Urban Behaviour. What Is Urban Behaviour? Actions of individuals that reside in cities...

Urban Behaviour

What Is Urban Behaviour?

Actions of individuals that reside in cities

Characteristics of Urban Behaviour Minimize expressions Minimize body contact Look before you sit Minimize eye contact When in doubt – flee or disattend

Lofland, L. H. (1973). A world of strangers: Order and action in urban public space. New York: Basic Books

Minimize Expressions

One’s facial expression should be blankAvoid laughter & tears unless in an

appropriate environment One should not sing or talk to themselves One’s clothing should not stand out as odd or

differentConversation amongst one or two other

people should not be audible to strangers in the environment


Minimize Body Contact

Avoid bumping, brushing, stepping or colliding with any strangers

One should be alert to the speed with which others are at as a guide for their own actions

Follow the rule of staying to the right


Look Before You Sit

Keep oneself apart from the rest Avoid seating in such a way to suggest to a stranger

that you wish to interact


Minimize Eye Contact

Keep one’s eyes to oneselfAvoid accidental contact

If in a seated or waiting situation, have or look at a prop (i.e. book or cell phone)

Look at inanimate objects Wear sunglasses


When In Doubt – Flee or Disattend

Keep oneself protectedAvoid coming close to others who look or

behave oddly

If one cannot flee, one should not behave in a way that suggests to the other that their behaviour is odd


Eye Contact with Strangers in City, Suburb, and Small Town(Newan & McCauley)

To make eye-contact with another individual is associated with intimacy, affect, cooperation & liking

Signal for synchronizing speech & listening between two persons in conversation

Newman, J., & McCauley, C. (1977). Eye contact with strangers in city, suburb, and small town. Environment and Behavior, 9(4), 547-558. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.yorku.ca/docview/616269990?accountid=15182

Method

Eye contact was measured with an experimenter in three settings in Philadelphia: City, suburb & rural small town

Two locations: US post office and a nearby large store

At each of the 6 locations studied, eye contact was measured on two different days by a different experimenter


Procedure

The experimenter would stand 1 meter from the door of the store or post office

When a person got within 3 meters of the door, the experimenter began to look the subject in the eye

Experimenter recorded whether: Eye contact was made Subject spoke to experimenter Subject's sex Estimate of the subject's age

Experimenter were instructed to smile & nod but say nothing if the subject was to make eye contact

If asked, experimenters said they were waiting for someone Newman, J., & McCauley, C. (1977). Eye contact with strangers in city, suburb, and small town. Environment and Behavior, 9(4), 547-558. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.yorku.ca/docview/616269990?accountid=15182

Result

Urban setting had the least eye contactRural setting the most Female experimenter averaged 43% eye

contactMale experimenter averaged 35% eye

contact Sex of the passers-by did not interact with the sex

of the experimenter


Violinist in Metro Station

In 2007, Josh Bell posed as a street musician in Washington D.C to see how many people would stop and listen

Stop and Hear the Music: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hnOPu0_YWhw

Weingarten,G. (2007, April 8). Pearls Before Breakfast: Can one of our nation’s great musicians cut through the fog of a D.C. rush hour?. Washington Post. Retrieved from http://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/magazine/pearls-before-breakfast-can-one-of-the-nations-great-musicians-cut-through-the-fog-of-a-dc-rush-hour-lets-find-out/2014/09/23/8a6d46da-4331-11e4-b47c-f5889e061e5f_story.html

System Overload Theory (Milgram)

Individual is unable to process all the inputs being received from the environment as there are too many

How to cope? Input A may be processed first while B is kept in the

background Input A or B may be ignored all together

Levine, R. V., Reysen, S., & Ganz, E. (2008). The kindness of strangers revisited: A comparison of 24 US cities. Social Indicators Research, 85(3), 461-481. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11205-007-9091-9

Environmental Annoyances In Urban Settings (Robin et al.,)

Robin, M., Matheau-Police, A., & Couty, C. (2007). Development of a scale of perceived environmental annoyances in urban settings. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 27(1), 55-68. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2006.09.005

Bystander Effect

Individuals are less likely to help when there are other bystanders The larger the number of bystanders, the less the

likelihood that someone will intervene in an emergency

The Death of Kitty Genovese https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BdpdUbW8vbw

Milgram, S. (1970). The experience of living in cities. Science, 167(3924), 1461-1468. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.yorku.ca/docview/615750988?accountid=15182

Helping & Gender Differences (Reysen & Ganz) (2006)

Hypotheses: Women received more help than men & men helped more than

women Men will help more than women when an audience is present

Participants: 324 persons who were walking alone and older than 17 Blind selection procedure

First person to step over a line

Design & Procedure: Male or female experimenter would walk toward an individual and

“accidently” drop a pen and not notice it

Reysen, S., & Ganz, E. (2006). Gender differences in helping in six U.S. cities. North American Journal of Psychology, 8(1), 63-67. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.yorku.ca/docview/621183021?accountid=15182

Responses were scored on a 5 point ordinal scale 1 – did not notice the pen drop 2 – noticed but did not offer help 3 – did not pick up pen but called back to the

experimenter 4 – picked up pen and gave back to the experimenter 5 – picked up pen & caught up to the experimenter to

give it back


Results There was no relationship between sex of helper &

helping behaviour No relationship between sex of experimenter dropping

the pen & helping behaviour


Kindness of Strangers – 24 US Cities(Levine et al.,)

Predictors of help:1. Population Size2. Population Density 3. Population Stability4. Economic Well-Being5. Pace of Life6. Crime


Population Size & Density

Hypothesis: Based on the system overload theory & the bystander

effect, population size and density would be related negatively to helping


Population Stability

Hypothesis: Communities experiencing rapid population growth

have a lack of social connectedness and therefore less likely to enter into helping relationships with others in public


Economic Stability

Linksy and Strauss (1986): Communities with a poor economy are more likely to

engage in criminal behaviour

Are people in economically healthy communities more likely to engage in pro-social behaviours?

Hypothesis: Economic well-being has a positive relationship to

helping behaviour


Pace of Life

A rapid pace of life decreases the likelihood of one taking time to engage in non-essential social responsibilities


Crime

High crime rates lead to social disorganization and instils fear and distrust amongst those in the community

Hypothesis: Crime rates would be negatively related to helping

behaviour


Main goals of the study:1. Examine the relationship of changes over time

(1991-92 to 2005) between community-level characteristics

Population size variables, economic indicators, crime and pace of life

2. Provide updated social indicators of the quality of the helping environment in individual cities

3. Examine the 6 predictors in helping behaviour


Method

Subjects: Individuals from 24 US cities and their surrounding areas were studied

Northeast: Boston, MA, New York, NY , Providence, RI , Rochester, NY, Springfield,

MA, Worcester, MA

Midwest: Chicago, IL, Detroit, MI, Indianapolis, IN, Kansas City, MO-KS, Lansing,

MI, Youngstown, OH

South: Atlanta, GA, Dallas, TX, Louisville, KY, Nashville, TN, Chattanooga, TN,

Knoxville, TN

West: Los Angeles, CA, San Francisco, CA, Sacramento, CA, San Jose, CA,

Bakersfield, CA, Fresno, CALevine, R. V., Reysen, S., & Ganz, E. (2008). The kindness of strangers revisited: A comparison of 24 US cities. Social Indicators Research, 85(3), 461-481. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11205-007-9091-9

Measures of Helping

1. The type of help offered Direct vs. indirect Planned vs. formal Serious vs. non-serious

2. Social setting in which help is offered3. Degree of need of the recipient


Procedure

Data was collected in two or more locations in main downtown areas, during main business hours and on clear days

Only individuals walking alone were sampled as they crossed a pre-determined line 15 males & females were approached for helping 35 males & females were observed for pace of life

Children, handicapped, seniors or those with heavy packages were excluded

Experimenter was a 24 year-old male college student


Experiment

1. Dropped Pen Experimenter walked toward a pedestrian passing in

opposite direction When 10-15 feet from the subject, the experimenter

would drop the pen by “accident” Subjects were scored as:

Called back to the experimenter that they dropped the pen

Picked up the pen & brought it back to the experimenter


2. Hurt Leg Experimenter would be walking with a heavy limp &

wearing a visible leg brace & accidently drop and unsuccessful reach for a pile of magazines

Subjects were scored as: Offering to help Beginning to help without first offering


3. Change for a quarter Experimenter would walk up to pedestrian and ask if

they can make change for a quarter Subjects were scored as:

Having checked their pocket for change


Pace of life: Measured by measuring one’s walking speed over a

distance of 60 feetCommunity variables

US Bureau of the Census


Results

Overall helping index: Measures of helping were positively intercorrelated

Changes in helping: Overall helping has shown a small but significant

decrease over the past decade & a half Population size & density showed negative correlations

on all measures of helping Economic stability showed positive correlations with

overall helping Pace of life:

Cities with slower walkers tend to be more helpful


Increasing Helping

Be aware & take action Just learning about the bystander effect should

increase interventionReduce ambiguity

Speak your mindIncrease (take) responsibilitySeeing pro-social modelsMoral inclusion

Regarding others ("out-group members") as within one's circle of moral concern

Myers, D. G., Spencer, S. J, & Jordan, C. H. (2012). Social Psychology (Fifth Canadian Edition). Toronto, Canada: McGraw-Hill Ryerson.

Urban City Experience

”People didn’t seem to care about each other at all.”

- Milgram


Characteristics of Urban City’s

Large number of peopleBig city is attractive, more people live here

Higher population densityIncreased population = limitation of space

Heterogeneity of population


Density vs. Crowding

Density:A physical condition involving the limitation of space.Bigger city, less recreational and personal space

Crowding:ExperientialLimited space as perceived by the individual in

relation to themselves

Stokols, D., Rall, M., Pinner, P., Schopler, J. (1973). Physical, Social, and Personal Determinants of the Perception of Crowding. Environment and Behavior, 5(1), 87 -91

Results of Crowding

Increased stress

Hostility towards others

Anxiety

Dissatisfaction with situation

Stokols, D., Rall, M., Pinner, P., Schopler, J. (1973). Physical, Social, and Personal Determinants of the Perception of Crowding. Environment and Behavior, 5(1), 87 -91

Big city’s are attractive but expensive.

Cost of living is higher so inhabitants cut costs where they can

E.g. taking public transit instead of paying to maintain a vehicle

Taking public transportation one of the most common places to experience crowding and its effects


Toronnipeg (2014). Nuit Blanche TTC Complaint Dept. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=otmhkhhdhwI

Where Would You Sit?

Crowding and Personal Space Invasion on the Train: Please Don’t Make Me Sit in the Middle

Evans and Wener (2007) Hypotheses:

The closer people sat next to each other, the more adverse reactions (stress)

Participants: Followed 139 train commuters during rush hour in New

York Participants were on the same commuting route for an

average of 82 months with a 12 month minimum Average commuting time – 83 mins

Evans, G.W. & Wener, R.E. (2007). Crowding and personal space invasion on the train: Please don’t make me sit in the middle. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 27, 90-94.

Design & Procedure: Salivary cortisol was taken at the end of each morning

trip to work and same time of day on weekend Motivation was assessed by a proof reading task,

detecting the percent number of errors in an except Mood was assessed during commute on a 5 point scare

(carefree – frustrated)

Results: Significant difference in stress level of participants who

were sitting with an increased number of individuals in the same row


Conclusion Passengers commuting on transit experience greater

social interaction than desired.

Middle seats double likelihood of increased interaction and is therefore avoided unless standing space becomes too crowded

Invasion of personal space by strangers causes negative physiological and psychological effects

Frequency of space intrusion may also be a contributing factor


Suggestions

Break seating in trains up into smaller groups E.g. seating can be in two’s instead of 3’s and 4’s Dividers such as rails or arm rests

Provide bigger areas to stand

Open concepts for train cars TTC’s open concept for new trains

Increase number of available trains during rush hour


Pace of Life

Larger cities have residents with higher wages, higher cost of living

Increased value for timeEconomizing time = need to get things done

faster including walkingSensory overload leads to rapid motor actionReduced social interaction plays a role in

pace

Stokols, D., Rall, M., Pinner, P., Schopler, J. (1973). Physical, Social, and Personal Determinants of the Perception of Crowding. Environment and Behavior, 5(1), 87 -91. Retrieved from: https://webfiles.uci.edu/dstokols/Pubs/Crowding%20E-B%201973.pdf

The Pace of Life in 31 Countries

Levine & Norenzayan (1999)

Studied pace of life in 31 countries Focused on largest city in each country Fastest in Japan and Europe and slowest in developing

countries Faster pace in colder climate, places with higher

economic production and individualistic cultures Faster pace = increased chance of death from heart

disease

Population size significantly related to both walking speed and measure of work speed compared to small towns in GuineaLevine, R. V., & Norenzayan, A. (1999). The Pace of Life in 31 Countries. Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology,

30, 178-205

Population increase drives up cost of goods and land Economic demand and time efficiency. Time more

valuable and pace more valuable

Sense of urgency has similar effect as anger/ hostility in body (also a predictor of CHD)

Levine, R. V., & Norenzayan, A. (1999). The Pace of Life in 31 Countries. Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology, 30, 178-205

Speed – One of the most salient characteristics of life in the 19th century –Levine & Norenzayan

Levine, R. V., & Norenzayan, A. (1999). The pace of life in 31 countries. Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology, 30, 178-205

The need for speed is everywhere

Required to become a leader E.g. launching a new product. Apple was first company

to develop and mass market their mp3 player the Ipod, dominated global market

Efficiency means money saved and revenue earned more quickly

Culture has been transformed into a “synchronous society” which is nationally and globally integrated. Prime directive is to keep up with the change

Hassan, R. (2008). The Information Society: Cyber Dreams and Digital Nightmares. Polity Press, 159-177

Lose touch with deeper connections Moving too fast to make deep friendships/ relationships

Time a precious commodity Pack more activities into work and leisure time

Becoming indistinct

Hassan, R. (2008). The Information Society: Cyber Dreams and Digital Nightmares. Polity Press, 159-177The Ellen Show (2013). The Challenges of Multitasking. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q45cUHfvMZU

The Effect of Multitasking on the Grade Performance of Business Students

Ellis, Daniels & Jauregui (2010)

Hypothesis: To see if there was a difference in performance in students grades if they are distracted while learning

Experiment: Evaluate the mean testing scores of a cohort of 62 undergraduate accounting students in a Principles of Accounting Course of which half of the students text during lecture

Ellis, Y., Daniels, W. and Jauregui, A. (2010). The effect of multitasking on the grade performance of business students. Research in Higher Education Journal, 8 http://www.aabri.com/manuscripts/10498.pdf

Procedure: The cohort was divided into two groups – the texting group and non-texting group. Texting group was allowed to send and receive text messages at

anytime throughout course Non-texting group had to have phones off during lectureA quiz would be administered at the end of the course to see if there was a difference in learning

Results: There was a significant difference in test scores between the two groups Individuals who were not allowed to have their phones on scored

much better on their quiz than the cohort in the texting group

Ellis, Y., Daniels, W. and Jauregui, A. (2010). The effect of multitasking on the grade performance of business students. Research in Higher Education Journal, 8 http://www.aabri.com/manuscripts/10498.pdf

Can students really multitask? An experimental study of instant messaging while reading

Bowman, Levine, Waite & Dendron (2010)

Hypothesis: Doing more than one task at a time increases the amount of time it takes to complete original task

Experiment: A class of students taking an undergraduate psychology course was asked to read a 3,828 word passage where some students use instant messaging while reading.

Procedure: 3 groups: Use instant messaging prior to reading passage Use instant messaging while reading passage No use of instant messaging whatsoeverTime to complete reading would be compared across each groupBowman, L. L., Levine, L. E., Waite, B. M. and Dendron, M. (2010). Can students really multitask? An

experimental study of instant messaging while reading. Computers & Education, 54, 927-931.

Results: Experiment found that those who used instant messaging during the time they read the passage took 22-59% longer to complete passage This is even after subtracting out the time spent instant

messaging

Bowman, L. L., Levine, L. E., Waite, B. M. and Dendron, M. (2010). Can students really multitask? An experimental study of instant messaging while reading. Computers & Education, 54, 927-931.

Advances in technology especially in urban areas have us doing things faster than every before

Demand to do more in shorter amounts of time without any real progress being made

Result of living life at such a fast pace with has physiological effects: Insomnia Migraine Hypertension Asthma Gastrointestinal trouble

Children are becoming more stressed out and anxiousHassan, R. (2008). The Information Society: Cyber Dreams and Digital Nightmares. Polity Press, 159-177

Suggestions

Focus on one task at a time Maximizes knowledge acquired or work completed

Develop strategy to filter information Focus on quality of data vs. quantity of tasks completed

Plan ahead Plan out schedule for day/ week, etc. so that enough

time per task can be given

Take breaks Ensure that leisure time isn’t blurred with work time

Hassan, R. (2008). The Information Society: Cyber Dreams and Digital Nightmares. Polity Press, 159-177

Construction of Urban Behaviour

Observation is the starting point of constructing urban theory

Wirth’s theoretical variables - larger numbers of people -high population density -heterogeneity of population * These variables are not psychological

“The Experience of Living in Cities” from Science, Vol.167, American Association for the Advancement of Science, © March 1970,24-41. Reproduced with the permission of American Association for the Advancement of Science. (Course kit)

Linking Individual Experience with demographic situations

Overload - the inability to process inputs because there are so many inputs coming in at a fast paceAdaptation - has to set priorities and make choices


Adaptive responses to Overload

Allow less time to each inputEliminate unimportant inputsCreate boundaries between social

transactionsBlock off certain inputs from enteringDecrease the intensity of the inputs by

filteringSpecialized institutions are created to

absorb inputs


Anonymity

Anonymity

Result of Overload on Cognitive CapacitiesSpectrum ranging from total anonymity

and full acquaintanceConditions of complete anonymity include: -alienation -detachment -freedom


Anonymity

Philip Zimbardo did empirical work to prove whether social anonymity and impersonality in New York would encourage greater vandalism than in Palo Alto

A car was left at the New York University campus and at Stanford University for 64 hours


Anonymity

Within the first 24 hours the car left in New York was stripped of all movable parts

Occurred during daylight hours

Vandalism was mostly done by well-dresses, white adults

The car in Palo Alto remained untouched


http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OsFEV35tWsg

PHILIP ZIMBARDO: THE PSYCHOLOGY OF EVIL



The Quality-of-life approach

The Quality-of-life approach

Ben-Chieh Liu of the Midwest Research Institute conducted the broad research on quality of life in cities

120 variables from five areas that he believed relevant to the lives of urban people

E. Krupat. “Urban Characteristics: City Versus City and City Versus Town” from People in Cities, Cambridge University Press, © 1985, 19-47.Reproduced with the permission of Erlbaum and Associates. (Course kit)

Areas of quality-of-life

1) The economic approach Personal income and wealth Community economic health2) The political component Professionalism and performance of local

government Citizen participation in the politics of the

community3) The environmental component Air quality, noise, water, and pollution Outdoor recreational facilities

E. Krupat. “Urban Characteristics: City Versus City and City Versus Town” from People in Cities, Cambridge University Press, © 1985, 19-47.

Reproduced with the permission of Erlbaum and Associates. (Course kit)

Areas of quality-of-life

4) The health and education component Infant mortality and death rate used to indicate

individual health Community health protection measured through

availability of medical care5) The social component Income and employment differences between racial

and gender groups – indicator of discrimination Cost of living, crime rates, housing quality Sports and cultural opportunities

E. Krupat. “Urban Characteristics: City Versus City and City Versus Town” from People in Cities, Cambridge University Press, © 1985, 19-47.

Reproduced with the permission of Erlbaum and Associates. (Course kit)

Liu’s Findings in 1970

Only one urban place in the United States go straight As in all areas, Portland, Oregon.

Only one city, Birmingham, Alabama got straight failing grades

Cities such as Cincinnati and Dallas varied across the five areas


What city in Canada do you think is the highest in quality of life?

http://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/4-canadian-cities-rank-high-in-north-american-quality-of-life-survey-1.1694363





What would you do?

Scenario 1:

It’s 8:30am and you’re running late to an important meeting that’s going to decide whether you move up in the company or stay where you are, which starts at 9:00am. You’re running through the streets and as you’re passing an alley you hear a woman scream. Do you stop in your pace and pay further attention to the surrounding situation? Keep in mind that if you continue on your way it’ll take you 30 mins to get to work.

Scenario 2:

You’re walking pass a booth selling chargers for laptops. The person running the booth isn’t there and you notice almost every person that walks pass takes a charger without paying. You forgot your charger at home, your laptop only has 4% left of battery life, and you have paper that needs to be finished and uploaded in 15 mins. Do you take the charger? If so, did the people who stole the chargers before you have influence on your decision?

Scenario 3:

After a long day of classes all you want is a peaceful and relaxing bus ride home. You sit in your favourite spot and plug in music. When you glance around you notice an elder woman standing. You know what you should do, but just so tired. You start to think that you wouldn’t come off as a bad person because it looks like you’re not paying attention due to the music. Do you let yourself zone out to the music?

Reading Questions

Levine, R.V. The pace of life. American Scientist, September/October 1990, pp. 450-459.

Levine, R. V., & Norenzayan, A. (1999). The pace of life in 31 countries. Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology, 30, 178-205.

Levine, R. V., Reysen, S., & Ganz, E. (2008). The kindness of strangers revisited: A comparison of 24 US cities. Social Indicators Research, 85, 461-481.

1. What additional variables/measures could be examined to study the pace of life?

2. How might pace of life research be applied? 3. What can reasonably be concluded about the variables influencing

helping behaviour across American cities?

Reading Questions

Milgram, S. The experience of living in cities. Science, 1970, 167, 1461-1468

1. Is a city experienced in the same manner for its inhabitants, or do children’s perceptions

differ from adults, immigrants from the native born, the rich from the poor, families from

singles? What sort of research would you propose to answer these questions?

2. 2. Are different cities similar in their psychological effects, or do they differ from each

other? Is merely examining density sufficient for an explanation? How is Paris different

from Toronto, Toronto from Seattle, Vancouver from Montreal? How could these

differences be explored in research? What methodologies might be useful in answering

these questions?

Reading questions

1) To what uses might one apply quality of urban life research?

2) Frequently newspapers and magazines describe a ranking of cities according to some quality of life measure (e.g. a few years ago the Globe and Mail business magazine described Kingston, Ontario as its top city). What are some problems with ranking cities in quality of life research?

3) What measures would you propose for urban quality of life research that might have been overlooked in previous research?


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