Uranium The Facts - Impact Assessment Agency€¦ · Uranium. The Facts. 11 A Secure Industry...

UraniumThe Facts

Uranium: Its Advantages, Risks and Outlook

Is Uranium Mining Really Necessary?

Energy:GrowingDemand UraniumUse:ANecessityinManyActivitySectors Uranium:MeetingPresentandFutureNeeds

Uranium Opponents

Advantages of Uranium

ASecureIndustry MineSafety NuclearReactorSafety TransportingRadioactiveSubstancesSafely ManagingMineTailingsandRadioactiveWasteSafely SafetySummedUp AnEnergySourceGHGemission-free AnAffordableResource AnAvailableEnergySource ASecureIndustrywithPeacefulAims AdvantagesSummedUp

Public Opinion

Uranium Market Development

GlobalUraniumSupply Mining:Outlook

Conclusion

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Table of contents

Photos on page 10, 14, 15, 18, 26, 28, 29 courtesy of Cameco Inc.

Uranium. The Facts. 3

The growth in global energy demand and the need to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have spurred renewed activity in the uranium market. With uranium exploration and mining on the upswing, there is growing public concern. The information available is considerable, and often contradictory. Scientific rigour is therefore the first step toward demystifying uranium and portraying the uranium industry accurately.

This brochure looks at the entire uranium industry, from exploration through to radioactive waste management,

with the goal of improved public information and awareness. It also describes the various ways uranium is used, the risks and advantages involved, and the future outlook.

This information is based on recent scientific data, and will lead to a better understanding of the issues in uranium exploration and mining. This is essential at a time when the international community must find ways to protect the environment and human health.

Uranium: Its Advantages, Risks and Outlook

MAKE CHOICES THAT PROTECT THE ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH.

THE GLOBAL POPULATION WILL REACH 8 BILLION WITHIN 20 YEARS.


Energy: Growing Demand

Energy is essential for human needs. Uranium is an available, affordable, reliable and GHG emission-free source of energy, and its use is therefore an intelligent, necessary choice for the planet.

Over the years, global energy consumption has grown considerably. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) estimates that world primary energy demand will grow by 1.5% per year on average from 2007 to 2030, leading to a 40% increase by 2030.1 The increase in demand is particularly due to accelerated economic growth in China and India, closely followed by the Middle East. In addition, the increase in the global population,

which will reach 8 billion within 20 years, will inevitably lead to higher energy demand.2 Such figures convey the urgency of developing planet-wide energy programs that can meet the demand.

The many existing energy sources, such as water, oil, coal, wind, sun and uranium, are sufficient to meet current global demand. However, because of depletion, production costs, scarcity, environmental impacts and efficiency, some of these sources do not meet international expectations and criteria. The international community is increasingly calling for safe, reliable, affordable and GHG emission-free energy. Uranium Use: A Necessity in Many Activity Sectors

Uranium is found in abundance in the earth’s crust. It is found in its natural state in the rock, soil, rivers and oceans. For uranium to be used, mining companies must first mine it. The ore is then ground by crushing and concentrated through various chemical operations. This process produces a yellow paste known as “yellowcake” (U3O8). This substance is then shipped to refineries that enrich the uranium.3

There are various uses for uranium, the main one being electricity production. There are currently 436 reactors operating in 30 countries supplying about 15% of the world’s electricity. Another 30 reactors are in construction, equal to 8% of current capacity, and 60 others are planned, representing 27% of current capacity.4

Is Uranium Mining ReallyNecessary?

WEO-2008 total Other renewables Biomass HydroNuclear Gas Oil Coal

1980

18 000

16 000

14 000

12 000

10 000

800

600

400

200

01990 2000 2010 2020 2030

Mtoe

FIGURE 1 | World Primary Energy Demand by Fuel Type 1980-2030

Source: OECD/IEA World Energy Outlook , 2009

Uranium. The Facts.6

In addition to electricity generation, many other activities result from uranium transformation, notably in the areas of medicine, agriculture and food production.

In medicine, cobalt-60 (radioisotopes) is part of an effective cancer treatment. Cobalt-60 is a radioactive isotope created by irradiating ordinary cobalt with neutrons in a nuclear reactor. Every day, Canada supplies about half the medical radioisotopes used in over 60,000 procedures worldwide, including about 5,000 in Canada.5 Millions of diagnoses are therefore made each year using radioisotopes produced in Canada. The temporary closure of the Chalk River nuclear plant in Ontario in May 2009 showed how important medical radioisotopes are for healthcare, both in Canada and worldwide; the interruption of radioisotope supply created a shortage that resulted in delayed cancer detection tests and treatment for thousands of patients

around the world. Nuclear technology is clearly essential for patient diagnosis and treatment. Canada also supplies 60% of the cobalt-60 used to sterilize over 40% of disposable medical supplies around the world.6

In the food industry, nuclear technology has also led to the development of a process to irradiate food. This allows elimination of the risk of bacterial infection or infestation that can cause food to spoil, cause illness or even death. This process is broadly supported by the agri-food industry, because it aims, among other things, to combat the proliferation of bacteria like E.coli and Listeria, which have both made the news due to their harmful effects on consumers. Irradiation involves exposing food to cobalt-60 gamma rays, thereby destroying bacteria completely. In a background paper, the Canadian Institute of Food Science And Technology concluded that, “from a toxicological, microbiological or nutritional point of view, the process of food irradiation is at least as safe as other, more conventional, well-accepted food processes such as pasteurization and canning.” 7

In the agricultural industry, nuclear techniques are used to improve production, irrigate and fertilize the soil, combat destructive insects and develop new plant strains. These various uses have many advantages for the agricultural industry. Eliminating harmful insects by using radiation to sterilize the males of the species results in increased agricultural production and reduced pesticide use.8 Using radiation to develop new plant strains has led to the development of virus-resistant grains, better growth cycles and better harvests around the world.9

2.3%

Others *16.0%

HydraulicEnergy

14.8%

NuclearEnergy

5.8%

Oil

41.0%

Coal

20.1%

Natural Gas

*The category “Others” includes geothermal energy, solar energy and wind power as well as renewable energy sources and combustible wastes.

Source: CNA, 2009.

FIGURE 2 | Global Electricity Generation

NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY IS ESSENTIAL FOR CANCER DETECTION AND TREATEMENT FOR THOUSANDS OF PATIENTS AROUND THE WORLD.


Nuclear energy can also be used to desalinate water. This consists of eliminating the minerals in solution present in sea or brackish water to make drinking water. This process is not only extremely useful, it is essential, as today: “One billion people do not have access to safe drinking water […] and five thousand children under the age of six die every day from diseases caused by lack of clean drinking water or sanitation, or by their poor quality.”10

Most desalination processes today, very energy intensive, use fossil fuels. With these processes used to produce about 40 million m3 of potable water every day, this use of fossil energy clearly contributes to increased levels of GHG.11 Consequently, using nuclear power to desalinate water is a better option, for the environment and for drinking water supply.

Many other activity sectors enjoy the benefits of nuclear technology. It is used in smoke detectors, to scan baggage at airports, to check surface density in road

construction, to authenticate and restore paintings and artworks in museums, to irradiate silicon for hybrid car parts, in photocopiers, to test airplane parts and in many other areas of everyday life. Uranium: Meeting Present and Future Needs

Uranium is therefore not only an interesting option, it is a necessity. Steadily climbing world energy demand will have a major impact on the planet. Nuclear power is the only affordable, safe and GHG emission-free form of energy that has sufficient resources. Furthermore, nuclear technology contributes to the improvement and diversification of many activity sectors essential to our everyday life and wellbeing. Cancer detection, elimination of deadly bacteria and water desalination are just a few examples of the crucial role of uranium mining. The uranium industry is therefore not just profitable for the operators. It contributes first and foremost to the wellbeing of people and the planet.

NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY CONTRIBUTES TO THE IMPROVEMENT AND DIVERSIFICATION OF MANY ACTIVITY SECTORS ESSENTIAL TO OUR EVERYDAY LIFE AND WELLBEING.


Despite the many advantages of uranium, pressure groups still conduct campaigns against the use of this mineral in any form. Over the years, new arguments against this energy source have emerged while others have dissipated as the global context changed.

In the 1950s, an anti-nuclear movement took root across the globe in reaction to nuclear testing. Opponents were fearful of the threat of nuclear weapons proliferation. However, it was only in the 1970s, with the emergence of global environmental awareness, that the anti-nuclear movement included uncertainty regarding the effects of nuclear energy on the environment among their accusations.12 This remains one of the core concerns of the main pressure groups. Greenpeace claims that:

“After half a century of nuclear energy, the planet has inherited nuclear waste that will remain radioactive for tens if not hundreds of thousands of years. No safe solution has yet been found for their management anywhere in the world. […] Radioactive leaks into the environment have contaminated the soil, air, rivers and oceans, which is at the root of cancers and other diseases.”13

In addition to military and environmental considerations, little by little, nuclear opponents began to include criticisms of an economic nature. For instance, French

group “Nucléaire non merci” maintains that, while nuclear energy has the reputation of being low cost, operating costs are higher than initially imagined. They cite the total cost of long-term waste management, the future cost of dismantling aging power plants and the potential cost of a serious accident as reasons why nuclear energy is not affordable.14 Furthermore, the anti-nuclear movement is opposed to the granting of public subsidies to the nuclear industry rather than to renewable energy sources such as sun and wind.

The various pressure groups are unanimous when it comes to the unsafe, vulnerable nature of nuclear energy: we must stop producing nuclear energy so as to eliminate any possibility of another accident like those at Chernobyl and Three Mile Island. For such groups, terrorism is an added menace that constitutes a threat for the entire planet.15

The proliferation of nuclear weapons, environmental and health impacts, cost, lack of safety and vulnerability are therefore the anti-nuclear movement’s main arguments.

Uranium Opponents

IN URANIUM MINING, EVERY PRECAUTION IS TAKEN ON SITE TO PROTECT THE HEALTH OF

WORKERS AND LOCAL RESIDENTS.


A Secure Industry

Uranium is not a dangerous, unstable energy source, as the anti-nuclear movement would have us believe. Safety is a priority at every step of uranium use, from exploration to radioactive waste management. The industry is regulated by international and national standards that control every type of risk, for both workers and the general public. Indeed, the IAEA has been working for years to improve and strengthen existing international standards. The figure and information below show how seriously safety is taken in mines, nuclear reactors, transport and the management of mining and radioactive waste.

Mine Safety

In uranium mining, every precaution is taken at the site to protect the health of workers and local residents. The liberation of radon gas during mining of uranium and other minerals is the main threat to the miners’ health. Exposure to high levels of radon can cause lung cancer.

Advantages of Uranium

1958

Safe Handlingof Radioisotopes

1961

Safe Transportof RadioactiveMaterial

1962

BSS for Radiation Protection

1965

Radioactive Waste Disposal into the Ground

1974

NUSS Programme

1988

RADWASS Programme

1996

Basic SafetyStandards

1996

Commissionand Committees

2006

Unified SafetyFundamentals

FIGURE 3 | IAEA Regulation History Source: IAEA, 2008.

Once this threat was identified, numerous control measures were implemented. Powerful ventilation systems are now installed in underground mines to minimize radon exposure. Moreover, the air quality in mines is closely monitored on a continuous basis.

The risk of workers being exposed to radiation from uranium is very low. The level of radiation is so low that it represents only a fraction of the annual allowable limit. To protect themselves, the workers must, among other things, permanently wear a device called a dosimeter which enables them to monitor the radiation level. Additionally, according to the type of operation and the location of the workplace, a mask and gloves may be required. The uranium concentrate is handled in such a way as to ensure that workers do not touch it directly, or ingest or inhale it. Finally, while there is only a very low probability that a worker will be exposed to radiation to the point of suffering harmful health effects, such effects are known and treatable.


Analyses carried out in Canada have shown that exposure of uranium mine workers to radioactivity is well below the allowable limits. The Canadian limit for workers is 50 mSv (millisievert) per year. Studies have shown that in practice, the average annual uranium worker dose is 1-2 mSv, and average annual doses to the most exposed workers (i.e. industrial radiographer) are approximately 5 mSv.16

In this regard, the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC) notes that: “Studies demonstrate that present-day uranium workers, and the public living near a uranium mine or mill, are as healthy as the general Canadian population.”17

All the precautions and measures taken to protect workers’ health are set forth and described in detail in a radiation protection program. Such a program is required for all phases of uranium exploration and production. The program is aimed at ensuring that anyone in contact with radon progenies has an exposure that is as low as reasonably achievable.

Nuclear Reactor Safety

Safety measures are as, if not more, stringent for the construction and operation of nuclear reactors, given their proximity to populated areas. Reactors have multiple, fully-independent mechanisms that ensure the safety of the site by preventing the multiplication of accidents. An automated safety system also controls all activities performed manually. The reactor confinement structure prevents any radioactive emissions into the environment. Should an internal failure or major external event such as an earthquake occur, the emergency system automatically shuts down the reactors. It is worth noting that the engineering of safety systems and structures account for one quarter of the construction cost of a reactor.18

The quantity of radiation emitted by a nuclear reactor is extremely low, and has no significant health effects on the population.19 A person who lives in the vicinity of a nuclear reactor receives less radiation each year than someone who spends a few hours in an airplane. For instance, “a person flying one-way from Toronto to Vancouver will receive about 15 to 20 times the amount of radiation exposure as a person living at the perimeter of a nuclear plant for a whole year”.20 Consequently, the public receives much less radiation from Canadian nuclear power plants than from natural and artificial sources.

RADIATION UNITS

“Thebasicunitofradiationdoseisthegray.However,sincevariousformsofionizingradiationhavedifferenteffectsonthehumanbody,aspecialunitofmeasurementforradiationdosetohumansisused,thesievert(Sv),whichtakesintoaccountthesedifferences.Sincethesievertisarelativelylargevalue,typicallevelsofdoseareexpressedinmillisieverts(mSv),one-thousandthofasievert.”

Source: CNA, 2009.


The government of Canada has set the maximum allowable dose for the general public at 1 mSv/year. The minimum annual dose that produces negative health effects is 100 mSv. The Canadian regulatory limit for the public therefore corresponds to 1% of this amount.

In fact, the average Canadian receives about 2.7 mSv of ionizing radiation per year from both natural and manmade sources, such as diagnostic devices and medical treatment, X-rays, cosmic rays from space, the sun and radon present in the ground. According to the CNA, “a lethal dose is about 5 sieverts (Sv). This means that at 2.7 mSv or 0.0027 Sv per year, you would have to live over 1,800 years to receive the equivalent dose from your environment. However, in order to be lethal, that total dose would need to be given all at once.” 21

Thus far, commercial nuclear reactors have a nearly-perfect safety record. This record is marred by the only accident not contained by the reactor structure: the Chernobyl disaster that occurred on April 26, 1986, in the Ukraine.

This disaster occurred because of a lack of safety culture that tends to be attributed to the isolation arising from the Cold War. Had Reactor No. 4 at the Chernobyl plant had a multilayer safety system like those already installed in all reactors in the West at that time, the accident would have been contained and its disastrous consequences avoided. In addition to the absence of an effective containment structure, however, there were other factors that explain the extent of the damage. These include the violation of operating

procedures and the absence of safety measures. Ignorance of the risks associated with radiation had fatal consequences throughout the handling of the crisis.22

The Chernobyl accident shone the spotlight on the weaknesses and failings of nuclear reactor safety programs and the poor training of nuclear engineers in Eastern Europe. After the accident, a number of international programs were created to ensure the safety of nuclear reactors worldwide. While nuclear reactors in the West were already equipped with very powerful safety systems, such programs allowed industry rules and practices to be standardized.

Nevertheless, an expert from the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) reported that “the Chernobyl accident has not brought to light any new, previously unknown phenomena or safety issues that are not resolved or otherwise covered by current reactor safety programs for commercial power reactors in OECD Member countries”.23

Other Sources0.04 mSv

Living at the Boundaryof a Nuclear StationLess than 0,05 mSv

MedicalSources

Less than1.0 mSv

NaturalBackground3 mSv

Source: CNA, 2009.

FIGURE 4 | Radiation Sources


The Three Mile Island accident occurred few years earlier, in March 1979, in Pennsylvania, in the United States, when partial meltdown of the reactor core occurred. Unlike the Chernobyl incident, the Three Mile Island safety system responded adequately, and the accident did not have an impact on the health of the local population. This event proved that the containment structure was effective and safe. No major changes were required to the design of nuclear reactors following this event. However, safety measure controls and operator training were reinforced. Consequently, according to the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the likelihood of an accident resulting from nuclear reactor core meltdown, like the one at Three Mile Island, has decreased with time. “The current risk is estimated at one accident in a million years, and with the construction of the next generation of reactors, the risk will fall to one accident in 10 million years.”24

Transporting Radioactive Substances Safely

The public is particularly concerned about the transport of radioactive substances, perceiving a possible accident as a health and environmental threat. Despite such fears, not one major accident or injury has been reported since this type of transport began, even though about 20 million packages of radioactive material are transported annually.25

Radioactive substances are classified as dangerous goods, and as such their transportation is regulated and supervised. More than 3,000 substances used in almost all industries are considered dangerous goods. Hydrogen chloride, ammonium and chlorine are the main dangerous goods used in the mining and metallurgy industry.26 Each dangerous good falls within one of nine separate classes, as shown in the following table:

TABLE 1 | Classification of Dangerous Goods

Explosives1 Mine blasting explosives, fireworks

Compressed or liquefied gases2 Oxygen, propane, nitrogen

Flammable liquids3 Gas, diesel fuel

Flammable solids4.1 Sulphur, phosphorous

Substances liable to spontaneous combustion

4.2 Activated carbon


4.3 Sodium

Oxidizing substances5.1 Ammonium nitrate

Organic peroxides5.2 Dibenzoyl peroxide

Toxic substances6.1 Chlorine, ammonium

Infectious substances6.2 Hospital waste

Radioactive materials7 Yellowcake

Corrosives8 Acids

Miscellaneous dangerous products and substances

9 BPC

No Class of Dangerous Goods Examples


This history of safety for the transport of radioactive substances is due to the provisions and regulations put in place by the various authorities. In Canada, the CNSC and Transport Canada develop and apply the regulations governing the transport of radioactive substances. These are based on the regulations published by the IAEA in Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material,27 which sets the standards for the international community. They describe the behaviour to adopt and the measures to take to avoid the dangers related to the handling and transport of radioactive substances.

The requirements for the transport of radioactive substances differ depending on the type of material, its origin and its destination. There are many radioactive materials, including medical products, consumables such as smoke detectors, uranium ore and fuel rods for nuclear power plants. However, the goal for all shipments of radioactive materials remains the same: the entire shipment process, from packaging to arrival at the final destination, must unfold in a safe, secure manner.

The IAEA has identified yellowcake as a “Group 1 low specific activity material”. In other words, yellowcake is a radioactive substance with a very low level of radioactivity. Consequently, handling yellowcake involves very little risk. It is nevertheless a substance that is classified as a dangerous good, and its transportation is therefore regulated and monitored by various Canadian authorities.

The producer, like the carrier and everyone else involved in the transport, must make sure that the applicable Canadian transport regulations are complied with. This is particular true of the documentation that accompanies all shipments of radioactive substances, the safety marks

that must be placed in clear view on the containers and the means of transport, the means of containment used to safely contain the substance during transport, the radiation protection program, the emergency response assistance plan for emergency situations, training of employees involved in the transport, and measures to take in the event of accidental releases.28

Consequently, regardless of whether the shipment involves yellowcake or another radioactive substance, there are very stringent rules that aim to eliminate the risks related to the handling and transport of dangerous goods. These have clearly played a role in the spotless transport record for radioactive materials.

Managing Mine Tailings and Radioactive Waste Safely

Management of Mine TailingsAll uranium companies must comply with the very strict environmental regulations governing mine tailings management. While they only account for 2% of Canadian mine tailings, Canada’s uranium mines are leaders in this area. They use cutting edge technology at every stage of the operation to ensure that tailings do not have any harmful effect on the environment.29 Mine tailings can be stored in trenches which will eventually be covered with soil to avoid rock dust in the environment. According to the CNSC, “long-term management in near-surface facilities adjacent to the mines and mills is the only practical option for these wastes”.30

DEFINITION OF MINE TAILINGS

“Theoreinthegroundcontainsonlyafractionofthemetal(ormineral)thatissoughtbytheminingoperation.Theremainingmaterialintheoreendsupastailingsfromtheminingandmillingoperations.”

Source: CNA, 2008.

Explosives1 Mine blasting explosives, fireworks

Compressed or liquefied gases2 Oxygen, propane, nitrogen

Flammable liquids3 Gas, diesel fuel

Flammable solids4.1 Sulphur, phosphorous


4.2 Activated carbon


4.3 Sodium

Oxidizing substances5.1 Ammonium nitrate

Organic peroxides5.2 Dibenzoyl peroxide

Toxic substances6.1 Chlorine, ammonium

Infectious substances6.2 Hospital waste

Radioactive materials7 Yellowcake

Corrosives8 Acids

Miscellaneous dangerous products and substances

9 BPC

No Class of Dangerous Goods Examples


Furthermore, when a mining company closes a mine site, it is obliged to deal with the mine tailings. It is required to submit a site rehabilitation plan to the CNSC at the project design stage. The plan must be accompanied by a financial guaranty that covers 100% of rehabilitation costs, regardless of when they will be incurred. According to CNSC standards, “financial guarantees must be sufficient to cover the cost of decommissioning work resulting from licensed activities that have taken place prior to the licence period, or will take place under the current licence”.31 Mining companies as well as governmental authorities thus guarantee that the mine sites they leave behind are clean and safe.

Radioactive Waste Management There are three types of radioactive waste: low-level waste, intermediate-level waste and high-level waste. The level depends on the level of radioactivity and the length of time it remains hazardous.32

Storage of low- and intermediate-level waste is generally more socially accepted, as this type of waste stays radioactive for a much shorter time. In fact, the radioactivity of low-level waste falls sufficiently within a few hours or days, so it can be treated like ordinary garbage, and even incinerated. Intermediate-level waste and low-level waste from nuclear power plants is sent to disposal sites and stored in special structures made of concrete and steel.33 Low- and intermediate-level waste represents about 97% of the volume of all the radioactive waste produced in the world.34

There is greater concern surrounding the disposal of high-level waste. This type of waste does indeed stay radioactive for a long time, and will need to be contained and isolated from people and the environment essentially indefinitely.35 The storage methods used for high-level waste are extremely safe and well-developed. Contrary to other industrial wastes, the volume of high-level waste is very low. It is currently increasing by about 12,000 tonnes worldwide every year, which is equivalent to a two-storey structure, built on a basketball court. The total amount of used nuclear fuel produced in 47 years from nuclear power plants in Canada would fill six hockey rinks up to the height of the boards.36

High-level waste produced by nuclear power plants is stored in several stages over a number of years to eliminate any threat of radiation. The process begins with the temporary storage of the used fuel bundles for 7 to 10 years in water-filled pools within the nuclear power plants. Once this period is over, the bundles are transferred to centralized, dry, concrete or steel storage facilities.37

Many nuclear opponents are concerned about long-term management of highly radioactive waste. Yet, there is already a process that meets environmental, safety and security requirements. Thanks to investment in research and development, there has been considerable technological and scientific progress, and some countries are on the verge of permanent storage for their high-level radioactive waste.

SECURITY OF STORAGE FACILITIES IS STRICTLY CONTROLLED AND NUCLEAR WASTE STORAGE IS SAFE AND RELIABLE.


Geological disposal is presently the preferred model for permanent, leak-proof storage of high-level waste. “The concept is to place the used fuel in cavities mined in stable granite formations, which provide natural conditions to prevent dissolution of the ceramic fuel material in ground water.”38 Many countries, such as Switzerland, France, Japan, China, India, the United Kingdom and Germany, have taken steps to dispose of their nuclear waste in this manner. Finland and Sweden are the first countries to proceed and are planning disposal sites to be operational by 2020.39 The United States has a similar project in Nevada.

Canada is among the countries interested in the possibility of permanent disposal of high-level waste. In 2007, the Canadian government adopted a long-term management policy for used nuclear fuel, called Adaptive Phased Management. Implemented by the Nuclear Waste Management Organization (NWMO), this strategy aims to bury high-level radioactive waste in a deep geological formation. It also allows for the possibility of adopting other used nuclear fuel processing methods to adapt the existing structure to “embrace changes in technology and science, societal values and public policy”.40

The security of storage facilities, whatever they may be, is strictly controlled, and storage of nuclear waste is safe and reliable. “In Canada’s 47 years of using nuclear energy, no member of the public has been harmed as a result of a radiation leak from a nuclear power plant or waste storage facility.”41 In addition to the existing facilities, storage safety is supported by the stringent framework of international standards and the laws of each state.

NUCLEAR WASTE

“Low-level waste includes slightly contaminated clothing and items that could come from various activities, such as hospital departments of nuclear medicine, research laboratories, as well as nuclear power plants. Most nuclear waste falls in this category.”

“Intermediate-level waste is typically items such as ion exchange columns from the cooling system of a nuclear power plant, which contain a higher level of radioactivity.”

“High-level waste contains a large amount of radioactive material. The term is often used for spent fuel from a nuclear reactor.”

Source: CNA, 2009.

Source: IAEA

FIGURE 5 | Waste Generated Annually in Fuel Preparation and Plant Operation

0

Million tonnes per GW(e)

Coal Oil Natural gas Wood Nuclear Solar PV

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

Gas sweetening wasteFlue gas desulphurization

Radioactive wasteToxic waste

Ash


All countries are responsible for managing and disposing of their radioactive waste. The IAEA has published a document titled The Principles of Radioactive Waste Management that sets out the main rules to be followed by the international community to promote and strengthen safety on an international level.42 In Canada, the CNSC is responsible for regulating and monitoring the management of radioactive waste to ensure that it does not present a danger to workers, the public or the environment.

Safety Summed Up

Safety is therefore a high priority at all stages of the uranium mining and transformation cycle, across the nuclear industry. Companies exploring for and mining uranium take every precautions possible to achieve the highest level of safety for both their workers and the general public. They are also careful to comply with the many safety standards governing the management of mine tailings. There are very stringent safety standards

governing nuclear reactors; in both reactor construction and operation, every effort is made to eliminate any risk of an accident. The transport of radioactive materials is no exception, and has stringent safety mechanisms that have never failed yet.

An Energy Source GHG emission-free

The great majority of uranium opponents generally use environmental arguments to support their position. However, they neglect to mention one of the key benefits of using this fuel: “Nuclear energy is the only carbon- mitigating technology with a proven track record on the scale required.”43 Unlike fossil fuels, nuclear power emits neither carbon dioxide (CO2), the major GHG behind global warming, nor sulphur dioxide (SO2) or nitrous oxides (N2O), which are the major contributors to acid rain, air pollution and smog.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Protection of human health

Protection of the environment

Protection beyond national borders

Protection of future generations (health)

Radioactive waste managed without imposing undue burdens on future generations

National legal framework including clear allocation of responsibilities and independent regulatory functions

Control of radioactive waste generation

Radioactive waste generation and management interdependencies

Safety of facilities throughout their lifetime

8

9

Source : IAEA, 1996.

TABLE 2 | Fundamental Principles of Radioactive Waste Management

Source: WNA, 2009.

FIGURE 6 | Global CO2 Emissions

0Coal Gas Oil Other

10%

20%

30%

40%

50% 28 BILLION TONNES PER YEAR


At a time when all countries agree on the need to reduce GHG emissions, nuclear energy is a more sensible choice than ever, particularly as current energy generation accounts for two-thirds of GHG emissions.44 According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), if fossil fuels continue to be the primary energy source, the entire planet will be threatened; if we continue to rely on fossil fuels to the same extent as today, CO2 emissions will rise 40% by 2030, increasing the average temperature by 6°C. This would have a considerable effect on air quality, public health and the environment, particularly in developing countries.45

Global GHG emissions due to human activities have grown since pre-industrial times, with an increase of 70% between 1970 and 2004.46 Many organizations, such as the International Energy Agency (IEA), recommend, among other things, increased reliance on nuclear power to decrease global CO2 emissions and slow global warming.47

Statistics on the reduction in GHG due to the use of nuclear power are striking. In Canada alone, the use of nuclear energy avoids the emission of about 90 million tonnes of GHG per year. Electricity generated from Canadian uranium worldwide avoids nearly 700 million

tonnes of CO2 emissions annually.48 On a global scale, nuclear power currently reduces carbon dioxide emissions by some 2.5 billion tonnes per year.49 Without nuclear power, most of the world’s energy needs would be met using fossil fuels, mainly coal. If all the world’s nuclear power were replaced by coal-fired power, electricity’s CO2 emissions would rise by a quarter.50

Source: Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL), World Nuclear Association (WNA), National Energy Institute (NEI)

FIGURE 8 | Comparison of CO2 Emissions by Energy Source (Tonnes of CO2 produced per unit of electricity by TWh)

0Coal Oil Gas Nuclear /

Hydraulic Energy

200,000

400,000

600,000

800,000

1,000,000

FIGURE 7 | Possible Effects of a Rise in Global Temperature Source: Financial Times, 2009.

+1°C

> Increasing risk of wildfires: species shifting habitats due to changing conditions

+2°C

> Up to 30% of plant and animal species at risk of extinction

> Decreased crop productivity in seasonally dry and tropical regions, leading to increased risk of famines

> Most corals bleached

+3°C

> About 30% of global coastal wetlands lost

> Increased morbidity and mortality from heat waves, floods and droughts

> Hundreds of millions of people exposed to water shortages

+4°C

> Millions more people could experience floods every year - especially in densely-populated and low-lying deltas of Africa and Asia

+5°C

> More than 40% of animal and plant species under threat

> Substantial burden on health services

Global mean annual temperature change relative to 1980-1999


On the environmental front, nuclear power is therefore an excellent alternative to fossil fuels, which emit pollutants that are dispersed freely into the environment. Nuclear power is the only electricity- generating industry that takes full responsibility for the sustainable management of its waste. Nuclear fuel can even be recycled to extract uranium and generate more energy.

Nuclear energy is the only non-polluting energy source that can meet mass demand, unlike other non-polluting energy sources such as wind, sun, geothermal and biomass. Alternative energies can act as an excellent complimentary source of electricity, but cannot meet the demand for steady, affordable and large-scale energy.

In short, at a time when countries are being strongly encouraged to cut their GHG emissions, nuclear power unquestionably helps meet this objective. Nuclear energy is an essential choice for environmental protection. Its benefits in the energy market have convinced even its most ardent opponents. Patrick Moore, a founding member of Greenpeace, says, “In the 1970s, nuclear energy was synonymous with nuclear holocaust. Thirty years on, my views have changed, and the rest of the environmental movement needs to update its views, too, because nuclear energy may just be the energy source that can save our planet from another possible disaster: catastrophic climate change.”51

An Affordable Resource

The cost of electricity generated by nuclear power is comparable with that of other sources of mass energy, such as hydroelectricity and fossil fuels. Nuclear power is particularly competitive in regions without immediate access to low-cost fossil fuels and large hydro resources. Indeed, the relative costs of generating electricity from coal, gas and nuclear plants vary considerably depending on geographic location; for instance, coal is economically attractive in countries such as China, the USA and Australia, with abundant and accessible domestic coal resources. Furthermore, if the social, health and environmental costs of fossil fuels are also taken into account, the economics of nuclear power are outstanding.52

CO2 91,552,000

N2O 205,000

COV 1,774

CH4 757

SO2 497,000

EmissionType

Actual ElectricitySector Emission(tonnes)

81,900,000

222,200

1,497

526

491,200

Emissions Avoided byNuclear Plants(tonnes)

47%

52%

46%

41%

49%

EmissionsReduction inthe ElectricitySector

Source: Moore, B and Guindon, S., Comparative Costs of Electricity Generation: A Canadian Perspective. Natural Resources Canada. 2003

TABLE 3 | Emissions Avoided in 1996 Due to Nuclear Power

“NUCLEAR ENERGY IS THE ONLY CARBON-MITIGATING TECHNOLOGY WITH A PROVEN TRACK RECORD ON THE SCALE REQUIRED.”


Given that nuclear energy is at the vanguard of sound waste management, it has advantages not only with regard to safety and environmental protection but also in affordability. Unlike fossil fuel producers, who emit pollutants without assuming the associated social costs (health and the environment), nuclear energy is the only form of energy to internalize its waste management and storage costs. As the environment has become a major concern for governments in recent years, they have begun to levy increasingly higher taxes to encourage producers to pollute less. Applicable to atmospheric emissions, such taxes make fossil fuels more costly. Once fossil fuel producers are required to internalize the cost of the pollutants they emit, nuclear energy will emerge as the least costly energy option.

Another advantage is the low cost of transporting uranium, as it is a highly concentrated energy source. The nuclear industry also generates important economic benefits for many sectors of the economy, including uranium mining, concentration, refining and conversion, nuclear fuel production, equipment manufacturing, electricity generation and radioisotope production for medical, industrial and agricultural purposes. In Canada, the nuclear industry represents 150 companies that generate 21,000 direct jobs and about 50,000 indirect jobs. The industry is also a leading source of jobs for aboriginal communities.

Nuclear energy is a $6.6 billion/year industry in Canada and generates $1.2 billion in exports, as well as $1.5 billion in federal and provincial tax revenues.53

There are many economic benefits of nuclear energy, and they are gaining in importance over time. Nuclear power will become even more competitive with the construction of the new generation of reactors, which will have lower production costs, less waste and higher energy efficiency.

An Available Energy Source

The availability of an energy resource is essential for large-scale production. Certain clean resources, like wind and solar power, cannot meet global demand as they are generated intermittently.

Uranium, however, is ubiquitous on the Earth, and is sure to be available over the long term. In its latest resource estimate, dated 2007, the IAEA estimates “the identified amount of conventional uranium resources which can be mined for less than USD 130/kg to be about 5.5 million tonnes”.54 This is sufficient to meet the needs for the next 83 years. Furthermore, “undiscovered resources, i.e. uranium deposits that can be expected to be found based on the geological characteristics of already discovered resources, have also risen to 10.5 million tonnes.”55

It is also interesting to note that, due to technological advance, uranium resources will decline more slowly in the future. For instance, thanks to the more efficient new generations of reactors, a smaller quantity of uranium will be required to generate the same amount of energy.56

IN CANADA, THE NUCLEAR INDUSTRY REPRESENTS 150 COMPANIES THAT GENERATE 21,000 DIRECT JOBS AND ABOUT 50,000 INDIRECT JOBS. THE INDUSTRY IS ALSO A LEADING SOURCE OF JOBS FOR ABORIGINAL COMMUNITIES.


Furthermore, unlike fossil fuels, uranium has the advantage of being a highly concentrated fuel: 1 kg of natural uranium yields 20,000 times as much energy as the same quantity of coal.57 A Secure Industry with Peaceful Aims

During the Second World War atomic energy was intended for the military. Consequently, the main concern when the atom began to be exploited for civilian purposes was nuclear arms build-up. The United Nations helped mitigate this risk, in particular with the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (1970), which was signed by 189 countries, making it the second most universal treaty. Signatory countries must comply with the prohibition on the proliferation of nuclear weapons, and those that already have nuclear weapons must continue nuclear disarmament. In addition to the existing regulations, the international community applies very strict judgement and sanctions on any country or organization that does not respect nuclear industry rules.

The IAEA also works to ensure that the countries that use nuclear technologies are not secretly developing nuclear weapons.58 To achieve this, manufacturers and distributors are required to notify the IAEA or any national regulatory body of any suspicious requests for the supply of radioactive sources. Eight countries currently have nuclear weapons, while 56 countries operate civil research reactors and 30 have commercial nuclear power reactors.59

In Canada, policies regarding the use of the nuclear atom are strict. The CNA notes: “The overriding requirement is that nuclear materials and technology must not be used for nuclear weapons. […] it is illegal to export uranium, nuclear components or technology for use in nuclear weapons.”60 Very stringent safety measures are taken at nuclear facilities to ensure that no material is diverted for military use. In addition to these internal measures, Canadian government authorities require that foreign states sign a bilateral agreement and the Non- Proliferation Treaty if they wish to acquire Canadian nuclear technologies.61

Advantages Summed Up

Uranium exploration and mining is therefore beneficial on many fronts. With the many advantages described above, nuclear is a safe, reliable, affordable and GHG emission-free energy source. It is a prime energy source capable of meeting the criteria and expectations of the international community and global energy demand. The many other peaceful uses of uranium in addition to energy show how nuclear technology leads to tremendous progress in a range of industries, including medicine and agriculture. In short, with acquired knowledge, technological developments and improved work practices, it is now possible and desirable to make greater use of uranium.

THE NUCLEAR INDUSTRY MUST DEMONSTRATE TRANSPARENCY AND SHARE

ITS INFORMATION AND KNOW-HOW.


Thus, the advantages of nuclear power are demonstrated by a raft of scientific data and concrete examples. Nevertheless, part of the public opinion still reflects fears of the proliferation of nuclear weapons, accidental spills and the effects of radioactive waste. These fears are rooted in past accidents like Chernobyl that are etched in people’s memories. They also arise from the public’s lack of confidence in nuclear industry authorities, which results from, among other things, “the secrecy and the arrogance” that previously characterized the nuclear energy sector.62 Public concern is therefore perfectly understandable, but the situation today has changed. To allay such fears and reverse the trend, the nuclear industry must demonstrate transparency and share its information and know-how.

Opinion polls on the nuclear industry, particularly those conducted by the CNA, the Nuclear Energy Agency and the European Commission, have all shown the importance of awareness when it comes time to gather public support. Many polls have shown that an increase in the level of understanding and knowledge of civil society directly influences the level of support. Thus, the more informed the public, the better its perception of the nuclear industry.63 For instance, residents of Saskatchewan, where all of the Canadian uranium mines are located, are much better informed on the issues related to uranium exploration and mining than the rest of Canadians. A Canadian poll, conducted in August 2009, showed that Saskatchewan residents feel that the province “should become a leader in the disposal and storage of nuclear waste” and 67% support construction of “a new nuclear facility in the province that would produce medical isotopes”.64

Despite the industry’s sustained efforts in recent years to inform the public of the issues surrounding nuclear power, public acceptance is changing slowly. The public is reticent in the face of the information put out by government authorities. In the case of nuclear power, “it is as though […] the public does not look for distinctions between the different actors in the nuclear business, but rather tends to see all parts of the industry in a similar light.”65 Government authorities, nuclear safety regulators and operators do not have a high sympathy rating with the public, and the information they provide is often poorly perceived.

Society is therefore particularly sensitive about nuclear power. Yet, with continual disclosure of scientifically-factual information, the absence of major accidents, openness and transparency of government authorities and producers and public participation in decision-making, the divergence of opinions that pervade civil society might recede to make way for a better understanding of the issues surrounding nuclear power.

Public Opinion NUCLEAR IS A SAFE, RELIABLE, AFFORDABLE AND GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSION-FREE ENERGY SOURCE.

THE NUCLEAR INDUSTRY IS DEVELOPING AND GAINING IN IMPORTANCE IN MANY COUNTRIES THAT

ARE REVIEWING THEIR ENERGY PROGRAMS IN ORDER TO CUT GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS.


The uranium market remains sizable due to the benefits of uranium and the needs of many activity sectors. Uranium need has grown since the beginning of the 21st century, primarily due to greater demand for nuclear power. With the price fluctuations of oil and other fossil fuels, uranium now seems to be the energy source that best meets current needs. Growing energy demand, particularly in emerging countries like India and China, the environmental stakes and reliability, efficiency and affordability requirements are some of the international criteria to consider. The current global reality is therefore a factor in the uranium market turnaround.

Uranium Market Development

FIGURE 9 | Nuclear Share in Electricity Generation in 2008

FRANCELITHUANIA

SLOVAKIABELGIUMUKRAINESWEDEN

SLOVENIAARMENIA

SWITZERLANDHUNGARY

KOREA REP.BULGARIA

CZECH REP.FINLAND

GERMANYJAPAN

USASPAIN

ROMANIARUSSIA

CANADAUK

ARGENTINASOUTH AFRICA

MEXICONETHERLANDS

BRAZILCHINAINDIA

PAKISTAN

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%

78.1872.89

56.4253.76

47.4042.04

41.7139.35

39.2237.15

35.6232.92

32.4529.73

28.2924.93

19.6618.27

17.5416.86

14.8013.45

6.185.25

4.043.80

3.122.152.031.91

Note: The Nuclear share in Taiwan, China was 19.6%

Source: IAEA, 2009.

Global Uranium Supply About 60% of the world’s uranium production comes from mines in Canada, Australia and Kazakhstan.66 Canada is one of the world’s largest producers of natural uranium, providing about 21% of total world production from its Saskatchewan mines in 2008.67 Many other countries, such as South Africa, Niger, Namibia, Uzbekistan, the United States and Russia, also produce uranium.


The increase in the number of nuclear reactors in the world is a good measure of the growth in the uranium market. There are currently 436 nuclear reactors in operation in 30 countries, and 53 reactors are under construction. Nuclear power is under serious consideration in over thirty countries which do not currently have it.68 Today, some 15 countries use nuclear power for more than one quarter of their energy consumption. France and Lithuania are the largest consumers of nuclear energy, which represents over 60% of their total energy consumption. In Canada, 14.8% of the electricity consumed is supplied by nuclear reactors. Ontario is the province that accounts for the most, with 53% of its electricity generated by its 16 functioning reactors.69

The nuclear industry is also developing in emerging countries and developing countries that do not have natural energy resources. Many countries such as South Korea, China, India and Taiwan are seeing economic growth particularly due to the production of reliable, affordable and GHG emission-free electricity in their nuclear power plants.70 In China, which had only three

operating reactors at the turn of the century, now has 11 reactors in operation, 16 reactors under construction, 35 at the planning stage and 90 more reactors forecast. In Japan, over a third of the country’s electricity is generated by 53 reactors, and 13 more are in the planning stage.

Moreover, the nuclear industry is developing and gaining in importance in many countries who are reviewing their energy program in order to reduce GHG emissions. For instance, the Canadian government “has set an objective of meeting 90% of Canada’s electricity needs from non-emitting sources such as hydro, nuclear, clean coal or wind power by 2020.”71

World requirements Western world requirements New production Secondary suppliesCIS / China Existing production

20040

25

50

75

100

125

150

175

200

225

2006 2007 2010 2012 2014

FIGURE 10 | Uranium (U3O8) Supply / Demand Forecast Millions of lbs − 2004-2014

Source: Xemplar Energy Corp.


The planning, repair and construction of new nuclear reactors worldwide attests to the importance of the nuclear industry. Uranium mining generates benefits that many countries want to enjoy, and this has led to unprecedented growth in the uranium market.

Mining: Outlook

The nuclear power from a primary source, namely uranium from mines, currently accounts for only 60% of all nuclear power; the remaining fuel is made up from secondary sources such as recycled material (uranium, MOX), civil stockpiles, re-enriched depleted uranium and reconverted military uranium.72 However, uranium reserves from secondary sources are declining

and will soon be depleted, which will drive up demand for uranium from mines. Demand for primary source uranium is expected to grow steadily to produce 89 to 92% of all nuclear power by 2050.73

Overall, growing nuclear power demand and rising uranium prices have pushed mining companies to develop the uranium market. In Canada, exploration is booming. Canadian uranium is presently supplied by mines in northern Saskatchewan. However, active uranium exploration programs are also underway in the Northwest Territories, Yukon, Nunavut, Quebec, Newfoundland and Labrador, Ontario, Manitoba, New Brunswick and Alberta. More than 200 junior exploration companies are involved, many for the first time.74

US$ / lb U3O8

Ux U3O8 Price UxCc

88$0

$20

$40

$60

$80

$100

$120

$140

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09

FIGURE 11 | Uranium (U3O8) Price History − 1988-2009

Source: UxC, 2009.


In light of the data, uranium clearly stands out from other energy sources. Uranium exploration, mining and use of this ore produces energy that is safe, reliable, affordable and GHG emission-free. In addition to electricity generation, many sectors worldwide benefit from the advantages of uranium, including health, agriculture and food. These sectors use uranium for entirely peaceful ends. Consequently, with higher energy demand, the economics of fossil fuels and the need to reduce air pollution, uranium demand is currently growing dramatically, and exceeds uranium mine supply.

Renewed exploration of areas with uranium potential is required to correct this situation and meet the planet’s energy requirements.

Strateco Resources is contributing to the growth of the uranium industry by developing its Matoush property. Along with environmental protection, the company values above all the safety of its workers and the general public, and conscientiously respects the standards regulating the uranium industry.

Conclusion

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Analysis of Uranium Supply to 2050. http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub1104_scr.pdf.74 Natural Resources Canada. Energy Sources: About Uranium. 2009. http://www.nrcan-rncan.gc.ca/eneene/sources/uranuc/uranium/aboapr-eng.php.

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