USIH Version Chafee Essay April 2014

8/12/2019 USIH Version Chafee Essay April 2014

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Chapter Four April 22, 2014

Zechariah Chafee, Jr. and the Birth of the Cultural Worker

ntroduction

A!on" the !ore e#citin" recent de$elop!ent% in la&or hi%tor' i% the e!er"ence

of a ne( hi%torio"raph' of the %killed (orker. A% e$idenced &' )ikil *a$al+% Cubed and

Jean Chri%tian -inel+% The Employee: A Political History , alon" (ith related (ork &'

ichel Zaki!, Andre( /o%%, r%ula u(%, and rin atton, %cholar% are increa%in"l'

dra(n to the la&or hi%tor' of the (hite collar %alariat.1

*o!e(hat ironicall', "i$en it%

%tre%% on the need to reco$er the 13 0% a% the A"e of the C 5, ichael 6ennin"+% The

Cultural Front !a' (ell &e a!on" the !o%t i!portant %pur% to ne( %cholarl' intere%t in

the hi%tor' of the (hite collar (orker. 6ennin"+% rich and detailed %tud' i% an e#peri!ent

in a la&or theor' of culture, an ar"u!ent for attention to a fine "rained anal'%i% of the

(orkin" li$e% of the fello( tra$elin" radicali7ed (hite collar e!plo'ee% (ho %taffed

the cultural front. For all the ro!ance of o$eralled proletarian arti%t% of the Wood'

8uthrie $ariet', the ri%e of a ple&eian, %ocial de!ocratic culture in the 13 0% !u%t &e

attri&uted, lar"el', to !en and (o!en (ho looked, to the untrained e'e, indi%tin"ui%ha&le

fro! the !a%% of accountant%, la('er%, %ecretarie%, doctor%, en"ineer%, and &ank teller%

&u%il' ru%hin" do(n !etropolitan thorou"hfare% in the photo"raph% of 9na!e a rele$ant

photo"rapher:

1 *ee )ikil *a$al, Cubed: A Secret History of the Workplace . 2014; Jean Chri%tian -inel, The Employee: A

Political History .


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n thi% chapter, %eek to &uild on %o!e of the ar"u!ent% of The Cultural Front ,

(hile ad$ocatin" a %hift in e!pha%i%. 5ne of the "reat contri&ution% of 6ennin"+% te#t i%

it% in%i%tence upon the i!portance of that %tratu! of (hite collar (orker% (ho, for !an'

decade%, %er$ed a% the leadin" ed"e of their cla%% fraction= the arti%t%, (riter%, !u%ician%,

and a&o$e the line fil! and radio profe%%ional%. ?he creati$e profe%%ional%, in other

(ord%, (ho ha$e often &een called 9fir%t, under the influence of the /u%%ian /e$olution,

then under the influence of the )e( @eft: cultural (ork!en or cultural (orker%. 5r,

a% 6ennin" prefer%, &orro(in" a ter! fro! C. Wri"ht ill%, the rank and file of the

cultural apparatu%.6ennin"+% application of ill%+% (ritin"% on the cultural apparatu% fro! the late

13 0% to the culture of the 13 0% can %o!eti!e% create the i!pre%%ion that the pro&le!%

of the cultural front onl' &eca!e clear in retro%pect and fro! the no$el per%pecti$e of

the )e( @eft, (hen, a% hope to de!on%trate, one can find %o!ethin" like ill%+% theor',

uite fle%hed out, in (ritin"% of &oth participant% in the cultural front and !oderate

o&%er$er% in the 13 0% and 1340%. n fact, it an acute %elf con%ciou%ne%% a&out &oth the

potential% and peril% of a cultural apparatu% that con%olidated the ener"ie% of a ne(

cadre of %killed cultural (orker% (a% a %i"nificant feature of the )e( 6eal era politico

ae%thetic for!ation. B' the ti!e ill%+% reflection% on the cultural apparatu% (ere

pu&li%hed, there had &een (ithin A!erican letter% a t(ent' fi$e 'ear de&ate on the

ue%tion of (hat a cultural (orker &a%ed popular culture and ne(% !edia (ould !ean

for the fate of po%t(ar de!ocrac'.

?he %pecific inter$ention that hope to %ta"e, $i% $i% 6ennin", 7eroe% in on one

%ite in (hich thi% de&ate (a% %ta"ed= la( re$ie(% and polic' oriented (ritin" &' la('er%.


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@ar"el' a&%ent fro! The Cultural Front i% attention to the la(. ?hi% i% a pro&le! not

%i!pl' of i!&alance 9one cannot, after all, a%k an author to (rite a&out e$er'thin":.

/ather, the ar"u!ent cut% a little deeper, in%i%tin" that it (a% (ithin the !arro( of the

la( that !an' of the !o%t i!portant effect% of the cultural front (ere re"i%tered, and

that it i% to Duri%prudence that (e %hould look if (e are to e$aluate the lon"e$it' and

dura&ilit' of the cultural front a% a he"e!onic proDect. ?hu%, a% %e$eral critic% of the

The Cultural Front ha$e ar"ued, (hile there (a% certainl' a kind of cultural dEtente after

the launch of the Cold War, (ith the inau"uration of the &lackli%t, the i!pri%on!ent of

the oll'(ood ?en, and the ri%e of official antico!!uni%!, $ital centri%t li&eral politic%, and the arid !andarini%! of literar' for!ali%! 9)e( Critici%!:, the cultural

coordinate% of the )e( 6eal ra re!ained, to a lar"e de"ree, in place. An e$en %tron"er

ar"u!ent for the per%i%tence of the cultural front, ho(e$er, can &e found in the hi%tor'

of la(. ?hi% chapter %eek% to pro$ide, then, a kind of le"al %upple!ent to The Cultural

Front 9add, too, an ar"u!ent a&out the need to take %eriou%l' ho( &ack(ard the la( (a%,

"oin" in to the 13 0% %eldo! appreciated:

?he la( fa%cinate% u%, in lar"e part, a% a di%cour%e, an arena in (hich idea% take

%hape under the pre%%ure of %tate !ediated conflict% in (hich partie% ha$e %i"nificant and

i!!ediate !aterial %take%. ?he la( al%o create% precedent% and ratifie% chan"in"

conception% of ri"ht%, pri$ile"e%, and i!!unitie%. For the !o%t part, in li&eral capitali%t

%ocietie%, the%e precedent% and e$ol$in" propert' arran"e!ent% are at lea%t for!all'

honored &' e$en the !o%t po(erful and %elf a%%ured !e!&er% of the rulin" cla%%e%

9lar"el' e#cluded fro! the di%ciplinar' !echani%!% con%tructed to en%ure the co!pliance

of !e!&er% of %u&ordinate cla%%e%:. ?endentiall', propert' ri"ht% in capitali%! %ke(


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to(ard% tho%e (ho alread' o(n propert' and a(a' fro! tho%e (ith precariou% hold% on

propert'. ?hu%, the creation of ne( propert' ri"ht% i% a !aDor hi%torical e$ent, a rupture in

the e#i%tin" order. @eft hi%torian%, %o!eti!e% %ufferer% of (hat artin *klar ha% called

"uilt feelin"% a&out capitali%!, can &e loath to reco"ni7e that the achie$e!ent of ne(

propert' ri"ht% &' (orker i% e$er an'thin" &ut %o!e %ort of ru%e of po(er. ?here !a' &e

"ood rea%on% to e!&race a &lanket anti propert' politic%, &ut %uch a per%pecti$e (ould

certainl' &e a poor fit for a hi%torian %eekin" to (rite the hi%tor' of the @eft and %u&altern

%ocial !o$e!ent%. t i% undenia&le that the !aDor achie$e!ent% of la&or union%,

fe!ini%!, the Ci$il /i"ht% o$e!ent, and the fi"ht for "a' and le%&ian e ualit' ha$etended to take the for! of either the ratification of poorl' protected old propert' ri"ht%, or

the "rant of ne( one%.

?hi% (a% certainl' the ca%e (ith cultural (orker%Gthe ne( ri"ht% are not hard

to find= ro'altie% and re%idual%. t i% !' clai! that ro'altie% are radicali7in". ?hi% i% (here

(e loop &ack to 6ennin". ?he o!i%%ion of the la( fro! the Cultural Front !atter%,

perhap% !o%t pre%%in"l', in the creation of a "ap (here (e !i"ht e#pect to find %o!e

di%cu%%ion of the contractual &a%i% of a po%t(ar cultural frontGthe !echanical ro'altie%

(on &' the talent "uild%. What la&or hi%torian% (ere once uick to di%re"ard a% %ource% of

e!&our"eoi%e!ent !i"ht no( &e %een a% !echani%!% that !i"ht &e predicted to produce

e#actl' the oppo%ite effectGa hei"htened trade union con%ciou%ne%%, preci%el' &ecau%e

the union% had %ecured %o tan"i&le a $ictor' in %takin" a clai! to the co!!odit' it%elf.

?here (ere !an' rea%on% (h' thi% (a%, in the 1340% 13H0%, a re%tricted entitle!ent, one

that (ould &e difficult to i!a"ine a% a !odel for other union%. ?oda', ho(e$er, it !a'


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(ell &e the !o%t attracti$e %in"le tool in the ar%enal of A!erican trade unioni%! a%

acti$i%t% %eek to i!a"ine ho( (orker% in the hi"h tech %ector !i"ht &e or"ani7ed.

?he i!portance of cultural (orker% doe% not %i!pl' re%ide in %o!e %piritual or

!etaph'%ical leader%hip of the (hite collar %ector 9althou"h there are o&$iou% rea%on%

(h' certain popular no$eli%t%, painter%, fil!!aker%, actor%, and athlete% ha$e &eco!e

culture heroe% at different ti!e% and (ithin a $ariet' of %ocial !o$e!ent%:. A% urra'

/o%% noted in 1341+%Stars and Strikes , and a% -ern Countr'!an e!pha%i7ed in a 134Ie%%a' on the A!erican Federation of u%ician%, con$entional (i%do! had lon" held that

%killed (hite collar (orker% could not for! union% or %eek the collecti$e &ar"ainin"

protection% of the Wa"ner Act.

Con%ider the


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half centur' earlier. 5ne of the olde%t and %tron"e%t of the la&or union% in that indu%tr' i%

the A!erican Federation of u%ician%.

A% /o%% and Countr'!an e!pha%i7e, cultural (orker% (ere often the fir%t out

of the "ate to challen"e the co!!on%en%e lo"ic union% (ere the do!ain of indu%trial

(orker%, and indu%trial (orker% onl'. Con%e uentl', the unioni7ation effort% of cultural

(orker% (ere uni uel' influential in re"ard to the a%piration% of other office (orker%,

paper pu%her%, and "re' flannel %uit co!!uter% to Doin the hou%e of la&or.

A% (e ha$e %een in chapter% one three, the cultural (orker (a% a% !uch a

creature of la( a% it (a% the product of econo!ic and technolo"ical de$elop!ent%, on theone hand, or ne( theori7ation% of the relation%hip &et(een arti%t% and %ociet', on the

other. ?he la( (a% the pri!ar' !ediu! throu"h (hich cultural (orker% en"a"ed in

la&or politic%. Cultural (orker% &eca!e the %u&Dect of a co!ple# le"al di%cour%e,

&e"innin" in the late nineteenth centur', in lar"e part &ecau%e the le"al ue%tion%

pro$oked &' their atte!pt% to %ecure (orkplace and Do& protection% re uired no$el

conDu"ation% of three area% of la(= la&or Duri%prudence, Fir%t A!end!ent doctrine, and

intellectual propert' %tatute%. n thi% chapter, %eek to pro$ide a le"al hi%torical

%upple!ent to 6ennin"+% rich renderin" of the !idcentur'+% left fla$ored cultural politic%.

Workin" throu"h Z Chafee. Cultural (orker a% creation of la(

@e"al di%cour%e% (ere under"oin" epochal chan"e% a% corporate capitali%!

deepened it% pre%ence in A!erican life, and in particular a% the !onopol' character of

!onopol' capitali%! lent to !an' indu%trie% the appearance of &ein" clothed (ith a

pu&lic intere%t.

-ern Countr'!an, ?he 5r"ani7ed u%ician%= The &ni'ersity of Chica%o (a# $e'ie# , -ol. 1L, )o. 19Autu!n, 134I:, L.


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?he ti!in" here i% i!portant. Althou"h the conception of corporation% a% ua%i

pu&lic "oe% &ack to the 1II0%, the 13 0% (itne%%ed a ne( ratification of the notion. n

13 H, ?hur!an Arnold (rote of the )e( 6eal era corporate order= t i% o&$iou% that

pri$ate propert' ha% di%appeared. A fe( 'ear% earlier, Adolf Berle and 8ardiner ean%

had ar"ued= ?he %urrender of control o$er their (ealth &' in$e%tor% ha% effecti$el'

&roken the old propert' relation%hip% and ha% rai%ed the pro&le! of definin" the%e

relation%hip% ane(. ?he ua%i pu&lic corporation, Berle and ean% (rote, had arri$ed,

de%tro'in" the unit' that (e co!!onl' call propert' &' di$idin" o(ner%hip into

no!inal o(ner%hip and !ana"erial po(er .4

t (a% thi% indeter!inac' around corporate propert', in "eneral, coupled (ith the

%en%e that the co!!unication% indu%trie% (ere co!!on carrier%, that !ade intellectual

propert' a ne(l' $alua&le %take in %tru""le% &et(een cultural (orker% and the

corporation% that !anufactured cultural co!!oditie%. Concern o$er the econo!ic $alue

of intellectual propert' led tho%e corporation% to !ake la%tin" conce%%ion% to the union%

of cultural (orker% in e#chan"e for a %ettle!ent on intellectual propert' ue%tion% and

a certain !ea%ure of la&or peace.

?o de$elop thi% ar"u!ent further, and to de!on%trate &oth the centralit' of the

cultural (orker in the la&or hi%tor' of (hite collar (orker%, and the root% of the

di%cour%e %urroundin" the cultural (orker in the intellectual hi%tor' of the la( 9and in

particular the no$el inter(ea$in" of theorie% of collecti$e &ar"ainin", free %peech, and

cop'ri"ht:, propo%e a clo%e e#a!ination of t(o te#t% fro! the 1340% era (ritin"% of4 *ee ?hur!an Arnold, The Folklore of Capitalism 9)e( a$en= Kale ni$er%it'


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Zechariah Chafee, Jr. the 134 Columbia (a# $e'ie# e%%a' /eflection% on the @a( of

Cop'ri"ht and the t(o $olu!e report of the utchin% Co!!i%%ion on the Freedo! of

the


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intellectual propert' la(M H Chafee+% choice to en"a"e a% deepl' a% he did (ith the hi%tor'

of intellectual propert' Duri%prudenceGa topic that (a%, technicall' %peakin", out%ide of

hi% area of e#perti%e %u""e%t% that < had, in the World War 'ear%, &eco!e ne(l'

ur"ent.

Chafee (a% not alone, a!on" pro"re%%i$e le"al thinker%, in de$otin" attention and

ener"' to the al!o%t foren%ic di%%ection of culture and la(. At the %a!e ti!e a% Chafee

(a% fini%hin" hi% < e%%a', he (a% (orkin" (ith arold 6. @a%%(ell, then


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i!plication% re!ained, in the earl' 1340%, trou&lin"l' unclear.

Bio"raphical Back"round

Chafee (a% &orn into a fa!il' of (ealth' indu%triali%t% in


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%ee no rea%on (h' %hould &e out !ountain cli!&in" and enDo'in" life, (hile %o!e other

chap (ho %tarted life (ith le%% !one' and "et% a little an"rier and a little !ore e#tre!e

%hould &e %hut up in a pri%on for fi$e to ten 'ear%

@ookin" &ack at hi% earl' enthu%ia%! for Fir%t A!end!ent ci$il li&ertariani%!

fro! the $anta"e point of 13 0, Chafee e!pha%i7ed the %i"nificance of hi% 'outhful

i!!er%ion in a certain culture of pra"!ati%!. ?he %pirit of the Wil%on 'ear%, Chafee

reflected, (a% one in (hich for(ard lookin" !en and (o!en (ere %till en"a"ed in

rethinkin" our traditional, political, econo!ic, and %ocial conception% and con%iderin"

ho( the' could &e &e%t altered to !eet the ne( need% of an indu%trial and hi"hl'de$eloped countr'. At the %a!e ti!e, Chafee (a% kno(n to uip= (ant to &e a

pra"!ati%t, &ut don+t (ant to (ork $er' hard. 3

nder at lea%t %o!e $a"ue influence of ol!e%, Ja!e%, and 6e(e', ho(e$er,

Chafee ca!e to e!&race the "uidin" principle=


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teachin" co!!ercial la(= for e#a!ple, in the co!!on la( doctrine% of li&el and

%lander.10 ?he uit' la( ca%e&ook that Chafee a%%e!&led in order to teach hi% cla%%e% at

ar$ard included, nece%%aril', %o!e co$era"e of the le"alit' of after the fact inDunction%

a"ain%t li&elou% te#t%, a% oppo%ed to prior re%traint on pu&lication, a topic upon (hich

Black%tone and other "iant% of An"lo A!erican la( (rote pa%%a"e% (ith (hich

co!petent la('er% (ere e#pected to &e fluent. *i"nificantl', the%e ue%tion% o$erlapped

in !an' re%pect% (ith &read and &utter < i%%ue%.

Whate$er the e#planator' $alue of the link% &et(een co!!ercial la( and free

%peech ue%tion% for clarif'in" (h' it (a% that Chafee (a% dra(n to Fir%t A!end!enthi%tor' 9and then later to the hi%tor' of


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%i"nificant %(ath of !odern intellectual propert' la(+% lineal ance%tr' .11

A% %i"nificantl', there (a% no (a' to think throu"h the dile!!a% of Fir%t

A!end!ent Duri%prudence (ithout confrontin" the %a!e deep epi%te!olo"ical ue%tion%

at the heart of intellectual propert' de&ate%. What doe% !eanin" !ean, for e#a!ple,

and ho( doe% repre%entation relate to or !ediate realit'M

n the 'ear% &et(een the pu&lication of Freedom of Speech and World War ,

Chafee often (ent for lon" %tretche% (ithout attendin" at all to Fir%t A!end!ent

ue%tion% or the politic% of cultural re"ulation. ?hi% i% not to %a' that he (a% e$er aloof

fro! the &roader i%%ue% at the heart of Fir%t A!end!ent Duri%prudence. A% (a% co!!onin the he'da' of oo$erian a%%ociationali%!, Chafee %pent con%idera&le ti!e %er$in" on

para "o$ern!ental &odie%.


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AC@ . n the ca%e of "itlo# 9132 :,


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enco!pa%% an' ne( collocation of %e!iotic !aterial% %olidified in %o!e per!anent

fi#ation.

A!erican entr' into World War , and the ne( threat% to ci$il li&ertie% that

!o&ili7ation for (ar %ee!ed to pro!i%e, pro$ided the !oti$ation to re$i%it the %tatu% of

free %peech. n 134 a% he (a% (ritin" the e%%a'% on < (ith (hich thi% chapter i%

concerned Chafee Doined the afore!entioned utchin% Co!!i%%ion on Freedo! of the


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parallel ri%e of ne( infrin"in" de$ice%:, nothin" could &e !ore i!portant than adDu%tin"

the e#i%tin" < la( infra%tructure.

Chafee+% e%%a' further illu!inate% the epi%te!olo"ical un%ettle!ent effected &' the

cro%%in" of the (ire% of intellectual propert', Fir%t A!end!ent, and la&or la(. What

protection% !i"ht the la( afford to the cultural (orker% or"ani7ed in the ne( talent

"uild%M And (hat unintended con%e uence% !i"ht o$er7ealou% affir!ation of cultural

(orker%+ ri"ht% to the%e protection% ha$e for A!erican cultureM


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tran%for!ation%= the tran%!i%%ion of the $oice &' (irele%%; the !otion picture indu%tr'

ca!e to !aturit'; the de$elop!ent of the off%et proce%% and !icrofil!% and other ne(

9printin": !ethod%. Crafted to cope (ith cuttin" ed"e technolo"ie%, the 1303 re$i%ion%

no( %ee!ed increa%in"l' anti ue.

*cientific in$ention% (ere not the onl' recent %tartlin" chan"e%. -a%t

or"ani7ation% had &een for!ed in the entertain!ent indu%tr', and ne( kind% of

a"ree!ent% &et(een author% and cultural indu%trie% had &eco!e co!!on. ?he &alance

of international trade in ae%thetic co!!oditie% had &een re$er%ed. @on" a net i!porter of

intellectual and arti%tic !aterial, &' 134 the A!erican culture indu%trie% do!inated the!arket in ae%thetic co!!oditie%.

At the %a!e ti!e, Chafee+% in$ocation of the %tor' of Cinderella %u""e%ted that a

certain di%a%ter (a% loo!in" a% the clock approached !idni"ht. i"ht not the rapid

e#pan%ion of < ri"ht%, in &oth %cale and %cope, e$entuall' &rin" the en"ine of A!erican

cultural inno$ation to a haltM ?he protection "i$en the cop'ri"ht o(ner %hould not %tifle

independent creation &' other%. )e( ca!pai"n% &' cultural (orker% for uropean %t'le

!oral ri"ht% 9or droits d9auteur : %ee!ed to point to the re$i%ion of < la( in the

direction of the eradication of all te!poral li!it% on cop'ri"ht, (ith < ri"ht% i!a"ined a%

la%tin" in perpetuit' fro! the !o!ent of creation until the end of ti!e. Arti%tic pro"re%%

(ould &e %tifled, Chafee (orried, under %uch an arran"e!ent, and the production of ne(

(ork% (ould rapidl' &eco!e i!po%%i&le unle%% %o!e u%e of the content% of e#i%tin"

te#t% (a% "ranted in connection (ith the independent creation of other author%.

Chafee (orried, in particular, that the 1303 Cop'ri"ht Act had "i$en a po%thu!ou%

$eto po(er to the %ur$i$in" relati$e% of author% perhap% for decade%. ?hu% the


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unpu&li%hed letter% of Ja!e% c)eill Whi%tler had &een lo%t to the (orld &ecau%e hi%

cra&&ed niece (ould not allo( hi% cho%en &io"rapher% to print the!. Chafee in$oke% a

h'pothetical ca%e= the di%co$er' of a ne( d"ar Allen


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'alue of literar' and arti%tic propert', (hich had !ade ne(l' ur"ent a thorou"h"oin"

re$i%ion of the Cop'ri"ht Act.

For Chafee, a% for !o%t !idcentur' o&%er$er%, the 1303 Cop'ri"ht Act %er$ed a% a

(ater%hed 9if one that inter$enin" e$ent% had rendered lar"el' o&%olete:, u%herin" in the

era of the cultural (orker. ?he Con"re%%ional hearin"% leadin" up to the pa%%a"e of the

1303 Act (ere a!on" the earlie%t pu&lic announce!ent of the cultural (orker+% arri$al.

n 130H, te%tif'in" &efore a *enate Co!!ittee, pu&li%her 9and, later, hu%&and of

A!elia arhart: 8eor"e


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the proto Coa%ean per%pecti$e that (a% &e"innin" to &eco!e do!inant in the earl' 'ear%

of the t(entieth centur', the a&ilit' of the fir! to o&tain propert' in the e!plo'ee%+

creati$e product% i% a %i"nificant feature of an efficient intellectual propert' re"i!e.

?he pro&le!, ho(e$er, i% that for the la(, intellectual propert' initiall' $e%t%

propert' ri"ht% in the author or author% of a (orkGand a% far a% la('er% are concerned,

indentifia&le people the creator% of all (ork eli"i&le for cop'ri"ht protection. For the

la(, then, a conceptual re$olution &eca!e nece%%ar' &' !ean% of (hich corporation%

(ould &e una!&i"uou%l' treated a% author% &ecau%e the' hire the people (ho create the

(ork% and te#t% co$ered &' intellectual propert' la(.?hi% (a% the (ork acco!pli%hed &' the 1303 Cop'ri"ht Act re$i%ion= the

entrench!ent of the le"al fiction that the e!plo'er or other per%on for (ho! the (ork

(a% prepared i% con%idered the author for the purpo%e% of federal cop'ri"ht la(. ?he

%tatutor' lan"ua"e e%ta&li%he% t(o cate"orie% of (ork S!ade for hire+= 1: if an

e!plo'ee prepare% it (ithin the %cope of hi% or her e!plo'!ent or 2: if one of nine

%tatutoril' enu!erated t'pe% of (ork prepared &' per%on% not !eetin" the le"al definition

of e!plo'ee (a% S%peciall' ordered or co!!i%%ioned.+ 1H ?he cultural (orker, then,

(a% to &eco!e, paradi"!aticall', the e!plo'ee (ho prepare% intellectual propert' for

other%, (ithin the %cope of hi% or her e!plo'!ent.

?he le$elin" i!plication% of thi% !anoeu$er could not &e clearer. ?ellin" in thi% re"ard i%

17 Fi%k (rite% that the nine cate"orie% are= 91: contri&ution% to a collecti$e (ork, 92:

!otion picture% or other audio$i%ual (ork%, 9 : tran%lation%, 94: %upple!entar' (ork%, 9A: co!pilation%, 9L: in%tructional te#t%, 9H: te%t%, 9I: an%(er !aterial for a te%t,and 93: atla%e%. o(e$er, the partie% !u%t e#pre%%l' a"ree in a (ritten in%tru!ent%i"ned &' the! that the (ork %hall &e con%idered a (ork !ade for hire. 8d4 ?hu%, thedefault rule i% that (ork% &' independent contractor% are not (ork% for hire.


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the fact that Chafee re"arded the 1303 Cop'ri"ht Act+% inno$ation of re uirin" pa'!ent

of an auto!atic t(o cent !echanical ro'alt' (ith e$er' %ale of a phono"raph record, a%

a !odel for future le"i%lation. For Chafee, the flat !echanical ro'alt' (a% le"all'

$irtuou% in%ofar a% it (a% identical for a 10 inch record a% it (a% for a 12 inch one,

re"ardle%% of content. ?he %a!e fee (a% de!anded for an unacco!panied Da77 %on" a%

for a %'!phon' (ith full orche%tra. *i!ilarl', ?o%canini and Benn' 8ood!an, (hile

not, perhap%, in the %a!e lea"ue a% a Beetho$en or a er&ert -on >araDan, did add

enou"h arti%tic %kill to another+% !u%ic to de%er$e reco"nition !ore than a co!!ercial

catalo"ue of li"htin" fi#ture%. ?hi% added %o!ethin", per!anentl' fi#ed &' theenterpri%e of the record !anufacturer could then &e a%%i!ilated to the Cop'ri"ht Act+%

a!&it of (ritin"%.

A% he circle% around the ue%tion of !onopol' and propert' ri"ht%, Chafee in$oke%

the 1340 ca%e $CA '4 Whiteman = an i!portant te%t ca%e that a%ked the Court to decide

(hether !u%ician% had < ri"ht% in arran"e!ent% and recordin"% of co!po%ition% (ritten

&' other%, and that touched on other un%ettled !atter% of propert' la(, %uch a% (hether a

%er$itude !i"ht &e le"all' placed on chattel% 9in thi% ca%e, a %ticker pa%ted on a

phono"raph record e#plicitl' &arrin" it% &roadca%t &' a radio %tation:. 1I


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91II4:, (hich concerned the cop'ri"hta&ilit' of a photo"raph of 5%car Wilde taken (hile

the ri%h author (a% on a tour of the *. n the 7urro#s "iles deci%ion, the *upre!e

Court ruled that the totalit' of the ae%thetic deci%ion% !ade &' Wilde+% photo"rapher

9%ta"in", dre%%in" the %et, li"htin", %electin" an"le%, etc.: con%tituted an act of (ritin"=

no( %een to enco!pa%% $ariou% !ethod% &' (hich the idea% in the !ind of the author

are "i$en $i%i&le e#pre%%ion. ?he flood"ate% then opened= if author%hip (a% up for

di%cu%%ion, $irtuall' an' hu!an act, under the correct circu!%tance%, could &e called an

arti%tic te#t and properti7ed under the ae"i% of


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!ake phono"raph record%, and %o on.

Wh' thi% (a% not %i!pl' a %ini%ter corporatePle"al plot to defraud cultural (orker%

Ga "roup ad!ired &' Chafee and to (ho%e need% Chafee appear% to ha$e &een "enuinel'

%olicitou% i% that Chafee i!a"ined a $i&rant (hite collar, %killed (orker led %ocial

de!ocratic polit' a% the other half of the corporate author%hip e uation= (hat (e ha$e

taken to callin" a cultural (orker%+ repu&lic. A% Chafee %tre%%ed in other (ritin" fro!

a&out the %a!e ti!e a% the Columbia (a# $e'ie# < e%%a'%, the !odern culture indu%trial

fir! (a% uni uel' clothed (ith a pu&lic intere%t= the ne(% reporter, arti%t, and

oll'(ood perfor!er (a% practicall' a pu&lic %er$ant. Further!ore, no one could den'that the corporation% that produced popular culture (ere ine#trica&l' e!&edded in the

)e( 6eal and (arfare %tate apparatu%. Chafee ar"ued in 134 that the A%%ociated


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?hat i!plied ro&u%t protection% of cultural (orker%+ autono!', a% a"ain%t the (ill% or

(i%he% of the o(ner pu&li%her 9or %tudio head or record la&el e#ecuti$e:. 93I 33:

*!ith (rite%= n 6ece!&er 134 , a&out t(o !onth% after the di%trict court deci%ion

in the A< ca%e, Chafee (a% appointed to the Co!!i%%ion on Freedo! of the


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fir!% cannot hide &ehind the Fir%t A!end!ent and do a% the' plea%e.

t (a% preci%el' in re"ard to la&or ue%tion% that the ru&&er hit the road= the cultural

(orker &eca!e the pi$ot on (hich the often contradictor' force% of free %peech doctrine,

< la(, and antitru%t re"ulation found te!porar' &alance.

Conclu%ion= /eturn to Cinderella

n$oke Artie *ha( ?rou&le With Cinderella; ile% 6a$i% 9*o!eda' '


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the content of a ne(%paper.

itherto, the control of the editorial and reportorial %taff o$er (hat the ne(%paper %a'%

ha% &een the %u&Dect, potentiall' at lea%t, to the out%ide influence of the o(ner% and

%o!eti!e% of the ad$erti%er%. )o(, a ne( out%ide influence i% added, that of the

A!erican )e(%paper 8uild. And &ehind the 8uild i% the C 5. Both are %tron" and !a'

(ell "ro( %tron"er. Concei$a&l', the%e ne( out%ide influence% !a' cancel out the old.

?he %taff !a' &e a&le to off%et the 8uild a"ain%t the o(ner%, and reall' (rite (hat the'

&elie$e. 5r in%tead of thi% topia, the %taff !a' find the!%el$e% %tru""lin" in !ore cro%%

current% of opinion than e$er.


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in%ur"enc'.

9 12:

n con%iderin" the ulti!ate effect on freedo! of the pre%% of the e#i%tin" la( %u&Dectin"

a ne(%paper+% relation% (ith it% editorial and ne(% (riter% to the po(er% of the )@/B, (e

ha$e to in uire (hether the pre%entation of ne(% and idea% in ne(%paper% of "eneral

circulation are likel' to reflect the policie% of a %in"le do!inant union and tho%e of the

"i"antic C 5 (ith (hich it i% affiliated 9 1H:

.".G%tate!ent of a !ana"in" editorGe#pre%%ed %'!path' (ith the A)8 a% an econo!i

or"ani7ation, &ut cautionin" (hen the or"ani7ation i% !ade into a political (eapon oppo%e it )o o&Dection to clo%ed %hop in other depart!ent%G


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or doe% not (rite. But, fir%t, the con%titution can &e chan"ed. And in the %econd place, the

ue%tion i% not one of firin", &ut of e%ta&li%hin" a onene%% of purpo%e or intere%t in all

(ho are (ritin" for the paper. What i% (anted i% a catholicit' of approach 9 1I:

?o ha$e e$er' (riter on e$er' paper pled"ed to F6/ 9or an' other candidate: i% clearl'

&ad. a$in" e$er' (riter &elon"in" to an or"ani7ation (hich take% attitude% on !atter% in

the ne(% i% %o!ethin" to &e a$oided. 9 13:

?he dan"er lie% in the p%'cholo"ical factor of e$er'one (ritin" ne(% ha$in" a co!!on

intere%tGa %lantin" of the ne(% 9 13:

?hou"h Chafee fa$ored o(ner te%ti!on', he (a% open to te%ti!on' fro! Dournali%t%, (hoco!plained that the %lantin" fro! o(ner% (a% far (or%e than an' fro! the C 5Gthe

te%ti!on' a$erredG?he %i"nificance of o(ner control doe%n+t lie in the nu!&er of ti!e%

the o(ner interfere%, &ut (hen (hen the i%%ue i% reall' $ital to the o(ner, then he

co!e% do(n hard

?hi% lead% to the !enace of the %'cophant 9 20:

e!orie% of a 1324 Cle$eland


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After the Wat%on ca%e (a% decided, cultural (orker%+ union% &e"an to !ake %i"nificant

collecti$e &ar"ainin" "ain%. ?he *creen Writer% 8uild (on their fir%t contract $ictor' in

1340, and at a&out the %a!e ti!e the A!erican Federation of u%ician% launched a

!u%cular ca!pai"n a"ain%t technolo"ical une!plo'!ent. an' other (hite collar

cultural (orker%+ union% and talent "uild% (ere either for!ed, or re$itali7ed in the late

)e( 6eal ra.

!portantl', a% Chafee &e"an to (rite a&out the ne( capitali%t culture and


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USIH Version Chafee Essay April 2014

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