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Foundry Manual , 1958, is an update to the 1944 Foundry Manual that was created primarilyfor use by foundry personnel aboard repair ships and tenders.
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NAVSHIPS 250-0334
FOUNDRY MANUAL
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Department of the Navy, Bureau of Ships
JANUARY 1958
BUREAU OF SHIPS NAVY DEPARTMENTWASHINGTON 25, D. C.
Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing OfficeWashington, D.C. - Price $3
ii
NAVY DEPARTMENT,Bureau of Ships,15 April 1958
The Foundry Manual of 1944 has been revised to reflect the advancement in foundry
technology and to indicate current foundry practice. The revised manual contains informationfor persons who operate or are employed in a foundry.
J. B. Duval, Jr.Captain, USNAssistant to the Assistant Chief ofBureau for Shipbuilding and FleetMaintenance
iii
PREFACE
This Manual is intended primarily for use by foundry personnel aboard repair ships andtenders. The recommended practices are based on procedures proved workable under Navyconditions and are supplemented by information from industrial sources.
The Manual is divided into two general sections. The first section, chapters 1 through 13,
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contains information of a general nature, such as "How Metals Solidify," "Designing aCasting," "Sands for Molds and Cores," "Gates, Risers, and Chills," and "Description andOperation of Melting Furnaces." Subjects covered in these chapters are generally applicableto all of the metals that may be cast aboard ship.
The second section, chapters 14 through 21, contains information on specific types of alloys,such as "Copper-Base Alloys," "Aluminum-Base Alloys," "Cast Iron," and "Steel." Specificmelting practices, suggestions for sand mixes, molding practices, gating, and risering arecovered in these chapters.
This manual has been written with the "how-to-do-it" idea as the principal aim. Discussionsas to the "why" of certain procedures have been kept to a minimum. This manual containsinformation that should result in the production of consistently better castings by repair ship personnel.
iv This page is blank.
v FOUNDRY MANUAL
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Chapter I. How Metals Solidify 1
The Start of Solidification 1
Contraction 1
Freezing Temperature of Metals 3
Crystallization 3
Heat Transfer 4
Gases in Metals 5
Summary 5
Chapter II. Designing a Casting 15
Strength Requirements 15
Stress Concentrations 15
Section Thickness 16
Directional Solidification 16
Wall Junctions 17
Good Casting Design 17
Summary 18
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Chapter III. Patternmaking 25
Functions of the Pattern 25
Types of Patterns 25
Pattern Materials 25
Making the Pattern 28
Finishing and Color Coding 28
Maintenance, Care and Repair 28
Calculation of Casting Weight 29
Summary 29
Chapter IV. Sands for Molds and Cores 39
Molding Sands 39
Sand Properties 40
All-Purpose Sand 43
Properties of a 63 AFS Fineness Number Sand 43
Molding Sand Mixtures 44
Cores 45
Core Sand Mixes 48
Methods for Testing Sand 49
Summary 51
Chapter V. Making Molds 61
Molding Tools and Accessories 61
Types of Molds 64
Molding Loose-Piece Patterns 64
Molding Mounted Patterns 66
False-Cope Molding and the Use of Broken Parts as Patterns 66
Setting Cores, Chills, and Chaplets 67
Closing Molds 68
Summary 68
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Chapter VI. Making Cores 83
Coremaking Tools and Accessories 83
Types of Cores 83
Internal Support 83
Facing, Ramming, Relief, and Venting of Cores 83
Turning Out and Spraying 84
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Baking 84
Cleaning Assembly 85
Storage of Cores 85
Making a Pump-Housing Core 85
Summary 86
Chapter VII. Gates, Risers, and Chills 95
General Purpose 95
Gating System 95
Risers 98
Chills 104
Summary 105
Chapter VIII. Description and Operation of Melting Furnaces 121
Oil-Fired Crucible Furnace 121
Electric Indirect-Arc Furnace 123Electric Resistor Furnace 127
Electric Induction Furnace 128
Sintering the Monolithic Lining and Making the First Steel Heat 131
Summary 131
Chapter IX. Pouring Castings 139
Types of Ladles 139
Ladle Linings 139
Pouring the Mold 140
Speed of Pouring 141Pouring Temperature 141
Summary 142
Chapter X. Cleaning Castings 147
Removing Gates and Risers 147
Grinding and Finishing 147
Welding 148
Summary 148
Chapter XI. Causes and Cures for Common Casting Defects 149
Names of Defects 149Design 149
Pattern Equipment 150
Flask Equipment and Rigging 151
Gating and Risering 151
Sand 152
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Cores 154
Molding Practice 154
Pouring Practice 155
Miscellaneous 155
Summary 156
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Chapter XII. Heat Treatment of Castings 179
Iron and Steel Castings 179
Nonferrous Castings 179
Brass and Bronze Treatment 180
Stress-Relief Anne al 180
Reasons for Heat Treatment 179
Aluminum 181
Iron and Steel 181
Monel 183
Summary 183
Chapter XIII. Composition of Castings 185
Specifications 185
Selection of Metal Mixtures 185
Raw Materials and Calculation of Charges 189
Summary 194
Chapter XIV. Copper-Base Alloys 213
Selection of Alloy 213
How Copper-Base Alloys Solidify 213
Patterns 214
Molding and Coremaking 214
Melting 217
Pouring 220
Cleaning 221
Causes and Cures for Common Casting Defects in Copper-Base Casting 221
Welding and Brazing 222
Summary 222
Chapter XV. Aluminum-Base Alloys 227
Aluminum Silicon 227
Aluminum Copper 227
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Aluminum Zinc 227
Aluminum Magnesium 227
How Aluminum Solidifies 227
Patterns 227
Molding and Coremaking 228Melting 230
Pouring 231
Cleaning 231
Causes and Cures for Common Defects In Aluminum Castings 231
Welding and Brazing 232
Summary 232
Chapter XVI. Nickel-Base Alloys 235
Monel 235
Modified S-Monel 235How Nickel-Base Alloys Solidify 235
Patterns 235
Molding and Coremaking 235
Melting 236
Pouring 236
Cleaning 237
Causes and Cures for Common Casting Defects in Nickel-Base Alloy Castings 237
Welding and Brazing 237
Summary 237
viii
Page
Chapter XVII. Cast Iron 239
Selection of Alloys 239
How Gray Cast Irons Solidify 241
Patterns 241
Molding and Coremaking 242
Melting 244
Pouring 247
Cleaning 247
Causes and Cures for Common Defects in Iron Castings 247
Welding and Brazing 248
Summary 248
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Chapter XVIII. Steel 251
Selection of Alloys 251
How Steels Solidify 252
Patterns 252
Molding and Coremaking 252Melting 254
Pouring 256
Cleaning 256
Welding and Brazing 257
Summary 257
Chapter XIX. Copper 259
Selection of Metal 259
How Copper Solidifies 259
Patterns 259Molding and Coremaking 259
Melting 260
Pouring 260
Cleaning 261
Causes and Cures for Common Casting Defects in Copper 261
Summary 261
Chapter XX. Babbitting With Tin-Base Bearing Metal 263
Selection of Alloys 263
Preparation of Bearings 263Melting 264
Pouring 264
Finishing of Bearing 265
Bearing Failures 265
Summary 266
Chapter XXI. Process Control 269
Sand 269
Molding 269
Melting 269Inspection and Test 270
Summary 270
ix LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
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Chapter I
Figure Title Page
1 Schematic Illustration of the Solidification of Metal in a Mold 6
2 Volume Change During the Cooling of a 0.35 Percent Carbon Steel 7
3 Types of Shrinkage 7
(a) piping 7
(b) gross shrinkage 7
(c) centerline 7
(d) microshrinkage 7
4 Cooling Curves of a Pure Metal, a Solid Solution Alloy, and an EutecticAlloy
8
5 Melting Points of Metals and Alloys 9
6 Effect of Section Size on Size of Crystals 10
7 Schematic Representation of Crystal Growth 11
8 Dendrite Growth 11
9 High Magnification of Shrink Area in an Aluminum Casting, ShowingDendrites
12
10 Crystal Growth in a Gun Metal Casting Dumped Before Solidificationwas Complete
12
11 Preferred Orientation in Chill Zone Crystals 12
12 Dendritic Solidification and Dendritic-Equiaxed Solidification 13
13 Solubility of Hydrogen in Iron and Nickel at One Atmosphere Pressure 13
14 Mechanism of Pinhole Formation in Steel 13
Chapter II
15 Effect of Section Size on Physical Properties 19
16 Use of Fillets 19
17 Blending of Thin and Heavy Sections 20
18 Wheel Design 20
19 Recommended Wheel Designs 21
20 Transitions in Section Size 21
21 Simple Directional Solidification 21
22 Taper as an Aid to Directional Solidification 21
23 Hot Spot Location by the Method of Inscribed Circles 22
24 Reduction of Cross Section in L and V Junctions 22
25 Reduction of Cross Section in an X Junction 22
26 Various Treatments for a T Junction 22
27 Coring to Reduce Section in a Rib Junction 22
28 Removal of Heavy Section by Redesign 22
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29 Hub Cross Section - Heavy Section 23
30 Hub Cross Section - Improved Design 23
31 Bracket Casting 23
32 Aluminum Yoke Casting 23
Chapter III 33 One Piece Pattern 35
34 Split Pattern 35
35 Core Print Construction 36
36 Chaplet Location With Pads 36
37 Mold Broken Due to a Lack of Taper 36
38 Clean Pattern Draw With Correct Taper 36
39 Pattern Draft 36
40 Distortion Allowance in a Simple Yoke Pattern 37
41 Plaster Patterns and Core Boxes 37
42 Making a Simple Plaster Pattern 37
43 Calculating Casting Weight 37
44 Calculating Casting Weight 37
x
Chapter IV
Figure Title Page
45 Permeability as Affected by the Grain Size of Sand 53
46 Permeability as Affected by Sand Fineness and Moisture 53
47 The Effect of Sand Grain Shape on Permeability 53
48 Permeability as Affected by the Amount of Binder 53
49 The Effect of Bentonite and Fireclay on Permeability 53
50 Green Strength as Affected by the Fineness of Sand 53
51 Green Strengths of Sands With Varying Fineness Numbers 54
52 Green Strength as Affected by the Shape of Sand Grains 54
53 Green Strength as Affected by Moisture and Varying Bentonite Contents 54
54 The Effect of Bentonite and Fireclay on Green Strength of Foundry Sand 54
55 The Effect of Bentonite on Sands With Various Moisture Contents 54
56 The Effect of Western and Southern Bentonite on Green Strength andDry Strength
54
57 Green Strength as Affected by Mulling Time 55
58 Relationship Between Moisture Content, Bentonite Content, GreenCompressive Strength, and Permeability for an All-Purpose Sand of 63
55
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AFS Fineness Number
59 Relationship Between Moisture Content, Bentonite Content, GreenCompressive Strength, and Dry Strength for an All-Purpose Sand of 63AFS Fineness Number
56
60 General Green Compressive Strengths for Sands of Different Grain Class Numbers 56
61 Strength of Baked Cores as Affected by Baking Time and BakingTemperatures
56
62 Core Gas Generated by Two Different Core Binders 57
63 The Effect of Single Binders and Combined Binders on the BakedStrength of Cores 57
64 Rammer Used for Test Specimen Preparation 57
65 Permeability Test Equipment 58
66 Strength Testing Equipment 58
67 Equipment for Drying Sand Specimens for Moisture Determination 58
68 Jar and Stirrer for Washing Sand 58
69 Sand Washing Equipment Assembled 59
70 The Difference in Sand Grain Distribution for Two Foundry SandsHaving the Same Grain-Fineness Number
59
Chapter V
71 Molder's Hand Tools 69
72 Additional Molder's Tools 70
73 Double-Headed Chaplets 71
74 Stem Chaplets 71
75 Perforated Chaplets 71
76 Recommended Chaplet Design for Emergency Use 71
77 Anchoring Cores With Chaplets 71
78 Pattern Set in Drag With Gating System Parts 71
79 Hand Packing Riddled Sand Around the Pattern 72
80 Ramming a Deep Pocket 72
81 Striking Off the Drag 73
82 Drag Ready for the Cope 73
83 Cope With Pattern and Gating Pieces Set 74
84 Ramming the Partially Filled Cope 74
85 Venting the Cope 75
86 Start of the Pattern Draw 75
87 Pattern Completely Drawn 76
88 Setting the Core 76
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89 Cope and Drag Ready for Closing 77
90 Clamped Mold With Weights and Pouring Basin 78
91 Pouring the Mold 78
92 Finished Pump Housing Casting 79
93 Propeller Set in the Drag 79
94 Propeller in the Drag With Parting Line Cut 80
95 Drawn Cope 80
96 Mold Ready for Closing 81
97 As-Cast Propeller 82
xi
Chapter VI
Figure Title Page
98 Arbor for a Medium-Size Core 87
99 View of Inside of Core Showing Hollowing to Make the Core MoreCollapsible When Metal is Poured Around It
87
100 Section of Mold Showing Use of Lifting Eye for Supporting Heavy Core 87
101 Typical Lifting Hooks for Lifting Cores 87
102 Core Boxes for Pump Housing Core 88
103 Ramming Up the Core 88
104 Striking Off the Core 89
105 Placing the Reinforcing Rods 89
106 Cutting Vents 90
107 Drag Core Turned Out 91
108 Cope Core Turned Out 92
109 Applying Core Paste 93
110 Assembling the Two Core Halves 93
Chapter VII
111 Parts of a Simple Gating System 106
112 Illustration of Gating Ratio 106
113 Gating Nomenclature 107
114 Unfavorable Temperature Gradients in Bottom Gated Casting 108
115 Defect Due to Bottom Gating 108
116 Bottom Gate 108
117 Reverse Horn Gate 108
118 Reverse Horn Gate 108
119 Bottom Gating Through Side Risers 109
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120 Bottom Gating Through Riser with Horn Gate 109
121 Sprue With Well at Base 109
122 Simple Top Gating 109
123 Pencil Gate 109
124 Typical Parting Gate 109
125 Parting Gate Through the Riser 110
126 Whirl Gate 110
127 Simple Step Gate. (Not Recommended.) 111
128 Thirty-Degree Mold Manipulation 111
129 Complete Mold Reversal 111
130 Pouring Cups 111
131 Pouring Basin 111
132 Solidification Time vs. A/V Ratio 111
133 Effectiveness of Square and Round Risers 112
134 Proper and Improper Riser Height 112
135 Poor Riser Size and Shape 112
136 Proper Riser Size and Shape 112
137 Riser Location at Heavy Sections 112
138 Cold Metal Riser (Not Recommended ) 112
139 Hot Metal Riser 113
140 Feeding Through a Thin Section 113
141 Flanged Casting with Open Riser 113
142 Flanged Casting with Blind Riser 113
143 Inscribed Circle Method for Riser Contact 113
144 Effect of Keeping Top Risers Open 113
145 Effect of Keeping Blind Risers Open 114
146 Casting Defects Attributable to Shrinkage Voids and Atmospheric Pressure 114
147 Blind Riser Principle 114
148 Individual Zone Feeding for Multiple Risers 114
149 Padding to Avoid the Use of Chills or Risers 115
150 Padding to Prevent Centerline Shrinkage 115
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Figure Title Page
151 Typical Padding of Sections 115
152 Shrinkage on the Thermal Centerlines of Unpadded Sections 115
153 Use of a Core to Make a Padded Section 115
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154 Effect of Insulated Risers 115
155 Reduction in Riser Size Due to Insulation 115
156 Comparison of Ordinary Riser, Insulated Riser, and Exothermic Riser 116
157 Typical Internal Chills 116
158 Typical External Chills with Wires Welded-On or Cast-In to Hold Chill inPlace
116
159 Use of External Chills in a Mold for an Aluminum Casting 117
160 Use of External Chills on a Bronze Casting 117
161 As-Cast Aluminum Casting Showing Location of External Chills 118
162 Gear Blank Mold Showing Location of External Chills 118
163 Principle of Tapering Edges of External Chill 118
164 Effect of Chill Mass and Area of Contact 119
165 Typical Application of External Chills to Unfed L,T,V,X, and W Junctions 119
166 Preferred Method of Applying External Chills by Staggering 119
Chapter VIII
167 Pit-Type Crucible Furnace 133
168 Crucible for Tilting Crucible Furnace 133
169 Tilting Crucible Furnace 133
170 Cross Section of a Stationary Crucible Furnace 133
171 Undercutting a Refractory Patch 133
172 Proper Burner Location 134
173 Proper Fit for Crucible Tongs 134
174 Electric Indirect-Arc Furnace 134
175 General Assembly View of Electric Indirect-Arc Furnace 134
176 Accessory Equipment for Electric Indirect-Arc Furnace 135
177 Properly Charged Electric Indirect-Arc Furnace 135
178 Electric Resistor Furnace 135
179 Electrode-Bracket Assembly for Electric Resistor Furnace 136
180 Cross Section of Electric Induction Furnace 136
181 Flow Lines in an Induction Furnace Melt 136
182 Essential Parts of an Induction Furnace 137
183 Typical Electric Induction Furnace 137
184 Induction-Furnace Control Panel 137
185 Method of Lining Induction Furnace Using a Steel Form 137
Chapter IX
186 Lip-Pouring Ladle 143
187 Teapot Ladle 143
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188 Lip-Pouring Crucibles 143
189 Teapot Crucibles 143
190 Lining a Teapot Pouring Ladle 143
191 Proper Pouring Technique 144
192 Poor Pouring Technique 144
193 Use of Pouring Basin and Plug 144
194 Skim Core in Down Gate 144
195 Skim Core in Pouring Basin 144
196 Pyrometer Field When at Correct Temperature, Too High a Setting, and TooLow a Setting
144
197 Effect of Pouring Temperature on Grain Size 145
Chapter XI
198 Sticker 173
199 Gross Shrink 173
200 Surface Shrink 173
xiii
Figure Title Page
201 Surface Shrink 173
202 Internal Shrink 174
203 Gating and Risering that Corrected Internal Shrink in Figure 202 174
204 Gross Shrink 174
205 Dross Inclusions 174
206 Blow 174
207 Expansion Scab 174
208 Erosion Scab and Inclusions 175
209 Metal Penetration and Veining 175
210 Hot Tear 175
211 Pin Holes 175
212 Rattails 176
213 Rattails 176
214 Buckle 176
215 Cracked Casting 176
216 Misrun 176
217 Blow and Expansion Scab 177
218 Sticker 177
219 Blows 177
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220 Blow 178
221 Drop 178
Chapter XIII
222 Example of Charge Calculation for Ounce Metal 210
223 Example of Charge Calculation for Gray Iron 211
Chapter XIV
224 Horizontal Molding of a Bushing 223
225 Vertical Molding of a Bushing 223
226 Gating a Manganese Bronze Casting 223
227 Gating a Number of Small Castings in Manganese Bronze or Red Brass 223
228 Gating for a Thin Nickel-Silver Casting 223
229 Poor Gating System for a Cupro-Nickel Check Valve 223
230 Improved Gating That Produced a Pressure-Tight Casting 224
231 Globe Valve - Poor Risering Practice 224
232 Globe Valve - Improved Risering Practice 224
233 High Pressure Elbow - Poor Risering Practice 224
234 High Pressure Elbow - Improved Risering Practice 225
235 Risers for a Cupro-Nickel Valve Body 225
236 Tapered Chills on a Flat G Metal Casting 225
237 Tapered Chills on a G Metal Bushing 225
238 Examples of Gassy and Gas-Free Metal 225
Chapter XV
239 Enlargement-Type Sprue Base 233
240 Well-Type Sprue Base 233
241 Coarse-Grained Structure (Caused by Iron Contamination ) 233
242 Porosity. (Caused by Excessive Moisture in the Sand ) 233
Chapter XVI
243 Poor Gating and Risering Practice for a Nickel-Base Alloy Casting 238
244 Improved Gating and Risering for Nickel-Base Alloy Casting 238
xiv
Chapter XVII
Figure Title Page
245 Knife Gate 249
246 Lap Gate 249
247 Riser for a Gray Iron Casting Molded in the Cope and Drag 249
248 Riser for a Gray Iron Casting Molded in the Drag 249
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249 Riser for a Gray Iron Casting Molded in the Cope 250
250 Plan View of Runner, Riser, and Ingate 250
251 Operating Log for Cast Iron Heats 250
Chapter XVIII
252 Iron-Carbon Diagram 258
253 Tapered Chill 258
254 Steel Rods Used for Determining the Pouring Temperature of Steel 258
Chapter XIX
255 The Effect of Various Elements on the Electrical Conductivity of Copper 262
256 Properly Deoxidized Copper Sample 262
257 Partially Deoxidized Copper Sample 262
258 Gassy Copper Sample 262
Chapter XX
259 Jig for Babbitting Bearings 267
1 Chapter I
HOW METALS SOLIDIFY Making a casting involves three basic steps:(1) heating metal until it melts, (2) pouringthe liquid metal into a mold cavity, and (3)allowing the metal to cool and solidify in theshape of the mold cavity. Much of the art and
science of making castings is concerned withcontrol of the things that happen to metal as itsolidifies. An understanding of how metalssolidify, therefore, is necessary to the work ofthe foundry-man. The control of thesolidification of metal to produce bettercastings is described in later chapters oncasting design, gating, risering, and pouring.
The change from hot molten metal to coolsolid casting takes place in three main steps.
The first step is the cooling of the metal fromthe pouring temperature to the solidificationtemperature. The difference between the pouring temperature and the solidificationtemperature is called the amount of superheat.The amount of superheat determines theamount of time the foundryman has available
The speed of solidification depends on howfast the necessary heat can be removed by themold. The rate of heat removal depends onthe relation between the volume and thesurface area of the metal. Other things being
equal, the thin sections will solidify before thethick ones. Outside corners of a castingsolidify faster than other sections becausemore mold surface is available to conductheat away from the casting. Inside corners arethe slowest sections of the casting to solidify.The sand, in this case, is exposed to metal ontwo sides and becomes heated to hightemperatures. Therefore, it cannot carry heataway so fast.
Changes in design to control solidificationrate sometimes can be made by the designer.If, however, a change in solidification rate isrequired for the production of a good casting,the foundryman is usually limited to methodsthat result in little or no change in the shape ofthe casting. The rate of solidification can be
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to work with the molten metal before it startsto solidify.
The second step is the cooling of the metalthrough the range of temperature at which it
solidifies. During this step, the quality of thefinal casting is established. Shrink holes, blowholes, hot cracks, and many other defectsform in a casting while it solidifies.
The third step is the cooling of the solid metalto room temperature. It is during this stage ofcooling that warpage and casting stressesoccur.
THE START OF SOLIDIFICATION
Solidification of a casting is brought about bythe cooling effect of the mold. Within a fewseconds after pouring, a thin layer of metalnext to the mold wall is cool enough forsolidification to begin. At this time, a thinskin or shell of solid metal forms. The shellgradually thickens as more and more metal iscooled, until all the metal has solidified.Solidification always starts at the surface andfinishes in the center of a section. In other
words, solidification follows the direction thatthe metal is cooled.
The way in which metal solidifies from moldwalls is illustrated by the series of steelcastings shown in figure 1. The metal that wasstill molten after various intervals of time wasdumped out to show the progress ofsolidification. All metals behave in a similarmanner. However, the time required to reacha given thickness of skin varies among the
different metals.
influenced in three other ways: (1) bychanging the rate of heat removal from some parts of the mold with chills; (2) by propergating and risering, mold manipulation, andcontrol of pouring speed, and (3) by padding
the section with extra metal that can bemachined off later.
CONTRACTION
Metals, like most other materials, expandwhen they are heated. When cooled, theymust contract or shrink. During the cooling ofmolten metal from its pouring temperature toroom temperature, contraction occurs in threedefinite steps corresponding to the three steps
of cooling. The first step, known as liquidcontraction, takes place while the moltenmetal is cooling from its pouring temperatureto its freezing temperature. The second, calledsolidification contraction, takes place whenthe metal solidifies. The third contractiontakes place when the solidified casting coolsfrom its freezing temperature to roomtemperature. This is called solid contraction.Of the three steps in contraction, the firstliquid contraction causes least trouble to the
foundryman because it is so small in amount.
Figure 2, which shows the change in volumeof a steel alloy as it cools from the pouringtemperature to room temperature, illustratesthese contractions. In a similar way, most ofthe metals considered in this manual contractin volume when cooling and whensolidifying. The amount of shrinkage inseveral metals and alloys is given in table 1. Notice that some compositions of gray cast
iron expand slightly
2 TABLE 1. THE AMOUNT OF SHRINKAGE FROM POURING TEMPERATURE TO
ROOM TEMPERATURE FOR SEVERAL METALS AND ALLOYS
Name Composition Decrease in Total
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VolumeDuring
Solidification, percent
Decreasein Volume,
percent
Copper Deoxidized 3.8 10.7Red brass 85 Cu, 5 Zn, 5 Pb, 5 Sn 6.3 10.6
Yellow brass 70 Cu, 27 Zn, 2 Pb, 1 Sn 6.4 12.4
Bearing bronze 80 Cu, 10 Sn, 10 Pb 7.3 11.2
Manganese bronze
56-3/4 Cu, 40 Zn, 1-1/4 Fe, 1/2 Sn, 1 Al,1/2 Mn
4.6 11.5
Aluminum bronze
90 Cu, 10 Al 4.1 11.2
Aluminum Commercial 6.5 12.2
Nickel 98 Ni, 1-1/2 Si, 0.1 C 6.1 14.2Monel 67 Ni, 32 Cu 6.3 13.9
Nickel silver 20 Ni, 15 Zn, 65 Cu 5.5 12.1
Carbon steel 0.25 C, 0.2 Si, 0.6 Mn 3.8 11.4
Nickel cast iron 13 Ni, 7 Cu, 2 Cr, 3 C 1.6 7.8
Gray cast iron 2.18 C, 1.24 Si, 0.35 Mn3.08 C, 1.68 Si, 0.44 Mn3.69 C, 2.87 Si, 0.59 Mn
4.851.94-1.65(expands)
during solidification. This results from theformation of graphite, which is less densethan iron. The formation of graphitecompensates for a part of the shrinkage of theiron.
Reservoirs of molten metal, known as risers,are required to make up for the contractionthat occurs during solidification. If risers arenot provided at selected spots on the casting,shrinkage voids will occur in the casting.
These voids can occur in different ways,depending on the shape of the casting and onthe type of the metal. Piping, the type ofshrinkage illustrated in figure 3a, occurs in pure metals and in alloys having narrowranges of solidification temperature. Piping ina riser is usually a good indication that it isfunctioning properly. Gross shrinkage,
Centerline shrinkage occurs most frequentlyin alloys having a short solidification rangeand low thermal conductivity.Microshrinkage, which is also known asmicroporosity, occurs as tiny voids scatteredthrough an area of metal. It is caused byinability to feed metal into the spaces betweenthe arms of the individual crystals or grains ofmetal. This type of shrinkage, which isillustrated in figure 3d, is most often found inmetals having a long solidification
temperature range. Microporosity may also becaused by gas being trapped between the armsof the crystals.
After solidification, cast metal becomes morerigid as it cools to normal room temperature.This cooling is accompanied by contraction,which is allowed for by the patternmaker in
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illustrated in figure 3b, occurs at a heavysection of a casting which has beenimproperly fed. Centerline shrinkage,illustrated in figure 3c, occurs in the center ofa section where the gradually thickening walls
of solidified metal from two surfaces meet.
making the pattern for the casting.Contraction in cast metals after solidificationis resisted by the mold. Often, differentcooling rates of thin and heavy sections resultin uneven contraction. This uneven
contraction can
3 severely stress the partially solidified, and stillweak, heavier sections. Resistance tocontraction of the casting results in severe"contraction stresses" which may tear thecasting or which may remain in the castinguntil removed by suitable heat treatment.Sharp internal corners are natural points for
these stresses.
Some metals, such as steel, undergo otherdimensional changes as they pass throughcertain temperature ranges in the solid state.In the case of castings with extreme variationsin section thickness, it is possible forcontraction to take place in some parts at thesame time that expansion occurs in others. Ifthe design of the junctions of these parts is notcarefully considered, serious difficulties will
occur in the foundry and in service.
FREEZING TEMPERATURE OF
METALS
Molten metal has the ability to dissolve manysubstances, just as water dissolves salt. Themost important elements that are soluble inmolten iron are other metals and fivenonmetals--sulfur, phosphorus, carbon,nitrogen, and hydrogen. When substances are
dissolved in a metal, they change many of its properties. For example, pure iron is relativelysoft. A small amount of carbon dissolved inthe iron makes it tough and hard. Ironcontaining a small amount of carbon is calledsteel. More carbon dissolved in the ironmakes further changes in its properties. When
solidification temperatures are different foreach material.
Most of the metals used by foundrymen areimpure and are not eutectic mixtures. Thesemetals solidify over a range of temperatureknown as the solidification range. Mixtures of
metals have many of the solidificationcharacteristics of mixtures of salt and water.Just as the addition of salt to water changesthe temperature at which water starts tofreeze, so does the addition of one metal toanother change the freezing point of thesecond metal. An example of such a mixtureof metals is the copper-nickel system shownin figure 4b (right). A given mixture of copperand nickel will be liquid until it reaches thetemperature that crosses the line marking the
upper boundary of Area A + L. In the Area A+ L, the mixture will be partly liquid, and inthe Area A, it will be entirely solid. It will benoted that the addition of copper to nickellowers the freezing temperature. On the otherhand, the addition of nickel to copper raisesthe freezing temperature. A metal systemwhich has the same general shape as thecopper-nickel system is said to have completesolid solubility. Like the mixture of water andsalt, metal mixtures of this type must be
cooled well below the temperature at whichfreezing begins before they are completelysolidified. In its simplest form, the coolingcurve looks like that in figure 4b (left). Therange of temperature between the upper andlower line is the solidification range.
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enough carbon is dissolved in the molten iron,the excess carbon will form flakes of graphiteduring solidification. This metal is known ascast iron. The graphite flakes lower theeffective cross section of the metal, lower the
apparent hardness, and have a notch effect.These factors cause cast irons to have lowerstrengths and lower toughness than steels.
One of the most important changes in a metalas it dissolves other substances is