schumaker, 2006; Reid & Lienemann, 2006; Sabornie & deBetten-court, 2009) suggested the following instructional steps for successful student cue card use:1. Informally assess students current skill or knowl-

edge level. Determine gaps in the students skill or knowledge level through the use of a pretest, activity, or analysis of work products such as homework assignments, worksheets, or other products. For example, after review-ing student homework, Mrs. Hetzler realized that many students misapplied the steps of solving basic algebra problems.

2. Develop the cue card. Based on the students skill or knowledge gaps, develop the cue card. Consider the purpose of the cue card, create a title, include no more than seven steps or procedures to avoid memory overload, write steps or include a picture of the process or procedure in order, begin each written step with a verb to activate student engagement with the task, consider which format is best suited for the students and the skill, and decide where students will keep the cue card (Conderman & Hedin, 2011). Miss Brobst developed a visual display cue card (described later) for some of her kindergartners who needed support with the morning routine. The card illustrated the sequential steps of (a) placing their coats in the lockers, (b) entering the room quietly, (c) finding the folder with their name and photograph, and (d) begin-ning folder work quickly.

3. Discuss steps on the cue card. Introduce steps on the cue card and describe the benefits and uses of the card. Mr. James gave a brief overview of each step on the card and then explained to his students how the class ma-terials cue card would help them be more organized, save time, reduce embarrassment, and earn better grades.

4. Model the use of the cue card. Use a think-aloud (Oster, 2001) to demonstrate how to use the cue card. In the think-aloud, demonstrate how to successfully use the cue card. Model metacognitive skills by asking and answering questions such as, When could I use this cue card? What is the first step? Second step? How do I know if I am doing the steps cor-rectly? What do I do if I get stuck? During her demonstration, Mrs. Hetzler showed the cue card on the SMART Board, talked through several algebra problems, and checked off each step as she completed the problem.

5. Have students memorize steps on the cue card. Encourage students to memorize the steps in their order on the cue card. Memorization can be completed later in the instructional sequence, but it should not be omitted. Re-member that the end goal is for students, as much as possible, to eventually complete the task without the use of the cue card. During the beginning and conclusion of her daily math class, Mrs. Hetzler made a game out of reviewing and memorizing steps.

6. Have students practice using the cue card with some support. To ensure proper use of the cue card, have students practice with it during partner, small group, or whole class activities. Ask strategic questions to guide students as they interact with the card. Before Mr. James had students use their class organizational cue card independently, he and his students role-played various scenarios using the card in each situation to determine when certain assignments were due, when physical educa-tion clothes were needed, and when similar items were scheduled.

7. Gradually fade the use of the cue card. Over time and as much as possible, encourage students to complete the task without the use of the cue card. Miss Brobst discovered that some students quickly learned the morning routine and no longer needed the pictorial cue card. She also noticed which students still relied on the cue card, and she encouraged them to

Dow

nloa

ded

by [6

9.132

.232.3

3] at

18:40

29 M

arch 2

015

28 KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD JANMAR 2015

Steps for Writing Short-Answer Response

Read Think Organize Write Edit

Partnerships

think about the steps without looking at it.8. Teach students to develop their own cue cards.

Have students create their own cue cards af-ter they have experienced success with a va-riety of others. Also let them share their cue cards with peers. As Mrs. Hetzler introduced math problems and processes throughout the semester, she urged students to develop and share their own personalized cards that helped them remember ways to solve vari-ous types of problems.

Types and Examples of Cue CardsBecause of their flexibility, cue cards can be used with students in any grade level and any subject. Teachers can differentiate their use for students needing various kinds of support. For example, teachers can vary the number of steps, number and choice of words, examples, and formats of cue cards. The following examples illustrate uses of cue cards in these formats: (a) steps-only, including only the written steps of a process or procedure; (b) visual display, including a picture or drawing of the steps; (c) two-column cards, often including one column listing the steps and the second column indicat-ing either an example of each step or a place for students to check off the step after completion; and (d) three-column cards, often including one column listing the step, another column providing an example of the step, and the third column for students to track completion of each step (Conderman & Hedin, 2011).

Steps-Only CardsThe steps-only cue card provides only

the steps of a process or procedure and thus is useful to students who understand the pro-cess but forget the steps or their order. When studying mitosis in science, for example, the steps-only card could display (depending on

the curriculum) the words interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis. Other steps-only cards might list the process for completing a structured art project, re-search project, recipe, or learning strategy. For example, a card for multiplying binomials could list the acronym FOIL with the words first, outer, inner, and last.

Teachers also can develop steps-only cue cards to provide options or choices for students when they have completed their work, show the agenda for the day or class, or list the procedure for transitioning to and from activities. Because the steps-only cue card does not offer an expla-nation or visual of the steps, it provides only minimal support; yet it is a sufficient reminder for some students. Figure 1 shows a steps-only card Mr. Harris developed for his fourth and fifth graders on writing short-answer responses for science and social studies exams.

Visual Display CardsIn contrast to steps-only cards, visual

display cards include the steps and an accom-panying visual, picture, or icon of each step as additional support. Consequently, visual display cue cards are especially appropriate for differentiating instruction for young children, students who are poor readers, those who are not proficient with English, and those who process information visually. Using clip art pictures, images from the Internet, or drawings, teachers can develop cards that show rather than just tell about a process or content-related information. Therefore, a visual display cue card on mitosis not only lists the phases of the process but also shows students through the accompanying drawings or pictures what occurs in each step.

Courses that introduce and use symbols, such as a journalism class requiring students to use proofreading marks, are good candi-dates for visual display cue cards. Further, young children often benefit from drawings that depict classroom rules, pictures associ-

Figure 1. Steps-Only Cue Card.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [6

9.132

.232.3

3] at

18:40

29 M

arch 2

015

KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD JANMAR 2015 29

Music SymbolsSymbol Meaning

Treble clef (G clef)

Bass clef (F clef)

Whole note

Whole rest

WWW.KDP.ORG

ated with letter sounds, or icons associated with concepts. For example, to support read-ing comprehension, teachers can use figures to represent characters or a house to represent the setting of a story. After introducing basic musical terms, Mr. Cherif developed the visual display cue card shown in Figure 2 for his elementary music class.

Two-Column Cue CardsTwo-column cue cards come in a variety

of formats. Typically, they include the steps of the process or procedure in one column with an associated explanation, example, or place for the student to check off each step after completion in the other column. Because two-column cards provide more information (such as a brief explanation or example), they provide more instructional support for students and are appropriate when students forget or confuse what occurs in each step. Including explanations or examples on the cue card provides a helpful, convenient, and consistent format; eliminates the need for students to search for the steps in their text or notes; reduces the chance of student er-ror; and eliminates the need for the teacher to reteach the whole process. In effect, two-column cards provide a quick reference and tutorial. Like other cue cards, and as shown in Figure 3, Mr. McCradys two-column cards can support students with academic skills or behavioral expectations.

Three-Column Cue CardsThree-column cue cards are similar

to two-column cards except they contain an additional column for students, often for students to check off their completion of each step; thus these cards are usually more interactive than two-column cards. Including the self-regulation component is appropriate for students having difficulty planning and executing behaviors, adjust-ing the outcomes of their problem-solving

efforts, and using metacognitive skills (Reid & Lienemann, 2006).

Cue cards support students metacogni-tion skills as they independently use processes needed for classroom success. Two different types of three-column cards are shown in Figure 4. The first is an adaptation of the error monitoring strategy, often referred to as COPS (Schumaker, Nolan, & Deshler, 1985).

Figure 2. Visual Display for Common Music Symbols.

Figure 3. Examples of Two-Column Cue Cards.lumn Cue Cards.

Multiplying FractionsStep ExampleRead the problem and notice the multiplication sign.

1/2 2/4

Multiply the numerators (top numbers). 1 2 = 2Multiply the denominators (bottom numbers). 2 4 = 8Write the answer. 1/2 2/4 = 2/8Double-check your answer. 1/2 2/4 = 2/8Simplify or reduce, if possible. 2/8 = 1/4

Behavior ExpectationsDid I . . .Arrive to class on time by being in my seat qui-etly when the bell rang?

Yes or No

Bring all necessary class materials? Yes or NoBegin the bell-ringer activity immediately? Yes or NoSubmit any necessary assignments? Yes or NoRaise my hand to talk? Yes or No

Dow

nloa

ded

by [6

9.132

.232.3

3] at

18:40

29 M

arch 2

015

30 KAPPA DELTA PI RECORD JANMAR 2015

COPS Editing

Step Ask yourselfCheck () when completed

C(Capitalization) DidIcapitalizethefirstwordofev-ery sentence and all proper nouns?

O (Overall Appearance)

Did I look over my paper to make sure it is neat, easy to read, and does not have any spacing or messy errors?

P (Punctuation) Did I use the correct end punctua-tion for every sentence?

S (Spelling) Did I spell all the words correctly?

steps in a process, or giving brief explanations, examples, and space for students to engage in self-regulation. As part of a teachers instruc-tional repertoire, cue cards are one more tool to help students meet rigorous academic and behavioral standards.

ReferencesBahr, D. L., & de Garcia, L. A. (2010). Elementary mathematics is any-

thing but elementary. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.Baker, S. K., Chard, D. J., Ketterlin-Geller, L. R., Apichatabutra, C., &

Doabler, C. (2009). Teaching writing to at-risk students: The qual-ity of evidence for self-regulated strategy development. Exceptional Children, 75(3), 303318.

Berk, L. E. (2003). Child development (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Conderman, G., & Hedin, L. (2011). Cue cards: A self-regulatory strat-egy for students with learning disabilities. Intervention in School and Clinic, 46(3), 165173.

Deshler, D. D., & Schumaker, J. B. (Eds.). (2006). Teaching adolescents with disabilities: Accessing the general curriculum. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, 20 U.S.C. 1400 (2004).

Harris, K. R., Graham, S., Mason, L. H., & Friedlander, B. (2008). Powerful writing strategies for all students. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

Harris, K. R., Reid, R. R., & Graham, S. (2004). Self-regulation among students with LD and ADHD. In B. Y. L. Wong (Ed.), Learning about learning disabilities (3rd ed., pp. 167195). San Diego, CA: Elsevier.

Iserbyt, P., Madou, B., Elen, J., & Behets, D. (2010). Task card instruc-tion: The effects of different cue sequences on students learning in tennis. European Physical Education Review, 16(3), 237249.

Joseph, L. M., & Hunter, A. D. (2001). Differential application of a cue card strategy for solving fraction problems: Exploring instructional utility of the cognitive assessment system. Child Study Journal, 31(2), 123136.

Konrad, M., Joseph, L. M., & Itoi, M. (2011). Using guided notes to enhance instruction for all students. Intervention in School and Clinic, 46(3), 131140.

Mason, L. H., Harris, K. R., & Graham, S. (2002). Every child has a story to tell: Self-regulated strategy development for story writing. Education and Treatment of Children, 25(4), 496506.

Mason, L. H., Snyder, K. R., Sukhram, D. P., & Kedem, Y. (2006). TWA + PLANS strategies for expository reading and writing: Effects for nine fourth-grade students. Exceptional Children, 73(1), 6989.

Murphy, S. A., & Korinek, L. (2009). Its in the cards: A classwide man-agement system to promote student success. Intervention in School and Clinic, 44(5), 300306.

No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, 20 U.S.C.A. 6301 et seq. (West, 2003).

Oster, L. (2001). Using the think-aloud for reading instruction. The Reading Teacher, 55(1), 6469.

Pilonieta, P., & Medina, A. L. (2009). Reciprocal teaching for the primary grades: We can do it, too. The Reading Teacher, 63(2), 120129.

Reid, R., & Lienemann, T. O. (2006). Strategy instruction for students with learning disabilities. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Sabornie, E. J., & deBettencourt, L. U. (2009). Teaching students with mild and high-incidence disabilities at the secondary school (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Schumaker, J. B., Nolan, S. M., & Deshler, D. D. (1985). The error moni-toring strategy. University of Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas.

Sencibaugh, J. M. (2008). A synthesis of content enhancement strate-gies for teaching students with reading difficulties at the middle and secondary level. Reading Improvement, 45(2), 8498.

Smith, T. E. C., Polloway, E. A., Patton, J. R., & Dowdy, C. A. (2006). Teaching students with special needs in inclusive settings (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.

Tomlinson, C. A., & McTighe, J. (2006). Integrating differentiated instruction and understanding by design: Connecting content and kids. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

U.S. Department of Education. (2009). 2007 annual report to Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, Part D. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from www2.ed.gov/about/reports/annual/osep/2007/part-d/index.html

Zimmerman, B. J., & Schunk, D. H. (Eds). (2001). Self-regulated learn-ing and academic achievement: Theoretical perspectives (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Miss Williams used this cue card when students edited their own work and also when engaged in peer-editing. The second is a self-monitoring cue card for Eric, a fifth grader who has some behavioral goals.

Concluding ThoughtsGeneral and special education teachers at all levels are facing instructional time constraints and increased accountability, challenging them to accomplish more in less time (Konrad, Jo-seph, & Itoi, 2011). In addition, classrooms are increasingly diverse, requiring teachers to use a variety of instructional methods to differentiate instruction. As a flexible instructional tool, cue cards offer various levels of support to students in diverse classrooms by listing steps to a pro-cess or procedure, providing visuals to depict

Figure 4. Examples of Three-Column Cue Cards.

Self-Monitoring Behavior

Behavior Looks likeTally (Mark each time you display this behavior.)

Asking permis-sion to speak

Raising your hand with arm fully ex-tended in the air (without waving it) and waiting quietly for the teacher to call on you

Complying with teacher request

Doing what the teacher asks (e.g., get out your pencil, take notes, begin your assignment) within 10 seconds of the request

Making appropri-ate comments to classmates

Saying positive comments, compli-ments, or please-and-thank-you statements to peers using a polite voice tone

Dow

nloa

ded

by [6

9.132

.232.3

3] at

18:40

29 M

arch 2

015