Walter L. Pohl

Economic Geology, Principles and Practice Metals, Minerals, Coal and Hydrocarbons

Introduction to Formation and Sustainable Exploitation of Mineral Deposits

663 Pages, 294 Figures, 28 Tables and 65 Colour Photographs. Wiley-Blackwell (2011).

Updated Index (April 2018)

of Subjects, Terms & Locations Printed indexes of books are never sufficiently extensive to satisfy readers’ needs. Knowing this from my own frustrations, I decided to offer an expanded digital version for download that should facilitate search. This version covers the whole book and includes the printed Index. Good luck with your search! Walter.

• bold numbers point to colour plates or B&W photographs • italics lead to figures • eq. indicates an equation • mineral names refer mostly to information about the chemical composition, and

other items of interest • underlined page (e.g. 211) provides a definition or other specific details

Abiotic, iron oxidation 103, chemical weathering 497, methane 533, thermochemical

sulphate reduction (eq.) 112, petroleum degradation 552, sulphur 357, 552, hydrocarbons 533

Abitibi Greenstone Belt, Canada 12 absorbents 299ff Abu Dabbab Ta-Nb-Sn-feldspar, Egypt 204, 262, 264, 2.18 Abu Dhabi sabkha 382 acanthite 195, 221 acceleration by the Earth’s gravity field 562 accessory minerals 257 accuracy in geochemical work 427 acid formation potential 455, 515 acidic lakes 381 acidity 75ff, 85 (eq.), 90, 93 (eq.), 455, 541 acidity producing minerals 455 acid-neutralizing agents 455

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acid rock, or mine drainage (ARD, AMD) 85 (eq.), 187, 198, 450, 453, 456, 516, 5.24, 5.25

acid rock drainage mitigation guide (GARD) 456 acid volatile sulphide (AVS) 481 acoustic impedance (AI) in seismics 555 acoustic scanning (borehole logging) 509 activation of bentonite 300 active treatment of ARD, AMD 455 actualism 2 adakite 138 Adami Tulu Sida diatomite, Ethiopia 317 adsorption 39, 209 adularia-sericite type Au-deposit 76 aeolian placer 1.61 aerobic biogenic methane oxidation 552 (eq.) aeromagnetic surveying 188, 316, 428, 429, 507 aerosol 471 Agadez U, Niger 278 age determination, the principle 41 (eq.), Rb/Sr 43, Pb 44, cosmogenic nuclides 44,

269, 374, molybdenite Re/Os 175, 182, cassiterite U/Pb 202, zircon U/Pb 251, monazite (U-Th)/Pb 257, columbite U/Pb 261, uraninite U/Pb 271, fluorite Sm/Nd 320, (U-Th)/4He 320, apatite 344, salt 375

aggregates 352ff, 362, 458 aging of iron oxy-hydroxides 79 (eq.) Agricola (1556) on mining 2, on prospecting 419 Åheim olivine, Norway 342, 3.26, 3.27 Aiani-Kozani Mg-sinter, Greece 335 alabandite 82 alabaster 328 Alaska gold 138 alaskite 279, 320 Alaska-Urals type intrusion 18, 145, 165, 230, 232, 342 albite 319 albitite 263, 267, 320 albitization 53, 263, 397 Alfred Wegener and continental drift 134 algae 317, 473, 532, 534, 573 algal mats 383 alginite 476 Algoma type Fe 100 aliphatic hydrocarbons 525 Al Jalamid phosphate, Saudi Arabia 346 alkali feldspar 319 alkaline coal ash 515 alkaline igneous complexes 23ff, 255, 262, 347 alkaline lakes, Kenya fluorine 324, zeolites 367, salts 381, coal swamps 481 alkaline mine or tunnel water 307 alkaliphile 381 alkali-reactive silica 362 alkali ring intrusion 347 alkali-silica, or alkali-aggregate reaction in concrete 362

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allanite 258, 273 Allard Lake Ti see Lac Tio Allegheny model of coal formation 494 allochthonous sediments 92, salt 401, soil 425, coal 492 allophane 330, 484 alluvial 96, 97, 1.64 Almadén Hg, Spain 242 α-decay in zircon 251, 271, 528 alpha-radiation 271, 282 Alpine type Pb-Zn 199 Alquife Fe, Spain 62, 154 Alshar Sb, As, Tl, Macedonia 244 Altaussee salt, Austria 394, 4.3 Altenberg Sn, Germany 205, As 247 alteration see hydrothermal or supergene alteration alteration minerals mapping see SWIR alumina in rocks 234, 289 aluminium 233ff alum salts 355 alum shale 184, 200, 273, 355 alunite 53 (eq.), 76, 80, 85, 213, at Pueblo Viejo 214, possible ore of aluminium 233,

as an alum source 355 alunite type Au 76, 213 amalgam 202, 208, 240 Amazon Basin kaolinite 332 Amazon River annual carbon freight 105, 535 Amba Dongar F, India 322 amber, Baltic Sea 474 amblygonite 265 AMD see acid mine drainage amorphous alumogel 234 amorphous kaolin precursors 331 amorphous silica phases 50, 51, 350 amortization 448, 510 amosite 291 amphibole 102, 291ff Ampferer (A) subduction 139 anaerobic methane oxidation (eq.) 106, 357 anaerobic oil degradation 531 anaerobic sulphate reduction (eq.) 357 analcime (also called analcite) 365 anatexis, or partial melting of crustal rocks 27, 29, 32, 125 anatectic pegmatites 32 ancient microbes in salt 373 ancient oil 553 andalusite 54, 288ff Andernach trass, Eifel/Germany 364 anglesite 195 anhydrite 57ff, 71, 73, 112, 114, 327ff, 383, reefs 390, 392, 394 An Kor magnetite, Sudan 1.61 annabergite 173

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anomaly, REE 258, in exploration 418, geochemical 422ff, geophysical 428ff anorthosite-ferrodiorite complexes Ti-Fe 16 anorthosite Fe-Ti 152, 255, industrial use 320 anoxia, anoxic 93, 102, 103, 106, 107, 533ff anthoinite 180 anthracite 472ff anthropogenic climate forcing 469ff, 579 anthropogenic dispersion of elements 424 anthropogenic emissions of methane 515 anticipatory mitigation of emissions 482 antimonite 243 antimony 243ff Antrim Shale biogenic gas, Michigan 536, 538, 553, 573 apatite 80, 257, 260, 263, 342ff Apex Ge, Utah 249 API (American Petroleum Institute) oil gravity 526 (eq.) aplite 320 apogranite 264, 2.18 Apsheron Peninsula and Caspian Sea oil, Azerbaijan 575, mud volcanoes 572, oil

pollution 575 Apuseni Mountains, Romania, epithermal Au 144, 214-215 aquamarine 268 aqua regia 228, 426 aquifer 469, 512, 514, 550, 555, 564, 577 aragonite 306, 377 Araxá Nb, Brazil 259, 261, 262, 346 archaea see also microbes archaea, hyperthermophilic methanogenic 552 Arctic oil and gas 524, 570 Arendsee salt-solution-collapse lake, Germany 404 argillic alteration 53, 361 Argyle diamonds, W.A. 25, 314, 315, 3.13 aridity 380 arid latitudes 380 aromatic hydrocarbons 525 aromatic oil 525, 526 aromatization 480 ARRHENIUS-equation (modelling coalification) 503, (oil generation) 538, 540 arsenic 186, 202, 212, 245ff, 336, 416 arsenian iron sulphides 209, pyrite 247 arsenic in groundwater 247 arsenopyrite 245 artisanal mining Ta 265, Hg-contamination 454 asbestiform 102, 367 asbestos 291ff, 340, 341, 358 asbolane 83, 173 ascharite 302, 305 ash, in graphite 325, coal 479ff, 484, 515, oil 524 Asmari Formation, Iran 544 Äspö waste repository, Sweden 460 asphalt 525, 531, 572, asphalt limestone 572, asphalt volcanoes 576

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asphaltics, or N-S-O compounds 525, 526 asphalt “volcanoes” 576, submarine flows 554, 576 Asse salt mine & waste repository, Germany 375, 395, 398, 460 associated, or primary petroleum gas 529 ASTER satellite for remote sensing 421 Aswan Fe, Egypt 104, 1.68 Atacama Desert Chile, copper 57, exotic ore 86, lithium 267, evaporites 381 atacamite 85, 86, 185 Atammik olivine, Greenland 342 Athabasca tar sands, Canada 252, 550, 568, 577 Athabasca District uranium, Canada 276-277, electromagnetic 431, seismic

exploration 432 Atlantis-II-Deep silver 222 atmospheric carbon dioxide evolution 493 atmospheric emissions 30, 272, 469, 494, 514 atmosphere, today’s carbon mass 493 attapulgite 299, 300 auger drilling 434 aulacogen 134, 135, 203 Aussee see Bad Aussee autochtonous, sediments 92, soil 425, coal 492 auto-ignition, reactive shale 452, 497, coal 507, 517 autunite 270 Aznalcollar Cu, Spain 190-191 azurite 85 Backfill 408 background, geochemical 422, geophysical 429 bacteria see microbes bacterial, or biogenic methane 528, 529 bacterial heap leaching 170 bacterial sulphate reduction (BSR) 92, 93 (eq.), Irish type Pb/Zn 199, in coal 481, see

also microbes, microbial bacterial sulphur disproportionation (BSD) 92 bacteriogenic or microbial sulphur 43, 199, 357 Bad Aussee salt mine, Austria 394, 4.3 baddeleyite 251, 346 Bad Grund Pb-Ag-Zn, Germany 201 Bad Lauterberg barite, Germany 297 Bahrain oil structure 549 Baia Mare tailings dam failure, Romania 452 Baiyenabo see Bayan Obo Bajiazi Zn-Pb-Ag, China 223, 224, 225 Bakal siderite, Russia 154 Ballarat Au, Australia 39, 217 ball clay 309, 331 banatite 143 banded iron formation (BIF) 81-82, 87, 100ff, 123

Algoma type 100-101 Rapitan type 100, 103

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Superior type 101ff, 1.67 banded sulphide ore 1.72, 1.81 bar (pressure) see kilobar Barberton Mountain Land, Barberton Greenstone Belt, South Africa, gold 217 bariopyrochlore 261 barite 38, 196, 199, 293ff, 374, 567 Barnett Shale gas, Texas 536, 553, 564-565 barrel [bl] 522 barrier concept 459 basalt types 10, 18 basin analysis 554 Basin and Range Province, USA 76, 137, 213 bastnaesite 257 Bathgate torbanite, Scotland 573 Baturin cycle 346 bauxite 8, 9, 81, 184, 233ff, 248, 1.1, 1.2 Bayan Obo Fe-LREE-Nb, China 24, 259, 263 Bayer process 234, 249 BCE, Before Common Era Beauvoir kaolin-Sn-Ta, France 29, 264 Bedfordshire clay, England 177 bedrock in regolith 79, in alluvial placers 98 Beerling, David, on the role of plants in Earth history 467 Bela Stena basin, magnesite-borate-lignite, Serbia 335 Bendigo Au, Australia 217, gold particle distribution 446, 447 beneficiation (mine-site ore dressing, processing) 415, 416 bentonite 299ff, 460, 3.8 Benue aulacogen, Nigeria 203 Bergslagen Cu-Au, Sweden 124 Bermùdez asphalt, Venezuela 572 Bernic Lake (Tanco mine) Ta-Li-Cs, Canada 264, 265 bertrandite 268 beryl 263, 268 beryllium 268ff Besshi Cu 73 best guide to oil 554 Beypazari Basin trona-gypsum-oil shale-lignite, Turkey 354, 381, 484, 4.11 Bihar coal fires, India 517 Bigadiç boron-zeolite, Turkey 304, 367 Bikita Li, Zimbabwe 266 Bilbao siderite, Spain 154 billion (US) = giga or 109 Bingham Cu-Au-Ag-Mo, Utah 188 biocide, used in flooding water treatment 567 biodegradation of oil 526, 552, 567 biodiversity 3, 20, 21, 458, 577 biofilm 209 biofuels 522 biogenic gas (methane) 528, 529, 531, 537, 552 biogenic oxidation of methane 552 (eq.) biogenic sulphur 92, 356-358

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biomarkers in oil 526 bio-oxidation 208 bioremediation 246, 552 (eq.), 576 biosphere 459 biotite 339, 426 bischofite 238, 371 bismite 250 bismuth 124, 250 bismuthinite 250 bismutite 250 bittern salts 377 bitumen, natural inflammable substance composed of hydrocarbons, 524ff, 572 bituminous coal 472ff, 6.20 bituminous shale 471, sediments 7.6 black coal 471, 472 black sand 95, 252, 256 Black Sea 106, flooding and sapropel formation 534 black shales 93-94, 176, polymetallic 169-170, 179, beryl 269, 270, graphite 327, 1.56 black smoker 19ff, 1.11, 1.12 Blake Ridge gas & hydrates, USA 530 Bleiberg Pb-Zn, Austria 44, 91 BLEG (Bulk Leachable Extractable Gold) – a geochemical exploration technology blödite 371 blow-out 408, 484, 563, 576 Blue John 3.16 Boddington bauxite, Au, Western Australia 81 boehmite 233 bog 491 boghead coal (torbanite) 473 Bohai Basin oil, oil shale, China 536 boiling 31, 38, 42, 49, 71, 72, 75, 222, 240, 321

first b. 31 second b. 31 true b. 38

Boliden Cu-As, Sweden 247 bonanza 218 Bondi Ti-Zr, Australia 253, 2.39 Bonga oil field, offshore Nigeria 7.32 Bor Cu-Au-As-Ge, Serbia 143, 249 boracite 303, 371 borax 241, 302ff, 3.9 borehole deviation logging 435, 559 borehole geophysics 432-433, 509, 558ff borehole logging of lignite 433 borehole plugging 437 borehole solution mining 407 boric acid 303 bornite 185 boron 203, 302ff, 336, 370, 3.9 Boron (Kramer) boron, California 303 Bou Azzer Co-Ni-As-Au-Ag, Morocco 125,174, 247

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Bougainville Cu-Au, Papua New Guinea 87, 436 Bowen Basin black coal, Queensland, drilling 508 Bow River diamond placers, Western Australia 315 B.P., before present braggite 228 brannerite 270 brass 186, 196, 202 braunite 159 Bravo Dome volcanic carbon dioxide, CO2 extraction, New Mexico 470, 528 brecciation, hydrothermal 50 breccia ore 64, 71, 73, 189, salt 398, 1.33, 1.76 briartite 200 brightness see coal brine 16, 22, 30, 32, 36, 37-38, 46-47, 59,71, 75,110ff, 118, 119-120, 128, 266-267,

274, 280, 334, 338, 408, 551 brine pool 23, 109, 135, 161, 184, 191, 222 brine seep 338 brittle 65, 124, 130, 131 brittle-ductile transition 130, 131 Broadlands Au, New Zealand 210 Broken Hill Pb-Zn-Ag, Australia 110, 121, 122, 124, 197-198, 222 Brooks Range, Alaska hydrocarbons bromine 111, 370, 373, 374, 400, 551 bronze 186, 202 brown coal 472 brownfield – in exploration, an area known for mineralisation such as a mining district brucite 55, 238, 292, 333 Brundtland Report 3 Brunswick Cu-Zn-Pb, Canada 124 BSR bottom-simulating reflector 530 Buffalo F, S. Africa 322 Bugarama W, Rwanda 67 bulk density logging of boreholes 432, 433, 559 buoyancy of salt 402-403, 461 Bure, France waste repository 460 burial history and hydrocarbon generation 541 Burton Downs coal, Australia, drilling 508 Bushveld Pt-Cr-Fe-V, South Africa (S.A.) 13, 32, 121, 133, 166 (Cr), 185 (V), 219

(thermal metamorphism), 230ff (Pt), 289-290 (andalusite), 293 (asbestos), 314 (inclusions in diamonds), 322 (fluorite)

Cadmium 195ff, 247ff caesium, one of the large ion lithophile elements (LILE) and a tracer of magmatic

differentiation and fractionation 29, 265, 370 calamine 195, 197 calaverite 207 calcining 289, 305, 306, 309, 318, 331, 333 calcite 305ff, 377 calcrete 78, 89, 305, 380, uranium 78, 280, coal 497

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Caledonides 140, 200 Californian Coast Ranges hot springs 75 caliper logging of boreholes 559 calomel 239 calorific value (coal) 472, 486 Caltanisetta kainite, Sicily 371 CAMP, see Central Atlantic cancer 169, 246, 247, 271, 367 canga 156 cannel coal 473 Cannington Zn-Pb-Ag, Australia 223 Cantarell oil, Gulf of Mexico 549 CanTung W, Canada 56, 182 Cape Breton Island coal, Canada 5.24 capillary pressure 545 Cappadocia zeolitic ignimbrite, Turkey 367 cap rock 357, 358 (calcite-sulphur), 404-405 (gypsum/anhydrite) carat (1 ct = 200 mg) 311 carbon 43, 310 ff, 325ff, 465ff carbonaceous 93, 475 carbonates 305ff carbonate colouring techniques 436 carbonatite 23-25, residual apatite 80, Cu Palabora 187, REE 259, exploration 260,

limestone 305, fluorite 322, phlogopite 339, vermiculite 341, apatite 344ff carbonatization 54, of dunite 335 (eq.) carbon black 325 carbon capture and storage (CCS) 469-471, 517, 561, 579, 6.2 carbon cycling 533 carbon dioxide 24, 31, 36, 38, 43, 46, 55, 60, 77, 85, 90, 93, 112, 113, 128, 135, 138,

203, 241, 258, 273, 305, 312, 326, 335, 359, 364, 373, 408, 453, 454, 459, in the atmosphere 465, 469-471, volcanic 470, 528, in coal 483-484, Phanerozoic and Marinoan, end-Triassic extinction 493, past atmospheric contents (Fig. 6.17) 493, mine seepage 517, density compared to natural gas and nitrogen 528, end-Triassic and Early Tertiary spike in atmosphere 530, 533, 537, 539

carbon dioxide, anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in 2014 52 Gt (gigatonnes CO2 equivalent)

carbon isotopes, 14C dating 43, in magnesite 335, coal 483, oil 527, gas 529 carbonization 499 carbon mass in the atmosphere 493, 533 carbon sequestration 150, 292, 458, 470-471, 517, in the North Sea 561, 568, 570,

577, 579, 6.2 (Sleipner), 6.3 (storage time of sequestration) carbon/sulphur ratio in marine source rocks 535 carbonyl 209 Carlin Au, As, Nevada 39, 212, 244, 247 Carlsbad cave, New Mexico, USA 90 Carlsbad K-salt & waste repository, New Mexico 373, 386, 460 Caroline Pb-Ag, Germany 50 carnallite 238, 337, 338 (eq.), 370ff, 406 carnallitite 371 carnotite 183, 270 Carrara marble, Italy 306

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carrollite 173 cash flow analysis 448 casing 559 Caspian Basin oil 539 Caspian Sea 383 cassiterite 96, 202, precipitation 203 (eq.) catagenesis of kerogen 537ff catalytic methane 533 Catcher oil field, offshore U.K. 561 cation exchange 60, 299, 310, 363, 366 cave ore Pb, Zn 89, 116, 1.58, 1.76 Caviaga gas field earthquake (1951), Italy 577 caving 451 CBM see coal bed methane CE, Common Era celestite/celestine 293ff, 328, 357, 3.3 cellulose 479 (eq.), isotopes 483, in peat 500, 519 cement 307, 328, 363, 515, 574 cement clinker 307 cementation (supergene enrichment) 86 (eq.), 87 Central African Cu-Co Belt 174, 192-193 Central Andes profile 136, 1.88 Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP) 116, 141, 493 ceramic clay 309 cerium 257 Cerro de Mercado Fe, Mexico 17, 153 Cerro Rico de Potosí Ag-Sn-Zn-Bi, Bolivia 206, 224, 225, 226, 250, 2.30 Cerro Tasna Bi-Cu-W, Bolivia 250 cerussite 195 chabazite 365 Chaillac barite-fluorite, France 298 Challenger Au, S. Australia 125 chalcocite 85, 185 chalcophile (also called thiophilic or chalcogenic) elements 186 chalcophile metals 186 chalcopyrite 85, 185 chalk 306, 544, 562 chamotte 309 channel iron ore deposits 155 char 486, 492 charcoal 475, 499 chemostratigraphy, the study of the variation of chemistry within sedimentary

sequences, often using pXRF chemotrophic deep sea fauna 576 Chernobyl 366 chert 100ff chevron texture (halite) 384 chiastolite 290 Chicxulub impact, Gulf of Mexico 133, 493, 549, 580 Chilwa Island carbonatite, Malawi 24 chimney caving 451, effect of salt diapir 402, 547

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China clay 331 climate engineering see geoengineering chlorargyrite 221 chlorine in coal 482 Chlorobiaceae 92 chlorophyll 480 chott or shott 380 chromite 14, 163ff, 228ff, nodular 2.9 chromium 14, 19, 163ff, 231, 233, 2.9 chrysotile 291 Chuquicamata Cu-Mo, Chile 57, 58, 86, 188, 1.31, 1.33 Chu-Sarysu U, Kazakhstan 278 Cigar Lake U, Canada 271, 276 CID, channel iron ore deposits 155 cinnabar or cinnabarite 96, 239 Cinovec (Zinnwald) Sn, Li, Czechia 205 clastic-dominated lead-zinc ore 107, see also sedex clastic dykes in coal 491 clathrates, or gas hydrates 530 Claus process 356 (eq.) clay 308ff

refractory 308 ceramic 309 flint 309 expanding 310 sealing 310

cleats (joints of coal) 485, 506 cleat-dependent permeability of coal seams 506, 563 Clifford’s rule 314 climate 78, 380, 389, 469

archives 493 carbon dioxide control of, 469, 493, 494 controlled/regulated by peat formation 493 controlling peat formation 492-494 controls 469 engineering 150, 356 greenhouse 78, 535, 539 hydrocarbons 578 orbital control 495 perturbations 533 plethora of processes influencing climate 494 radiative forcing by methane 579

climate sensitivity (ECS), the equilibrium response of global surface temperature to a doubling of the atmospheric CO2 concentration 469

Climax Mo, Colorado 178 clinker (cement) 307 clinoptilolite 365 Clinton type iron deposits 103 Cloncurry type IOCG 189 closure temperature, apatite 344 Club of Rome 4, 441

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clumped isotopes describes the assembly of rare isotopes in isotopologues of minerals, such as Mg13C18O16O2 in magnesite; their abundance depends on T

clumped-isotope thermometry Coahuila Sr, Mexico 294 coal 467ff

ash 484, 491, 497, 507, 515, 517 bed methane (CBM) 483, 502, 507, 509, 510, 529, 536, 543, production 563,

564, 7.24, see also methane brightness 475, 486, 509 calorific value 486 combustion residues (see also ash) 363, 484-485, 515, 516 coal-fired power plant, waste 272 “formula” 480, 518 gasification, industrial 468, underground in situ 486-7 giant coal basins 494 lithotypes 475 macerals 475-479 metamorphism instead of diagenesis (?) 500 methane production 536 microphotographs 6.7, 6.8, 6.9 microscopy 474-479 mine water 514 outcrop 6.20 permeability 510 petrography 474ff porosity 510 processing technology 484 rank 472, 480ff, 499ff reserves 468, 510 resources 468 seam 487ff, 6.20 seams as aquifers 563 seam gas (CSG) see coal bed methane (CBM) seam fires 507, 517 self ignition 507 shale 471, 502 thermal conductivity 507 tip washing 516

coalification 471, 499-505, 519 coalification gradient 502, 503 coalification temperature 502, 503 coal-to-liquids technology 486 coastal placer exploration 252, 432 coastal Ti-Zr placers 98ff, 252, 253, 256, 260 cobalt 173ff Cobalt District Ag-Ni-Co, Canada 175 cobaltite 173 Coeur d'Alene Ag-Pb-Au-Zn-Cu, Idaho 227 coffinite 270 coke 486, 502 coking coal 473, 481, 486

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cold seeps 297 colemanite 302ff collapse earthquakes 397, 513, 577 collapse structures see earth falls, sinkhole colloform see gels colloidal sulphur 39 colloids 37, 50-51, 71, 273, 335 collophane 344 colluvial 95 Colorado Plateau U, USA 89, 278 coltan (tantalum ore) 265 columbite 96, 261 combustion residues 363, 484-485, 515, 516 compaction (consolidation) of peat and lignite 488 competent person 447, 512 Conakry Fe, Guinea 155 concentrate 415 concrete aggregate 352f., 362 condensates 526, 527 conditional simulation 445 conductivity (electrical) 429 conduit-hosted deposits 11 connate water 551 Conolly diagram 67 consolidation dewatering 113, 500 consolidation theory 488 constructed wetland 453, 455-456 contact metamorphism 121, graphite 327, of salt 396, of coal 502, forming

wollastonite 364 contamination by copper 455, cyanide 454, Hg 454, nickel 456 contraction 136, 397 contrast in geochemical exploration 424 convection 19, 22, 36, 37, 110, 131 conventional oil and natural gas 523, 524, 526 conversion factors for fuels 523 cooperite 228 copper 15, 21ff, 24, 56ff, 70, 76, 85, 114ff, 185ff, 1.13 Copper Age metal contamination 449 copper porphyry see porphyry deposits Copper Shale see European C.S. Cordilleran, or epithermal polymetallic silver-base metal vein deposits 76 core drilling 434ff, coal 509 core logging (geological, automated mineralogical) 436, coal 509, 511, 6.25, 6.26 core recovery 435 Cornish stone 320 Cornwall Sn-Cu, England 69-70, ball clay 309, kaolin 332-333 corundum 32, 96, 567 cosmogenic 10Be dating 44, 79, 269 cosmogenic 14C dating 43, 44 cost-benefit analysis 448 costs, e.g. of a new Ni mine on Sulawesi, Indonesia 173, of average mine in Australia 448

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costeaning see trenching Coulomb-Mohr stress diagram 65 coulsonite 183 covariance 446 covellite 185 Cowra Au, NSW, Australia 48 cracking of oil 526, 540, 573 (eq.) creep of salt 397 (eq.)

CRIRSCO (Committee for Mineral Reserves International Reporting Standards) reporting codes (JORC, SAMREC and CIM)

critical temperature/pressure point of water 31 critical temperature/pressure point of seawater 22, 37 critical raw materials, or minerals 4 crocidolite 291 crown pillar 276, 405, 437, 438, 439 crude oil see oil, petroleum crustal continuum model, orogenic Au 213, 216 Cryogenian System (Neoproterozoic glaciations) 103 cryogenic salt 380 cryolite 234, 320 cryptocrystalline 335 cryptomelane 159, 163 cuirasse 83 Cullinan, the largest diamond ever found, 311 cultural heritage site 437 cumulates 11, 14 cupola, Sn-Ta-Nb granite 264, simplest hydrocarbon trap structure 542 cuprite 185 cuticle stomata, a proxy for CO2 concentration in the atmosphere 493 cut-off grade 414, 444 cyanicides 208 cyanide, in gold recovery 208, natural 209, accidental release 454 cyanide in drinking water

http://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/basicinformation/cyanide.cfm#four cyanobacteria 102 cycloparaffins 525 cyclothem 494, 495 Cymric oil Hg, California 240 Cyprus Cu-Zn (Au) 23, 74, 189-190, 200 Dabusun salt lake K, China 382 Dachang Sn-Zn, China 206 Dalnegorsk boron, Russia 305 Dalongshan U, China 279 Dampier solar salt, W.A. 376, 4.6 Danakil Rift 388 danburite 305 Darcy, unit of permeability 541 Darling Range bauxite, Western Australia 8, 9, 234

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Darwin, Charles, about geological observation 417 dating supergene ore 79-80 dating oil 543 dating ore minerals 42 datolite 305 David Beerling, on the geological role of plants 467 Dead Sea K, Mg, Br, salt lake 239, 380, 381, 384 De Beers Pipe diamonds, S. Africa 313 decay, radioactive 41 Deccan flood basalt 81, 135, 314, 322 decrepidation 48 deep geological disposal 458ff deep-sea resources 417, 553 deep-water hydrocarbons 553 degradation of crude oil 526, 551 dehydration see also devolatilization dehydration reactions, metamorphic 128 (eq.), salt 395, coal 502 delamination (foundering) 137 Dekkan see Deccan DEM digital elevation model density inversion 402 depletion mid-point 523, 579 deposit 1 descloizite 183 desert varnish 204 desiccation 387 desulphurization of flue-gas 306, 330, 471, 481, 515 detachment horizon formed by evaporites 399 detrital iron ore 100 deviation control in drilling 435, 559 devolatilization 121, 125, 127-128 (eq.), 136, 138 dewatering studies 450, 451(eq.), 512 diagenesis general 110ff

organic matter 499ff, 537ff upper boundary 505

diagenetic 94, 110-121 diagenetic crystallization rhythmites (DCR) 113 diamond 25, 32, 96, 310ff, 3.13, 3.14 diamond core drilling 221, 434, 435 diamondoids 540 diapirism of salt, active, passive 399, 400 diaspore 233 diatomaceous earth 317 diatomite 317ff diatoms 317, 384 diatreme 10, 24, 214, 215, 242, 312ff Diavik diamond, Canada 311 dickite 330 differential thermal analysis (DTA) 325 differentiation of magmas (formation of different liquids from one original magma) 29 diffusion in magma 14, 34, related to fluids 31, 51, 52, 114, 240, 541

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digenite 185 digital elevation models (DEM) 516 dilatation 397 dilution of ore 444 dipmeter logging of boreholes 559 directional drilling 435 direct reduction iron (DRI) 149 direct shipping ore 344 discounting 447 (eq.) disequilibrium between uranium and its daughter nuclides 282 Diskø native Fe, Greenland 150 dispersion 240, 423-424 dissolved organic carbon (DOC), its role in glass sand formation 351, 352,

groundwater 506, seawater 533 dissolved organic matter (DOM) in oceans 533 distillation of oil, temperatures and fractions 527 distribution of metal tonnage 418, 441 DOC, dissolved organic carbon Dolgen sealing clay, N-Germany 308, 310 dolomite 305ff dolomitization 54, 196, 307, 544 Don Juan Pond salt lake, Antarctica 380 Dotternhausen oil shale, Germany 578 double porosity 561 Douglas Ti-Zr, Australia 252, 256 Draugen oil field, offhore Norway 547, 565 drawdown cones of mines 450, 451(eq.), 512 drilling 406, 432ff, 508-509, 7.24 drilling fluid 265, 294, 406 drilling mud 300 drill stem test (DST) 560 drinking water 186, 246, 272, 450, 457 driving mechanisms for hydrocarbon flow 565ff, water 565, gas 565, depletion 565 dry gas 527 ductile (plastic) 122, 124, 130, 397-398, 400, 1.81 dunite 13, 15, 18, 19, 83, 155, 165, 228, 230, 239, 289, 292, 334, 335, 342, 359 durain 475 Durham coal, U.K. 5.25 Dwars River Cr, S. Africa 14 dysoxia, dysoxic 102, 107 dysprosium 257 Early Eocene greenhouse climate or Early Eocene Climatic Optimum (EECO) 493,

530, 539 earth falls, sinkholes 329, 404, 407, 409, 512, 4.30 earthquakes, mining-induced 398, 408, 454, 513, related to oil and gas 577, 578 Earth surface heat flow 2 Earth system 19, 132ff earth wax, or ozocerite 531

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economic considerations 414ff, reserves 441 economic growth 449 Economist magazine on running out of oil 521 ecosystems restoration 457 ecosystems services 3, 457, 584 Ediacaran 179 Eduard Suess and Gondwana 134 effective stress 65, 561 effervescence 38, 209 effiency of petroleum systems 540 efflorescence of salt 380 Ehrenfriedersdorf Sn, Germany 205 EIA, environmental impact assessment 450ff EIS, environmental impact statement 438, see EIA Ekati diamonds, Canada 313, 316, 3.14 Ekofisk oil in chalk, North Sea 539, 544, 560, 576, oil spill (1977) 576 El Abra Cu, Chile 86 electrical power generation 272, 467, 469, 481, 510, 514, 574 electric current geophysical methods 429 electrochemical field 86, 88 electrolysis 522 electrolytes 111 electromagnetic geophysical methods (EM) 430 electromagnetic radiation spectrum 420 electron acceptors 576 electronegativity 39 electrum 207 elements

chalcophile 11, 29, 169, 186 compatible, incompatible 29-30 essential for all life 177, 344, 356, 465 essential for human health 151, 370 essential trace elements 177 granophile 29 halogens 40, 111 hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) 514 high field strength (HFSE) 29, 30 immobile 125, 235, 255 large ion lithophile (LILE) 29, 30 lithophile, or oxyphile 30 low-melting-point chalcophile 124 major e., essential for all life 344, 356, 465 mobile 423 native 86, 208 noble 38, 86, 209 non-metallics essential for humans 151 redox-sensitive 93, 578 siderophile 10, 150, 208 thiophilic see chalcophile volatile 213-214, 240, 243

El Laco Fe, Chile 153

18

Ellendale, northern Australia, diamonds Elliot Lake uraninite, Canada 98, 278, 526 Ellis, J.K., on geological exploration ideas 416 El Niño 388 El Romeral Fe, Chile 153 El Salvador Cu, Chile 86 Elsburg Au, South Africa 2.26 El Teniente Cu, Chile 57 eluvial 80 emanation centre 69, 241 emerald 270, 268 emery 234 empressite 221 enargite 185 Endako Mo, Canada 176, 178 endogenetic 10 endorheic 380 endoskarn 55 endothermic (or endothermal) 128, 503, 538 enterolithic textures 383 Enterprise Cu, Australia 194 entrainment 99 environment 428, 437, 448ff, 513ff environmental engineering 301, 448ff, 513ff, 575ff environmental geochemistry 428 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 437, 450ff environmental studies 420, 428, 438, 448ff Eocene, hothouse climate of the early Eocene climatic optimum (EECO) 539 eogenesis of kerogen 537, 541 ephemeral 380 epidosite 189 epidote 189 epigenetic, epigenesis 10, 94 episyenite 280 epithermal (polymetallic) 76 epithermal (volcanogenic) 74ff, 212ff, 241, 2.30, 2.23, 2.24 epizonal 48-49, 213 epsomite 371 equivalent U tenor (eU) 282, eK, eU, eTh 283 erionite 365 error control in geochemical work 427, in subsampling 440 erythrite 173 Erzberg siderite, Austria 61, 143, 154 Erzgebirge, Germany 29, 141, Ni 170, Sn 205, U 281 Escúzar celestite, Spain 294 Eskishehir magnesite-meerschaum, Turkey 300, 335 essential elements for humans 151 essential trace elements 151 ethanol 522 ethical integrity in reserve estimation 447, in relations to the community 455, climate-

related 471

19

eU, “equivalent” U contents 282 Eucla Basin heavy mineral sands, South Australia 253 Eureka diamond, South Africa 315 European Copper Shale 114ff, 184, 229, 232, 273, 389 europium 257 eustasy, eustatic change of world-wide sea levels 491, 495 eutrophic 491 eutrophication 345 euxinic (commonly defined by the presence of H2S in seawater) 93, 103, 106, 107,

copper shale 114, manganese 160, molybdenum 177, sapropels 534 exothermic oxidation 86 evaluation 419, 437ff evaporation 376ff, 4.6, 4.12a evaporation pans 376, 4.6 evaporites 369ff, as an oil source 534 evaporite basin models 389 exhalative see submarine exhalative exhalite 70, 123, 198 exogenetic 10 Exon Valdez oil spill (1989) 576 exoskarn 55 exothermic (or exothermal) 86, 128, 130, 342, 507 exotic oxide Cu ore 86 “exotic” terranes 138 expanding clay 310 exploration: structural targeting 65, diamond 316, phosphorus-REE 347, salts 405,

methods general 416ff, grass roots exploration 417, coal 507ff, oil and gas 553ff

extinction, end-Permian 391, 502, end-Triassic 493, end-Cretaceous 493, melting of hydrates 530

extraterrestrial 10, 15, 133, 219, 228, 549 extreme events 456 extremophiles 21, 84, 458, 552 Failure envelope 65 failure criterion (Coulomb-Mohr) 65 (eq.) fahlband 39, 74, 175 fahlore 186, 243 false gossan 85 Fanshan apatite-magnetite 347, China 347 Fars evaporites 386 fault gouge sealing hydrocarbon reservoirs 549 fault permeability 64-65, 67, 68, 549 fayalite 123, 292, 342 feasibility 415, 419, 437, 448 Fehring clay, Austria 310 Felbertal W, Austria 182, 2.12 feldspar 96, 204, 319ff Fen alkaline-carbonatite complex apatite-REE, Norway 140

20

fen (a swamp with alkaline peat) 491 Fenglin W, China 180 fenitization 25 ferberite 179 fermentation of organic substance 537 ferrallitic soil 83 ferrimolybdenite 177 ferric 150 ferricrete 82, 83 ferrierite 365 ferrimolybdenite 177 ferritungstite 180 ferrous 150 fertilizer (nutrients) Fe 150, REE 258, Ca 306, K 370, Mg 307, 334, 370, phosphate

342ff, sulphur 328, zeolite 366, Liebig’s discovery of K-fertilizer 390, peat 491 fertilizing the oceans with Fe 150, 471 FIA, fluid inclusion assemblage 45 field growth of oil deposits 568, 570 filler 331, 358, 364 filter pressing 11 Finch Pipe diamonds, S. Africa 313 fire assay 221 fire clay 331, 489 fire damp in coal mines 483, 518 fire horizons in coal 492 Firth of Forth UCG, Scotland 487 Fischer assay of oil shale 574 Fischer-Tropsch synthesis of hydrocarbons, synfuels production 467, 486, 522, in

oceanic crust 533 fission-track geochronology, apatite 344 fixed carbon in coal 480 flaring-off petroleum gas 529, 579 flare-up (or magmatic high-flux events HFE’s) 138 flashing, an extreme form of boiling flask, containing 34.5 kg of refined mercury 243 Fleurus barite, Belgium 298 flint clay 309, 331 flood basalt see trap basalt flooding of mines 457 flotation tailings 451,455 flow boundaries 62 flue gas 481, desulphurization 356, 358, trace element emissions 482 fluid escape zone 216, 218, submarine pipes 539 fluid immiscibility 38 fluid inclusions general 45-48, in salt 372-373 fluid pressure (u) 65, 512, 551 fluid (supercritical) 37 fluids basinal 551 fluids connate 551 fluorapatite 320, 321, see apatite fluorescence 320, 501, 524, 554, 6.9

21

fluorine 30, 116f., 203, 205, 320ff fluorite 234, 320ff, 354, 3.16 fluorspar 320 fluxes 266, in clay 308, 309, in ceramics 319, in metallurgy 321 fly ash 307, 363, 515 foam textures 121, 395 folded ore 1.81 foliation in salt 398 fondu cement 307 foreland basins 498 formation water, fluids 42, 551 Forsmark Sweden waste repository 460 forsterite 238, 292, 335, 342 Fort Cady boron, California 303 Fort McMurray tar sands, Canada 570ff, 577 Fort Worth shale gas, Texas 564 fossil fuels 465ff frac operations and seismicity 577 fractal analysis 64, 441 (eq.) fractional crystallization, fractionation (such as solid-liquid separation) 10, 11, 19, 24,

25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32-35, 69, Earth 149, Fe isotopes 151, Cr 166, 167, Ni 171, Mo isotopes 177, Sn 202-205, Au 208, 211, PGE 228, Mg salt 239, REE 258, Nb/Ta 261, 264, Li 266, Be 269, U 279, 281, 283

fracturing 65 fracture stimulation (fracking, frac methods) of hydrocarbon wells 559, 564, 567, 577 framboid, framboidal 71, 93, 109 francolite 344 Frasch process 357 free-milling gold ore 12, 208, 416 freeze sampling 425 freeze shaft-sinking 405 freibergite 221 frequency plot of geochemical data 423 fuchsite 217 fuel cell 261, 522 Fuller’s earth 300 fulvic acid 209, 480 fusain 475, 492 fusinite 478 Fushun bituminous coal, China 487, 488, torbanite 574 Gabbro type Fe-Ti-V 152 gadolinium 257 Gachsaran evaporites 386 gagatite (jet) 474 gahnite 198 galena 195, 270 Gallinas Mts. F-REE, New Mexico 259 gallite 248

22

gallium 247ff gamma radiation 257, 282, 431, borehole logging 559, 561 Gangamopteris-Glossopteris flora 493 Ganges river plains As mass poisoning 247 gangue 5, 415 Garabogazköl Na-sulphate-NaCl, Turkmenistan 355, 383 GARD (acid rock drainage) guide 456, 516 garnet 96, in kimberlite 316 Garnier, Jules, discoverer of Ni-laterite 83 garnierite 83, 84, 168 gas see also methane, natural gas gas blow-outs in coal 484, 512 gas-driven solid eruptions 512 gas generated by cracking of oil 540, 553, 565, 573 (eq.) gas hydrates (clathrates) 493, 530, see methane hydrates gas in coal 483, 510 gas in salt 373, 408 gas phase 30, 32, 38, 186, 356 gas seep, or vent 530, 555 gas shale 536 Gash Emir W, Sudan 52, 1.29 Gatumba Sn-Ta, Rwanda 97, 264, 265, 425, 1.64, 5.6 gaylussite 371 Gbangbama Ti, Sierra Leone 257 Gbenko diamond, Guinea 311 Gebeit Au, Sudan 458 Geiseltal lignite, Germany 449, chlorophyll in lignite 480, 481, 5.19 gels 37, 50-51, 101, 116, 299, 300, 335, 348, 362, 366, 480, 500, 506, 572, 6.8 gelification of peat 475, 478, 500 geochemical barrier, trapping metals 88, decontamination of groundwater 456, peat

and coal 482 geochemical dispersion 423 geochemical exploration 422ff, 556 geochemical fossils 526, 537 geochemical halo of ore deposits 422 geochemical landscape 428 geochemical maps 132, 427 geochemical profile 424 geochemical sampling 424ff geochronometer 257 geodynamic setting of hydrocarbon provinces 552 geoengineering 150, 356 geogenic background 424, 425, 428, 453, 462 geogenic resources for the welfare of humans 579 geographic information systems (GIS) 417, 421, 428, 512 geological barrier in underground waste repositories 459, 460 geological carbon sequestration see carbon capture and storage geological exploration 417ff geological mapping 416, 437, 439 geological time nomenclature 8 geometallurgy 437, 440

23

geopetal (gravity-induced) structures 91 geophagy 301 geophones 7.22 geophysical borehole logging 509, 559 geophysical exploration 428ff, hydrocarbons 555 georadar 330, 432 George Fisher Pb-Zn-Ag mine, Australia 418 geosequestration 470 geosphere 459 geostatistics 436, 445, 446, 509, 568 geotechnical study 436, 437 geothermal gradient 138, mantle 311, salt 401-402, salt and coal 502, relating to gas

hydrate stability 530, relating to petroleum generation 539, measuring 560, average/extremes 563

geothermal 32, 35-37, 40, 74, 75, 214, 241, 246, 273, volcanic 362, outbursts 415, use of mine water 517, energy 273, 563, deep oil wells 570, frac operations 577 1.21

geothermometer 43, 45ff, wolframite 180, graphite 325, salt minerals 395 germanite 249 germanium 200, 247ff Ghawar, world’s largest oil deposit, Saudi Arabia 535, 549 Ghurayyah Ta-Zr, Saudi Arabia 262 giant deposits, salt 385 ff, metals 415, petroleum and natural gas 549 Giant Mine, Yellowknife, Canada, Au-As, arsenic waste problem 246 gibbsite 233 Gibeon kimberlites, Namibia 315 Gifurwe W, Rwanda 66 GIS see geographic information systems glaciation, related to iron ore 103, preceding Zechstein salt 389, peat and coal 493-

495, Carboniferous-Permian 493, 495, 499, Pleistocene 495, sealing shale gas 538

glass 351 glass sand 351, 352, 3.30 glauberite 371 Glauber’s salt see mirabilite glauconite 105 glimmerite 339 global anoxia 103, 385 Glomel andalusite, France 289 goaf 513 goethite 79ff, 149 gold 26, 27, 56-59, 66, 76, 81, 96, 98, 207ff

auger drilling 434 exploration 220 free-milling 207, 416 gold ore processing 416 in Ancient Egypt 208 in arsenopyrite 245 native Au 39, 86, 96, 207, 208 orogenic 125, 129, 139, 140, 213 placers 95ff, 219

24

refractory 207, 416 reverse circulation (RC) drilling 434

Golden Mile Au, Western Australia 39, 217, 2.25 gondite 82, 161, 163 Gondwana 129 (map of orogenic gold), 134, 139 (supercontinents), 218, coal-

glaciation-Zechstein salt 389, coal 492, welding into Pangaea 493, Permian flora 493, name-giving by Suess 493, glaciation 494, coal 499

Goonbarrow kaolin, England 333 Gora Magnitnaja Fe, Russia 153 Gorleben waste repository in salt, Germany 401, 402, 404, 460-461, 5.29 gossan 85, 180, 209, 230, 418, 1.56 Gossendorf trass, Austria 364 grade control in mining 440 granites 25ff

high heat production 28, 273 tin-bearing 202 tin granite 202, 203

granitoids see granite graphite 94, 276, 325ff, 430, 431, 473, 502, 504, 532, 533 Graphite Lake graphite, Ontario 327 gravitational acceleration 562 gravitational settling 11, 50 gravity in salt exploration 405, 406, in general exploration 431 gravity ore processing 164, 202 Great Dyke Pt-Cr, Zimbabwe 167 Great Kavir salt, Iran 380, 400 Great Oxidation Event (GOE, from 2.5 to 2.1 Ga) 77, 102, 151, 274 Great Salt Lake Mg, Utah 239, 380 greenalite 101 Greenbushes Sn-Ta-Li, W.A. 262, 263, 265, 266 greenfields – in exploration, an area without known economically significant

mineralisation greenhouse climate of the Earth (moderate warmth, no polar ice sheets, sea ice

possible), oil 535, cf. hothouse, icehouse greenhouse climate 78, 235, 236, 530, 533, 535, 539, 579 greenhouse effect 469, 484 greenhouse gas (GHG) 454, 469, 491, 515, 530, 578-9 green mining 3, 449, 458, 463, 584 greenockite 250 Green River Basin trona-zeolite (oil shale), Wyoming 354, 367, 532, 535, 574 greenstone belts Ni 12, 172, Au 216-217 Green Tuffs gas fields, Japan 533 Greenvale Ni-Co, Australia 174 greisen 54, 183, 203, 205, 332 Grenvillean orogeny 154 Grimsel Alpine veins, Switzerland 126 Groningen methane, Netherlands 483, 529, 560 Groote Eylandt Mn, 162 Groot Marico andalusite, South Africa 290 ground penetrating radar (GPR) 432 groundwater near salt 408, bioremediation 576

25

groundwater rebound after mine closure 457, 515, 516 grunerite (or grünerite) 291, 293 Gt = giga or 109 or US billion tonnes Guanajuato Ag-Au, Mexico 223-224 Guaymas Basin vents, Gulf of California 38 Gulf of California 139, 539 Gulf of Carpentaria 235 Gulf of Guinea oil 547 Gulf of Mexico 4, 386 salt, 400 salt diapirs, 403 pressure ridges, 527 oil, 530 gas

hydrates, submarine hydrocarbon seeps 543, 548 HC traps, 549 impact-related traps, oil spill 575, 576, impact-related oil field 580

Gulf region, USA sulphur 357 gushers, or oil fountains 575 gypcrete 328 gypsite 328 gypsum solution cavities 295, 327ff, shallow water facies 383, dehydration 394, in

coal 506 gyroscope 435 Habitat 458 Hadley-Ferell circulation 380 haematite, high-grade 81-82, 149, 157 (eq.), 254, with uranium 277, 278, in contact-

metamorphic coal 502, reacting with hydrocarbon fluids 542 hafnium, one of the high field strength elements (HFSE) 29, 251, 346 halite (NaCl, rock salt) 369ff, blue 372, solubility 376, melting 396 halitite 371, colours 371, permeability 376, sonic velocity 558 halloysite 330 Hallstatt salt, Austria 393 haloarchaea 393 halobacteria 393 halogens 40, 111 halokinesis 403 halophile 381 halotolerant organisms sourcing oil 534 Hamersley Fe-province, W.Australia 101, 156 Hamersley Gorge BIF 1.67 haplogranite, a synthetic mixture of quartz and feldspar for petrogenetic experiments Haraucourt salt solution craters 4.30 hartsalz 371 Hartenstein U, Germany 282 Harz Mts. Pb-Ag-Zn veins, Germany 68, 201 Haselgebirge salt rock 371, 392ff, 4.3 hausmannite 159 Hausruck lignite, Austria 489, 490, 498 Haute Var bauxite, France 237 hazard 409, 437, 450 hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) 246, 269, 272, 514 heap leaching Ni 169, 170, gold 208, former waste rock or tailings 458 heat capacity of coal 502

26

heat conductivity of salt and common sediments 400, coal 502 heat flow see geothermal heat-producing elements (HPEs: U, Th and K) 273 heavy minerals 96, 2.39 heavy oil, Venezuela 536 heavy rare earth elements (HREE) 257 hectorite 266, 299 Hedinia oil field, Papua New Guinea 546 helium as a product of U and Th decay 270, 271, isotope ratios, He properties and

sources 528, in Hugoton gas 550 hemimorphite 195 Hemlo Au (Mo), Canada 66, 123, 124, 125, 211, 215 Henderson Mo, Colorado 178 Henry Knob kyanite, South Carolina 290 Hercynian orogeny (Hercynides) synonymous with Variscan (Variscides) Herfa-Neurode K-salt & waste repository, Germany 396, 399, 460 Hess crust 19, 107, 190 hessite 221 heterogenite 173 heulandite 366 HFS (high field strength) elements 29, 273 HHP (high heat producing) granites 28, 273 high-grade haematite Fe ore 81, 87, 156, 157 high-pressure acid-leaching (PAL) 155 high sulphidation 75-76, gold 213, kyanite quartzite 291, kaolin 332 Hillgrove Sb, Au, Australia 244 Hilt’s law 501 Hilton Pb-Zn-Ag mine, Australia 418 Hinckley Index 331 HM (heavy minerals) 96 Hohentauern magnesite, Austria 337 holomictic lake 381 Honeymoon U, Southern Australia 271 hopper crystals (halite) 384 Hormuz (Huqf ) salt 385, glaciers Iran 397, oil Oman 553 hothouse climate of the Earth (linked to LIP activity and extinction, global warmth,

high sea levels, no ice, ocean acidification, anoxia and euxinia, desert expansion); oil 533, cf. icehouse, cf. greenhouse

hot shale 561 hot spots see rifting hot springs 74, 75, 215 HSE (highly siderophile elements) Re, Os, Ir, Ru, Rh, Pt and Au Hubbert Curve for prediction of crude oil and natural gas production 523, 569 hübnerite 179 Huqf (Hormuz) evaporite-hosted oil, Oman 553 Hugoton-Panhandle methane-helium-nitrogen gas field, Kansas 528, 550 human carbon emissions 465 human inventiveness 4, 570 humic coal 473 humic acid 209, 480 humic substances 480

27

humification 500 huminite 475, 477, 6.7, 6.8 huntite 335 Huntley bauxite, W.A. 8, 9, 1.1, 1.2 Hurricane Katrina 497 Hwanggangri talc, Korea 361 HYC-McArthur River Pb-Zn-Ag, Australia 107, 109 hydrargillite 233 hydrates see methane hydrate 563 hydraulic equivalence 97-98 hydraulic fill 452 hydraulic (high-pressure) fracturing 559, 560, 564, 567 hydraulic permeability (veins) 64 hydrocarbons 524ff hydrocarbon fluids 541

degradation, aerobic and anaerobic 551 reservoir water 551, 552 seeps 554 Witwatersrand conglomerates 271

hydrocarbon traps 545ff, stratigraphical 546, diapir-related 548, tectonic 548, impact-related 549, hydrodynamic 550, self-sealing 550, gas hydrates 550

hydrogen fuel 522 hydrogen, industrial production 522 (eq.), “extraneous” in oil formation 538 hydrogenetic, or hydrogenic, sedimentary ore formation, oxidative 107, reductive 179 hydrogenous (1) said of coal high in moisture, or (2) coal high in volatiles (e.g.

boghead) 472-473 hydrogen sulphide 93, 106, 170, 174, 356, in air 408, 502, in oil 526, in gas 528, seeps

554, 575 hydrogeological study 436, 437, 457 hydrological data 456 hydromagnesite 335 hydromechanical (high-pressure) fracturing 559, 560, 564, 567 hydrosphere 459 hydrostatic pressure (stress) 562 (eq.) hydrothermal alteration 34, 51ff, 57, 123, ankerite-dolomite 154, 292, 297, 333, 334,

dolomitic 337, 340, 341, 421, 436, 1.29 hydrothermal alteration 51 hydrothermal brecciation 50 hydrothermal convection 37 hydrothermal hydrocarbons 573 hydrothermal supercritical fluids 38 hydrothermal systems 35-54 hydrothermal water 31, 40

liquid, gaseous (vapour) and fluid state (supercritical “gas” or “liquid”) 37 HYPERION satellite for remote sensing 420 hyperspectral mapping 292, 420-421 hypogene 10 hypoxia 107 hypozonal 48-49, 213

28

Iapetus Ocean 293 Iberian pyrite belt Cu-Sn-Pb-Zn-Ag-Au 76, 190-191, 454 icehouse state of the Earth, climate (cool, no deep oceanic anoxia, major polar ice

caps, strong thermal oceanic circulation) 469, cf. greenhouse, hothouse ICP-MS, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer Ihalainen calcite marble, Finland 365 Iharkut bauxite, Hungary 237 ilmenite 96, 254, 2.39 immiscibility

hydrothermal fluids 38 melts 11, 16, 34

impact, see also extraterrestrial impact-related hydrocarbon traps 549, metallogenesis 133 Impala Pt, South Africa 2.32 impregnation deposits 200 improved oil recovery (IOR) methods 567 impsonite 573 impure coal 471 INAA, Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis 221 Inagli Pt, Russia 230, 232 incongruent dissolution 338 (eq.), 395 indicated (resource) 441 indicator beds 218 indicator minerals 195, 316, 427, 3.14 indium 186, 195, 201, 202, 247ff Indosinian orogeny (Triassic) 181 induced polarization (IP) 430 Industrial Revolution 519 inertinite 477 inferred (resource) 441 infiltration 88-91 infrared reflectance field spectrometry 276, 436 Ingessana Hills Cr, Sudan 167, 2.9 inherent moisture in coal 483 innovative thinking in exploration 565 InSAR, satellite synthetic aperture radar (SAR) technology, in combination with

interferometry (In) in-situ leaching (ISL, or in-situ recovery, ISR) 186, 271, 278, 279, 441 interest (on capital) 447 interglacial highstand coastal placers 256 intermontane basin, “between mountain belts” intramontane basin (within mountains) 498, 502 intrinsic permeability 541 inversion (geophysics) 428 inversion (tectonic) 143, 399, 548, 549, 561 investment 414, 415, 417, 434 iodine 111, 551 ion exchange 84, capacity 299, 365 IOR improved oil recovery 567 IPCC (UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) 471

29

IR infrared radiation 420 Irish type Pb-Zn-Ag 199 iron 60-62, 81, 87-88, 100-105, 120, 149ff iron flux from continents into oceans 105 oolitic 103-105, native 507 iron isotopes 151 iron oxide-copper-gold (-U-REE) deposits (IOCG) 16, 138, 140, 153, 188-189, 277,

278 iron oxy-hydroxide, aging 79 (eq.) IRR internal rate of return 448 ISL, in-situ leaching 441 island arcs 137 isopachs (thickness contours) 512 isoreflectance contours 505 isotherm 503 isotope geochemistry 41ff

beryllium dating 269 boron 374 carbon 43, 311, 325, 357, 483, 529 chlorine 374 dating (eq.) 41, 41-42, 79-80, cosmogenic Be 269, gypsum 329, salt 375,

iodine 530 fractionation (eq.) 41 gas 529 helium 271, 528 iron 151 lead 44 nitrogen 483 oil 527 strontium 43-44, 294-295 sulphur 43, 296, 329, 357, 374 uranium 272 water 42-43, 329, 374-375

isovoles (contours of volatile matter in coal) 505 Itabira Fe, Brazil 156 itabirite 156 Ivigtut cryolite, Greenland 320 Jachymov (Joachimsthal) Ag-U-Bi, Czech Republic 250, 281 Jacinth-Ambrosia Zr-Ti heavy minerals, Australia 252 Jacobina U, Brazil 278 jacupirangite 255 Jahresringe (halovarves) 388 Jänecke diagram 378 jasperoid 198, 212, 223 jaspilite 156 Jerissa siderite, Tunesia 154 jet (gagatite) 474 jig, for gravity separation in ore and coal processing 484

30

Jinchuan Ni-Cu-PGM, China 172 Jinding Zn-Pb, China 200 Joachimsthal (Jachymov) Ag-U-Bi, CZ 250, 281 Joma Cu, Norway 122, 190 JORC (Joint Ore Reserves Comittee Australia) Code (2012) 442, 443, 446 jordisite 175 Joules (J), heat energy inherent in coal 472, pyrite and black coal 507 Julia Creek oil shale-Mo-V, Australia 184, 574 juvenile water 40, 203 Kabanga sulphide Ni, Tanzania 168 kainite 371 kainitite 371 kainite supergene 405 (eq.) Kaisersberg graphite, Austria 326 Kalahari manganese field, South Africa 103 Kalgoorlie Au, Australia see Golden Mile Kali Gandaki valley hydrocarbon source rocks, Nepal, 534, 7.6 Kambalda Ni, W.A. 12, 172 kandites 330ff Kanziku graphite, Kenya 326 kaolin 79, 235, 236, 266, 330ff, 350, 1.50 kaolinite 330ff, 484 kaolinite formation 332 (eq.) Kara Bogaz Gol see Garabogazköl karst, hydrothermal 40, karst and ore formation 89ff, bauxite 236, gypsum 329, salt

cap rock 405, fluorite 3.16 karst ore 1.76, 3.16 Katanga Supergroup 192-193 Katwe see Lake Katwe Kazan trona, Turkey 354 K-bentonite 299 K-feldspar 319 Kenticha Ta-Li-Rb-Cs-Ga, Ethiopia 33, 264 Kerio Valley F, Kenya 323 Kern River oilfield, California 550, 568, 570 kernite 302 kerogen 114, 219, 525, humic 529, 531f., chemical “formula” 579 Key Lake U, Canada 276-277, wire frames 445, dilution 446 K-feldspar 196, 319 Khibini apatite-REE (nepheline-Zr-Hf), Russia 24, 256, 346, 347 Kibaran 203, 314 Kibaran Sn-Ta pegmatites 26, 33, 96, 264, Sn-veins 63, W-veins 66-67, Sn-Ta placers

97, oceanic crust 314 Kibarides 139 Kidston Au, Queensland, Australia 211 kieselguhr 317 kieserite 370ff Kiirunavaara magnetite-apatite, northern Sweden see Kiruna

31

Kilembe Cu-Co, Uganda 174 kilobar, 1 kbar = 100 MN/m2 (Newton, SI-unit of stress) = 100 MPa (Pascal, SI-unit of

pressure), equals ca. 3.85 km rock (of density 2.6) or 10 km water column, 562 (eq.)

kimberlites 23-25, 312ff, 431 Kimberly diamond, South Africa 313 King Island scheelite, Tasmania 182 Kinyiki Hill magnesite, Kenya 335 Kipling, Rudyard, on coal mining 507 Kipushi Zn-Cu-Pb-Ge, DR Congo 200, 249 Kirka boron, Turkey 304, 3.9 Kiruna-Malmberget Fe-apatite, Sweden 16-17, 152, 345, 450 Kisangani oil shale, Congo 574 Kiya-Shaltyr nepheline, Russia 237 kniest 192 Koivusaarenneva Ti-V, Finland 255 Kolwezi tailings Cu-Co, DR Congo 458 komatiites 12, Ni 172, as a source of gold 217, Pt 232, related to inclusions in diamond

314 Königstein U, Germany 278, 279 Kongsberg Ag-Co, Norway 38, 39, 65, 175, As 247 Konrad iron, nuclear waste repository, Germany 158-159, 460, 461 Kotalahti Ni, Finland 172 Kovdor Fe-P-Zr, Russia 251, 252, 346 Kramer boron, California 303 Krasno (Schönfeld-Schlaggenwald) Sn, Czechia 205 kriging 445 Kristallina marble, Italy 306 Krivoj Rog see Kryvyi Rih Kryvyi Rih Fe, Ukraine 156 kukersite 574 Kunwarara magnesite, Australia 336 Kuroko Cu-Pb-Zn 72-73 kutnahorite163 Kuwait oil pollution (1991) 575 kyanite 288ff kyanite quartzite 289, 349 La Brea oil seeps, Pitch Lake and asphalt, Trinidad 554, 572 Lac des Iles Pt, Canada 232 Lac Knife graphite, Quebec 325 La Colorada graphite, Sonora, Mexico 327 La Crocetta sericite, Elba, Italy 340 Lacq methane, sulphur, France 528, earthquakes 577, 578 Lac Tio (Allard Lake) Ti, Canada 16, 255 lacustrine source rocks of oil 527, 535 Ladolam see Lihir La’erma Se, China 248 Lafatsch Pb-Zn, Tyrol, Austria 117, 1.76

32

lag enrichment 98 Lahnaslampi talc-Ni, Finland 359 LA-ICP-MS, laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer Laisvall Pb, Sweden 200 Lake Alexandrina gypsum, South Australia 330 Lake Assal salt, Djibouti 383 Lake Bermùdez oil seeps and asphalt, Venezuela 554, 572 Lake Bonneville, Utah 380 Lake Galla diatomite, Ethiopia 318 Lake Katwe salt, Uganda 382, 4.12a,b Lake Macleod gypsum, brine, Western Australia 330 Lake Magadi trona, Kenya 354 Lake Natron trona, Tanzania 354 Lake Onega shungite, Russia 553, 573 Lake Tyrell, acidic water, Australia 381 laminites in salt 387 lamproites 314 LANDSAT satellites 421 landscape geochemistry 423-4 landscaping 457, 515 langbeinite 371 langbeinitite 371 Langer Heinrich U, Namibia 271, 280 lanthanum 257 Lapeenranta wollastonite, Finland 365 lapilli 362 Laptev Sea offshore gas, Siberia 550 Larderello boron, Toscana, Italy 303 Large igneous provinces (LIPs) 135 lasca 348 Las Cuevas fluorine, Mexico 322 Lasky’s law 441 lateral secretion 10, 126-127 laterite 78-79, 235-236 lateritic ion-adsorption clays HREE, South China 259, 260 lateritic ores 81, 163, 172, 230, 235, 248, 260 late-veneer hypothesis (geochemistry) 12 Latrobe Valley brown coal, Australia, carbon isotopes 483, palaeogeography 487,

drilling 508, systematic errors in coal quality estimation 510, offshore oil 535 laumontite 366 Laurasia 139, 493 Laurentia 293 Lausitz lignite, Germany 491, 6.30 Lau submarine basin 71 layered mafic intrusions 13 lazurite 397 LCT (lithium-caesium-tantalum) pegmatites 269 lead 44, 50, 61, 68, 70, 90, 91, 116ff, 195ff Lebowa granites 13, 203 Leman gas, North Sea 560 Leoben sub-bituminous coal, Austria 492

33

leonardite, a gelinite made up of humic acids occurring in lignite lepidocrocite 149 lepidolite 265 leptite 365 Les Baux bauxite, France 237, 1.89 Les Redoutières barite, France 298 Letseng diamond, Lesotho 311 leuchtenbergite 358 leucosome in migmatite with Au 125 leucophyllite 340 leucoxene 254 Liaoning boron, magnesite, talc, China 305, 336, oil shale 574 Libby vermiculite, Montana 341 LIDAR (Light Detection And Ranging) 516 Liesegang banding 79 life 77-78 ligands 258 light rare earth elements (LREE) 257 lignite 472ff, 515, 6.7, 6.8, 6.30 lignite-fired power plant, open pit 5.18 lignite open pit recultivation 5.19 Lihir Au, Papua New Guinea 59, 137, 214, 215, 415, 416, 2.24 LIL element, large ion lithophile e. lime 305-306, 363 limestone 305ff, asphalt limestones 572 limestone dissolution (eq.) 90 liming (countering acidity, e.g. in soil) 455 limnic coal 498 limonite 83, 149 Limousin U, France 280 lineaments 421 linneite-siegenite 173 lipids 480 liptinite 475, 478, 6.9 liptobiolite coal 473, 474 liquid fuels 522, 527 Lisheen Pb-Zn-Ag, Ireland 418 listwaenite 217 lithification salt 395 lithium 265ff, 2.43, 2.44 lithium brines 2.44 lithium granite 205 lithophile elements 30, 180, 184, 196, 202, 234, 251, 255, 258, 262, 266, 269, 273 lithosphere 134, 311 lithostatic stress 562 (eq.) lithostratigraphic frame 497 lithotypes of coal 475 Llallagua (Siglo XX) Sn, Bolivia 206 loam 309 Lodève U, France 278 loellingite 245

34

loess 309 lognormal distribution 423, 441 Lompoc diatomite, California 318 London Metal Exchange 414 loparite 257, 261 Los Angeles oil, USA 575 Los Frailes tailings dam failure, Spain 451 Lost City hydrothermal field 533 Louann salt formation 386 Louvicourt Cu-Zn, Canada 435 Lovozero apatite-REE, Russia 257 low-melting chalcophile elements 124 low sulphidation 75-76, 213f. Lufilian orogeny, arc 192, 200 Lüneburg diatomite, Germany 318 lutecite 396 lutetium 257 Luzenac talc, France 360-361, 3.34 Ma Mega-annum (one million years, the geological age before present) Maandakshoek PGE+Au, South Africa 228 maar 310, 312, 318, 574, 4.12a macerals of coal 475ff Macondo oil spill (2010) 576 MacTung W, Canada 182 Mainburg-Landshut-Malgersdorf bentonite, Germany 302 Magellan Pb, Western Australia 197 maghemite or maghaemite 149 Maghreb salt diapir 120, Pb-Zn 200, barite 298, salt 386 magma redox state, granite 1.17, 27, granitoids 30-31, porphyry Cu 59, Mo 177, IOCG

188, Sn 203, Pt 229, Ti 255, U 278 magmatic brine, fluid, gas, vapour 30ff, 303, 356, carbon dioxide 470 magmatic flare-up 138 magmatic fractionation 29 magmatic-hydrothermal 25, 30-32, 47, 177-178, 180, 187-188, 205, 210ff, 364 magnesia 238, 333ff magnesite 84, 238, 333ff magnesium 238ff, 338 magnetic field of the Earth 429 magnetic storms 429 magnetite, in placers 96, in BIF 100ff, metamorphic 121 (eq.), iron ore 149, vanadian

183, from fluids 211 (eq.), with Pt 233, in sepentinite 292 (eq.), coal seam fire 507

magnetometer 429 magnetic survey methods, magnetometry 159, 168, 173, 260, 429 magnetotelluric (MT) geophysical method 428, 431 Mahd Ad Dhahab Au, Saudi Arabia 213 Mainpur kimberlite, India 314 Majdanpek Au-Cu, Serbia 143

35

major elements (for all life) 344 malachite 185 maldonite 212 Mallik gas hydrates, Canada 530 Malmberget Fe, Sweden 152 Mammoth Cu, Queensland, Australia 64 Mangampeta barite, India 297 manganese 71, 80, 82, 94, 103, 109, 123, 159ff

MnF, manganese formations 162 oolitic 105-106 nodules 106-107, 173, 174, 195

manganite 159 manganomelane 159 mangcrete 82 Manono Sn-Ta-spodumene, D.R.Congo 33, 264, 267, 2.43 mantle

asthenospheric 137 depleted, also called residual (upper mantle geochemically depleted by

extraction of continental crust: Allègre 2008) 18, 138, 169, 190 diamonds 310ff fertile 138 fluids 110, 135, 321, 323, 533 granitoids 26 helium 528 lithospheric 311 melts 12, 13, 19, 23, 26, 27, 59, 60, 135, 138, 181 metasomatism 23, 24, 138 methane 533 plume 93, 116, 133, 135, 144, 314 primitive, also called undepleted 250 residual see depleted wedge 136ff

manto, stratiform ore 62 Manus back-arc basin 71, 73 Mapochs magnetite-Ti-V, South Africa 185 mapping, geological 416ff, 420ff, 439 Maqsad Cr, Oman 166 Maracaibo Basin oil, Venezuela 536 marble 305ff Marico fluorspar, Transvaal/South Africa 323 Marie Curie 281 Marillana Creek Fe, W.A. 155 marine placers see coastal marine source rocks of oil 535 Marinoan glaciation (640-635 Ma) 103, 380 marker horizon 497 marlstone 305ff martite 88, 102, 149, 157 martite-goethite iron ore 87, 88, 102 Mary Kathleen U-REE, Australia 258 mass extinction of life see extinction

36

mass flow sedex ore 109, gypsum and salt 390, 393 massive ore 70 Materials World on the green future of coal 513 maturation of kerogen 499, 529, 532, 537ff, influence of heating rate 539 mature oil field 566 Mawatwan Mn, S.Africa 163 McArthur River (HYC) Pb-Zn-Ag, Australia 107, 109, 418 McArthur River U, Canada 271, 276-277 McDermitt U-Zr, USA 251, 280 McKelvey Box 441 mean (arithmetic) 422, 423 measured (resource) 441 Mediterranean Sea desiccation 387 meerschaum see sepiolite mega-placer Au, 208 melange 393 Meliata Ocean 392 mente et malleo 413 Menzengraben, Germany, gas and salt outburst 408 MEOR microbially enhanced oil recovery 568 mercury, in island arcs 137, in gold recovery 208, 239ff, in barite 293, Californian

deposits 335, amalgam-derived in rivers 454, in coal 514, in natural gas 528 mercury vapour formation 241 (eq.) Merensky, Hans, discoverer of Pt in S.A., 231 Merensky Reef Pt 14, 32, 228ff, 231-232, 2.32 Merida wollastonite, Spain 366 Merlin Mo, Australia 179 meromictic lake 381 Messel oil shale, Germany 574 Messinian gypsum 329; salt 387, lamination 388, trapping petroleum 547; sulphur 357 Messinian salinity crisis (MSC) 387 mesozonal 48-49, 213 Messoyakha gas, Siberia 550 metacinnabar 239 metagenesis of kerogen 538 metal-accumulating plants 246, 456 metallogenesis, the formation of ore deposits 8 metallogenic (short form of metallogenetic) metallogenetic domain 133 metallogenetic maps 133-134, 441, 1.89 metallogenetic province 133 metallogenetic (or minerogenetic, shortened to mineral) system 583 metallogeny, the science of ore deposit formation 8, 132 ff metallogeny 132ff, Europe 140ff, 1.89 metallophytes see metal-accumulating plants

metallotect, geological, lithological or geochemical feature that controls ore deposit formation, 133

metallurgical processing, gold 208, 415 metal recovery 415, 446 metals dissolved in modern aerated seawater 93 metal zonation

37

Copper Shale 115 hydrothermal systems 67-68, 69-70 iron ore 154 MVT deposits 117 pegmatites 33ff porphyry 57ff sedex 93, 109 skarn 56 volcanogenic massive sulphides (VMS) 70 epithermal 74

metamict 261 metamorphic 121ff, 127, 215 metamorphogenic 125ff, 216-219 metamorphosed 121ff metasomatism 40, 54, 60ff (eq.), 138, 154, 337 (eq.) meteoric water 42, 78 methane in coal 483-484, 510, 529, greenhouse gas and GHG potency 515, in mine

ventilation air (VAM) 515, in natural gas 527ff, bacterial, biogenic or microbial 529, 537, 538, source rocks 536, 552, molecule size 546, biogenic 552, extraction 563-565, contribution to radiative climate forcing 579, 7.24

methane anthropogenic emissions 515, 579 methane density 528, molecular diameter 546 methane hydrates 493, 524, 530, extraction 563 methane in potassium salt 529 methane isotopes 529 methane aerobic oxidation, biogenic 552 (eq.) methane seepage (natural) 517, submarine 297, 555, 7.6, 7.20 methanogenic biodegradation 552 methanogenic microbes 537 (eq. 7.3), 551, 552 methanogenesis in peat 499 Mg-rich pore fluids 551 miaroles, miarolitic 30, 31, 32, 33, 268, 270 micro (prefix, symbol µ), one millionth, 1x10-6 microbes

chemolithotrophic 21, 84 CO2 reducing 537 deep 111 extremophile 21, 84, 458, 552 gold-reducing 209 green sulphur bacteria (Chlorobiaceae) 92 halophile 381 hyperthermophilic, in hydrothermal systems 38, 75, 181 hyperthermophilic methanogenic archaea in deep oil 552 in metallurgical processing 84 in peat 499 iron 151 life in salt 373, 393 manganese dissolution 106 metal tolerant 458 methane oxidizing or methanotrophic 106, 537, 552 methanogenic (eq. 7.3) 536, 537, 551, 552

38

sulphate-reducing 38, 90, 92, 93, 273, 357 sulphur-oxidizing 22, 84, 86, 345 thermophilic 84, 86

microbial, sulphate reduction (MSR) 93 (eq.), sulphur disproportionation (MSD) 93, leaching 187, gas 529, 564, methane 533

microbial mat Au-U 219 microbial methanogenesis 533, 537 (eq.), 551, 552 microdiamonds 312, 317 microcline 3.19 microlite 261 microlithotypes of coal 475ff micron = µm, or µ only = 10-6 m micronutrient 176, 184 microphotographs copper ore 1.13, fluid inclusions 1.25, 1.27, gold ore 2.26, dunite

3.27, coal 6.7, 6.8, 6.9 microseeps of hydrocarbons 554, 556 microthermometry 45 Mid-Atlantic Ridge 23, black smoker 1.11 Midland Valley oil shale, Scotland 574 mid-ocean ridge 18-23 migration (oil) 540ff, primary 541, secondary 542, tertiary 543 migrabitumen 573 Milankovich periodicities (changes in the amount and distribution of solar energy

incident on Earth due to variations in its orbital configuration) 495, see solar cycle

milestones in exploration 433 milli (prefix, symbol m), one thousandth, 1x10-3 mL milli litre equal to 1 cc (cubic centimetre) million, or 106 tonnes (Mt) milky-white smokers 297 Milos Island Greece, transitional hydrothermal systems 76, barite 297, bentonite 302,

kaolin 302, perlite 363 Minasraga V, Peru 183 mine closure and ecosystems restoration 9, 409, 457, 458, 6.30 mine closure 457, 458 mine water management 456 mineralization 1, 241 mineralogical analysis by QEMSCAN 440 minerogenetic (or short, mineral) system 583 minerotrophic 491 Minette type iron deposits 103 mine water 408, 450, 457, 514, 516, 517 mining 406 ff, 438 Minnesota iron, USA 156 minnesotaite 102 mirabilite 355, 371 mischmetall REE 257 mispickel, see arsenopyrite, 245 Mississippi Valley type (MVT) Pb-Zn 61, 116-119, 198f, celestite 294, fluorspar 322,

325, 1.76 Mittersill scheelite see Felbertal

39

mixing and mingling fluids 38, 40, 118 melts 18, 55, 231, 233

MnF, manganese formations 162 Mn nodules 106 Moa Bay Ni, Cuba 81 Moanda Mn, Gabon 434 mobilization 124, 219 modelling, geochemical 37, ore-forming systems 417, deposits 442, geostatistical 445-

446, water evolution 457, hydrogeology 512, reservoir fluids 561 modified placer (Witwatersrand) 98, 99, 219-220, 2.26 modifying factors in reserve estimation 441, 510 Modum Co, Norway 175 moganite 396 Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion 65, 1.39 Mol waste repository, Belgium 460 Molango Mn, Mexico 161 moler earth Jutland, Denmark 319 molybdenite 175 molybdenum 56-59, 175ff, hazard in clay 310 molybdenum porphyry 178 monazite 96, 252, 254, 256, 257, 259, 260, 270, 272, 273 moncheite 228 monocalcium aluminate 307 Montevives celestite, Spain 294 montmorillonite 299ff, 308, 310, 485, 3.8 Montreal Protocol (1987) 321 montroseite 183 Mont Terri waste repository, Switzerland 460 monzogranite (a granite with alkali feldspar and plagioclase in about equal

proportions); Q/(Q+A+P) = 20 – 60; P/(A+P) = 35 – 65 Moosburg bentonite, Germany 299, 301 mordenite 365 Morro da Mina Mn, Brazil 82 Morsleben salt & radioactive waste repository, Germany 460 Morwell lignite, Australia 490 mottramite 183 Mountain Pass REE, California 24, 259 Mount Pinatubo sulphur emission 471 Mount Pleasant In-Mo-Sn-W-Zn, Canada 249 Mount Tom Price Fe, W. A. 82, 157, 158, 1.67, 2.4 Mrima Hill apatite-REE, Kenya 259 Mt, million tonnes Mtpa, million tonnes per annum Mt. Isa Cu province 189, 194 Mt. Isa Cu-Pb-Zn, Australia 128, 193-195, 197, 418 Mt. Keith Ni, Western Australia 172 Mt. Oxide Cu, Australia 87, 1.56 Mt. Pinatubo volcano, Luzon 471 Mt. Weld REE-Nb-Ta-Y, Western Australia 260, 262, 263 mudstone, mud rocks 308 ff

40

mud volcano 303, 543, 554, 572 Muessig S. on the role of drilling in exploratrion success 433 mullite 289 multiple barrier concept 459 Munster gas field, Germany 548 Murat diatomite, France 318 Murat Dagi Sb, Turkey 244 Murchison Greenstone Belt Sb-Au, South Africa 244, 245 Murka Hill kyanite, Kenya 291 Murray Basin Ti-Zr, Australia 99, 252-253 Muruntau Au, Uzbekistan 211 muscovite 339ff, 426 Muskeg oil sand, Canada 571, 7.29 Muzo emeralds, Colombia 270 MVT, see Mississippi Valley Type ore Myvatn Lake diatomite, Iceland 318 Myr, time duration or interval in millions of years Nacrite 330 nanogram (ng) = 10-9 g Napak carbonatite, Uganda 24 naphtenes, naphtenic oil 525, 526 National Instrument 43-101, see NI 43-101 native Fe 150, Au 207, Ag 221, Pt 228, Hg 239, Bi 250 native title 437 natron 354, 371 natural analogue 459 natural background radiation 462 natural gas 527f., see also methane, gas natural geochemical landscape 453 natural methane seepage 517 natural nuclear reactors 274, 275, 458 natural oil seeps 576 Navan Pb-Zn, Ireland 199 Nchanga Cu-Co, Zambia 193 nelsonite 255, 347 neodymium 257 Neolithic humans 370, 474 nepheline 233, 346 nepheline syenite 24, 320, 346, 347 nephelinite 23, 346, 347 népouite, Ni-serpentine eq. 84 Nernst partition coefficient (D) 11, 169 (eq.) nesquehonite 335 net present value (NPV) 444, 448 (eq.) net smelter return (NSR) 444 Neves Corvo Cu-Zn-Sn-Pb-Ag, Portugal 191, 207, discovery 431 New Almaden Hg, California 241 New Brunswik oil shale, Canada 574

41

New Caledonia Ni 83-84 Newtonian fluid 397 Ngara Sn-Ta, Rwanda 96, 1.62 Ngawha geothermal field, New Zealand 241 NI 43-101 (National Instrument 43-101), Canadian Standards of Disclosure for

Mineral Projects nickel 12, 15, 81, 84 (eq.), 168ff

catalysing hydrogen production 522 lateritic 81-84 garnieritic ore 84 in petroleum 170, 535 oxide ore 81

nickeline 168 Nikopol Mn, Ukraine 105 Niksicka Zupa bauxite, Montenegro 237 Niobec Nb, Canada 262 niobite 261 niobium 24, 261ff nitrogen in metamorphic fluids 216, in coal 481, in coal gas 483, in natural gas 528 Nizhny Tagil Pt-Cr, Urals, Russia 232 Nobel, Ludwig, the “Oil King of Baku” 575 noble gas 528 noble metals precipitation (eq.) 39, 86 noble versus common metals 86 nodding donkeys 567 nodular chromite 2.9 Nonesuch Shale Cu, USA 135 nontronite 83, 101, 299 Nördlinger Ries trass, Germany 364, oil shale 574 Noril’sk-Talnakh Cu-Pd, Sibiria 14, 171 Northern Germany gas fields 547, 548 North Field (Qatar) - South Pars (Iran) gas, the world’s largest 536 North Sea oil and gas 539, 560-561, 576 NPV net present value 448 N-S-O compounds in oil, or asphaltics 526 Nsuta Mn, Ghana 163 nuclear fission reactor 272 nuclear power production 465-466, uranium, thorium 272 nuclear waste repository 274, 400, 402, 458ff nugget 209, 218, 220, 439, effect in reserve estimation 446 numerical models (reservations) 443 nutrients (see also fertilizer) 345, 356, 370, 492, 535, 576 Nuweibi Ta-Sn-quartz, Egypt 264, 349 Obsidian 363 occurrence 1 ocean acidification 384 ocean floor hydrothermal vents, see black smoker ocean floor metamorphism 19

42

oceanic crust 18 ff, 136 ff ocean productivity 317, 345, 533 oceanic spreading 18ff oceanic upwelling, see upwelling ocean oxygenation 151, 385 ocean water see seawater ochre 189 Ocna de Fier Fe-Pb-Zn, Romania 143 oedometer (measuring migration distance of oil) 543 offshore oil 7.32 oil see also petroleum oil classification 525 oil density 526 oil distillation 526 oil equivalent conversion 523 oil film on water 543 oil from coal 486, 535 oil fountain, “gusher” 575 oil in place 569 (eq.) oil resources (conventional) 523, 524 oil resources (unconventional) 524, 568, 570ff, 575 oil resources (undiscovered) 523, 570 oil sand 256, 550, 568, 570-571, mining 7.29 oil seeps, submarine 543, 555, estimate of natural seepage of oil into oceans 576 oil shale 327, 488, 573ff oil slicks on water 577 oil spills 575-576 oil spill remediation 576, 577 oil window 505, 539-540 Okhotsk Sea 180 Okinawa submarine trough 73 Oklo U, Gabon 275 Ok Tedi Cu-Au, Papua-New Guinea 455 Oldoinyo Lengai volcano, Tanzania 24, 354 oligotrophic 491 olivine 82, 83, 238, 292, 342-343, 3.26, 3.27 Olkiluoto radioactive waste repository, Finland 460 Olympic Dam Cu-U-Au-Ag, South Australia 188-189, 212, 277-278, 418, 436 ombrogenic peat (coal) 487, 490-492 OMZ (oxygen minimum zone in oceans) 106 Onega Basin shungite, Russia 553, 573 ongonite 203 ooid 101, 103, 384 oolith, one of the rounded bodies making up an oolite 103 oolitic ore 103-106, 157-159, 161, 460, 461, 489, 1.68 opal precious 79, opaline phases 50, 75, 302, 317, 347, 364 opaline silica 317 open pit copper 1.31, iron 2.4, gold 2.25, lignite 449, 5.18, 5.19, 6.30 ophiolite 18ff, Besshi 74, Ni-laterite 83, Québec asbestos 293, talc 359 Orange River placer diamonds, South Africa 315 orbital cycles 354, 388, 490, 495, 574

43

orbital forcing 490, 495, 533 orbital insolation changes 495 Ordos Basin, China, coal bed methane 510 ore, ore deposit 1-2, 5, copper ore specimen 1.33 ore control, geological, geochemical or other feature that controls ore enrichment in

ore deposits; see ore shoot 67 ore dressing (processing, treatment) 208, 415 ore-forming systems 8 ore grade 414, 415 ore, massive 5 ore microscopy 49, 1.13, 2.26a, b ore mineral 5 ore reserves see reserves ore resources see resources ore rock 5 ore shales Mo-Ni, China 94, 179 ore shoot 67 organic acids 78, 480 organic matter 93-94 Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) 575 orogenic gold 129 (1.84), 139, 144, 213 (2.22), 244, 417, see gold orpiment 246 orthoclase 319 orthomagmatic 11ff Otanmäki Ti, Finland 255 Ouenza siderite, Algeria 61, 119-120, 154 ounce see oz outbreak of oil, oil fountain, “gusher”, see outburst outburst, gas in salt 373, 408, geothermal 415, gas in coal 484, oil and gas 575 Outokumpu Cu-Zn-Co, Finland 174, 190 over-consolidation 460, 563 overpressure 113, 200, 539, 551, 562-563 Owens Lake Na-sulphate-borax brine, California 354 oxidation degree of magmas 27, Cu-porphyries 59, IOCG 188, Sn granites 203, Au

211, U 278 oxidation of sulphides 84-86, in metamorphism 121 (eq.), of the atmosphere 493, coal

and pyrite 507 oxide Cu ore 186 oxide Ni-Co ore 154 oxide Pb ore 197 oxide platinum (PGE) ore 230 oxide vanadium ore 184 oxidized basinal fluids 110, 112, 115 oxidized/reduced formation waters 112 oxygen and iron formations 102 oxygen fugacity in Sn, W, Cu, Au, U ore formation 31, skarn 54, Mo precipitation 176 oxygen isotopes, hydrothermal alteration as a vector to ore 42 oxygen minimum zone in oceans (OMZ), a model for Mn and P precipitation 106, 162 oxygen peak concentration (in air) 499 oxygen production by plants 493 oxy-hydroxide 79

44

ozocerite, or earth wax 525, 531, 572 oz tr, Troy ounce, one ounce equals 31.1034 g, 208 Pa, per annum Pacific “ring of fire” 137 Pacmanus submarine vent field 71 PAL see present atmospheric level PAL, high-pressure acid-leaching 155 Palabora Cu, S. Africa 24, 187-188, zirconium 252, vermiculite 341, apatite 346 Palaeocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM) 530, 539 palaeochannel U 280 palaeoclimate 80, 380, 492ff, 533 palaeogeography, salt 388, coal 494 palaeokarst oil 544, 547 palaeomagnetic methods 80 pallaco 226 palygorskite (attapulgite) 299 Panasqueira W, Portugal 48, 180, 183 Pangaea 116, 119, 139, 161, 182, 190, 199, 201, 322, 380, 389, 390, 392, 398, final

welding and rifting 493, coal 499 panning 95, 1.62 Paracelsus (ca. 1530 CE) on poison 370 paragenesis 49, 66 paraffins 525 paraffinic wax 501, oil 525, 526 paragenetic sequence 49 paralic coal 498 parautochthonous origin of coal matter 492 Paratethys Mn, Eastern Europe 105 parisite 259 partial melting of mantle 12 partition coefficient (D) 169 Pascal (pressure) 1 kbar = 100 MPa (see kilobar) passive water treatment (of ARD, AMD) 453, 455, 456 5.24, 5.25 pathfinder elements 221, 233, 240, 247, 423 patronite 183 payback period 448 Peak District F, England 322, 323, 3.16 peak oil 523, 569, 579 peat 471, 472, 487ff, 491-500 peatification 499 pegmatites 32ff, 198, 204, 263ff, 269, 314 pellets, iron ore 150, clay 310 penalty elements in concentrate, Mn 159, Ni 169, Cu 186, Sb 243 Penge asbestos Transvaal 293 Penrose crust 19 pentlandite 168 peraluminous 289 perannial lakes 381 percussion drilling 434

45

perlite, perlitization 362 perlitic texture 362 permafrost 546 permeability induced 61, of fissures 64 (eq.), temporary 120, 395, 541 (eq.), of salt

120, 375, metamorphic 129, 130, as a function of fluid properties 541 (eq.), intrinsic 541, 561, effective 561, coal 563, sand 543, sandstone 544, shale 564

per mil (‰) 376 perovskite 254, 261 Pessens barite, France 299 petalite 265 petrogenetic indicator elements 30, 251, 258 petroleum see also oil, 524ff, 539, 7.32

in mercury ore fluids 240 conventional 523 unconventional 524 degraded 551-552 degradation at the surface 554 deposit formation 540ff mining 568, 7.29 production 522 reserves 522 resources 522 source rocks 533ff stability 536 system modelling 560 undiscovered resources 523

petroleum reservoir fluids 562 petroleum system 539, 540, 560 petrophysics 428, 558 PFN, prompt fission neutron U logging systems 283 PGE (platinum group elements) see platinum pH 38, 53, 54, 151 (2.1) pH-shock 40 Phalaborwa see Palabora Phanerozoic carbon dioxide evolution 493 phillipsite 365 phlogopite 263, 339ff, 346, 3.24 phonolite 320 phoscorite 187, 346 phoscrete 346 phosphate see apatite phosphogypsum 330, 344, 515 phosphorite 185, 344ff, 346 phosphorous upwelling 535 photosynthesis 102, 317, 467, 479 (eq.), carbon isotopes 483, oxygen 493 photosynthesis, terrestrial global gross primary production (GPP) 465 phreatic hydrothermal fracturing 50 phreatic level = groundwater level 85 phreatomagmatic eruption 75 phyto-exploration 426 phytoplankton 532, 533 phyto-mining 456

46

phyto-remediation 456 phyto-stabilization 456 Piampaludo Ti, Italy 255 picromerite (schönite) 405 Pidgeon process 238 pigments 150, 246, 248, 254 PIMA (portable field spectrometer) 238, TerraSpec 436 Pinatubo volcano sulphur emissions 471 Pinedale methane, USA 7.24 Pine Point Pb-Zn, Canada 38 pinolite, pinolitic 336, 337 Pippingarra feldspar pegmatite, Western Australia 320 pisoid (or pisolith) 103, 236, 384 pitchblende see uraninite Pitch Lake asphalt, Trinidad 554, 572 pitchstone 363 pit lakes 353, 516, 517, 6.30 Pittsburgh coal seam, USA, area 488, geothermal potential 517 placer

aeolian 95, 1.61 alluvial 96-97, 256, 265, 290, 1.64 coastal 98-100, 252, 253, 256, 260, 291, 2.39 drilling 434 geophysics 431, 432 minerals 96 residual 81, 1.62

plagioclase 319 plankton 317, 533 ff plant expansion 499 plants as a geological force 468 plants in exploration geochemistry 426 plate tectonics 134ff, causing rock mass stresses 562 platinum group metals (PGM) 14, 96, 228ff, 2.32 Platreef Pt 232 playa lake, salt lake, or salina 198, 380, 547 plugging drill holes 437 plumasite 341 plumbotectonics 44 plutonium 251, 283, 459 ply, plies 475, 488, 496 pneumatogenic 31 pockmark fields 93, 554 poikilitic 382 poison 246, 370 polar wander paths 135 polishing reed bed 5.25 pollucite 265 polybasite 221 polyhalite 371

47

polymetallic (ore containing several metals of roughly equal economic share) 56, 69, 70, 76, 93, 135, 169, 174, 177, 179, 181, 206, 210, 211, 212, 223, 281, 423, 444

Pomfret asbestos, South Africa 293 porcellanite or porcelain jasper 507 pore cement 544 porosity and permeability, induced 395, as a function of depth 544, double 561, in

hydrocarbon exploitation 561ff , sand 543, sandstone 544 porosity logging of boreholes 433, 559 porphyry deposits, general 56ff, plate tectonics 136ff, Mo 177, W 181, Cu 188, Sn

204, Cu-Au 211, 214, Ti 255 porphyry copper deposits 56ff, titanium 255, trace element halos 423, indicator

minerals 427 portable field spectrometer (PIMA) 238, TerraSpec 436 portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF) analysers 427 Portland cement 307, 328, 363 Portland stone 307 Posidonia shale, Jurassic hydrocarbon source rock and oil shale 578 post-subduction Cu-Au-Mo porphyries 139 potassium 266, 369ff pothole, in Merensky Reef 231, in coal 491 Potosi see Cerro Rico potter’s clay 309 Pounamu Pt, New Zealand 229 Powder River basin coal seam gas, Wyoming 498, CBM 563-564, natural coal seam

fires 517, 7.24 powellite 175 pozzolans 362, 363, 366 Pozzuoli, pozzolanic tuff, Italy 363 ppb, parts per billion; 1 billion = 109 ppm, parts per million; 1 million = 106 Prairie evaporites 386 praseodymium 257 precision in geochemical work 427 pre-exploration desk study 416, 417 prefeasibility study 433, 437 Premier Pipe diamond, South Africa 314 present atmospheric level (PAL), oxygen 102, carbon dioxide 465, 493 present value (economic) 447 pressure 31, 49, supralithostatic 450, oil generation 541, lithostatic and hydrostatic 562

(eq.), units 562, capillary 545, formation water 551, “abnormal” 551, 562, average reservoir pressure 562, overpressure 562-563, supralithostatic 563, subhydrostatic 563, reservoir pressure versus monthly gas production 578/7.31

primary natural drive mechanisms of oil production 565ff primitive mantle (deep mantle, geochemically close to bulk Earth: Allegre 2008) 250 primitive island arcs 137 primordial helium 528 Prince William Sound oil spill, Alaska (1989) 576 probable (reserves) 441 probertite 302 prognostic (undiscovered) resources 441

48

prograde (skarn) 55 prompt fission neutron (PFN) uranium determination 283 propylitization 53 prospect (in exploration) 418 prospecting 418, 419 protore 78, 84, 87, 155 proustite 221 proved (reserves) 441 proximate coal analysis 479ff pseudolanthanides 257, 261 psilomelane 159 ptygmatic veinlets 335 Pueblo Viejo Au-Ag, Dominican Rep. 213-214, 2.23, pyrophyllite 361 Pula oil shale, Hungary 574 pumice 362 P-wave velocity 558 pXRF (portable X-ray fluorescence analysers) 427 pyrargyrite 221 Pyrenean orogeny 360 pyrite, in black smoker vents 19ff, formed by sulphidation 39, in porphyry copper ore

58, VMS deposits 71, oxidation 84-85, in sedex ore 107, copper shale 115, metamorphic 121 (eq.), stability 151, in Pyrite Belt copper deposits 191, stockwork gold 211, in coal 484, as a source of acidity and toxic elements 485, calorific energy 507, 1.13, 1.72, 1.81, 2.26

pyrobitumen 278, 531, 572, 573, 529, 531, 572, 573 pyrochlore 24, 261 pyrofusinitite see fusinite pyrolusite 159 pyrolysis 480, 532, 540 pyropissite 474 pyroxene 13, 25, 82 pyrophyllite 214, 358, 361 pyrrhotite 121 (eq.), 122, 429 QAQC – quality assurance and quality control, e.g. in geochemistry Qatar Peninsula natural gas structure 549 QEMSCAN, Quantifying Evaluation of Minerals by Scanning Electronic Microscopy,

an automated mineralogical analysis 440 Qiongmo Se, China 248 Quaternary 99, Pleistocene glacial cycles 495 quartz 347

authigenic in evaporites 396 Quantitative X-Ray Diffraction (QXRD) quartz cap 183, 349 quartzite 289, 290, 349-350 quartzolite 349 quartz sand & gravel 350 Questa Mo, New Mexico 178

49

Rabenwald talc, Austria 143, 361 radioactive decay 41 (eq.), 44, 251, 270, 271, 272, 282 radioactive equilibrium 280, 282-283 radioactive mine water 515 radioactive waste 275, 283, 458ff, 5.29 radioactivity 261, 282, 347, 372, 431, in borehole geophysics 431, 559 radiobarite 514 radiocarbon (14C) 43 radiogenic 41, Sr 43, Pb 44, 196, 200, He 271, 528 radiotracer experiments 434 radium 270, 271, 281, 330, 515, in oil and formation water 577 radon, natural 271, spa 281, in exploration 282, in phosphogypsum 330, mine gas

seepage 454, in oil and formation waters 577 raised bog 491 Rammelsberg Zn-Pb-Cu, Germany 108, 123, 191-192, 1.72, 1.81 ramsdellite 161 range 446 Rangely oil field, Colorado, carbon dioxide injection 470 rapakivi granite 28 Rapitan type Fe 103 rare earth elements (REE) 24, 257ff, in carbonatite 263, in fluorite 320, in coal 482 rare earth oxides (REO) 257 rare metals, also “rare elements”, 204, an informal term for less common and more

expensive metallic elements such as Be, Cs, Hf, Li, Sn, Ta, W, Zr etc., alternatively defined as all metals with a crustal concentration <0.01%

rasorite 302 rauhwacke 328 Rayleigh distillation 129, 176 Rayleigh-Taylor (RT) instability 402 RC see reverse circulation reaction fingering 61 reactive shale 452 realgar 246 reclamation (mine) 457, 515, 516, oil pollution 575, 576 5.19, 6.30 reconciliation (reserves) 446 reconnaissance 419 recovery 415 recoverable metal calculation 444 (eq.) recultivation 457, 515, 516, 1.2, 5.19 recycling 4, 584 red bed Cu, Pb, Ag 89, 222, 223, 227 Red Dog Pb-Zn-Ge-Ag-barite, Alaska 107, 109, 110, 197, 249, 297 red mud 234, 271 redox boundary 89, in Copper Shale 114 redox-sensitive elements 93, 578 redox state of magma and sulphur 30, 31 redox stratification, in oceans 103ff, in peat 499 redox zoning 89, 93, 105, 154, 499, marine-sedimentary Mn 105 reduced fluids 110, 112, 118, 295, 541

50

reduction 39, 121 (eq.), by hydrocarbon fluids 542 REE see Rare Earth Elements reed bed 5.25 reef 219 reef oil reservoirs 547 reflectance 325, 485, 501, 503, 505, 539, 540, 541 reflux of brine 388 reforestation 1.2 refractory, clay 308-309, dolomite 307, magnesite 333ff, quartzite 349, sillimanite

minerals 288, talc 358, pyrophyllite 361 refractory gold ore 208 Refugio Au, Chile 211 regolith, profile 78, 80, 83 Rehabilitation, the return of disturbed land to a safe, stable, non-polluting/non-

contaminating landform in an ecologically sustainable manner that is productive and/or self-sustaining and consistent with the agreed post-mining land use (DMP & EPA 2015)

remediation see reclamation remote sensing 420ff renaturalization (renaturation) 457, 515 renewable energy sources 465, 466, 522 renierite 200 Renison Bell Sn, As, Tasmania 247 replacement as an ore-forming process (metasomatism) 59ff replacement of minerals 51 repository 5.29 reprocessing tailings and waste 458 retrograde (skarn) 55 reserves 4, 414, general 440ff, coal 510-512, hydrocarbons 568ff

“reserves” defined by USGS are that part of the reserve base that could be economically extracted or produced at the time of determination. This is not equal to JORC and similar definitions. reserve growth 568, 570 reserve management & reconciliation 446 reserves to production (R/P) ratio 468, 522, 579 reservoir rocks 543ff reservoir water 551, 552 resistivity (electrical) surveys 430, borehole logging 559 residual 80-82 resource curse: Preface resources 4, 414, 440ff, 510-512, prognostic 570, 575, geogenic for the welfare of

humans 579 restoration aims at re-establishing ecosystem structure and function to an image of its

state before disturbance reverse circulation (RC) drilling 221, 434 R-factor 11, 169 rhenium 176 rhenium-osmium dating 42, molybdenite 175, coal 483, oil migration 543 Rhine Valley lignite, Germany 490 rhodochrosite 159 rhyolite 320

51

Richards Bay Ti-Zr, South Africa 256 Riecke's principle 124 rifting 134-5 rim syncline (of a salt diapir) 400 ring complexes, Cretaceous, Minas Gerais, Brazil, residual Ti (Tapira carbonatite),

bauxite, U, REE, phosphate 256 ring intrusion 347, 3.28 Ring of Fire 76, 147 Rio Tinto Cu, Spain 190-191, pre-historic metal contamination 449 risk 416, 448, 450 Rock Eval pyrolysis 532, 574 rock mass quality 512 rock mass stress vectors 562 rock quality designation (RQD) 437 rock salt see halite rock sampling 425 Rodalquilar Au, Spain 144 Rodinia, supercontinent 139, 192, 264 roll front U, 89 romanèchite 159 Ronneburg U, Germany 281 room and pillar mining 398, 399 Roper Basin oil traces, Australia 553 Rössing U, Namibia 279 Roşia Montană Au, Romania 215 Rossignol F, France 50, 324 Rosso Mare oil in karst, offshore Italy 544, 547 rotary percussion drilling 434 Rotliegend 114ff, 389, 391 Round Top Be, Texas 269 R/P-ratio see reserves to production ratio rubidium 43, 265 rubidium-strontium dating 43, 265, 294 Ruby Creek Mo, Canada 176 Rudyard Kipling on coal mining 507 Ruhr coal, Germany 500, 504, 506 run-of-mine ore 415 rutile 96, 254, 2.39 Rutongo Sn, Rwanda 26, 63, 203, 427 Sabero black coal, tonstein, Spain 498 sabkha 382 Sacarimb Au, Romania 215 saccharoidal 545 safety case 403, 462 Salar de Atacama Li-K-B, Chile 266, 267, 303 Salar de Uyuni Li-K-B-Mg, Bolivia 266, 268, 2.44 Salau scheelite, France 182 Salda Gölü Lake magnesite, Turkey 335

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salina 329, 380-383 saline 42, 110, 405, 469 saline coal 474 saline lake 381 salinity 37, 46-47, 110, 111 (eq.), 376 salt diapirs or salt dome 119-121, 400ff saltern 383 salt giants 385, 386, 387 salting of samples 221 salt lagoons 383, 387 salt lakes 380ff, 4.12a salt minerals 371, rock 4.3 salt hydrosaline melt 34, 37, Salton Sea, California 36, 222, 229, 539 salt pillow 400 salt reefs 384 salt saturation 377 salt (NaCl) solubility 110-111, 376, 377 salt solution collapse craters 4.30 salt tectonics 403 salt wall 401 salt water springs 404, 409 Salzgitter Fe, Germany 158-159 samarium 257 samarium-neodymium age dating 320 sampling 220-221, 353, 424ff, 439, 509, 5.6 sample mass 439 San Andreas Fault 139 sand 350ff, 3.30 Sandsloot Pt, South Africa San Rafael Sn-Cu, Peru 203, 205 saponite 299 saprock 79 saprolite 79, 84 sapropel 473, 534, oceanic 535 sapropelic coal 473, 535 SAR, Synthetic Aperture Radar 421 Sarawak Island peat domes 492 Sarbai Fe, Kazakhstan 153 Sar Chesmeh Cu-Mo prophyry, Iran 188 satellites in remote sensing 420ff saturation of pore space 562 scaling 38 scandium 257, 261 scanning electron microscope (SEM) 283 scapolite 153, 397 Schacht Konrad see Konrad scheelite 96, 175, 179, 182, 2.12 Schlumberger brothers, the founders of borehole geophysics 558 Schöningen lignite pit & power station, Germany 449, 481, 5.18 schönite (picromerite) 405

53

schungite 474, 573 schwazite 239 scintillometer 283 SCLM, subcontinental lithospheric mantle scorodite 246 sealing, clay 310, injections 408, salt mine 409, drillholes 437, shafts and tunnels 457,

waste repositories 460, sealing capacity 545 seal, oil and gas 386, 538, 542, of traps 545ff, 550, for CO2 471 Searles Lake borax-soda-salt-Li brines, California 180, 203, 303, 354 seat earth, or underclay 497 seawater

acidification 384 boron 303 brucite, or “seawater magnesite” 334 (eq.) cations, anions 377 convection 19 dissolved iron 151 dissolved organic matter 533 dissolved silica 102, 317 evaporation 111, 376ff, 4.6 “flooding” of oil fields 38, 567 inundation of coal swamps 481 magnesia (loosely also called seawater magnesite, or brucite) 333ff magnesium 239, 334 metals dissolved 93 modern 42, 93, 151, 274, 345, 376-377, 533 molybdenum concentration 180 past 151, 384-385 pH 384 salt contents 376, 377 secular variation 385 silica 317 SMOW 42 sulphate 384, 385 sulphur isotopes 43, 73, 296, 374 tungsten concentration 180 uranium concentration 274 vanadium concentration 184 volume 377

sebkha see sabkha secondary gas (± condensates) 529 secondary, artificial lift methods for oil production 565ff Secunda synfuels from coal, South Africa 486 security case see safety case sedex see submarine exhalative sediment-hosted copper 192 sedimentary-exhalative (sedex) 70, 107ff, 191, 197, 1.72 segregation 11, 31, 34 seismic pumping 38, 43, 65 seismic reflection geophysics 405, 555-558, 7.22, 7.23 seismic refraction geophysics 405, 555

54

seismic imaging of coal seams 509, seismic time-lapse methods in oil 567 seismic P-wave velocity 555, 558 seismic reflection principles 556 seismic time-lapse techniques 567 selenite (gypsum) 329, 330, 383 selenium 186, 247ff, in coal 482, 514 self-consolidation of peat 488 self-ignition of coal 507, 517, oil shale 578 sellaite 320 SEM (scanning electron microscope) 283 semi-metals 240, 243, 247 semivariogram 445, 446 Sempaya hot springs, NW Uganda 36, 1.21 senarmontite 243 sepiolite 299, 396 Sept-Îles Complex Ti-apatite, Canada 347 sequence stratigraphy 555 sequential extraction, or elution 426, 453 sequestration 459, 470, 517, 6.2 sericite 340 sericitization (eq.) 54 serpentinization of olivine 165, 292 (eq.), 342-343, 533, 3.27 settling velocity 50 (eq.), 97 shale-hosted ore 93ff, 170, 179, 184, 191, 197, 217, 281 shale gas, oil 536, 543, 564, 565, 567 shale, reactive 452 shear resistance 65(eq.), 512 Shetland Pt, Britain 232 Shizhuyuan W-Sn-Bi-Mo-Be, China 181, Bi 250 shott or chott 380 Shubino Ti, Russia 255 Shuiximiao Sn-Ta, SE China 26 shungite 553, 573 Shunga event 553 Siberia gas 546 Sichuan Basin hydrocarbons, China 548, 553 Sicily sulphur 357 siderite, formation from calcite (eq.) 60, 101, 149, 151, 153-154, 474 siderite supergene alteration 218 siderite metasomatism (eq.) 60, 154 siderophile elements Fe, Co, Ni, Mo, PGE, C, P, Ge, Sn, Au 150 siegenite 173 Siilinjärvi carbonatite, phlogopite-apatite-calcite, Finland 339, phospho-gypsum 344,

3.24 Silesia coal, Poland, radioactive mine water 515 silica 347 silica dolomite 194 silica polymorphs 347, 349 silicification 53, 84 silicon 247ff, 347-348, 349 silicosis 348

55

silicothermal fluids 51, 347 sillimanite 288ff Sillitoe on metallogeny 132, 134, on exploration 463 silver, native 39, 50, 65, 68, 76, 115, 221ff, 2.30 Silvermines Zn-Pb-Ag, Ireland 109, 199 Singliao Basin oil, China 536 sinkhole (roof collapse) 394, 404 sinter (hydrothermal) 37, 75 sintering 306, 307, 309, 333, 507 Skaergaard Au-Pd-Pt, Greenland 210, 418 skarn 54ff, stratiform 71, Fe 153, W 181, wollastonite 364, 366 Skorpion Zn, Namibia 197 slab rollback 73, 137 slags from iron and steel production 150 Sleipner gas, CO2 sequestration, offshore Norway 469, 579, 581, 6.2 slope angles 512, stability 517 Smackover salt formation 386 smaltite 173 smectite 299, 535 smithsonite 195 smokeless fuel 486 Snowball Earth 103, 192, 380 soapstone 358 social reconciliation 455 societal problems of mining 454 soda lake 382 sodium 369ff sodium carbonate 354 sodium sulphate 355 soil sampling 425 Sokli carbonatite, apatite-REE, Finland 140 solar activity 269, solar cycle (Milankovich periodicities) expressed in salt formations

388, magnetic storms 429, controlling coal cyclothemes 495 solar evaporation pans 376, 4.6 solar heat flow 2 solar salt production 376, 383 solfatara 76 solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) 261 solid solution series, Fe-Mn in wolframite 179, V-Fe in titaniferous magnetite,

Nb-Ta in columbite 261, Ba-Sr in barite 295, Mg-Fe in olivine 342, K-Na in alkali feldspar

solubility of salt 376 solution cavern 407 solution mining 394, 407, 4.30 Solvay process 354 (eq.) Solwara submarine Cu-Au 73 sonar survey 407 Songliao Basin oil shale, China 574 sonic drilling 434 sonic (acoustic) velocity logging of boreholes 560 sonic P-wave velocity in rocks 558

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sorption 160, 181 source of metals 44, 59, 94, 109, 115, 130; of hydrocarbons 184, 533ff sour/sweet oil 526 Southern Cross Au, W.A. 55, 211 South Pars (Iran) - North Field (Qatar) gas, the world’s largest 536 Southwestern Europe metallogeny 1.89 source rocks (metals) 29, (oil and gas) 93-94, 533ff, 7.6 souxite 203 Soviet Union 281 spectral mapping 292 spectrometer 283, 431, 436 specularite 149 Sperrgebiet diamonds, Namibia 316 sperrylite 228 sphalerite 195 spill plane of hydrocarbon structure 542 splitters in subsampling 440 spodumene 2.43 spontaneous potential (SP) surveys 429/30, borehole logging 559 sporinite 6.9 Spor Mountain Be, Utah 269, 270 Sri Lanka (Ceylon) graphite 327 stannite 202, 203 Stassfurt potash-rock salt, Germany 303, 391 St. Austell kaolin, Cornwall 332 steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) 571, 578 steam flooding in oil production 568, 570, 578 steatite 358 Steenkampskraal Th-REE, South Africa 259 Steyn Au, West Rand, S.A. 99 stibnite 243 stilbite 366 Stillwater Pt-Cr, USA 166 stilpnomelane 102 stimulation of hydrocarbon flow 567 stockscheider (border) pegmatite 178, 182, 204 stockwork ore 63, 182, 531 Stoke’s law 50 (eq.), 97 stone-line in soil 81 storage cavern 407 stratabound 10, copper 192 stratiform 10, copper 192 stream sediment geochemistry 425, 5.6 Streltsovka U, Russia 280 stress effective, total 65, lithostatic, hydrostatic (eq.) 562 stress field 65, 559, 562 stringer 487, 489 strontianite 294 strontium 43-44, 294ff, 328, 3.3 structural control 65ff, 71, 73, 137 strüverite 265

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Sturtian glaciation (717-660 Ma) 103, 192 stylolite 154, 336, 337 suanite 305 subduction 136ff subglacial erosion 402ff, 491 subcontinental lithospheric mantle (SCLM) 23, 24 submarine base metal mineralization 23, 70ff, 107ff submarine exhalative 70, 107ff, 191, 197 submarine hydrothermal vents 19ff, 70ff, 107ff, cold seeps 548 suboxic 499 subrosion 403, 404, 449 subsampling in geochemical and grade control work 439, 440 subsidence, thermal contraction 110, at Kiruna, 152, by salt subrosion 403ff, tectonic

494, above coal mining voids 513, above oil and gas fields 577 Sudbury Igneous Complex (SIC) Ni-Cu, Canada 15, 103, 133, 170-171, deep

geophysics 428 Suess naming Gondwana 493 Sukhoi Log Au, Russia 211, 215 Sulawesi Ni, Indonesia 173 Sullivan base metals sedex, BC, Canada 107 sulphate reduction

by magnetite precipitation 211 (eq.) microbial 90, 92, 93 (eq.), 116, 118 thermochemical (TSR) 112 (eq.), 118, 528, 552

sulphidation, desulphidation 39, 75, 76, 121 (eq.), 124, 209 sulphidation types of epithermal ore deposits 76 sulphide melt 11, 12, 66, 124, 169, 198, 215, 229 sulphide melt viscosity 124 sulphide oxidation 85 (eq.) sulphide precipitation 39, 92, 113 (eq.) sulphosalt ore 186 sulphur, colloidal 39, 43, 76, 121, 124, 138, 296, native solid or liquid 355ff, microbial

357, global sulphur cycle 374, volcanic 471, in coal 481, in oil 526, in natural gas H2S or liquid 528, a product of hydrocarbon biodegradation 552

Sulphur Bank Hg, California 241 sulphur, biogenic 92, native 93, 355ff, 357 (eq.) sulphur geochemistry 356, isotopes 43 Sunnfjord Ti, Norway 255, 257 sunspot, or solar activity cycle 388 supercontinents 71, 139 supercritical fluid 31, 37-38, segregate into brine and dense vapour 38, 138, 347, 470 supergene 10, 76ff

alteration (weathering) 76ff alteration of salt 405 alteration of oil 572 degradation of coal 506 enrichment 78, 84ff (eq.), 1.56 ore formation 76ff oxidation of iron 77, sulphides 85 (eq.) vermiculite 341 vertical zonation 85, 86

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supergiant, Cu-porphyry 57, oil and gas deposits 549 supergiant ore concentrations 57, 133 Superior type BIF 100ff, 1.67 Surat Basin UCG, Australia 487 susceptibility (magnetic) 429 suspect terranes 138 sustainability 3, 449, 463, 466, 579, 584 suture of Iapetus Ocean between Caledonian nappes and Laurentia, Canada 293, 3.2 Svekokarelian 140, 172, 190, 573 swamp 491 swamp river in coal 491 sweet/sour oil 526 swelling clays 299ff SWIR, short-wave infrared detection of alteration minerals 51, 421 SWIR spectrometers 51, diamond 316, ASTER 421, core logging 436 sylvanite 248 sylvite 338, 371 sylvinite 371 synfuels from coal 486, biomass 522, tar 571, oil shale 573-574 syngas 486, 511, 522 syngenetic, syngenesis 10,94 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) 421 synthetic diamond 317 synthetic gas see syngas synthetic (or extractable) oil 473, 573 synthetic, magnesite, or more correctly, magnesia 334, mullite 289, rutile 254, cryolite

321, gypsum 330, soda 354, wollastonite 365, zeolite 331 Syrdarya U, Kazakhstan 278 szaibelyite 302 Taaken gas field, Germany 549 Tabba Tabba Ta, NW Australia 34 tachhydrite 371 taconite 102, 156 tactite 55 Tahawus (Sanford Lake) Ti, USA 255 tailings, as ore 2, 208 Au, 228 PGE, 415, 451ff, 455, 458 tailings dam, leaky 430, dam break 451, acidic seepage 452, permeable dam 452 talc 358ff, 396, 397, 3.34 talc-carbonate rocks 245, related to Au, Sb and talc 359 talc formation 359-360 (eq.) Talvivaara ore shales Ni-Cu-Co-Zn, Finland 170, 179 Tanco mine, Canada, see Bernic Lake Tanjung Envirocoal, Borneo 481 tank oil 562 tantalite 261 tantalum 26, 29, 34, 261ff, 2.18 Tapira carbonatite, residual Ti, Brazil 256 tar (heavy and extra-heavy oil) 530, 570f., 577f. 7.29

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tar sands 570 Tarim Basin hydrocarbons, China 548, 553 Tar Pits oil seeps and asphalt, Los Angeles 554 Tauern (Penninic) tectonic unit, Austria 143, 182, 219, 502 Taupo geothermal Volcanic Zone, New Zealand 36, 76 tectonic brines 113, 503, 553 tectonic control 65ff, 71, 73, 137 telescoping 74 Tellnes Ti, Norway 253, 255 tellurides of Au 207, at Sacarimb 215 tellurium, in Cu ore 186, tellurides in Au ore 215, 247ff telluric and magnetotelluric methods (MT) in exploration 430, 431, 556 telmatic coal 498 temperature logging in boreholes 560 tennantite 185, 223 terbium 257 terranes 138 terra rossa (red earth) 237 TerraSAR-X satellite 421 terrestrial global gross primary biomass production (GPP) 465 tertiary, improved oil recovery (IOR) methods 565ff Tethys ocean 392 Tetzintla Mn, Mexico 161 tetrahedrite 185, 221, 239, 243 Teutschenthal collapse earthquake, Germany 398 textinite 6.7 thallium 244, 250 Tharsis Cu, Spain 190-191 “the end of oil” 522, 579 The Geysers geothermal power, California 240 thenardite 355, 371 thermal conductivity, salt & sediments 400, coal 502, coal, shale and sandstone 507 thermal contraction of lithosphere 110, 389 thermal metamorphism in ore formation 121, see also skarn thermal metamorphism of coal 502 thermochemical sulphate reduction (TSR) 112 (eq. 1.21), copper belt 193, sulphur

357, relating to sulphur in oil or gas 528 thermochronology, apatite 344 thermodynamic models of hydrothermal systems 37, of kerogen maturation 538 thermogenic gas 529, 564 thermogravimetric analysis 366 Thetford asbestos, Quebec/Canada 292, 292 thiosulphate 39, 209 thixotropy 300 thorianite 270 thorite 270 thorium 251, 257, 270ff threshold 423 thucholite 219, 271, 278 tight oil or gas reservoir formations 567, 569; see shale oil and gas Tikhvin bauxite, Russia 236

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time nomenclature according to GSA (2009) 8 Timok Au-Cu district, Serbia 143 Timor Sea leaky oil systems and exploration 555 tin 26, 27, 63, 137, 202ff tincal 302 tin granite (a granite related to tin deposits) 27, 52, 202-203, 204, 257, 258, 266 Tio titanium, Canada see Lac Tio tip washing, coal mining spoil 516 titanite 255 titanium 16, 29, 254, 2.39 titanomagnetite, titaniferous magnetite, ulvöspinel 152, 184-185, 254 Titusville first oil, Pennsylvania 522, 575 todorokite 159 tomographic geophysical methods 431-432, 512 Tongkeng-Changpo Sn, S-China 63 tonnage calculation 444 (eq.) tonnes oil equivalent (toe) 532 tonstein 488, 489, 498 topaz 96 topaz granite 203 topaz rhyolite 203 torbanite 473, 573, 574 Torres del Paine fluids, Chile 46 total organic carbon (TOC) in sediments 534 tourmaline 183, 396, 397 tourmalinization 54, 206, 427, 5.7 tracers used in seawater flooding 567 Transfiguration Cu-Pb-Zn-Ag, Quebec, Canada 227 transgression 497 transported cover in geochemical exploration 425 Transvaal Supergroup andalusite 290, asbestos 293 trap 61, 130, 322, trace elements in coal 506, of oil and gas 542, 545 ff trap basalt 10, 14, 135, 141, 171, 231, 391, 494, 502 trass 363 travertine 43, 305, 380 trees, tree stumps in coal 473, 492 trenching 432ff Trepča (Trepcë) Pb-Zn-Ag, Kosovo 201 Trimouns-Luzenac talc, France 360, 361, 3.34 Trinidad asphalt lakes 543 tripoli 319, 357 Tri-State Pb-Zn-Ge, USA 44, 61, 118, 249 tritium 266 troilite 43, 44 Troll gas field, offshore Norway 542, 543 trona 354, 371, 407 Troodos ophiolite, Cyprus 189 Troy ounce (abbreviated oz tr, equal to 31.1034 g) 208 TSF, tailings storage facility TSR see thermochemical sulphate reduction Tsumeb Cu-Pb-Ag-Ge, Namibia 87, 135, 249

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tufa see travertine tuffite 362 tungsten 26, 27, 48, 52, 56, 66, 67, 179ff, 2.12 tungstenite 180 (eq.) Tungus coal, connection with Permo-Triassic mass extinction, Siberia 502 tunnel drawing seepage 451 (eq.) Tupi oil, offshore Brazil 552 Tyndrum Au, Scotland 131 tyuyamunite 183 UCG, underground coal gasification 486-487, 511 UG2 chromitite Pt, 231 Uhry quartz sand, Germany 352, 3.30 ulexite 302 ulminite 6.8 ultimate coal analysis 479ff ultraviolet (UV) illumination 182, 183, 554, 2.12 ulvöspinel see titanomagnetite umber (brown mud rock formed on the sea floor from Fe-Mn oxyhydroxide particles)

190 Umm Bogma Mn, Sinai Peninsula 161 unconformity uranium 276, 277, oil 547 unconventional petroleum and natural gas 523, 564, 565, 567, 579 underclay 497 undercompaction 562 underground coal gasification (UCG) 486-487, 511 underground geological mapping 439 underground mine layout (illustrating technical terms) 438 underground storage of natural gas or oil 407, 570 underground waste disposal 158, 301, 399, 402, 458ff undiscovered resources 441 unidirectional solidification textures (USTs) 34, 178 unfired clay bricks 309 UN resources classification 443 Upper Rhine Graben potassium salt 373, 386 upwelling 179, 345, 535 uraninite 96, 219, 220, 270ff uranium 28, 88-89, 251, 257, 270ff, 573, in oil 577 uranium decay-series disequilibrium dating method 44, 282, 329, 375 uranium prompt fission neutron (PFN) logging systems 283, 432 uranium-thorium/helium age dating 320 uranothorite 270 uranyl ion 270, 273 UST unidirectional solidification texture 178 Uston bauxite, France 237 UV (ultra violet) fluorescence 182, 183

62

Valhalla Pb-Zn-Ag mine, Australia 418 Vallecas sepiolite, Spain 299 Valley of the Ten Thousand Smokes fluorine, Alaska 321 VALMIN Code 568 valuable heavy minerals (VHM) 256 valuation 437ff, 447ff VAM (ventilation air methane) 515 VAMS (volcanic-associated massive sulphides) 70 vanadinite 183 vanadium 14, 183ff, in batteries for electric cars 184, at Yeelirrie U 280, in oil shale

574 vanadium/nickel ratio as a tracer from source rock to oil 535 vapour 246, see boiling variance 446 variography (geostatistics) 445, 446, 509 Variscan orogen (Variscides) 139, 140f., 190, 201, 346, 360 varlamoffite 203 varves 388 Vassbo Pb, Sweden 200 Veendam salt, Netherlands 238 veins 62-68

hydraulic permeability 64 sheeted 64 (eq. 1.8) fracturing mechanics 65 tensional 65 compressional 66 zonation 67

vent (submarine) 7, 18ff, 38, 70ff, 75, 103, 105, 109, 113, 146, 174, 179, 191, 195, 215, 241, 409, 530, 539, related to reefs 548, faults 549, exploration guides 554, gas 555, oil 576

ventilation air methane (VAM) 515 Vergenoeg F, South Africa 322 vermiculite 187, 339ff VHM (valuable heavy minerals) 256 vibrator trucks 7.23 Viburnum Pb-Zn, Missouri 61, 117-118 Viking Graben 539, 547, 561 Vila Nova placer diamonds, Brazil 315 villiaumite 354 viscosity, fluids 50 (eq.), 64 (eq.), salt 397, oil 527, water 541 (eq.), oil fluids 562, 568 viscoplastic deformation 397 vitrain 475 vitrinite 475, 476 vitrinite reflectance 501, 503, 529, 540 Voisey’s Bay Ni-Cu-Co, Canada 16, 171, 418, 431 volatile matter (VM) in coal 480 volatiles 30ff, 75, 122, 176 volatility (of markets) 448 volcanic-associated massive sulphides (VAMS) 70 volcanic-exhalative 70, 182, 189-191 volcaniclastic rocks 362ff

63

volcanogenic deposits 68-76 volcanogenic massive sulphides (VMS) 68 ff, 190 volume from serial sections 444 (eq.) vulcanization of organic substance 535 Wackersdorf U in lignite, Germany 274 wad 159, 173 Wadi Essel celestite, gypsum, Egypt 294, 329, 3.3 WAG, water-alternating-gas oil production method 568 wairakite 366 washout in coal 491 waste disposal 3, 272, management 449, 455ff, sequestration 458ff waste rock (rocks that must be moved but are not ore) 455 waste repositories 3, 458ff, 5.29 Waterberg Pt, South Africa 230 water bioremediation in situ 576 connate 111, 551

critical density, pressure and temperature 31, 37 diagenetic 111ff, 395, 551 disproportionation 538 (eq.) formation and reservoir 42, 111, 551 geothermal 35-37, 40, 75, 240 stable isotopes 42, 80, 111, 374-375 inrush/inflow 394, 405, 408, 415, 437 juvenile 40 magmatic 30, 42, 47, 55, 75 metamorphic 127ff meteoric 42 mine 450ff, 514 re-injection 577 saline 110, 405, 577 supercritical 37 surface 42, 77, 274 vapour 31, 42, 46ff volcanic 42 volcanic-exhalative 70, 182, 189-191

water in exploration geochemistry 426 water management, general and watershed 450, 456, artificial wetlands 453, mine

closure 457, coal mines 514 watershed studies 450 water washing (of oil) 552 wealth 447 weathering 76ff Weatherstone N. “the mine of the future will be a waste management project” 448 Weibei coal bed methane (CBM), China 510 weighting 444 (eq.) Weipa Al, kaolin, Australia 235, 332 Werra salt, Germany 373 Western Australia (W.A.) 12

64

wet gas 527 wetlands today, carbon mass 493 wetlands 491ff wetting characteristics of reservoir fluids 558, 561, 567 white fillers 331, 335 White Pine copper, USA 192, oil traces 553 white smokers 20ff Wielicka salt, Poland 373 willemite 195 Willis Mountain kyanite, Virginia 290 Willsboro wollastonite, New York State 365 Wilson cycle 139 Wiluna Au-Sb, Western Australia 244 wire frame section 444, 445 wireline logging methods 432, 433, 558ff witherite 293 Witkop F., South Africa 323 Witwatersrand Au-U, South Africa 98, 99, 219-220, 271, 278, 454, 498, 2.26 Wodgina Ta, Western Australia 262 wodginite 261 wolfram see tungsten wolframite 96, 179 Wolkenhügel barite, Germany 297 wollastonite 198, 293, 305, 364ff wollastonite formation 364 (eq.) Woodall R. on detailed exploration “getting the geology right is fundamental” 437 world-class deposits, nickel 172 world’s primary energy supply 465 worth (value) of a mineral deposit 447 Woxi Au-Sb-W, China 244 wulfenite 175 wurtzite 195 Xenotime 254, 257, 273 Xikuanshan Sb, China 244 X-ray radiography (coal) 509 XRD, X-ray diffraction 331, 436 XRF, X-ray fluorescence 427, 436 Yallourn lignite, Australia 483, 487 Yanshanian orogeny (Jurassic), granitoids and tungsten 181, tin 206, gold 212, silver

223, antimony 244 Yeelirrie U, Western Australia 184, 280 yellow cake (ammonium diuranate) 271 Yichun Ta-Sn, South China 262 Yoganup Ti-Zr placers, Western Australia 252

65

yttrium 257 Yucca Mountain radioactive waste project, Nevada 362, 459, 460 Yutangba Se, China 248 Zebirget Island olivine, Red Sea 342 zebra textures 51, 113 Zechstein salt 389ff, sequence stratigraphy 390 zeolites synthetic 331, 365ff zeolitite 366 zeolite structure 365 zero waste mine 449 zinc 61, 70, 90, 113, 116ff, 195ff, non-sulphide zinc ore 197 Zinnwald Germany Sn, Li 205 zinnwaldite 265 zirconium, zircon 96, 251ff, 346, 2.39 zirconia 251 zonation see metal zonation zonation of zeolites 367 zone refining 70, 109, 297