1
INTRODUCTION
GETTING THE BEST FROM ROSS BIRDS
The management practices and feeding recommendations in
this guide are designed to maximize the genetic potential, uniformity,
livability and hatchability of Ross parent stock during
rearing and laying. Figures and graphs are based on actual
flock results obtained under good environmental and management
conditions and should be regarded as achievable performance
objectives.
Performance can be substantially influenced by many factors,
including flock management, nutrition, health status and climatic
conditions. Like the figures and graphs, data in this
manual indicate levels of performance that can be achieved
under good management and environmental conditions.
Variations may occur for a number of reasons. For example,
feed consumption can be affected significantly by form of
feed, quality of feed ingredients, feed energy level and house
temperature. Again, data presented in this manual should be
regarded as achievable performance objectives rather than
specifications.
TECHNICAL SERVICE For further information on the management of Ross breeding
stock, please contact your local technical service manager or
the technical service department at 800-826-9685.
Ross Breeders, Inc.
Cummings Research Park
5015 Bradford Drive
Huntsville, Alabama 35805
Tel: 256-890-3800
Toll free: 800-826-9685
Fax: 256-890-3919
e-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.rossbreeders.com
USING THIS GUIDE This manual summarizes best management practices for Ross
male and female parent stock.
FINDING A TOPIC This guide is divided into sections based on the birds’ life
stages. These tabbed sections allow quick location of topics of
particular interest. A list of topics appears on the contents
page and on the appropriate tab section page. There is also an
alphabetical key word index at the back of the guide.
KEY POINTS Key points emphasizing important aspects of husbandry and
management techniques have been included at the beginning
of each subsection. Colored headings and check marks indicate
key points.
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES Specific performance objectives for each parent stock genotype
have been produced as separate inserts to allow for regular
updating. These supplements may be found in the pocket
at the rear of the guide. ©2000 Ross Breeders, Inc.
**Certain danger points have been given emphasis using this sign and bold text.
CONTENTS
SECTION 1 BREEDER PHYSIOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT: 0 THROUGH 65 WEEKS Physiological Development
and Management by Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Measuring Body Weight and Uniformity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Uniformity Calculation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Feeding to Control Body Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Fleshing Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
SECTION 2 BROODING AND REARING: 0 THROUGH 22 WEEKS Housing Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Brooding Area Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Feeders and Drinkers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Housing Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Specific Management
Requirements for Males and Females . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Feeding to Control Body Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
0 Through 4 Weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5 Through 15 Weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
16 Through 22 Weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Corrective Management Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Underweight at 1 Through 16 Weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Overweight at 1 Through 16 Weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Underweight at 16 Through 22 Weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Overweight at 16 Through 22 Weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
SECTION 3 LAYING: 22 THROUGH 65 WEEKS Housing Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Housing Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Separate Sex Feeding Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Male Management During Laying . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
22 Through 30 Weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
31 Through 65 Weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Female Management During Laying . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
22 Through 30 Weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
31 Through 65 Weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Egg Weight and Feed Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Care of Hatching Eggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Nest Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Egg Collection and Disinfection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Egg Cooling and Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
CONTENTS
SECTION 4 BIOSECURITY AND NUTRITION Flock Health and Hygiene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
House Clean-out Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Biosecurity Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Disease Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Nutritional Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Nutritional Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Feed Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
SECTION 5 APPENDICES AND INDICES Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Appendix 1: Conversion Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Appendix 2: Available Supplements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Index of Diagrams and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Key Word Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
PHYSIOLOGICAL
DEVELOPMENT AND
MANAGEMENT BY PHASE
Ross breeding stock exhibits the same inherent rapid growth
and feed efficiency characteristics as its broiler generation.
Developing and continuing good management practices
throughout the flock’s lifecycle (0-65 weeks) will be essential to
achieve optimum performance, including proper body weight,
good flock uniformity and satisfactory physical condition.
During the rearing period, growing Ross breeding stock to the
target growth curve is required to allow males and females to
achieve optimum physiological development and uniformity in
preparation for the laying period.
During the laying period, it is essential to maintain the strict
monitoring programs begun during the rearing period to
achieve and extend optimum reproductive performance.
Diagram 1.1 illustrates key physiological development stages
for Ross broiler breeders. Diagram 1.2 indicates the most
important management practices coinciding with each stage
and leading to proper physiological development.
MEASURING BODY
WEIGHT AND UNIFORMITY
OBJECTIVE To accurately track body weights and assess flock uniformity to
determine feed allocation.
KEY POINTS 4 Use a scale accurate to 0.1 lb. (45 g). 4 Weigh birds weekly (at the same time of day) beginning
at three weeks of age.
4 Avoid leg damage by holding the birds by both wings during weighing. Never hold birds by one leg.
4 Record weights on a body weight recording chart and calculate average body weight and uniformity.
4 Transfer average body weight to the appropriate Ross Rearing/Breeding Program Supplement. Compare
average body weight with target body weight to
determine feed allocation.
4 Poor uniformity is one of the first indications of abnormal performance or health problems. Make management
practice changes based on differing flock uniformity.
4 Poor uniformity can often be attributed to inadequate feeder space and poor feed distribution.
SAMPLE WEIGHING A highly productive flock of breeding stock can only be
achieved by maintaining accurate measurements of body
weight and uniformity throughout the growth curve. Growth
and development within a flock are assessed and managed by
weighing representative samples of birds and comparing them
with target uniformity and body-weight standards.
Males and females must be weighed and body weights tracked
separately to manage their different rates of physiological
development. For this reason, Ross recommends keeping males
and females separate for feeding and management purposes
until mating (22 weeks). If this is not possible, it is essential
to maintain separation until at least six weeks of age.
If an electronic recording scale is not used, individual body
weights should be recorded on a body weight recording chart
(see Diagram 1.3) to calculate average body weight and flock
uniformity. The average body weight should then be transferred
from this chart to the graph provided in the most current
revision of the appropriate Ross Rearing/Breeding Program
Supplement. Chart the flock’s progress, comparing actual
averages to the targets on the graph. Make management adjustments
as needed. Check with your Ross technical service manager
on a regular basis for the most up-to-date supplements.
Up to three weeks of age (less than 21 days old), birds can be
weighed in bulk (10-20 birds at a time). From three to 65
weeks of age, randomly selected groups of 50-100 males and
females should be caught using catching frames and weighed
individually. It is essential that the entire group be weighed
to eliminate any selective bias. Any supplemental “spiking”
males added after the peak period must be weighed and
tracked separately from the original males. The total sample
must not be less than 1 percent of the female population
and 4 percent of the male population.
UNIFORMITY
CALCULATION METHODS
OBJECTIVE To accurately determine flock uniformity.
Achieving good flock uniformity is a major objective during
rearing. The uniformity of a flock is determined by mathematically
analyzing the variability of the weight of the individual
birds within that flock. There are two basic methods
for calculating the uniformity of a flock: the coefficient of
variation (CV%) method and the ±15% uniformity method.
The CV% method is recommended because it is a more
accurate determination of what percentage of the flock needs
special attention and management to prevent problems.
While there are several formulas for calculating CV%, the
same formula should be used consistently throughout the
rearing period, as different formulas can produce slightly different
numerical results. An electronic scale that automatically
calculates uniformity using the CV% method may be a wise
investment. If this is not possible, use the following steps to
calculate CV%.
CV% METHOD FOR UNIFORMITY CALCULATION Step 1 — Record Weights
Mark the weight of each individual bird on a body weight
recording chart (see Diagram 1.3).
Step 2 — Weight Range
Calculate the weight range of the flock by subtracting
the weight of the lightest bird from the weight of the
heaviest bird.
Heaviest bird weight - lightest bird weight
3.2 lbs. - 2.0 lbs. = 1.2 lbs.
Step 3 — Average Weight
Calculate the average bird weight by taking the total weight of
the birds weighed divided by the number of birds weighed.
Total weight/number weighed
130.7 lbs. / 50 = 2.6 lbs.
Step 4 — F Value for Sample Size
Use Table 1.1 to determine the appropriate F value given the
number of birds weighed (sample size).
50 = 4.5
Step 5
Plug the numbers from the above steps into the following
equation:
CV% = (Weight Range x 100) / (Average Weight x F Value)
CV% = (1.2 x 100) / (2.6 x 4.5)
CV% = 120 / 11.7
CV% = 10.26 = 10 = Good
Step 6
Compare your CV% with the values in Table 1.2. If your
CV% is not good, take corrective actions. Depending on
the situation, these actions can include changing feeding
amounts, frequency/distribution of feeding, feeder and
drinker space, square footage per bird, ration changes, disease
diagnosis and treatment, etc. Corrective actions should be
discussed with your Ross technical service manager and a
continuing monitoring program should be established. Table 1.1
If you prefer not to use the CV% method to calculate uniformity,
we recommend using the ±15% uniformity method. The
following steps will assist you in using this method.
±15% METHOD FOR UNIFORMITY CALCULATION Step 1
Mark the weight of each individual bird on a body weight
recording chart (see Diagram 1.3).
Step 2
Calculate the average bird weight by taking the total weight of
the birds weighed divided by the number of birds weighed.
Total weight/number weighed
130.7 / 50 = 2.6
Step 3
Multiply average bird weight by 0.85.
2.6 lbs. x 0.85 = 2.2 lbs.
Step 4
Multiply average bird weight by 1.15.
2.6 lbs. x 1.15 = 3.0 lbs.
Step 5
Total the quantity of bird body weights that fall between the
result of step 3 (average bird weight x 0.85) and the results of
step 4 (average bird weight x 1.15).
45
Step 6
Divide the result of step 5 by the total number of birds
weighed.
45 / 50 = 90% uniformity
Step 7
Compare your ±15% with the value in Table 1.2. If your
±15% is not good, take corrective actions. Depending on the
situation, these actions can include changing feeding
amounts, frequency/distribution of feeding, feeder and
drinker space, square footage per bird, ration changes, disease
diagnosis and treatment, etc. Corrective actions should be
discussed with your Ross Breeders technical service manager
and a continuing monitoring program should be established.
Once calculations for uniformity have been determined, compare
the shape of the curve on the body weight recording
chart to Diagram 1.4.
Diagram 1.4a depicts the optimum condition. At one day of
age, typical flocks will have a normal (bell-shaped) distribution
curve (CV% = <11 and >80% uniformity under the
curve). Over time, individual birds within the flock respond
differently to the environment, vaccination, disease, management
conditions, competition for feed, available feeder and
drinker space, etc. These different responses create changes in
the flock’s uniformity curve.
Diagram 1.4b depicts a flock in which an increasing number
of small birds has produced a skewed weight distribution
(CV% = 11-14 and 70-80% uniformity under the curve).
Reasons for this skewed distribution can include: poor chick
quality, poor feed distribution, poor feed quality, inadequate
temperature, inadequate humidity, disease, improper vaccination
and/or improper beak trimming.
The reduced competitiveness of small birds can lead, over
time, to an increase in heavy birds, which then creates a more
flattened distribution curve with less uniformity (CV% >14
and <70% uniformity), shown by the curve in Diagram 1.4c. Table 1.
FEEDING TO
CONTROL BODY WEIGHT
OBJECTIVE To control the development of breeding stock throughout
their life cycle, using feed allocation, so that target body
weights, uniformity, coordinated sexual maturity and maximum
reproductive performance is achieved, both within and
between sexes.
KEY POINTS 4 Both overfeeding and underfeeding during specific phases of the life cycle can have a negative impact on breeding
stock performance.
4 All decisions on feed allowance must be based on flock average body weight in relation to target body weight.
Use the feeding program only as a guide.
4 Do not overreact. Before making a drastic change in the feeding program, take another sample weight to validate
the data.
4 In flocks of mixed sex, use the female body weight in relation to target weight to determine overall feed levels.
4 Adequate feeder and drinker space must be provided during the entire life of the flock (see Feeders and
Drinkers, pages 19–20).
4 Good feed distribution is essential to uniformity. Feeding equipment should be capable of distributing feed to entire
population within 4-6 minutes.
4 Accurate feed weighing equipment is essential for calculating feed allowance.
4 Daily feed allocation per bird must be recorded to monitor feed consumption.
FLESHING PROCEDURES
OBJECTIVE To ensure consistent flock performance throughout reproductive
life cycle by monitoring fleshing development visually
and manually.
KEY POINTS 4 Fleshing evaluations need to be conducted on both the males and females during three critical phases of life cycle:
16-22 weeks of age, 30-40 weeks of age and 40-65 weeks
of age.
4 Overfleshed and underfleshed females typically achieve lower peaks and fail to produce total egg numbers equal
to that of an ideally fleshed flock.
4 Overfleshed males will have reduced mating activity, which in turn will impact fertility, as well as a higher
incidence of leg problems.
The best opportunity for evaluating the degree of fleshing in
birds is when they are being handled for their weekly weighing.
Make general observations of bird condition prior to capture.
During movement to or from the scale, flesh individual
birds by running your free hand up the length of each bird’s
breast, from crop to thigh. A subjective score of over, under
or ideal can be assigned to each bird and then averaged for
the entire flock. Diagram 1.5 illustrates typical characteristics
of underfleshed, normally fleshed and overfleshed birds.
High levels of performance in the laying period depend on
achieving high standards of management in the early stages of
the birds’ lives. The following section details management
recommendations to ensure an adequate growth progression
from day old through seven days, to achieve target body
weight by 2-4 weeks, and to ensure a smooth growth curve
and flock uniformity is maintained through 22 weeks.
HOUSING
RECOMMENDATIONS
Biosecurity is critical to the well-being of breeder flocks. A
basic biosecurity program should address all-in, all-out placement
and rearing different-aged flocks separately, as well as
visitor guidelines and pest control (see Biosecurity
Recommendations, page 49).
The objective of housing is to provide a protective environment
in which feed, water, temperature, humidity, day length
and light intensity can be controlled at the optimum level for
good rearing performance and subsequent laying performance.
These practices also promote good health and welfare.
The technical specifications of the housing system must be
defined so birds are maintained under appropriate environmental
conditions, taking into account welfare, performance
targets, materials available, financial constraints, and ease and
effectiveness of environmental control.
BROODING AREA SETUP
OBJECTIVE To provide the optimum environment for the establishment of
a uniform, healthy flock.
KEY POINTS 4 Prepare, clean out and disinfect houses and equipment 2 weeks before chick placement.
4 Ensure house reaches adequate floor temperature (see Table 2.6) and proper air quality 24 hours before chicks
arrive. Once chicks are placed, check temperatures at
chick level.
4 Chicks must have immediate and easy access to both feed and water.
4 Stocking density should be two square feet per bird at one day of age.
Preparing for the new flock begins right after the old flock is
moved. Houses and equipment must be completely cleaned,
disinfected (see House Clean-out Procedures, page 47) and
set up in time for the brooders to be started and temperatures
to reach the desired level 24 hours before the chicks arrive
(see Temperature, page 20). If sufficient time for floor temperature
to reach house temperature is not allowed, chicks may become chilled.
A minimum of four inches (10 cm) of good quality litter
should be placed evenly throughout the house. Drinker
height should be adjusted in response to litter depth.
A typical brooder layout for 500-600 day-old chicks is shown
in Diagram 2.1. Brooding down the center of the house is
most likely to achieve uniform heat distribution. This principle
applies to both radiant and hot air systems.
A stocking density of two square feet per bird, at one day of
age, is one of the most crucial factors in producing a healthy
and uniform flock. At this density, the recommended number
of feeders and drinkers can be installed for the remainder of
the rearing period, allowing the flock to be fed and watered
evenly for better uniformity.
Brooder guards may be used to control early chick movement.
Guards may be placed around each stove or run the
length of the house. Remove the brooder guards after the seventh
day.
WARNING During brooding, extra drinkers, e.g., easy fills, and feeder
lids are required. When using open track feeder chains, provide
a minimum of two inches of feeder space per chick
placed. For pan-type feeder systems, allow one pan per 20
chicks, in addition to feeder lids. Supplementary feeders
should be gradually removed from days 7-10 (see Table 2.2)
Drinkers should be positioned strategically to ensure that
chicks do not have to travel more than three feet for access to
water in the first 24 hours. At brooding temperatures, bacteria
can multiply rapidly in open water, so water should be
kept clean and fresh. Supplementary drinkers should be
removed gradually from days 3-5.
LIGHTING
OBJECTIVE To utilize birds’ response to day length and light intensity,
which optimizes sexual maturity and subsequent reproductive
performance.
KEY POINTS 4 Flock management is more successful when controlled environment or blackout housing is used during the
rearing period.
4 In blackout houses, ensure that houses are light-proof during dark periods and rear birds from 22 days to
22 weeks on an intensity of approximately 0.5-1.0 f-c
(~5-10 lux) at bird level.
4 It is critical that the meter used to measure light intensity is properly calibrated for the specific type of lighting being
used, i.e., sodium, fluorescent or incandescent. Consult a
lighting expert to make sure that the meter you are using
is accurate for your specific situation.
4 Maximize response to increases in day length and light intensity by achieving the correct rearing body weight and
fleshing profile, good flock uniformity and appropriate
nutritional input.
4 Ensure males and females are synchronized in terms of sexual maturity by rearing them on the same lighting
program.
4 Do not pre-light males or females. Poor uniformity of sexual development will occur if photo-stimulation
is attempted prior to achieving proper body size (see
Table 2.1).
The difference in day length and light intensity between the
rearing and laying environment controls and stimulates ovarian
and testicular development. The birds’ response to increases
in day length and light intensity is dependent on achieving
the correct rearing body weight and fleshing profile, good
flock uniformity and appropriate nutritional input.
Improper lighting programs can result in over- stimulation or understimulation of the flock, reproductive disease problems and increased mortality. CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT/ BLACKOUT REARING TO OPEN HOUSE LAYING Controlled environment (blackout) housing has advantages
over open-sided housing, especially during rearing, since it
limits variation due to environmental influences, facilitates
control of maturity and body weight and assists in the production
of uniform flocks.
Blackout housing during rearing permits greater control over
day length, while allowing the use of open-sided housing
during lay. Control of lighting in rearing also resolves production
problems associated with out-of-season flocks, i.e., delay
in egg production, high female body weight and high feed
consumption.
During the light period, light should be evenly distributed
throughout the house and the intensity should be controllable,
especially in the rearing period. Light intensity during
the light period should never be less than 0.5 f-c (5 lux).
Accurate measurements of light intensity require the use of a
light meter.
The lighting program shown in Table 2.1, assuming birds are
at the correct body weight-for-age, have proper fleshing and
have good uniformity, will decrease the frequency of erratic
ovulation, egg yolk peritonitis, abnormal eggs, prolapse of
the oviduct and broodiness. The right balance between light
stimulation and physical development will result in better
livability from the onset of egg production and optimum
performance per hen housed.
FEEDERS AND DRINKERS
OBJECTIVE To provide the correct equipment and spacing for the birds to
receive the proper quality and quantity of feed and water
throughout the rearing period.
KEY POINTS 4 Ensure feeding equipment is capable of distributing feed to the entire flock within 4-6 minutes.
4 Use accurate feed weighing equipment. 4 Determine correct feeder space in correlation with the age and weight of birds (see Table 2.2).
4 Provide potable water that is clear with no organic or suspended matter. Where bacterial counts are high, the
cause should be established and corrected as soon
as possible.
4 Record water consumption on a daily basis to assist in monitoring management conditions.
4 Maintain a reserve supply of water in case of emergency.
FEEDING SPACE Proper nutritional management depends on feeder space
as well as feed distribution time. Feeding space per bird is
determined by bird size and will increase as the bird becomes
older (see Table 2.2). Good feed distribution will allow all
birds to have access to feed within 4-6 minutes.
WATER CONSUMPTION Potable water must be available at the bird drinking level 30
minutes prior to feeding and up to one hour after feed is consumed.
During off-feed days, water should be available one
hour in the morning and one hour in the afternoon, adjusted
to seasonal demands and litter conditions. Recommended
drinker space is outlined in Table 2.3.
Drinker requirements are influenced by the surrounding temperature;
every 1.8°F (1°C) rise in ambient temperature over
70°F (21°C) will increase water requirement by 6.5 percent.
Water should be delivered to breeding stock at a temperature
of 50-54°F (10-12°C). Very cold (<40º F [4º C]) or very
warm (>80°F [27°C]) water will reduce intake. In hot
weather, flushing the water lines ensures that the water
is as cool as possible.
Water should be monitored to assure it is clear with no
organic or suspended matter, and free of pathogens. In particular,
water should be free from Pseudomonas, Salmonella and
E. coli. Consecutive samples must not contain coliforms in
more than 5 percent of samples and have no more than one
coliform/mL in any one sample. Additional water quality
standards are given in Table 2.4. These are unlikely to be
exceeded if water comes from a main supply. Water from
wells, however, may have excessive nitrate levels and high
bacterial counts due to run-off from fertilized fields.
FEMALES
Age Feeding Space
Feeder Lids Chain Feeder Pan Feeder
1-10 Days 1 Lid/100 Birds 3.0" (5 cm)/Bird 1
Pan/20 Birds
10 days-4 Weeks 3.0" (5 cm)/Bird 1 Pan/20
Birds
5-Depletion 6.0" (15 cm)/Bird 1 Pan/10 Birds MALES
Age Feeding Space
Feeder Lids Chain Feeder Pan Feeder
1-10 Days 1 Lid/100 Birds 3.5" (7.5 cm)/Bird 1
Pan/20 Birds
10 days-4 Weeks 3.5" (7.5 cm)/Bird 1 Pan/20
Birds
5-Depletion 7.5" (19 cm)/Bird 1 Pan/8 Birds
19
DRINKER SPACE DURING REARING & PRODUCTION
Automatic Circular (Bell) Drinkers 1/80 Birds
Nipples 1/10 Birds
Cups 1/25 Birds
WAR Overconsumption of feed (especially during weeks 6-22) can lead to crop impaction and death from suffocation due to the pressure exerted on the bird’s trachea. If crop impaction problems occur, consider modifying the feed restriction program, e.g., change from every other day to 5/2 feeding. Always ensure water is available prior to feeding.
Where bacterial counts are high, the cause should be
established and corrected as soon as possible. Chlorination
administered between 1 and 3 ppm chlorine at the drinker
level, ultraviolet light or ozonation can be fully effective
corrections. Manufacturers’ guidelines should be followed
in establishing these procedures.
Hard water or water with high levels of iron (>3 mg/L) can
cause blockages in drinker valves and pipes. Sediment will
also block pipes; water should be filtered using a 40-50
micron (µm) filter where this is a problem.
The pattern of water consumption is an extremely useful indicator
of flock health and physiological condition. Water consumption
should be recorded on a daily basis to assist in
monitoring management conditions (see Table 2.5 for average
water consumption levels).
HOUSING ENVIRONMENT
OBJECTIVE To maintain the optimum environment for uniform chick
growth.
KEY POINTS 4 Exploit natural features such as topography and prevailing winds to minimize entry of direct sunlight and for
optimum ventilation or cooling.
4 Maintain and adjust temperature according to schedule throughout the rearing period.
4 Provide proper ventilation to maintain good air quality during rearing. Chicks kept in very dry, dusty houses are
more susceptible to dehydration and respiratory problems
(see Ventilation, page 21).
TEMPERATURE Initial floor temperature of 90°F (32°C), measured on the
litter at the edge of the brooder, should be reached in the
rearing house at least 24 hours before chicks are scheduled
to arrive. Recording thermometers should be placed at bird
height throughout the house to validate automated systems.
The temperature should be reduced according to the
schedule in Table 2.6 until the final floor temperature of 70°
F (21°C) is achieved.
Chick behavior is an important indicator of proper
temperature (see Diagram 2.4)
Table 2.4
MAXIMUM ACCEPTABLE LEVELS OF
MINERALS AND BACTERIA IN DRINKING WATER
Total Dissolved Solids 300-500 ppm
Chloride 200 mg/L
pH 6-8
Nitrates 45 ppm
Sulphates 200 ppm
Iron 1 mg/L
Calcium 75 mg/L
Copper 0.05 mg/L
Magnesium 30 mg/L
Manganese 0.05 mg/L
Zinc 5 mg/L
Fluoride 0.06 mg/L
Mercury 0.002 mg/L
Lead 0.05 mg/L
Fecal Coliforms 0 Table 2.5
AVERAGE DAILY WATER CONSUMPTION/1,000 PULLETS
AT AVERAGE DAYTIME HOUSE TEMPERATURE
50°F (10ºC) 70°F (21ºC) 90°F (32ºC) 100°F (38ºC)
AGE IN WEEKS gal. gal. gal. gal.
2 15 18 30 36
4 20 25 42 51
6 23 28 47 57
8 26 32 53 64
10 29 35 59 72
12 32 39 65 79
14 35 43 72 87
16 38 47 79 95
18 42 52 86 104
20 45 56 94 113
22 49 61 102 123
24 53 66 109 133 Adapted from: North, M.O. and Bell, D.D., 1990. Commercial Chicken Production
Manual,
Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, New York.
Table 2.6
TEMPERATURE GUIDE
AGE TEMPERATURE FLOOR
AT EDGE OF TEMPERATURE
BROODER 2" (5cm) AT EDGE OF
ABOVE LITTER BROODER ON LITTER
Week 1 95ºF (35ºC) 90ºF (32ºC)
Week 2 90ºF (32ºC) 85ºF (29ºC)
Week 3 85ºF (29ºC) 80ºF (27ºC)
Week 4 80ºF (27ºC) 75ºF (24ºC)
Week 5 75ºF (24ºC) 70ºF (21ºC)
Week 6 70ºF (21ºC) 70ºF (21ºC)
WARNING In most areas, closed houses will require a cooling system
during times of high ambient temperature to lower the house
temperature. Evaporative cooling systems (see Table 2.7 and
Diagram 2.2) are often employed when temperatures exceed
80° F (27°C) to help maintain the birds at temperatures within
the range of 75-85°F (24-29°C). The effectiveness of these
systems depends on relative humidity.
Good insulation can also assist in preventing fluctuation of
house temperature. Effective insulation is provided by six
inches (15 cm) of fiberglass (R-value of 19).
VENTILATION Poor air quality due to inadequate ventilation may cause
damage to the lungs and cardiovascular system, making the
birds more susceptible to disease. The ventilation system
must be capable of supplying adequate fresh air and removing
gaseous byproducts produced by the chicks and/or the
heating systems. It is a good practice to establish a system of
minimum ventilation during brooding.
The ventilation system will also contribute to temperature
and humidity control, especially in warm conditions and
should provide an environment that is uniform and draft-free
at bird level. Houses should be equipped with a minimum
(winter) ventilation system, as well as a maximum (summer)
system, including fans on timers and thermostats that meet
the minimum air exchange rate of one volume of building air
per 45-60 seconds.
A minimum realtive humidity of approximately 50% is
recommended. For more information on proper ventilation,
relative humidity, and temperature control, please contact
your local Ross technical service manager.
Do not chill chicks at any time. Table 2.7
EVAPORATIVE COOLING SYSTEMS IN COMMON USE
COOLING SYSTEM
High Pressure
Fogging System
Cooling Pads DESCRIPTION
Water is forced at high pressure
(100-200 psi) through a nozzle to
cause a mist (droplet sizes ²30
microns may cause wet litter)
Air is drawn through a water-soaked
pad by tunnel ventilation
(see Diagram 2.2).
SPECIFIC MANAGEMENT
REQUIREMENTS FOR
MALES AND FEMALES
Two critical objectives during brooding and rearing are to
produce flocks that meet the average target body weight and
have good uniformity (see Measuring Body Weight and
Uniformity, page 7–13). Although the principles used to
obtain these goals and manage males and females are generally
the same, it is critical that males and females be weighed,
tracked and managed separately during the entire brooding
and rearing phase (0-22 weeks) to manage their differing
rates of physiological development.
FEEDING TO
CONTROL BODY WEIGHT
OBJECTIVE To control the development of breeding stock throughout the
brooding and rearing phase using feed allocation, so that target
body weights, uniformity, coordinated sexual maturity and
maximum reproductive performance are achieved within and
between sexes.
KEY POINTS 4 Weigh birds on a weekly basis (see Sample Weighing,
page 7) beginning at three weeks.
4 All decisions on feed allowance must be based on flock average body weight in relation to target body weight.
Use the feeding program only as a guide.
4 In flocks of mixed sex, use the female body weight in relation to target weight to determine overall feed levels.
4 Feed allocations can either be maintained or increased, but must never be decreased during this phase.
4 Provide adequate feeding space during the rearing period (see Table 2.2, page 19).
4 Good feed distribution is absolutely essential. Feeding equipment should be capable of distributing feed to entire
population within 4-6 minutes.
Up to three weeks of age (less than 21 days old), birds can be
weighed in bulk (10-20 birds at a time). The total sample must
not be less than 1 percent of the female flock and 4 percent of
the male flock. From three to 22 weeks of age, randomly
selected groups of 50-100 birds per house should be caught
using catching frames and weighed individually. It is essential
that the entire group be weighed to eliminate any selective bias.
The Ross body weight targets in the early stages of rearing can
only be achieved by ad libitum feeding of a good quality ration
from one day of age. Feed intakes should be recorded from day
one, so that a smooth transition can be achieved from ad libitum
to the controlled feeding program seen in the appropriate Feeding Program Summary Supplement.
Ideally, birds should be fed every day for the entire rearing
period; however, it is impossible to maintain the appropriate
growth curve in that manner. Females should be provided with
full feed every day from one to 21 days (3 weeks) of age or
until consumption time is 4-5 hours. Under no circumstance
should males be removed from full feed before 21 days
(3 weeks).
In situations where the volume of the feed recommended is too
small to achieve uniform feed distribution throughout the feeder
system, follow a feeding schedule that delivers two days
allotment at once, i.e., feed both day one and day two rations
on day one. The most frequently used feeding schedules are
shown in Table 2.8. When using medication in rations, assure
that each bird’s daily intake of feed provides the specified
amount.
The feeding programs discussed in the Ross Male/Female
Feeding Program Supplements are only a guide to help
indicate the amount of feed required. Any changes to
quantities of feed required should be calculated using the
amount of feed currently allocated and the deviation from
target body weight curves. Also, external stresses such as
vaccination should be taken into consideration when
figuring feed increases.
BROODING AND REARING
FROM 0 THROUGH 4 WEEKS OBJECTIVES To achieve the successful establishment of the flock from day
one, develop good appetite, promote feather growth and minimize
7-day mortality.
To ensure good early development of skeletal, immune, and
cardiovascular systems, and to obtain the best possible flock
uniformity. Table 2.8
EXAMPLES OF FEEDING FREQUENCIES
FREQUENCY SCHEDULE
Mon Tue Wed Thur Fri Sat Sun
Every day F F F F F F F
6 and 1 F F F F F F 0
5 and 2 F F F 0 F F 0
4 and 3 F F 0 F 0 F 0
Skip-a-day 0 F 0 F 0 F 0 F=Feed Day 0=Non-feed Day
KEY POINTS 4 Separate sex rearing is recommended for the entire rearing period (0-22 weeks), but is absolutely essential until six
weeks of age to promote maximum health and
productivity of males and females.
4 Ensure chicks have immediate access to fresh water and feed. Check and adjust feeders and drinkers at least twice
a day.
4 Check chicks at regular intervals throughout the day. Use chick behavior and vocalization as an indicator of
satisfactory brooding environment.
4 Birds should be on or over target body weight by 7-14 days (see appropriate Ross Rearing/Breeding Program
Supplement).
CHICK PROCESSING Trimming the comb (dubbing) of male chicks is optional. In
our experience, leaving the male’s comb intact facilitates earlier
and more effective separate sex feeding and body weight
control. Therefore, it is not recommended to dub males.
To prevent damage to the female at mating, it is generally
advisable to trim the rear toe (dew claw) on each foot of the
male chick (only one toe per foot) and to cauterize the
wound at the hatchery.
Beak trimming of both males and females is recommended to
prevent cannibalism. It is essential that only properly trained
staff, using the correct equipment, be employed for beak
trimming. Because beak trimming can be most accurately
performed at 6-7 days of age, it is recommended that it be
done during this age period. The objective is to cauterize the
upper and lower beak in a single action, removing the least
amount of beak and minimizing immediate and future stress
on the chicks. It is necessary to make the cut square (see
Diagram 2.3) to avoid uneven growth and beak deformity in
later life. To reduce the possibility of infection, great care
must be taken to ensure proper cauterization during these
procedures.
Providing a vitamin supplement in the drinking water, for a
short period both before and after the beak trimming
procedure,
can assist in the healing process.
CHICK PLACEMENT Historically, it was acceptable to practice mixed rearing of
males and females; however, with modern high-yield birds
such as Ross parent stock, there is a greater difference
between the sexes and their ability to compete for feed.
For this reason, male and female breeding stock should
be reared and managed separately from day old until
mating (22 weeks).
Mixed rearing of the sexes, although it can be successful,
often produces poor results. Mixed rearing does not allow the
growth and uniformity of males and females to be controlled
separately, lowering the maximum potential for egg production
and hatchability.
If it becomes necessary to mix the sexes early, this should
never be done before six weeks of age, so that males achieve
the correct body weight and skeletal development.
Great care must be taken in allocating equal numbers of
chicks to each brooder area. Chicks must be placed in the
brooding area immediately upon arrival. Full chick boxes
should never be stacked in the brooder house and empty
chick boxes should be removed from the building as soon as
possible.
Upon placement in the brooding ring, the chicks will require
fresh drinking water and feed. Small amounts of feed should
be given frequently (3-4 times per day) to encourage eating.
Monitor the number of chicks with full crops to gauge early
appetite development. By three days of age, 100 percent of
the chicks should have full crops.
MONITORING CHICK PROGRESS Chick behavior must be continuously and carefully observed
during the brooding period, as this is the best indicator of the
correct environmental conditions. Excessive vocalization
(chick noise) is a sign of incorrect environmental conditions
such as temperature, relative humidity, ventilation, etc.
Uneven chick distribution is also a sign of incorrect environment
and adjustment should be
made as indicated in Diagram
2.4
Temperature too low Chicks crowd to brooder
Chicks noisy, distress-calling
Drafty This distribution requires investigation.
Influenced by draft, uneven light
distribution, external noises, etc.
Temperature too high Chicks make no noise
Chicks pant, head and wings droop
Chicks away from brooder
Temperature correct Chicks evenly spread
Noise level signifies contentment
For best performance, birds should be on target body weight
by 7-14 days. Flocks that fail to achieve target body weights
tend to gradually lose uniformity. Corrective action taken
at this stage will assist in preventing consequences of poor
uniformity and poor development of essential physiological
functions at later stages (see Corrective Management Action,
page 26).
Flock uniformity can be improved by providing frequent
small increases in feed allowances, rather than by making
larger changes once a week, e.g., go from 10 lbs./100 to
10.25 lbs./100 to 10.5 lbs./100 every feed day. If body weight
exceeds targets, feed allowances can be maintained for an
extended amount of time, but they should never be reduced.
REARING FROM
5 THROUGH 15 WEEKS To bring the entire flock to standard body weight-for-age
prior to 10 weeks and maintain the appropriate growth profile
and flock uniformity throughout the period, in preparation
for the transition to sexual maturity.
KEY POINTS 4 Ensure that birds achieve weekly body weight targets (see appropriate Ross Breeding/Rearing Program
Supplement).
4 Use small but regular feed increases to promote good early uniformity (see appropriate Feeding Program Summary
Supplement).
The period from 5-15 weeks is one of rapid growth and
development for breeding stock. Good control of body weight
gain using increasing quantities of feed is essential. During
this stage, small changes in the quantity of feed consumed
can have a big impact on body weight. Therefore, monitoring
body weight is very important. Sample weighing should be
continued on a weekly basis (see Sample Weighing, page 7).
If growth during the period from 10-15 weeks does not
respond to changes in the quantity of feed provided, small,
frequent increases in feed quantity may be necessary (0.2-0.4
lb./100/day) to ensure target body weights are achieved.
The period from 6-10 weeks is critical for the males’ skeletal
development (i.e., muscle/tendon, ligaments and skeletal
bones). Any deviation from the target growth profile may
cause subsequent problems in the livability and performance
of males. Stress or interruption in growth over this period
will also affect growth of the testes and reduce subsequent
fertility. Males are more responsive to stimulation (i.e.,
lighting and body weight gain) for sexual development
than females.
REARING FROM
16 THROUGH 22 WEEKS OBJECTIVE To prepare males and females for the physiological demands
of sexual maturity and minimize the variation in sexual maturity
and body weight both within and between sexes.
KEY POINTS 4 Ensure the body weight of the flock follows the target profile, with increasing weekly weight gains through to
sexual maturity, preventing deviation of body weight from
target, particularly beyond 19 weeks.
4 If the flock’s average body weight deviates from the target body weight line by more than 10 percent, consider
redrawing the target body weight line (see Corrective
Management Action, page 28).
4 Provide birds (male and female) with a feed increase of about 27 percent during this period to ensure the correct
increase in growth.
4 Fleshing must be examined on a regular basis (see Fleshing Procedures, page 13).
4 Incremental increases in body weight and development should be used as indicators of flock progress.
4 Development of secondary sexual characteristics (wattles, comb, feathering, etc.) should be observed
at 22 weeks.
4 Follow recommended lighting program (see Lighting, page 18)
MANAGEMENT OF MALES The recommendations and observations made for female
management during this period are equally relevant to the
male population.
From 16 weeks until the time of mating, the objective should be
to follow the target body weight profile bringing the males to
uniform and coordinated sexual maturity at the same time as
the females. Uniformity of sexual maturity is more likely to be
disrupted in the period of 16-22 weeks if body weight gain and
flock uniformity do not follow the recommended target body
weight profile.
MANAGEMENT OF FEMALES The period from 16-22 weeks is crucial in influencing onset of
production, fertility, early egg size, yield of hatching eggs, pre-peak
feed requirements and potential peak production levels.
During this period, increasing quantities of feed are used to
accelerate growth and achieve the weekly incremental weight
gain without reducing uniformity. These increases in feed are
given regardless of body weight. The resulting increase in
body weight promotes the physiological changes leading
to sexual maturity.
Prior to 16 weeks, weekly feed allowance can be either maintained
or increased. However, from 16 weeks on, weekly feed
allowance is always increasing, usually by 7-10 percent. Note
and compensate for energy changes between rations.
At 16 weeks, the production manager must compare current
body weight with target body weight and may need to redraw
the curve parallel to the target line through to 30 weeks. The
weekly incremental body weight increases will ensure the
smooth physiological transition up to sexual maturity (23–24
weeks) and through to physical maturity at around 30 weeks
(see Corrective Management Action, page 28).
It is common practice to move birds from pullet houses to
separate facilities for laying. The optimum time for the move
is 22 weeks, when the flock is well-established on its transition
toward sexual maturity. Consideration should be given to the
timing of the move and the associated increased feed requirements
to safeguard the continued smooth transition to sexual
maturity. Flock uniformity can be lost quickly if feed space is
restricted below recommendations in Table 2.2. An increase in
feed quantity on the day before and the day after the move will
help to compensate for the stress of the move.
Careful attention to lighting, in both day length and intensity,
is essential in maximizing performance (see Lighting, page
18). Lighting programs should be synchronized between
pullet and laying houses.
CORRECTIVE
MANAGEMENT ACTION: REARING BODY WEIGHT
When body weights within a flock are not on target, a number
of problems may occur both at the time the weight discrepancy
is detected and in the future.
If average body weight differs from target body weight by
more than 0.2 lbs. (90 g), reweigh a sample of birds. If trend
is valid, take the corrective action indicated. These principles
apply to both males and females.
The following examples may help identify potential situations,
probable outcomes and corrective actions.
UNDERWEIGHT AT
1 THROUGH 16 WEEKS Insufficient body weights before 16 weeks of age
will result in:
- Reduced uniformity
-
- Improper skeletal development (small frame size)
-
- Decreased feed efficiency from 16 through 22 weeks of age
-
- Compromised immune systems
-
To correct this problem:
- Remain on starter feed longer
-
- Initiate the next scheduled feed increase and increase the
amount of the next scheduled feed increase until body
weight is brought gradually back to target
- As a rule of thumb, for every 0.10 lb. underweight, a
bird will require an additional 13 kcal ME/day (26 kcal
ME/every other day) beyond the normal feed increase to
recover in 1 week.
Diagram 2.5
OVERWEIGHT AT
1 THROUGH 16 WEEKS Flocks that are overweight before 16 weeks of age
will result in:
- Reduced uniformity
-
- Excessive skeletal development (frame size)
-
- Decreased feed efficiency during lay
-
To correct this problem:
- Do not reduce feed lower than the current feeding level
-
- Decrease the amount of next feed increase
-
- Delay the next feed increase
WARNING
UNDERWEIGHT AT 16
THROUGH 22 WEEKS If female body weights are depressed by more than
10 percent beyond 16 weeks, future reproductive performance
will be reduced as uniformity of sexual maturity is
lost, giving rise to:
- delayed onset of lay
-
- poor initial egg size
-
- heightened percentage of reject/misshapen eggs
- reduced fertility
-
- increased susceptibility to broodiness
-
- loss of uniformity
-
To correct the problem, redraw the target body weight line,
determine the cause of the weight problem and grow the
birds to the new target body weight-for-age. It may also be
advisable to delay the lighting program until the birds are
closer to the target body weight. Lighting the birds at low
body weights will result in poor egg size and quality as well
as reduced persistency of lay.
Maintain feeding frequency program (e.g., skip-a-day, 5/2,
4/3, etc.) to provide enough volume of feed for all birds until
5% daily production.
These principles are the same for males.
REVISING TARGET BODY WEIGHT — UNDERWEIGHT —
Step 1 — At the age when the underweight situation develops,
calculate how many days the actual body weight is
behind the target body weight.
Step 2 — To arrive at the new age to achieve target body
weight (5.60 lbs.), add the number of days from step 1 to 23
weeks. Redraw the body weight line and feed to achieve this
revised target body weight.
Example — At 20 weeks, actual body weight is 4.25 lbs.
(0.40 lb. underweight). The actual weight is 9 days behind
the target, making the revised age to achieve the target body
weight of 5.60 lbs. 170 days (161 days + 9 days).
OVERWEIGHT AT 16
THROUGH 22 WEEKS Flocks that exceed target body weight by more than
10 percent in this period lose sexual and body weight
uniformity, giving rise to:
- early onset of lay
-
- increased egg size and double yolks
-
- reduced hatching egg yield
-
- increased feed requirement through lay
-
- reduced peak and total eggs
-
- reduced fertility throughout life
-
- increased levels of mortality due to prolapse
-
To correct the problem, redraw the target body weight line,
determine the cause of the weight problem and grow the
birds to the new target body weight-for-age.
REVISING TARGET BODY WEIGHT — OVERWEIGHT
Step 1 — At the age when the overweight situation develops,
calculate how many days the actual body weight is in advance
of the target body weight.
Step 2 — To arrive at the new age to achieve target body
weight (5.60 lbs.), subtract the number of days from step 1
from 23 weeks. Redraw the body weight line and feed to
achieve this revised target body weight.
Example — At 20 weeks, actual body weight is 5.05 lbs.
(0.40 lb. overweight). The actual weight is 7 days ahead of
the target; therefore, the revised age to achieve the target
body weight of 5.60 lbs. is 152 days (161 days - 9 days).
If problems persist in achieving the recommended body weight targets, schedule a technical service manager visit as soon as possible.
At 22 weeks, males and females are mixed and additional
management techniques are necessary to maintain the birds
in optimum reproductive condition throughout the production
period. Attention must be paid to housing and equipment,
the procedure of mating up (male:female ratios) and
the physical condition of both males and females.
HOUSING
RECOMMENDATIONS
The objective of housing is to provide a protective environment
in which feed, water, temperature, day length and light
intensity can be controlled at the optimum level for good
reproductive performance, as well as bird health and welfare.
The technical specifications of the housing system must be
defined so birds are maintained under appropriate environmental
conditions, taking into account bird welfare, performance
targets, materials available, financial constraints, and
ease and effectiveness of environmental control.
HOUSING ENVIRONMENT
OBJECTIVE To maintain the environment (water, lighting, temperature,
and ventilation) in a manner that optimizes the flocks’ production
potential.
KEY POINTS 4 Water quality and drinker space are essential features of
breeding stock management.
4 Follow the lighting program provided. Improper lighting programs can result in over/understimulation of
the flock, reproductive disease problems and increased
mortality.
4 Keep the house at an adequate temperature for production with an adequate supply of fresh air. Ventilation systems
should replenish oxygen and remove carbon dioxide and
noxious gases produced by the chickens.
WATER CONSUMPTION Recommended drinker space can be seen in Table 2.3 (page
19). The number of drinkers required is influenced by the
surrounding temperature; every 1.8°F (1°C) rise in ambient
temperature over 70°F (21°C) will increase water requirement
by 6.5 percent. Potable water should be delivered to breeding
stock at a temperature of 50-54°F (10-12°C). Very cold
(<40ºF [4ºC])or very warm (>80°F [27°C]) water will
reduce intake. In hot weather, flushing the water lines
ensures that the water is as cool as possible.
Water should be monitored to assure it is clear with no
organic or suspended matter, and free of pathogens. Water
quality standards are given in Table 2.4 (page 20). Where
bacterial counts are high, the cause should be established and
corrected as soon as possible.
The pattern of water consumption is a useful indicator of
flock health and physiological condition. Water consumption
should be recorded on a daily basis to assist in monitoring
management conditions (see Table 2.5, page 20).
LIGHTING The lighting program shown in Table 3.1, assuming birds are
at the correct body weight-for-age, have proper fleshing and
are uniform in body weight, will decrease the frequency of
erratic ovulation, egg yolk peritonitis, abnormal eggs, prolapse
of the oviduct, broodiness, etc.
Ideally, blackout curtains should be used in both the
rearing and laying houses. If this is not possible, start
lighting program at natural day length and build to 16
hours/day per Table 3.1 to avoid decreasing light day
length in the laying house. Birds do not respond to a
day length greater than 16 hours.
It is critical that the meter used to measure light intensity is
properly calibrated for the specific type of lighting being
used, i.e., sodium, fluorescent or incandescent. This is especially
important when moving pullets from one style of lighting
to another, e.g., moving pullets from a grower house with
incandescent lights to a breeder house with sodium lights.
Consult a lighting expert to make sure that the meter you are
using is accurate for your specific situation. Table 3.1
LIGHTING PROGRAM FOR THE LAYING HOUSE
WEEKS HOURS LIGHT INTENSITY (f-c)
22 14 ³3
24 15 ³3
26
Depletion 16 ³3
WARNING TEMPERATURE AND VENTILATION In cases of high ambient temperature, consideration should
be given to air speed, ventilation and humidity. Evaporative
cooling pads, high-pressure foggers and the operation of in-house
fans should be used to reduce house temperature and
stress.
The ventilation system must be capable of supplying adequate
fresh air and removing gaseous and airborne byproducts. It
also contributes to temperature and humidity control, especially
in warm conditions and should provide an environment
that is uniform and draft-free at bird level.
Houses should be equipped with a minimum (winter) ventilation
system, as well as a maximum (summer) system, including
fans on timers and thermostats that meet the minimum
air exchange rate of one volume of building air per 45-60 seconds.
SEPARATE SEX
FEEDING EQUIPMENT
OBJECTIVE To feed males and females from separate laying house feeding
systems to effectively control body weight and uniformity of
each sex.
KEY POINTS 4 Use a high-profile grill to restrict males from eating from the female feeding system.
4 Check daily for damage to the female feeder grill, and repair or replace as needed.
4 If restrictive devices are used, give extra attention to male feed management, as males will be completely restricted
from the female feeders.
4 Adjust male feeder heights to limit access by females yet still allow all males to feed.
4 To promote proper feeding habits, delay feeding of males until distribution of female feed is complete.
Separate sex feeding systems require skilled management and
correct feeding equipment. Feeder equipment requires ongoing
attention and should be checked twice weekly. Poor feeder
condition reduces the precision of feed allocation to males
and females.
Because lack of adequate feed can seriously depress egg and
semen production, the flock supervisor should be present at
feed distribution to take quick action if feed distribution
equipment problems arise. Monitor both males and females
while feeding for at least three days after housing to ensure all
birds are eating and drinking properly. After that point, feeding behavior should be observed regularly.
Males stealing female feed, poorly managed feeding equipment and uneven feed distribution (particularly when the flock is between 50% daily production and peak) may significantly reduce peak performance levels. Be aware of factors that indicate when a shortfall in female body weight is occurring, e.g., change of daily egg weight, bird condition, etc. Checklist for successful separate sex feeding:
- grill width and height
-
- grill installation
-
- corner and feed hopper restrictive covering
-
- feeder height and space
-
- restrictive devices
-
FEMALE FEEDING EQUIPMENT Females are generally fed from trough-type feeding systems.
Adequate feeding space must be provided to the females during
the laying period, as Table 3.2 indicates. If there is a
change of feeding equipment type, e.g., from pans in the pullet
house to troughs in the hen house, then extra precautions
may be necessary, e.g., netting pullets on the slats during
feedings.
The most effective method of restricting male access to female
feed is by fitting female feeders with grills that exclude the
majority of males because of their greater head width and/or
comb height. The combination of a 1-11/16 inch (43 mm) or
greater grill width and a 2 1/4 inch (57 mm) horizontal wire
ensures that a significant number of the males cannot obtain
feed from the female feeders. The use of horizontal fittings
has the additional advantage of strengthening the grill.
Table 3.2
FEEDER SPACE DURING LAYING
TYPE OF FEEDER BIRD FEEDING SPACE
Chain Female 6.0" (15 cm)/female
Chain Male 7.5" (19 cm)/male
Chain Male and Female 6.5" (16.5 cm)/mixed
Pan Female 1 per 10 females
Pan Male 1 per 8 males
Pan Male and Female 1 per 9 mixed
MALE FEEDING EQUIPMENT Male exclusion from the female feeders is absolutely essential
to ensure male performance in the laying house. Males must
also have a proper minimum feeding space of 7.5 inches (19
cm) or one pan per eight males on a male feeding line. When
using undubbed males, check that their combs do not restrict
access to male feeders.
It is suggested that male feeders be placed in the scratch area
instead of the slatted area to eliminate overcrowding during
feeding and reduce equipment congestion, which can cause
injuries. Male feeders should be raised after each feeding.
Male feed distribution must be uniform. When manually
filled hanging hoppers are used, it is important that the same
quantity of feed is delivered to each hopper and that they do
not tilt to one side. Suspended feeder tracks where feed can
be hand-leveled ensure that each male has access to the same
quantity of feed.
Correct male feeder height is dependent on male size and
feeder design (trough or pan depth). The height should be in
the range of 20-24 inches (50-60 cm) above the litter. Avoid
the build-up of litter under the male feeders. Also avoid giving
too much feeding space to males, as the more aggressive
males will overeat and females will feed from the male system.
The best method for ensuring the correct height and
space is through observation and adjustment.
Males and females can be encouraged to use their own feeders
if males are fed later than the females. This can be
achieved by lowering male feeders about 15 minutes after
female feed distribution begins.
MALE MANAGEMENT
DURING LAYING
PRE-PEAK PERIOD FROM
22 THROUGH 30 WEEKS OBJECTIVE To manage the male:female ratio, flesh-to-frame ratio and
body weight of males to maximize early fertility.
KEY POINTS 4 Begin mating at 22 weeks of age. Immature males should be excluded and allowed extra time to develop.
4 Develop a successful mating ratio by observing the flocks’ behavior and condition and by reacting to problems such
as overmating.
4 Monitor average body weight and body weight gain weekly from housing to peak production. Mark 20-30
percent of selected males before mating to aid in
sample weighing.
4 Control male body weight gain to allow gradual increase in body weight with age, without overfleshing the males.
4 Monitor fleshing on a regular basis to maintain optimum flock performance.
4 Overmature and overweight males should be removed. 4 Observe and monitor alertness and activity, physical condition, feathering, feed cleanup time and vent color.
4 Flock supervisor(s) should visit twice each week, or as necessary during housing-to-peak period, for proper
management adjustments. Preferably, visits should
occur at feeding time.
INTRODUCTION OF MALES (MATING) Males and females are generally ready to be mated at
22 weeks. Care should be taken to ensure both males
and females are sexually mature. If variation exists in sexual
maturity within the male population, mature males should
be mixed with the females and immature males should be
allowed extra time to develop before introduction.
All males should be uniform, free of physical abnormalities,
have strong, straight legs and toes, and be well-feathered with
a good upright stance and muscle tone. In addition, the secondary
sexual characteristics (face and comb color, wattle and
comb growth) should indicate that the selected males are
equally advanced and uniform in stage of sexual maturity (see
Diagram 3.1). Diagram 3.1
OPTIMIZING MALE MATING RATIO To maintain a consistent level of good fertility, each flock will
require an optimum number of sexually active males. The
removal of substandard males must be a continuous process.
Table 3.3 indicates the typical male to female ratio through-out
the laying period. The mating ratio should be reviewed
each week and the number of males to be removed should be
calculated from the table. These mating ratios are only a
guide and should be adjusted according to local circumstances
and flock performance.
Examine the flock twice weekly for signs of surplus males
and overmating from 25 weeks on (frequently observed at
around 26-27 weeks of age). “Slatting,” when the females will
not leave the slatted area of the house, is a sign of overmating.
If this occurs, accelerate the removal of males, taking out
1 male/200 females until the problem is corrected.
Surplus and inactive males can reduce fertility and should be removed immediately. MALE BODY WEIGHT CONTROL At this stage, it is important to observe, handle and weigh
males to determine target body weight-for-age, body weight
gain and fleshing progression on a weekly basis. All males
should be uniform in body weight. If the average male body
weight is 10 percent or more above the target body weight
line, it is necessary to redraw the line parallel to the original
line. If the average male body weight is 10 percent or more
below the target body weight line, it is necessary to bring
them back on line gradually over the next 1-2 weeks.
Average body weight and body weight gains can be used
to determine the amount of feed placed in the male feeder
to achieve the required male growth rate (see the appropriate
Rearing/Breeding Program and Male Feeding Program
Supplements). Daily feed allowance can vary considerably
(from 22-40 lbs./100/ day [10-18 kg/100/day]), depending
on the amount of feed being taken from the feeders by
either sex.
After mating, production objectives for males and females are
more likely to be achieved if separate sex feeding equipment
and techniques are employed (see Separate Sex Feeding
Equipment, page 34-35). At the time of exclusion from
female feeders, a feed increase for the males will be required
to maintain growth. The size of this increase will vary, but
an initial increase of 1-2 lbs./100/day (0.5-1 kg/100/day)
followed by a mid-week sample weighing to monitor progress
is recommended. Males may begin to lose weight if less than
27.5 lbs./100/day (12.5 kg/100/day) of feed is allocated to the
male feeders when effective exclusion occurs.
The time it takes to clean up the feed allotment should be
carefully monitored and individual male behavior and variation
should be observed and recorded. It is important to verify
and respond to any changes within the flock.
More specific information regarding the best management
practices for measuring of body weight and uniformity can be
found in Measuring Body Weight and Uniformity, pages 7-11.
Also, for specific nutritional information see the appropriate
Nutritional Program Summary Supplement.
MONITORING MALE PHYSICAL CONDITION Dispersal of the males within the flock means that the application
of good husbandry techniques may be more difficult
than for females. Good routines are essential to recognizing
changes in condition of males. The flock should be observed
at various times of the day to monitor mating activity, feeding,
resting location, distribution during daytime and immediately
prior to lights out. In addition, general behavior and posture
should be noted (see Diagram 3.2).
- Face, comb and wattle color/condition (firm or flaccid)
are important indications of physical condition.
- Assess muscle tone, fleshing and keel bone prominence
carefully, watching for any deterioration in physical
condition of males.
- Observe condition of legs, joints and feet. Wet litter causes
the skin under the feet to crack, leading to the risk of
infection and discomfort that will reduce mating activity.
Slat condition is also important in control of leg and foot
problems.
- Observation of feather condition, partial feather loss, neck
molt and damage, whether inflicted by males or females,
should be noted. Excessive feather damage, as well as
scratches and tears on the wattles and combs of males, can
also indicate a surplus of males.
- Intensity of redness of the vent is a useful management aid
in the assessment of male mating activity within the flock.
Males mating at optimum rates will demonstrate a red
vent color, as well as wear of the pin feathers around the
vent. When overmating is observed, males with pale vent
color should be removed
BREEDING POPULATION
• 6-8.5 males/100 females
during weeks 22–26
• 8.5 males/100 females
during weeks 27–65
• Remove substanda males throughout
life of flock MALE PEN
• Develop proper fleshing
per frame size
Table 3.3
POST-PEAK PERIOD FROM
31 THROUGH 65 WEEKS OBJECTIVE To manage the number and body weight of males to maintain
persistency of fertility to depletion (65 weeks).
KEY POINTS 4 Place emphasis on management practices that optimize the mating ratio, uniformity, physical condition and body
weight control of males.
4 Monitor male condition on a regular basis to maintain optimum flock performance (see Diagram 3.2).
4 Maintain the optimum mating ratio by removing individual males according to their physical condition.
4 Administer small increases in feed to maintain body weight profile and uniformity.
4 Observe and monitor alertness and activity, physical condition, feathering, feed cleanup time and vent color.
The management principles and procedures used to manage
males in the post-peak period are similar to those described
for the pre-peak period. In the post-peak period, body weights
are controlled by adjusting feed quantity, so that the target
body weight gain profile (see Rearing/Breeding Program
Supplement) is achieved. Sample males should continue to be
weighed on a weekly basis through 65 weeks (see Sample
Weighing, page 7).
After 30 weeks of age, weekly body weight gain should be
approximately 0.1 lb. (45 g), when averaged over a three-week
period. Body weight data should be used in conjunction
with the additional husbandry information to make feed
allowance decisions. Male feed allowance is normally in
the range of 28.6-35.25 lbs./100/day (13-16 kg/100/day)
during this period.
Underfeeding is most common after 35 weeks, but can
occur earlier. Males will suddenly appear dull and listless,
showing feather molt, reduced fleshing, reduced activity
and less frequent crowing. In addition, vent color will
become less red and the color range will widen. When this
occurs, the more active males will work for a short period,
using their body resources, but others will cease to function.
If the condition reaches the final stages, a significant number
of birds will not recover. Overall, this will result in reduced
hatching egg fertility.
Diagram 3.2
On observing any combination of these symptoms, a number
of corrective steps should be taken:
- Feed allowance should be increased by 0.5-1.0 lb.
(or more)/100/day (0.2-0.5 kg [or more]/100/day).
- Check cleanup time, feeding space per bird and feeder
condition.
- A change in feed texture (e.g., crumble to mash) should be
considered to permit active males sufficient time to
consume adequate nutrients.
- The accuracy of weekly average weight gain data should be
verified and a sample of the birds reweighed, if in doubt.
It is quite normal to observe some displacement and wear of
the feathers at the back of the females’ heads and at the base
of the tail. When this condition progresses to the removal of
feathers, it is a sign of overmating or overaggressive males. If
the mating ratio is not reduced, the condition will worsen to
defeathering of areas of the back and scratching and tearing
of the skin, leading to welfare problems, loss of female condition
and reduced egg production. Flocks where overmating
occurs will exhibit reduced fertility, hatchability and egg
numbers.
Routinely cull individual males according to their physical
condition (see Optimizing Male Mating Ratio, page 36).
Culled males should be removed from the flock immediately.
To assist in maintaining the optimum mating ratio, it is a
common practice to “spike” flocks with younger males during
this period. If this is done, it is imperative to:
- Conduct lab analysis and clinical examinations on spiking
males to ensure no pathogens are introduced into the flock.
- Make sure spiking males are mature enough to avoid being
dominated by older hens and males.
- Place spiking males into the house only after lights are out
and the house is dark.
- Distribute younger males throughout the house.
-
- Make sure spiking males find feed and water immediately.
-
- Weigh spiking males (marked with colored leg bands) separately from older males so actual body
weight trends can be monitored.
FEMALE MANAGEMENT
DURING LAYING
PRE-PEAK PERIOD FROM
22 THROUGH 30 WEEKS OBJECTIVE To promote and support early female reproductive performance,
using feed and light stimulation, as measured by early
egg size, egg quality and timing, and level of peak production.
KEY POINTS 4 Stimulate egg production by giving programmed feed and light increases. Overstimulating birds with light or feed
can cause productivity and livability problems.
4 Monitor pelvic “pin” bone spacing regularly throughout the pre-peak period.
4 Monitor average body weight, flock uniformity, body weight gain and feed cleanup time at least weekly and
respond quickly to changes.
4 Monitor fleshing on a regular basis to maintain optimum flock performance.
4 Achieve target body weight by concentrating on correct incremental weekly gains.
4 If the birds fail to show the expected increase in body weight, flock variability increases or it takes longer for the
birds to consume the allocated feed, take quick action to
determine the cause of the problem.
4 Flock supervisor(s) should visit twice weekly, or as necessary during housing-to-peak period, to make proper
management adjustments. Preferably, these visits should
occur at feeding time.
Problems with feeding, water or disease at this stage can have devastating effects on the onset of production, as well as on the subsequent per- formance of the flock. Observations of birds in the pre-peak period have demonstrated
the importance of achieving correct body weights during
early lay to maximize egg production and hatchability. Uniform
flocks will come into production rapidly and feed levels must be adjusted
appropriately to support the increased demands of
egg production and growth on the birds at this stage.
In the ideal situation, it would be possible to measure changes
in egg production, body weight, fleshing and condition on a
daily basis and adjust feed each day. The decision on how
much feed is required at each stage depends on observation
and measurement of short-term trends in important production
parameters (see Table 3.4).
The difference in feed allocation prior to first egg and at peak
allows a profile to be established. The maximum metabolizable
energy (ME) intake at peak production is usually around
455 kcal/day, although successful production has been
observed on a range of 430-460 kcal/day. Feed increases,
beyond the theoretical maximum feed amount, may be
required in high-producing flocks. A further 14-28 kcal can
be fed after evaluation of both absolute and trend data.
The profile can then be adjusted, depending on body weight,
growth, egg production, egg weight and house temperature. It
is vital that both absolute and trend data in body weights and
egg weights are used to determine feed increases. If the average
female body weight is more than 10 percent greater than
the target body weight line, it is necessary to redraw the line
parallel to the original one. If the average female body weight
is 10 percent or more below the target body weight line, it is
necessary to bring the birds back to line gradually over the
next 1-2 weeks.
Inadequate or excessive gains in egg weight and/or female body weight indicates incorrect nutritional input. Failure to correct the problem will result in lower peak production. Small, regular feed increases (at least weekly) are essential to
prevent excessive body weight gain and to achieve appropriate
body weight, fleshing and timely onset of egg production.
Birds that are supplied with more feed than they require for
egg production will develop an abnormal ovarian structure
and gain excess weight, resulting in poor quality eggs with
low hatchability. An excess of double-yolked eggs and mortality
due to peritonitis and/or prolapse are also symptoms of
overfeeding during this period. It may be beneficial to delay
switching from grower rations (1% calcium) to breeder
rations (3% calcium) until 24 weeks of age (5-10% production)
to avoid or reduce incidence of calcium tetany (see Ross
Tech, Prevention and Treatment of Calcium Tetany in Broiler
Breeder Hens).
During periods of hot weather, changes in the total feed
increases will need to be made on a slightly different schedule
to follow the typical increase in rate of percent production.
The most up-to-date feeding recommendations for each particular
breed are provided in the Female Feeding Program
Summary Supplement, available from your Ross technical
service manager.
During hot weather, provide maximum ventilation during feeding time to prevent heat stress.
It is critical to implement a lighting program exactly on schedule
during this period of feed increases to support and stimulate
the female reproductive physiology (see Lighting, page 33).
MONITORING THE FEMALE PHYSICAL CONDITION Good routines are essential in order to recognize changes in
condition of females. The flock should be observed at various
times of the day to monitor mating activity, feeding, resting
location, daytime distribution and distribution immediately
prior to lights out. In addition, general behavior and posture
should be noted.
- Face, comb and wattle color/condition (firm or flaccid)
are important indications of physical condition.
- Assess muscle tone, fleshing and keel bone prominence
carefully, watching for deterioration in physical condition
of females.
- Condition of legs, joints and feet must be observed. Wet
litter causes the skin under the feet to crack, leading to the
risk of infection and discomfort that will reduce mating
activity. Slat condition and height are also important for
the control of leg and foot problems.
- Observation of feather condition, partial feather loss, neck
molt and damage, whether inflicted by males or females,
should be noted. \
FREQUENCY OF OBSERVATION OF
IMPORTANT PRODUCTION PARAMETERS
PARAMETER FREQUENCY
Body Weight At Least Weekly
Rate of Body Weight Gain At Least Weekly
Uniformity At Least Weekly
Egg Production Daily
Increase in Egg Production Daily
Egg Weight Daily
Change in Egg Weight Daily
Cleanup Time Daily
Bird Condition (Fleshing, Color) At Least Weekly
House Temperature (Min. and Max.) Daily
WARNING During this period, the spacing of the pelvic (“pin”) bones is
measured to determine the state of sexual development of the
female. Under normal situations, pelvic bone spacing
develops as shown in Table 3.5.
POST-PEAK PERIOD FROM
31 THROUGH 65 WEEKS OBJECTIVE To maximize the yield of fertile hatching eggs by ensuring
continued high levels of egg production after peak.
KEY POINTS 4 Reduce feed levels starting from peak to three weeks after peak depending on bird condition, body weight, feed
quantity and temperature, to control female body weight
gain, egg size and to improve persistency of lay in the
post-peak period.
4 Make feeding decisions weekly in response to observations of body weight, egg weight and bird condition. During
temperature extremes, it may be necessary to adjust
feed allowance.
4 Monitor fleshing on a regular basis to maintain optimum flock performance.
Control of body weight and egg weight progression must be
major priorities in the period from 30-65 weeks. This is
achieved by programmed feed reduction, carried out in
response to observations and measurements of bird condition
and egg production. Routines should be established that
allow the following to be monitored:
- Weekly body weight change relative to target body weight.
- Daily egg weight and egg weight change relative to target
egg weight.
- Physical condition (fleshing; fat deposition; feather cover
and condition; leg and foot condition; wattle, comb and
face color; rate of lay).
Failure to control body weight from 30 weeks can significantly reduce persistency of lay, egg size, shell quality and female fertility after 40 weeks. Breeding flocks usually attain physical maturity and cease to
grow in frame size at around 30-31 weeks. At this point the
birds continue to gain weight; however, it is through the
deposition of fat and growth of other body tissues. Limiting
the rate of fat accumulation, through adjustments in feed consumption,
is the key to controlling egg production in the
post-peak period.
Over the period of 30-33 weeks, maximum nutrient requirements
for egg production occur. At some point beyond this
period, typically at peak production (30 weeks), feed reduction
should begin. If you wait until 33 weeks, birds will
already be getting fat (see Diagram 1.1, page 8).
The exact timing for the start of feed reduction will depend
on flock history and the birds’ condition. The timing and
amount of feed reduction will depend on:
- Average body weight change from start of production.
-
- Daily egg production and trend.
-
- Daily egg weight and egg weight trend.
-
- Flock health status.
-
- Ambient temperature.
-
- Feed composition (energy and protein level) and quality.
-
- Quantity of feed (energy intake) at peak.
-
- Flock history (rearing and pre-peak performance).
-
- Feed cleanup time being longer than usual.
-
The program of feed reduction will vary for each flock due to
the differences in the characteristics listed above. To remain
healthy and vigorous beyond 30 weeks, birds must gain body
weight at an average rate of 0.025 lb. (11g)/week. After a feed
reduction, if production decreases more than anticipated,
restore the feeding amount to the previous level and attempt
to reduce the feed level again in 5-7 days.
Feed reduction is best accomplished within the first 10 weeks
after peak production is reached (see appropriate Feeding
Program Summary Supplement)
AGE
84-91 Days
119 Days
21 Days Before First Egg
10 Days Before First Egg
Point of Lay
PELVIC BONE SPACING
Closed
Approximately 3 /4" (2 cm)
or one finger width
Approximately 1" (2.5 cm)
or 1 1 /2 fingers
Approximately 1 1 /2" (4 cm)
or 2 1 /2 fingers
Approximately 2" (5 cm) or 3 fingersTable 3.5
WARNING EGG WEIGHT
AND FEED CONTROL
OBJECTIVE To use egg weight to determine if the nutritional input is adequate
for achievement of optimum egg production.
KEY POINTS 4 Weigh bulk samples of eggs and record daily from no later
than 10% of daily production.
4 Monitor trends in daily egg weight by plotting average egg weights on a large-scale graph and make adjustments to
feed intake based on deviations from target egg-weight
profile.
4 Respond promptly to falling trends in daily egg weight by increasing feed allowance. Responding to egg weight
shortfall beyond 75% of daily production is not
recommended, since it is likely that excessive
body weight gain will occur.
To determine average egg weight, a sample of 120 to 150 eggs
should be weighed in bulk. These must be taken from eggs
collected directly from the nest at the time of the second collection.
Double-yolked, very small and abnormal eggs, e.g.,
soft-shelled, should not be included in the sample. Average
egg weight can be obtained by dividing the bulk weight by
the number of eggs weighed.
The daily weight can then be plotted against the standard
profile. It is important that the graph scale is large enough to
make daily variation clearly observable. The effects of egg
weight fluctuations, due to sampling variations and environmental
influences, are minimized if the mid-point between
consecutive daily weights are joined on the graph to produce
both the trend and projected profiles (see Diagram 3.3).
The average egg weight at a given age depends on body
weight and sexual maturity and can be above, below or on
standard. Egg weight shortfall can occur, particularly in high-
producing flocks, when they are producing between 50-70%
daily production (pre-peak).
Trends in daily egg weight act as a sensitive indicator of the
adequacy of total nutrient intake. In flocks that are receiving
the correct quantity of feed, egg weight will normally increase
parallel to the standard egg weight profile. If the flock is
being underfed, egg size will not increase over a 4-5 day period,
as expected. This is corrected by bringing forward the
next planned feed increase.
Failure to detect a falling trend in egg weight within 4-5 days can result in reduced levels of peak egg production.
CARE OF
HATCHING EGGS
The production of vigorous day-old broiler chicks from
hatching eggs involves effective collection, disinfection, cooling,
storage and incubation of the eggs. Each of these processes
has to be carried out so that the development of the
embryo is not compromised. The best hatchability of fertile
eggs is achieved when the eggs are kept in clean conditions
and at the correct temperature and humidity from the time
they are laid until when they are hatched.
NEST MANAGEMENT
OBJECTIVE To provide hens with a sanitary area in which to lay eggs.
KEY POINTS 4 Hens are more likely to use nests that satisfy the requirements of their natural laying behavior, i.e.,
cleanliness, dryness, shade and seclusion.
4 Locate nests in areas where the birds will use them and at a height where they will not become contaminated.
4 Prevent nest contamination by utilizing nest closures at night and keeping liners and floor litter clean and dry.
Naturally clean eggs maintain a greater potential for hatchability
than soiled or contaminated eggs, regardless of the disinfection
procedures used on the shell surface. Nests should
be of appropriate design to promote usage and supply clean
eggs. Manufacturers should be consulted for details of house
design and nest layout. Nests are usually assembled in one-or
two-tier units, allowing one nest per 5.5 birds.
Hens will lay eggs on the floor if they find nests unattractive or if there are too many females per nest. Before a new flock is placed, ensure that all nest pads are
properly installed. From time of placement until the first eggs
are laid, nest pads should be cleaned daily and belts should
be run twice a day. From first egg until depletion, check one-quarter
of the pads each day and remove and clean all obviously
dirty pads, as well as worn or torn pads. Belt brushes
should be replaced after the first and last run of each day.
EGG COLLECTION
AND DISINFECTION
OBJECTIVE To maximize the quantity and quality of eggs collected.
KEY POINTS 4 Collect eggs frequently during the day, so they may be cooled and stored as quickly as possible.
4 Proper light intensity (³3 f-c) helps reduce incidence of floor eggs.
4 Floor and dirty eggs must be collected and stored separately from clean eggs.
4 Eggshells should remain dry. 4 Disinfected eggs are very vulnerable to bacterial recontamination if egg stores are not subjected to an
effective, ongoing sanitation program.
REDUCING FLOOR OR SLAT LAYING If hens are laying eggs on the floor or slats, a member of the
farm crew should walk the house at least five times a day
(between 7 a.m. and 4:30 p.m.) to remove floor and dirty
eggs during the laying period. The numbers of floor or slat
eggs can be reduced by:
- Introducing perches from six weeks.
-
- Incorporating a suitable perch rail in nest box design.
-
Ensuring males and females reach sexual maturity at the
same time.
Allowing for correct feeder space for females, i.e., minimum
6" (15 cm)/female.
- Effective management of early mating ratios. Overmating
can predispose slat egg laying.
- Feeding within 30 minutes of “lights on.”
-
HATCHING EGG COLLECTION Increasing the frequency of collection reduces damage to
eggs, as well as allowing eggs to reach physiological zero
(70°F [21°C]) at similar stages of embryonic development
.
From housing until first egg, belts should be run twice each
day to allow birds time to adapt to their new environment.
After laying begins, collection belts should run regularly,
starting after the first walk-through and stopping after the last walk-through.
Place all clean nest eggs onto clean setter trays. Any nest egg
with dirt covering an area less than the size of a pencil eraser
may be wiped off and placed with the clean eggs.
DISINFECTION If disinfection is used, the following procedure has proved
effective:
- Spray eggs to the point of saturation with an approved
sanitizing agent or disinfectant kept at 78ºF (25ºC).
- Let eggs dry for five minutes before placing in egg room.
-
To distinguish eggs which have been disinfected, mark
flats of disinfected eggs, e.g., with double lines, prior to
placement in the cooler.
The relative effectiveness of different methods available for
hatching egg disinfection can be seen in Table 3.6.
RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF DISINFECTION PROCEDURES
FORMALIN IN-LINE WASHER DIPPING UV LIGHT 6
Kills Bacteria l l l 3 w Safe for Embryo l 1 w 2 w l Safe for Operator m l l w No Cuticle Damage l m l 4 l Eggshell Dry l m m l Temperature Extremes l m w 5 l l =Good w =Acceptable m =Poor 1 Cannot be used between 12-96 hours of incubation.
2 High embryo mortality associated with bacterial rots in older flocks.
3 Usage and solution changes require careful monitoring.
4 Depends on chemical used. Quaternary ammonium products are usually acceptable; hydrogen peroxide is not.
5 Tank temperature and dip duration require careful monitoring.
6 Ultraviolet light does not destroy Staphylococcus effectively. Effectiveness is improved when combined with fumigation
at some point prior to setting.
Table 3.7
WARNING EGG COOLING AND STORAGE
OBJECTIVE To provide a consistent environment that maximizes hatchery
performance.
KEY POINTS 4 Cool eggs for storage to below physiological zero (70°F [21°C]) within four hours of collection.
4 Optimum temperature and humidity for storage will depend on length of storage required and should not be
allowed to fluctuate during storage (see Table 3.7).
4 Aim for slow, unrestricted circulation of large volumes of air. Avoid stacking eggs in densely packed groups.
Procedures should be established to ensure uniform cooling
of eggs to 68-70°F (20-21°C) within four hours from the time
of collection from the nest. This is critical because embryonic
development and cell division slows below 79°F (26°C) and
stops completely at 70°F (21°C), the point called “physiological
zero.” If cell division continues beyond five hours after lay,
the egg is less likely to hatch as a result of increased early
embryonic death.
Correct temperature and humidity during egg storage are
important in achieving maximum hatchability. The appropriate
conditions are shown in Table 3.7. The effectiveness of the
cooling and storage should be monitored for each egg storage
area. The cooling profile of eggs passing through the process
can be measured using miniature temperature loggers to
identify problem areas.
Free air movement around and between all eggs is also
important. Eggs should not be stacked in densely packed
groups. Ventilation and air conditioning systems should circulate
large volumes of air slowly within the egg storage area.
Correct movement of air is essential to achieve and maintain
the humidity and temperature with minimal variation (1.8°F
[1°C]) throughout the entire storage area and period.
Temperature variation will result from fast-moving air streams
and obstructions to airflow.
TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY FOR EGG STORAGE
DAYS TEMPERATURE RELATIVE HUMIDITY
1-3 66-68°F (19-20ºC) 70-75%
Hatchability problems often occur due to variation in temperature and humidity during egg collection and storage. The cooler should be cleaned and disinfected on a regular
basis. The best time to clean the egg room and coolers is after
the eggs have been picked up, i.e., one to three times a week.
At this point, the cooler floors and walls should be mopped
with an approved disinfectant. Weekly checks should also be
made to ensure the cooler and humidifier are clean and functioning
properly. Table 3.6
Table 3.8 can be used as a guideline for trouble-shooting
hatch problems. Ross has hatching experts available for consultation.
To schedule a visit, contact your Ross technical service
manager. Table 3.8
FLOCK HEALTH
AND HYGIENE
HOUSE CLEAN-OUT PROCEDURES OBJECTIVE To ensure the reduction and/or elimination of pathogenic
microorganisms from the previous breeder flock that could
affect the health, welfare and reproductive performance of the
incoming flock.
KEY POINTS 4 Removable equipment and fittings should be taken out of the building and cleaned separately.
4 Dust, debris and litter must be removed from both the internal and external areas of the house and disposed of
properly.
4 A pressure washer with warm water and detergent should be used to remove dirt and debris from the inside and
outside of the house, as well as from the equipment. Any
items that cannot be washed, e.g., polyethylene or cardboard,
must be destroyed.
4 Houses should be inspected between each flock and all needed repairs should be made. Particular attention
should be paid to areas where rodents and other pests
could enter the house.
4 Disinfection/fumigation should not take place until the entire building, including external areas, is thoroughly
cleaned and all repairs are complete.
4 Heating houses to high temperatures after sealing can enhance disinfection and fumigation. Fumigation is less
effective at temperatures lower than 68ºF (20ºC) and
relative humidity of less than 65%.
4 House should be sealed for at least 24 hours after disinfection and fumigation. Before anyone re-enters the
house, it must be thoroughly ventilated.
4 It is essential to monitor the efficiency and cost of the cleaning process.
CLEANING PROCEDURES As soon as the birds have been removed from the house, the
litter, equipment and all surfaces should be sprayed with a
locally recommended insecticide. Insects are significant carriers
of disease and must be destroyed before they migrate into
woodwork or other materials. A second treatment with insecticide
should be undertaken before fumigation.
A low-pressure sprayer should be used to spray disinfectant
solution throughout the inside of the house, from ceiling to
floor, to dampen dust before removal of litter and equipment.
In open-sided houses, the curtains should be closed during disinfection.
All removable equipment and fittings, e.g., drinkers, feeders,
nest-boxes, dividing pens, etc., should be taken out of the
building and placed on the external concrete area.
Dust, debris and cobwebs should be removed from fan shafts,
beams, unrolled curtains (in open-sided houses), ledges and
stonework. This is best achieved by brushing so that the dust
falls onto the litter.
A breezeless day should be chosen for litter removal to minimize
the distribution of dust. All ventilation and electrical
systems must be switched off. Trailers or trash dumpsters
should be placed inside the house before they are filled with
soiled litter. The full trailer should then be covered before
removal to prevent dust and debris from blowing outside.
Litter must be removed to a distance of at least one mile
(1.6 km) from the farm, and disposed of in accordance
with local, state and federal government regulations.
Before washing, turn off all electricity in the house. A pressure
washer with detergent should be used to remove the
remaining dirt and debris. It is recommended that portable
scaffolding and lights be used to ensure proper washing of
areas otherwise inaccessible. Inside the house, particular
attention should be paid to the following areas:
- fans, fan boxes and fan shafts
-
- ventilation grills
-
- tops of beams and ledges
-
- water pipes
-
- electrical points
-
- any remaining equipment
-
It is vital that external areas are also cleaned thoroughly with
a pressure washer. Particular attention should be paid to
cleaning of the following external areas:
- under ventilator and extractor fans
-
- access routes and concrete pathways
-
- door surrounds
-
- evaporative cooling cell areas
-
- air inlets (blackouts)
-
- gutters
Ideally, poultry houses should be surrounded by 3 feet
(1 m) of concrete or gravel. An external concrete area appropriately
sized for washing and storing removable items should
also be a part of the house design. Where this does not exist,
the area must:
- be free of vegetation
-
- be free of unused machinery/equipment or any other
rodent harborage
- have an even, level surface
-
- be well-drained, free of any standing water
-
All equipment that has been removed to the external concrete
area must be washed, as well as all equipment remaining in
the house. After cleaning, it is essential that equipment is covered
and stored until it is returned to the house.
Water systems should be cleaned and flushed in the following
manner during the cleaning process:
- Drain all tanks and pipes.
-
- Remove dirt and sediment from inside tanks.
-
- Wash with detergent, the inside and outside of all covers,
lids, taps and connecting pipes.
- Fill tanks and fixed pipes with sodium hypochlorite
(150 ppm) solution (household bleach). Leave for
24 hours. Drain the system and rinse with clean water.
Feed systems should also be cleaned after the removal of each
flock:
- Empty, wash and disinfect all feeding equipment, e.g.,
track, chain, hanging feeders, etc.
- Empty bulk bins and connecting pipes. Clean out and seal
all openings.
- Fumigate or disinfect wherever possible.
-
REPAIRS AND MAINTENANCE A clean, empty house provides the ideal opportunity for
structural repairs and maintenance. Once the house is empty,
attention should be given to the following tasks:
- Check all electrical equipment, generators, fans and
cooling systems.
- Repair or replace damaged walls, ceilings and flooring.
- Carry out painting or whitewashing where required.
-
- Ensure that all doors shut tightly.
Rodents, wild birds and other pests can easily carry and
transmit diseases to flock. They can also consume feed,
reducing the accuracy of feed monitoring programs. The following
areas should be checked during house maintenance to
assure pests have no means of entering the house:
- Check all walls, panels and ceilings for holes and repair
if necessary.
- Check that all doors close firmly and tightly, with no gaps.
-
- Check for any leaks in the feed system. Easily accessible
feed attracts pests.
- In open-sided housing, the building must be made bird-proof
and repaired as necessary.
- Ensure that any outside scale buildings are rodent- and
bird-proof.
-
Clean up any rodent refuges, e.g., trash piles, lumber, old
equipment, etc., surrounding the building area.
- Keep grass neatly cut around the outside of houses.
-
DISINFECTION AND FUMIGATION Disinfectant should be applied by the use of a pressure-washer.
Foam disinfectants can be used on modern impervious
surfaces, allowing greater contact time, thus increasing the
effectiveness of disinfection. Disinfectants approved by governments
for use against specific poultry pathogens of both
bacterial and viral origin are most likely to be effective.
Follow manufacturer’s instructions at all times.
Fumigation should begin as soon as possible after completion
of disinfection. Surfaces should be damp. The houses should
be warmed to a minimum of 70°F (21°C). After fumigation,
the house must remain sealed for at least 24 hours with “no
entry” signs clearly displayed. The fumigation procedure
should be repeated after shavings have been distributed
throughout the house. Shavings should be tested for mold
and bacteria before being placed in the house. Follow manufacturer’s
instructions at all times.
Fumigation is hazardous to humans and animals. Operators must wear the correct protective clothing, i.e., respirators, eye shields and gloves. Two operators must be present in case of emer- gency. Follow manufacturer’s instructions at all times. For further guidance, refer to and follow all health and safety regulations. EVALUATION OF FARM CLEANING AND DISINFECTION EFFICIENCY Cleaning efficiency is evaluated by taking total viable bacterial
counts. Trend analysis of results enables disinfection performance
to be monitored and changes to be made to disinfection
procedures on a farm-by-farm basis or to the total disinfection
policy, if necessary.
Samples are taken 2-3 days after the final disinfection and
fumigation. The minimum number of samples required per
house is as follows:
- 4 x walls
-
- 4 x floors
-
- 4 x roof supports
-
- 20 x nest boxes
-
Monitoring for salmonella species is required as an additional
safeguard. When disinfection has been carried out effectively,
the sampling procedure should not isolate salmonella species.
Current recommendations for salmonella sampling are as follows:
- 4 x walls
-
- 4 x floors
-
- 1 x feed hopper
-
- 20 x nest boxes
-
- 2 x crevices
drains and electrical boxes
-
BIOSECURITY RECOMMENDATIONS
OBJECTIVE To implement procedures that will prevent the introduction
of pathogens likely to affect the health, welfare or reproductive
performance of breeding stock or the quality of their products.
KEY POINTS 4 Houses should be constructed with biosecurity needs in mind.
4 All facility staff and visitors should abide by all biosecurity procedures.
BIOSECURITY PROGRAM ELEMENTS The health of the birds and progeny can be affected by specific
avian pathogens such as mycoplasmas and salmonella. The
presence of these types of infections can affect both the viability
of the broiler progeny and the acceptability of the broiler
for human consumption. To minimize the chances of these
infections and to maintain good flock status, a biosecurity
program should be implemented. The following items should
be included in any biosecurity program:
- Concrete floors with a smooth, hard finish are
recommended for cleaning ease and effective disinfection.
- Equipment that can easily be raised or removed will make
the cleaning and disinfection procedure more effective
and efficient.
- An area of concrete or gravel extending to a width of
3 feet (1 m) around the house will inhibit entry of rodents.
- The size, relative situation and design of houses should be
such as to minimize the transmission of pathogens
between and within flocks. Ideally, all farms should
contain flocks of the same age.
- The existence of nearby sites of other avian species
presents an airborne disease risk and should be avoided,
if possible.
- The site should be planned with biosecurity of vehicle
and staff access in mind. Strict hygiene and disinfection
procedures should be employed for all staff and vehicles
entering and leaving the facility.
- Only essential visitors should be allowed access to
facilities.
- Hand basins and disinfection soap should be provided and
used at all entrance doors. Rinse basins or foot baths
should also be at each house entrance. The disinfectant
should be changed every other day, or according to the
manufacturer’s recommendations.
- Feed must be obtained from a manufacturer with
effective decontamination procedures (heat treatment)
for salmonella control. Untreated feed is a major source
of salmonella and should be considered contaminated.
DISEASE MANAGEMENT
OBJECTIVE To achieve hygienic conditions within the poultry house environment
to minimize the adverse effects of disease, attain
optimum performance and bird welfare, as well as provide
optimum food safety conditions.
KEY POINTS 4 A suitable vaccination program should be prepared by a certified poultry veterinarian in conjunction with the
production/breeder manager.
4 Strict operation of a comprehensive program of hygiene management is essential for maximum productivity and
good health status of breeder flocks.
4 The severity of infection of many diseases can be associated with the level of stress the flock experiences.
4 It is essential to inspect birds routinely to identify emerging disease or welfare problems.
4 Immediate removal of any dead or culled birds from the poultry house is essential to prevent the buildup of
pathogenic microorganisms and the possible transmission
of disease to healthy birds.
Diseases, including Marek’s Disease, Newcastle Disease, Avian
Encephalomyelitis (Epidemic Tremor), Infectious Bronchitis,
Infectious Bursal Disease (IBD), Reovirus Tenosynovitis (viral
arthritis), Fowl Cholera and Infectious Larygotracheitis, are
common and should be considered when a vaccination program
is being planned.
The immune response of the birds resulting from vaccination
or field challenges should be routinely evaluated by serological
analysis. Vaccination does not promote immunity to disease
under all conditions, but enables a flock or individual
bird to withstand levels of infection that cause disease in non-vaccinated
flocks.
Where it may prove impossible to exclude a pathogen in a
particular situation, the commercial effects of a disease may
be minimized by reducing stress derived from other sources.
Many factors interact to increase the symptoms seen as a
result of infection. When defining control measures for disease
control, it is important to take into account the possible
occurrence of stress or incidence of infections such as:
- Poor feed management and other stress factors that can
precipitate problems of Staphylococcal synovitis.
- Precocious development, i.e., excessive light stimulation at
a young age, is associated with peritonitis, increased
double-yolked eggs, and E. coli septicemia at point of lay.
- Stocking density, biosecurity, vaccination and control of
immunosuppressive infections, e.g., Marek’s Disease,
Reovirus, Infectious Bursal Disease (IBD) and Chicken
Anemia Virus (CAV), can markedly affect the severity of
other diseases.
Experienced poultry service personnel should inspect birds as
necessary, passing within viewing distance (10 feet [3 m]) of
each bird. Light intensity should be sufficient to ensure all
birds are clearly visible.
Often the first sign of disease onset is a drop in water or feed
consumption. Thus, a good management practice is to keep a
daily record of feed and water consumption. If the flock’s
health is affected, act immediately by sending birds for post-mortem
examination and contacting the flock service advisor
and a poultry veterinarian.
All dead and culled birds should be removed from the house
and their carcasses disposed of immediately. Federal, state
and local environmental regulations must be observed in the
disposal of carcasses.
NUTRITIONAL STANDARDS
Ross Breeders conducts and funds research focused on optimizing
the performance of Ross breeding stock, as well as
their broiler offspring. Due to the combined rapid progress of
genetic and nutritional research, Recommended Nutrient
Specifications are published as separate supplements. For a
copy of the most recent Recommended Nutrient
Specifications for males and females, contact your Ross technical
service manager.
NUTRITIONAL OVERVIEW
OBJECTIVE To optimize the reproductive performance of males and
females by providing them with rations meeting specific
nutrient requirements throughout their life cycle.
KEY POINTS 4 Daily intake of energy, amino acids, minerals and vitamins has a direct impact on flock performance.
4 Rations must be balanced based on intake of digestible nutrients. An overabundance or deficiency of even one
nutrient can have a negative impact on total flock
performance.
4 Consult your nutritionist and/or Ross technical service manager with specific questions r
ENERGY SUPPLY Metabolizable energy (ME) is the amount of energy available
to the birds after they have digested their feed and the nutrients
have been absorbed into their blood stream. Adequate
energy intake is critical throughout both the male and female
life cycles. Inadequate energy intake will result in lower than
expected performance in the following areas: growth rate,
uniformity, egg production, egg size and hatchability.
Poor quality (low digestibility) feed ingredients can make it
impossible for the birds to consume adequate levels of feed to
meet their ME requirements. Diets that are relatively high in
fiber, (greater than 5%) are less digestible and can cause the
birds to produce excessive heat during their digestion
process. This can be beneficial during cold weather, but highly
detrimental during periods of heat stress.
Excess energy intake can result in an increased frequency of
double yolks, oversized eggs, obesity and increased death loss
during periods of heat stress.
PROTEIN (AMINO ACIDS) Protein, specifically amino acids, can have a critical influence
on growth performance, normal sexual maturity, immune
system function, egg production, egg size and hatchability.
As a practical guide, a maximum level of 16 percent is suggested
for the laying diets of Ross breeding stock. Protein
quality (apparent digestibility) also needs to be considered,
especially during heat stress conditions. Excessive protein
intake (>26 g/bird/day) during heat stress periods can
cause excessive death loss.
MAJOR AND TRACE MINERALS The major minerals, calcium and phosphorus, are critical for
proper skeletal development, bodily function, reproductive
performance and shell quality.
To maintain calcium balance, hens require 4-5 g of calcium
per hen per day, beginning the day they lay their first egg. In
practice, this requirement is satisfied by making the change
from grower or developer rations (1.0% calcium) to Breeder 1
rations (3.0% calcium) at 5% egg production.
Providing a correct balance between calcium and phosphorus
intake is critical. Excessive levels of available phosphorus
throughout lay reduce shell quality and have a negative
impact on hatchery performance. Consult the most recent
Recommended Nutrient Specifications for recommended
available phosphorus levels.
Conventional levels of supplementation are recommended for
trace minerals. Consult the most recent Recommended
Nutrient Specifications for recommended trace mineral fortification
levels, as well as the form of trace minerals used, e.g.,
oxide, sulfate, chloride, etc., in the premix. Some anions,
especially chloride, should be taken into account when considering
the mineral balance of the feed. An imbalance in
these anions can cause an increase in gut motility, resulting in
loose droppings, increased water intake and decreased nutrient
digestibility.
VITAMINS Vitamins are critical in all aspects of growth and reproductive
performance. Consult the most recent Recommended
Nutrient Specifications for recommended vitamin levels.
Under stressful conditions, disease outbreaks and other situations,
birds can show a positive response to higher levels of
vitamins. The goal should be to remove or reduce stress factors,
rather than to depend on permanent use of excessive vitamin
supplementation for optimal performance.
Vitamins are sensitive to many factors, including heat, oxidation
and shelf life. Quality control measures must be put in
place to ensure vitamin levels in the finished feed are meeting
the recommended nutrient specifications. Several strategies
can be employed to accomplish this goal, including:
- Using separate vitamin and mineral supplements and
excluding choline chloride from supplements. The recommendation
for choline is given as a minimum specification
in the complete feed and not quoted as a component of
the premix.
- Adjusting formulas of finished feed to account for
estimated vitamin degradation during a given feed
conditioning processes.
Vitamin E is the most expensive vitamin on a per bird/day
basis. It influences many critical biological functions, including
respiration, immune system functionality, reproductive
performance and chick viability. For breeder feeds, 45 IU vitamin
E/lb. (100 mg/kg) feed is recommended to ensure a
level of 200 µ/g tocopherol in the yolk. Research has shown
this level to enhance the immune system of newly hatched
chicks. There may be situations, such as disease outbreaks
and environmental stresses, where higher than recommended
levels of vitamin E are beneficial.
FEED MANUFACTURING
OBJECTIVE Carry out best management manufacturing practices to
ensure that Ross breeding stock receives rations with adequate
nutrient fortification, while minimizing potential contaminants.
KEY POINTS 4 Raw materials and processing techniques must be consistent from batch to batch for a given flock.
4 Ingredients must be free of contamination by chemical residues, microbial toxins and pathogens.
4 Raw materials should be as fresh as possible within practical limitations and should be stored under
controlled conditions.
4 Storage facilities must be protected from contamination by insects, rodents and, in particular, wild birds, all of which
are potential carriers of disease.
4 To avoid undersupplying energy, nutritionists may use relatively conservative metabolizable energy (ME) values
for raw materials. This means that the average ME levels
fed may be greater than expected and energy
oversupplied. It is important to compare actual versus
expected body weight gains over time to monitor
the latter.
4 Breeding stock can be fed successfully on mash, crumbled or pelleted feed, as long as good feeding management is
practiced.
4 Provide feed as fresh as possible. The risk of nutrient degradation and mold growth in feed increases as a given
feed delivery remains in the farm feed bin.
RAW MATERIALS Drastic changes in the formulation nutrient specifications for
a single flock must be avoided. This formulation stability
must include ingredient quality, energy content and feed processing
conditions.
Feed fats should be consistent, good quality fat. Fish oils have
been shown to depress performance and any fats containing
sterculic acid, e.g., cottonseed, kapok, etc., must be avoided.
Products of fat oxidation (peroxides) and trans-isomer fatty
acids in overcooked vegetable oils are undesirable.
FEED PROCESSING Breeding stock can be fed successfully on mash, crumbled or
pelleted feed, as long as good feeding management is practiced
in each case. Mash or crumbled feeds will allow extended
feed cleanup times, allowing all birds to consume their
proper feed allotment. In periods of high temperature where
feed cleanup time is too long, pelleted diets may be advantageous.
Conditioning feed will also have the beneficial effect of
reducing the microbial load in the feed.
FINISHED FEED QUALITY The time period for feed to go from the feed plant to actually
being consumed by the breeder flock should be as short as
possible. This is especially important under conditions of
high temperature and humidity, which will accelerate degradation of overall feed quality.
A quality control program for monitoring the finished feed
should include:
- proper sampling method
-
- appropriate sampling frequency
-
- comparison of actual versus target dietary nutrient
specifications
- tests for contamination (microbiological, as well as toxins)
-
- proper storage of feed samples
-
Table 4.1 can be used as a guideline for trouble-shooting
nutritional deficiencies.
Ross also has nutritionists available for consultation.
To schedule a visit, contact your Ross technical service manager.
1 Joule (J)
= 0.735 foot pound (ft lb.)
= 0.00095 British thermal unit (Btu)
1 foot pound (ft lb.) = 1.36 Joules (J)
1 British thermal units (Btu) = 1055 Joules (J)
PRESSURE 1 pound per square inch (psi)
= 6895 Newtons per square meter (N/m 2
)
= or Pascals (Pa)
= 0.06895 bar
1 bar
= 14.504 pounds per square inch (psi)
= 105 Newtons per square meter (N/m 2
)
= or Pascals (Pa)
= 100 kilopascals (kPa)
1 Newton per square meter or Pascal (N/m 2
)
= 0.000145 pound per square inch (lb./in 2
)
STOCKING DENSITY 1 square foot per bird (ft 2
/bird)
= 10.76 birds per square meter (bird/m 2
)
1 bird per square meter (bird/m 2
)
= 10.76 square feet per bird (ft 2
/bird)
5 birds per square meter (bird/m 2
)
= 2.15 square feet per bird (ft 2
/bird)
7 birds per square meter (bird/m 2
)
= 1.54 square feet per bird (ft 2
/bird)
1 kilogram per square meter (kg/m 2
)
= 0.205 pound per square foot (lb./ft 2
)
1 pound per square foot (lb./ft 2
)
= 4.878 kilograms per square meter (kg/m 2
)
TEMPERATURE Temperature (ºC) = 5/9 (Temperature ºF-32)
Temperature (ºF) = 32 + 9/5 (Temperature ºC)
VENTILATION 1 cubic foot per minute (ft 3
/min)
= 1.699 cubic meters per hour (m 3
/hour)
1 cubic meter per hour (m 3
/hour)
= 0.589 cubic foot per minute (ft 3
/min.)
INSULATION U value measured in Watts per square meter per degree
LIGHT 1 foot-candle = 10.76 lux
Table 5.1
TEMPERATURE CONVERSION
°C °F °C °F
0 32.0 22 71.6
2 35.6 24 75.2
4 39.2 26 78.8
6 42.8 28 82.4
8 46.4 30 86.0
10 50.0 32 89.6
12 53.6 34 93.2
14 57.2 36 96.8
16 60.8 38 100.4
18 64.4 40 104.0
20 68.0
APPENDIX 2 AVAILABLE SUPPLEMENTS FEMALE MANAGEMENT Key factors for rearing/breeding Ross female parent stock,
including feed and water management, body weights, housing
environment, servicing and vaccination, and production management.
MALE MANAGEMENT Key factors for rearing/breeding Ross male parent stock,
including feed and water management, body weights, housing
environment, servicing and vaccination, and production management.
REARING/BREEDING PROGRAM Production tracking charts for female parent stock, including
lighting, uniformity, weight goals, feed allowances, mortality,
egg production, hatchability and vaccination records.
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS Production benchmarks for female parent stock, including
hatching eggs, egg weight, chicks, hatchability, daily and peak
production by age, body weight, feed/pullet, and feed/dozen
hatching eggs.
MALE FEEDING Nutrient specifications and feeding program summary for
Ross male parent stock, including target body weights, feed
allocation, nutrient requirements and lighting requirements.
FEMALE FEEDING Nutrient specifications and feeding program summary for
Ross female parent stock, including target body weights, feed
allocation, nutrient requirements and lighting requirements.
PLANNING CALENDAR Six-year calendar for tracking flock age by week.
Supplements are also available for broiler production.
Ross Tech bulletins are available on a wide range of
management topics.
Ross provides technical assistance to customers on breeder
and broiler management, and can arrange for consultation
with hatchery and feed milling experts, veterinarians and
nutritionists. For assistance, contact your Ross technical service
manager to arrange a consultation.
INDEX OF
DIAGRAMS AND TABLES NUMBER TITLE PAGE Diagram 1.1 Physiological Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .8
Diagram 1.2 Management Progression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .9
Diagram 1.3 Sample Body Weight Recording Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .10
Table 1.1 Sample Size and F Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.11
Table 1.2 Evaluating Flock Uniformity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.12
Diagram 1.4 Flock Uniformity Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .12
Diagram 1.5 Breast Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .13
Diagram 2.1 Typical Brooder Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .17
Table 2.1 Lighting Program — Blackout Rearing to Open House Laying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .18
Table 2.2 Feeder Space for Partial House Rearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .19
Table 2.3 Drinker Space During Rearing and Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .19
Table 2.4 Minimum Acceptable Levels of Minerals and Bacteria in Drinking Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .20
Table 2.5 Average Daily Water Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .20
Table 2.6 Temperature Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.20
Table 2.7 Evaporative Cooling Systems in Common Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .21
Diagram 2.2 Tunnel Housing Featuring Pad Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .21
Table 2.8 Examples of Feeding Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.22
Diagram 2.3 Proper Beak Trimming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .23
Diagram 2.4 Chick Distribution Under Brooders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .24
Diagram 2.5 Females Underweight at 4 Weeks Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .26
Diagram 2.6 Females Overweight at 4 Weeks Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .27
Diagram 2.7 Females Under/Overweight at 20 Weeks Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .29
Table 3.1 Lighting Program for the Laying House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .33
Table 3.2 Feeder Space During Laying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.34
Diagram 3.1 Example of Immature Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .35
Table 3.3 Male Supplement Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.36
Diagram 3.2 Male Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .37
Table 3.4 Frequency of Observation of Important Production Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .39
Table 3.5 Pelvic Bone Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.40
Diagram 3.3 Graphing Egg Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .41
Table 3.6 Relative Effectiveness of Disinfection Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .43
Table 3.7 Temperature and Humidity for Egg Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .43
Table 3.8 Trouble-shooting Hatch Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.44
Table 4.1 Trouble-shooting Nutritional Deficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .52
Table 5.1 Temperature Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.56
INDEX OF KEY WORDS KEY WORD PAGE Abnormal Eggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18, 33, 41
Air Exchange Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21, 34
Air Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20, 21
Amino Acids, see also supplements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
Avian Encephalomyelitis (Epidemic Tremor) . . . . . . . . . . .50
Biosecurity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47-49
Blackout Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18, 33
Body Weight Recording Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7, 10
Body Weight, Measuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7, 11
Body Weights, see supplements
Breast Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Breeder Diet, see also supplements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Brooder Guards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Brooder Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Broodiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18, 33
Brooding Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Brooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17-18, 22-24
Calcium in Feed Rations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Calcium Tetany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Carcass Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
Chick Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20, 23, 24
Chick Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Chicken Anemia Virus (CAV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
Cleaning Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Coefficient of Variation (CV%) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Comb Trimming (Dubbing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23, 35
Conversion Tables (Appendix 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55-56
Cooling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21, 34
Crop Impaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Culling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36, 38
Daily Production, see supplements
Dead Bird Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
Dew Claws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Diet Specifications, see supplements
Disease Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49-50
Disinfection of Houses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Drinkers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17, 19
Drinkers, Supplemental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Dubbing (Comb Trimming) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23, 35
E. coli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19, 50
Egg Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Egg Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Egg Disinfection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42-43
Egg Production, see supplements
Egg Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25, 40, 41
Egg Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Egg Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40, 41
Egg Yolk Peritonitis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18, 33
Equipment Cleaning Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47-48
Erratic Ovulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18, 33
Feather Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35, 36, 37, 39
Feed Allowances,
see also supplements . . . .22, 23, 24, 36, 37-38, 40-41, 44
Feed Consumption (Cleanup) Time . . . . .22, 36, 37, 38, 40
Feed Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22, 34, 35
Feed Increases,
see also supplements . . . . . . . . .22, 24, 25, 36, 38, 39, 41
Feed Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51-52
Feed Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
Feed Reduction, Post-peak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Feed Systems, Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Feed Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
Feed, Overconsumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Feeder Grills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
Feeder Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19, 22, 34-35
Feeders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17, 19, 34-35
Feeders, Female . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
Feeders, Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
Feeders, Supplemental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Feeding Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Feeding Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22-23
Feeding Schedule, see Feeding Frequency
Feeding to Control Body Weight . . . . . . . . . . .13, 22, 36, 37
Feeding, Ad Libitum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Female Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22, 25, 34, 38-40
Fertility, see supplements
Fleshing Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
Fleshing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40
Floor Eggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Floor Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Foot Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36, 40
Fowl Cholera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
Fumigation of Houses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Grower Diet, see supplements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Hatch Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37, 38, 44
Hatchability, see supplements
Hatching Eggs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25, 37, 38, 41-44
Hot Weather, Feeding During . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
House Clean-out Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47-49
House Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17-21, 47-49
House Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Housing Recommendations, Laying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33-35
Housing Recommendations, Rearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17-21
Humidity, see Relative Humidity
Infectious Bronchitis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
Infectious Bursal Disease (IBD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
Infectious Larygotracheitis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
In-season Flocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Insect Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Leg Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36, 40
Light Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18, 33
Light Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18, 33
Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18, 33, 39
Lighting, Overstimulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18, 33, 38
Litter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Male Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22, 25, 35-38
Male Physical Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
Management Progression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Marek’s Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
Mating Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35, 36
Mating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35-36
Medication in Feed Rations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
Metabolizable Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39, 50-51