Urban_Planning_a_Conceptual_Framework.pdf

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URBAN PLANNING A CONCE

PT

UAL FRAMEWORK

IBRAHIM NGAH

Department of

Urban

and Regional Planning

Faculty of

Built

Environment

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

Skudai,

Johor

Abstract

paper

examines

the concept and approaches in urban planning. Urban planning s

s physical planning deal ing with three key

systems

i

activity

systems land

sys tem

an

d environmenta l

system.

The re has been shifting

in

emphasis

in

p ract ice

o urban planning from

a purely

ur

b

an design

app roach

to emphasis on

nv ironmenta l issues

planning methods and

development o IT This paper also

touches

n

th

e impo rtance of partne rs

hip approach

in plan

making and

implementation.

0 In tro

duction

planning eith er in th e

form

of

e

signing

new urban

s

ettlemen

ts , prom

otin

g

rban growth or

as

the

regul

ation of urb

an

evelopment is an a ctivity that h as

exi

st

ed

e the

first

civilis

ation.

Although th e

a ture, form a n d a p p r o a c hes to

urb

an

anning differ from pl a

ce

to pl a ce and a re

olving, the

basic purp ose of

pl

annin

g s till

m

ains

un

changed

- to ens u r e h e

althy,

sa

fe

effic ien t

urban environment for peopl

e to

e

in and

p

erform their ac

tivi

tie

s .

e a

do

pt pl anning bec

ause of the belief

th

at

actions

that are

ba

sed on

pl

anning will

ce better results than withou t plann

in

g .

e pl

an

ou r

ac tions beforehand

to co

ns

id

er

s

factors

that

af f

ect

the

outc

ome and

to

etermine th

e

possibl

e

future

imp

acts of our

ent actions

.

Plannin

g is

als

o

important

to

nsur

e

that wh t

we h ave d e

cided will not

l

y fulfill the n

eeds

of

the pr

es

ent

but

a lso

atible with

the need

s o f

futur

e

n

er

ation.

plann in

g is be

coming

m

or

e v

ita

l

as

the

ci

ety becom

es

mor

e urbaniz

ed

.

The

r

apid

at

e

of urban growth as th

e

result

of

on

c

entration

of

econ

o

mi

c activities

in urb an

reas

a n d

rural -urban mi

gr

ati

on h a s c

rea

ted

arious pr

o

blems du

e t o

lack

of

planned

ev

elopment

,

such

a s squat t

ers, traffi

c

on

g

estion,

s

oil

erosi

on,

a n d environ

me

nta

l

olution. Ex

t

ensi

ve l

and clearin

g a n d s lo

pe

u

t t

ing h ave n

ot

o n ly d

am

a g

ed

n

atu

r

al

logical sy

st

ems bu

t h ave

als

o

ex

posed

vas

t

r

eas of land to erosion and s iltation of

URN

AL

ALAM B INA

J[LID

NO1: MAC 99

s trea

ms

a n d

riv

ers. Degradation of

the

e

nv

iro n me n t

is

more ser io us

in

l rge

m etropolitan a reas s uch as the Klang Va lley

r egion, as a r e sul t o f r apid urb n

d

evelopment.

The env iron

me

nt

in

which pl anning o

pe

rates

is b ec

om in

g

mor

e

co

m p

lex

a n d d

yn

amic.

Th

ere

is a

lso

an

in

cr

e

asing

a

wa

r ene

ss

a mong

th

e

pu bli

c on

th

e

issu

e s

rel t

ed to

environ

me

nt a nd the n e

ed

to m

an

age

nat

ural

re s

our

ces a n d to

pr

odu c e quali ty

living

co ndit io

ns

. Pressure

for

the

preservati

on of

n

atural

environ

me

nt has al

s o

increa

sed

not

on ly from

within

co u n t r

ies

b u t a lso from

i

nte

r

na

t io

na

l o

rga

ni

zatio

ns.

2 0 Concepts

Of Urban Planning

T he

co

nce p t o f urban

plannin

g v

ary

d

ependin

g on

th

e co ntext ,

ex

per ience a n d

pr

actic e of

urb an

pl

annin

g

in

p

arti

cul

ar

pl ac

es an

d

time

. In

Britain

, for

exa

mple.

until

t

he

early 19

60

s u rb

an plann in

g

was stron

gly

inf lue nced by

urb an desi

gn t radi t ion tha t

vi

ewed pl

anning

as

th e

thr

ee dim

en sional

d e

sign

of

towns

(Healey, 19 82) . Ur

ba

n

pl

annin

g was co

nceive

d

as

a n

ac

tiv i

ty that

pr

odu

c

ed

co mpr e

hens

ive m a s t

er

plans,

des

ign

of

neighbourhoods, ga

rden cities and ut

opian

id

e

als

f

or

c

it

ies. La t

er

on

as

urb

an

pl

annin

g

prof

es

sion

d evel

oped

a n d

wit

h th e in

flue nce

of

socia

l

scie

n tific methodo

logy

.

the

focu s

of

urban

pl

anning shifted

from a

promin

en

try

physical

d

esign exe

rcise to the r ati

onal

1


2/9

planning shifted from a prominently

exercise

to the rational

of producing plans and control over

development of the

urban area

.

paper

will focus

on

the

basic

concept of

planning

from a

systematic

point of

developed by

Chapin

and Kaiser

(1979).

approach

is

still

relevant. since the

of urban

planning

is

land use

based.

the approach

of

planning

today

has

from

producing blue print

to

the

strategic approach

of

structure and local

.

planning basically deals with the key

that

influence the physical structure

f

the city

. These are activity systems.

systems

and

environmental

Activity systems as concerned with

man. through his institutions such

Is

firms

and

governments .

affairs

in the pursuit

of

human

and how these institutions interact

another in time and space. Activity

determine demands for various

urban

such a s housing. recreation.

u rb a n

faci l i t ies

and

(Figure

1 .

land

development system focusses

on

that convert space and adapt it for

of activitiy

systems. The

principal

agents

n

the

development

systems

include

pre-

landowners . developers.

financial

intermediaries and

agencies. They relate to the supply side

f the

urban

development process

(Figure

2 .

third

class of systems that

influence

development is

the

environmental

that provide

the niche for

human

and

the

habitat and the

resources

sustain

man

. These include plant.

animal

systems

and the

fundamental processes

to

water . air and matter .

function

both to

and to

enhance

the functioning of

other

two system classes (Figure 3 .

planning is

viewed

as the process

of

the

urban land

use systems

to

certain

goals of

urban

development

relate to public

interest such as

health safety.

convenience.

energy

conservation

,

environmental

. social equity and amenity (Figure 4 .

Planning activities include the preparation

of

development plans

and

the conducting of

planning studies that

can

be used as gutdes

for planning decisions . The

preparation

of

development plans involves

not

only urban

planners but also other various agencies and

the

public.

The decision to adopt a particular

plan and

approval

of

development

proposal is

made

by

the s tate

or local authori ty

concerned.

Development

control is

one

of

the important

mechanisms in planning

to

ensure

that

the

proposed urban

development

complies with

planning guides.

3 Shif ting Themes In Urban Planning

3 1

Master

Plann ing

Master planning is one of the earlier

approaches

to

planning

that

is

trying

to

solve

urban problems through the medium of the

plan or the blue print. Urban development

regulations

are

based on land use

map,

zoning, density control. building regulation

and

planning

standards.

The ap proach

a

ttempts

to influence or

direct

all ac tivities

related to the physical environment for the

public benefit and amenity. Due to its

physical nature and rigidity. the master

planning

approach

is

regarded

as

failing

to

deal with various social issues such as urban

poverty.

unemployment

and

urban

inequalities. and such

unable

to cope

with

the rapid

technological and economic change.

The

master planning approach incorporated

under Town

Board

Enactment

or Cap

137

was

practiced

in

Peninsular Malaysia for a t

least

50

years

until the

end

of 1970s.

before

it

was replaced

by

a development

planning

sys tem

under

the

Town

and

Country

Planning

Act

of

1976.

3 2 Procedural Planning

Procedural

planning

emphasises on

solving

urban problems based on rational

procedures

and methods

for decision making. The

procedures

and methods basically focus on

the planning

process

that

begins with the

clarification

of policy

goals.

systematic

analysis.

logical

generation

of

policy

alternatives,

systematic evaluation

of these

alternatives

and monitoring performance.

Urban planning

is conceived

as

a

continous

process

of

managing

urban

change.

The

plan.

although in

principle

deals

with

land

use

matters, incorporates elements of

social and

JURNAL ALAM BINA

JILID

I NO I : MAC 998


3/9

ACTIVITY SYSTEMS

Activity Agents

Individuals and

households

Firms

Institutions

I

Activity Systems

Household-sustaining activities

Socialization activities

Social interaction activities

Recreational activities

Rest and relaxation activities

Goods-producing activities

Service activities to individuals,

households, firms, and

institutions

Human development activities

Basic public service activities

I

t i ~ i t i e s for the welfare of

special groups

Source : Adapted fro m C hapin and Kai ser

97

9:29

FIGURE 1: ACTIVITY SYSTEMS


4/9

LAND DEVELOPMENT SYSTEMS

I

I

[ Development Agents

Development Systems

I

I

I

Land

marketing

(assessment of

Predevelopment

utility of con tinuing land in

landowners

present state vs. return from

I

seIling

or

leasing it)

Jand

o n ~ r o n

or

evelopers

Ireconversion

I

~

Purchasing

or

leasing locations

onsumers

I

I

and

facilities

Acquisition and development-

inancial

intermediaries

financing transactions

Review an d approval of land use

Public agencies

land development

So urce : Ada pted from C hapin and Kaiser ( 1979:30)

FIGURE 2: LAND DEVELOPMENT SYSTEMS

J URN

AL

AL AM

BINA JILID

1 NO 1 :

MA

C 1991


5/9

ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS

Agents of Nature

Biotic-the

plant and

animal

communities

I

Abiotic-water, air

and

matter

Environmental Systems

Ecosystem processes (energy

flow from

sun

to plants,

through

the food

chain

to

herbivores to carnivores and

dissipation; nutrient cycle from

pool to plants, through the food

chain and back to the nutrient

pool)

Hydrological sy

stem

Aerological system

Geological system

Sou rce : Ad apted from C hapin and Kaiser ( 1979 :30-31 )

FIGURE

3:

ENVIRONMENT L SYSTEMS


6/9

GOALS OF URBAN PLANNING

- - -

Sustainability, Health

&

Safety, Convenience, Efficiency

&

Energy Conservation, Environmental Qual ity, Social

Equity, Amenity

Aspatial

Economic

and

Population

Growth

Systems

KEY URBAN LAND USE SYSTEMS

Spatial

/

Land

Use Pallern

r

.... Development Environmental

Activity Systems S

...

ystems

1_

Systems

.---- - - - - - - - - _

URBAN PLANNING AND

GUIDANCE SYSTEM

(decision guides and action

instruments)

-/ - - - -

----

' ,

Planning Activities

Political Activities

Source: Adapted from Chapin and K aiser ( 1979:65)

FIGURE 4: URBAN PLANNING FRAMEWORK

J URNAL

ALAM BINA

JILID 1 NO 1 :

MA

C 1998


7/9

plannin g . Tile policies and

in

the

plan are constantly reviewed

mon i

tor its

performan ce a nd to m a kc

m e n t whenever necessary. The

dural

plan ning approach wa

s q u

it

c

in the UK until 1970s .

approach is incorporated in the cu rren t

plan syste m in Peninsular

la

ys

ia u n d er th e

Town

a n d

Country

n n

ing

Ac t

of

19 76. T

he preparation

of

Plan a nd Local

Plan

is supposed to

the ra t

ional

p rocedures and methods

as

the syst

em

ati

c

analysis of strategic

identification of

pro

b lems

and

issues.

derivation of

proposals

on

the

basis

th e findings. The p ublic is

also

given

i

ties

to

com

m e

nt on

t

he findings

of

Report

of Survey

and also

propo s

als

in

Plan wh ich are exh ibited.

reality the implementation of

procedural

is

basically too ideal given limited

ation

available to fulfil the requirement

rat ional model. The political

also

inhibit

the

application of

rational model. The preparation

of

the

was

also time

consuming

because

of the

procedure

s

that

needed

to

be

before the plan could be gazetted.

the rate of growth of the Malaysian

and

the rate of

urban development,

have

occured

too quickly

for

th

e

plan

cope. Although Structure Plan

is claimed

be flexible. most of the pl

an

that had been

are already outdated and some of

become obsolete even

before

gazetted.

addition

.

the

development plan

system had

too

focused

on th e

proces

s and

of the preparation.

with less

given to developing proposals . As a

poor quality

plan have in

some cases

produced and many

policies

have

not

Abdul

Munit

Kasimin,

The

1990s Sustainable

evel

opmen

t

development emerged

as

a result

the increase

awarene

ss among the public

the issue

of

the environment ,

parti

cularly

r elation

to

problem of urbanization,

of

the

environment and

depletion

resources . Earl ier concern

on

sustainability

was

expres

sed

the Biosphere

Conf

erence

in

Pari

s

in 1968

ca

lled for

the

conservation of

natural

s

in the

intere

st

of

sustainable future

by mankind.

However.

the s tarting point

RNA L ALAM BINA J ILl D NO 1 : MA C 1998

of the s ustainable

development

concept tha

drew global

attention

was the declaration o

the UN's Confere

nc

e

on Environment

a n d

Development at Rio de

Jeneiro

in 1992 whic

issued Agenda

21 .

The conference marks

th

t u rn i n g point

for

a more deliberate

int

egration

of environmental

factors

i

planning and dev

elopment. The following ar

some of the principles

from

Rio Declaratio

on Environment

and

Development

Selman,

1993) :

Sustainable consumpt ion

of

resources

(

environmentally sound use of

new

an

renewable source s

of

energy

and natura

resour

c

es. purchasing policies et

c.)

Su s t in b le hum n

s e t

tl

e m e n t s

innovative planning strategie s,

gUidin

cities along sustainable path

s etc.)

Integration of

envi ronment

and

development

in

de

cision

making

in

planning

. EIA,

data management

etc) .

Su stainable Resource Managemen

prote

ction of mountain areas ,

s u s t a i n a b l e

agriculture and rural

development,

conservation of biologica

div

ersity,

protection of marine resources,

including the integrat

ed management and

sustainable development of coastal

areas).

Envtrorimenta

lly

s ound m

anagement

o

solid wastes.

In

respon se

to

the

global is

sues

of the

environment,

including the Agenda

21, as

well a s the few

incident

s on environmental

disasters

that have occurred within

the las

few years. some measures

considering

environmental fa

ctors

in

development

h

ave

been taken by the Malaysian government in

the planning process

. In

relation

to

urb

an

planning in Peninsular Malaysia . the recen

1996 amendment

of

th

e

Town

a n d Countr

Planning

Act

of 1976 includes

measures

for

the

provision

of

adequat

e

open sp

aces

.

the

preservation of the n atural topography, the

protection of trees

.

the conservation and

r ehabilitation

of

b u i ld i ng s

of

historical

s igntficance,

architectural merit and cultural

herit

age

. and the needs to prepare and

submi

a Dev

elopment Proposal Report whi

c

indicate the impact

of

the propos ed

development

on

the

surrounding areas

.

wh

en

s u b m i

tti

ng

applic

ation for a pproval of the

development Zainuddin. 1996) .

Th

e impac

of

the

new

requirements in planning

is

yet

to

be

seen , but

ba

sically

its effectiveness

d

epend

s

not

only

on the

commitment o

planner

s but

mor

e importantly.

th

e decisio

maker

s

who appr

ove

the

d

evelopmen

t

an

the developers who are directly involved i

7


8/9

development

projects

on

ground

.

Information

Technology

IT)

and

Urban

Planning

of the 1990s has

seen

rapid

development. in particular the

of information

and

telecom

technologies . As

mentioned

by

Dicken (1992), the

advances

that have

great

impact

on

development

involve

computer and telecom

technologies into a single system

information

processing and exchange.

This

global comunication to take place

and

cheaply thus facilitate

the

firms to

their

activities

across international

and

create a complex

of

inter

across nations

that

has been

termed

glob

al

ization".

Communication system have

transformed

radically with the

of

satellites

technology

and

fibre

networks linking together with

technology

. The

impact

of

the

IT

begun

to take place as more people, firms

institutions are

using

the technology

personal

computer, internet,

fax

cellular phone

for

communication. It

is

early

to

assess the

impact on the

behavior

the

society although

Alvin and

Heidi Tofler

did

suggest

some of

the

probable

to

the society.

urban planning, some ideas of

integrating

have been

developed . The

concepts such

as

n Intelligent

City ", "Mu

lt

i-media

Super

Eco-

Media City"

are some

of

the

themes

in

urban development

and

The

planning

of the future city

to incorporate the

development

of

an

IT

linking

the

global

IT

networks

individual

units

in urban

centres.

Towards

Partnership

Approach

In

Urban

Planning

effective

implementation

of

planning

and vision

for

the city

depend

on

the actions of various

actors in

the urban

evelopment process

.

Within

the context

of

liberalization, the

role

of the private sector

ill become more important

in

providing

infrastructure and

services to the

public

. The

8

public

sector should

play

an important

role

as

facilitator

and

enabling

agent

in

the

development process, providing an

environment

and mechanisms for

the

performance of the private sector to

achieve

the overall vision of development. The

involvement of the

private

sector in

urban

developmen t

should

begin from the

formulation of the urban plan. This is

important because the outcome of planning

has

important

implications for

future private

investment. The involvement of the private

sector

will ensure that

the

plan fonnulated

will

not

only consider the general interest of

the public

but

also

economic and financial

implications of the

plan

. At the same time

those

in the

private

sector will be

able

to

understand

better the planning

process and

procedures for

development and provide

greater certainty

in

investment

decision.

Under the

current

planning system in

Peninsular Malaysia, the framework

for

public

participation (including

private sector)

in the

preparation

of Structure

and Local

plans is

provided under

the

Town and

Country

Planning

Act of 1976.

The

participation of

the public

in

the formulation

of

the Structure

Plan is mandatory at two stages :

a .

After

survey and analysis had been

completed and the report of survey is

ready

for

the

public

.

b. When the draft structure plan is

ready

for

public

inspection

at which

time

the

public is allowed to make

objections.

In the

case

of Local Plan only

the draft plan

is required to be made availabe for public

inspection and comments.

The

experience of Structure

Plan shows

that

the participation

from

the public was

not

encouraging even

in large

metropolitan areas.

The number of people visited

the plan

exhibition was relatively very

small,

and

not

many memoranda

were

received by the

local

authorities

(Goh

Ban

Lee,

1991)

.

The

real

reasons

for

the poor participation

from

the

public

are not known but

it is obvious that

the mechanisms

of public participation

adopted which allow participation

only

after

the documents are

completed is

not

effective.

In

the process

of

plan

formulation

there

is a

need for

supporting mechanisms

,

other

than

inviting

participation through

exhibition , for

an

effective involvement of

the

private

sector

,

JURNAL

ALAM

BINA

J

IL

ID 1 NO 1 : MAC 998


9/9

p artm

ents and ag en ci e s . se lec ted

pres entatives from

th

e priva te sec to r a n d

her s ta ke

holders

to

pr

ovid e con t in u ou s

to th e

pro

cess of pl

an

prepar

ation

.

is co

re

group

might

fun

ction

in a m

ann

er

m

ilar

to a s

tee li

ng co m m ittee .

r

wider parti

cipation

a

se

r ies of workshops

d

brains torming

sess

io

ns

co

u ld b e

ed to discu s s lo c al issu es,

rm u

la ti

o n

of

vision. o b

jec

t ives

and

sals.

Conclusion

anning is n eeded much more tod ay than in

e pas t b ecau s e we

are

d ealing with m ore

opl

e .

with

di fferent needs a n d expectatio

ns

.

e rap id a dva n ce me n t in technology n ot

ly

in

cr

ea

ses th

e

compl

exity

of

th

e

urban

t ua tio n but also

in

creases th e r ate of

a nge a n d

magni tud

e o f imp a

cts.

ation also

results in

pres sure for the

explo i t a t ion of natural re sources;

proper management of r

esources

ere

is a

tendency toward

s d egradation of

environment.

p artner

ship between

public a n d private

to r s

in

urb

an

planning is

on

e of th e

echanism s

for

a n effe

cti

ve

impl

em

ent

ati

on

u rb

an

devel opment pro

gr

am s to achieve

vis

io

ns in

the future.

aphy

Abdul Munit Kasmin

1996).

Ke

Arah

Pembangunan

Suatu Kerangka

Keberkesanan

Pelaksanaan Dasar

Ra n c a n g a n Struktur

Yang

Melibatkan Sektor

Awam

Pada

Peringkat

Awal

Keputusan

Dasar.

T e

st

s

Ph.

D Perancang

an

B

and ar

Wil a

yah.

Skudai: UTM .

C

ha

pin . F

.S

a n d Kais

er,

E. J (1979).

Urban

Land Use Planning.

Th ird

E

dition.

Urbana: U

nive

rsi

ty of

Illinois

Pr

ess.

Dick

en.

P

1992). Global Shift.

Sec

ond

Edition

. London:

Paul

C

ha

pman .

G

oh Ban

Lee 1991).

Urban

Planning

in Malaysia.

Kual

a Lumpur : T

empo

Publi

shing.

5. He

aley

. Patsy e t al 1982). Planning

Theory : Prospect

for

the 1980s

Oxford P

er

gamon

Press

.

6.

S

elman.

P (

199

3). Planning

Post-Rio.

Th

e

Plann

er. May

1993

,

pp

17 - 19.

7 .

T offl

er

, A a n d Toffler, H (

1994)

.

Creating

A

New

Civilization.

Atl

anta:

Turner Publishing.

8. Za inu d din Muhammad (1

996)

.

Pindaan

Akta

Perancangan Bandar

dan

Desa dan Implikasinya

Terhadap

kt iv i t i

Perancangan

dan

Pembangunan

9 . Plannin g Me thods : Towa rd s Achieving

Su

s t

ain abl e Co m m u n i t y . Pap er

Pre s ent

ed

a t 15th. Earoph World

C

ongr

ess on

Su

st

ainable Communiti

es.

Au ckland . 3 - 7 Sept 1996.

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