USMAN, GRACE OJALI - repository.unn.edu.ng

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PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION OF BREAKFAST CEREALS

FROM BLENDS OF AFRICAN YAM BEAN (Sphenostylis stenocarpa),

MAIZE (Zea mays) AND DEFATTED COCONUT (Cocos nucifera).

BY

USMAN, GRACE OJALI

PG/M.Sc./09/50997

DEPARTMENT OF FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY,

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA.

NOVEMBER, 2012

i

TITLE PAGE

PRODUCTION AND EVALUATION OF BREAKFAST CEREALS

FROM BLENDS OF AFRICAN YAM BEAN (Sphenostylis stenocarpa),

MAIZE (Zea mays) AND DEFATTED COCONUT (Cocos nucifera).

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF FOOD

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE,

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA, IN

PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

AWARD OF M.Sc. IN FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY.

BY

USMAN, GRACE OJALI

PG/M.Sc./09/50997

DEPARTMENT OF FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY,

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA.

NOVEMBER, 2012

ii

CERTIFICATION

USMAN, GRACE OJALI, a Post-graduate student in the Department of Food Science and

Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, with Registration

Number: PG/M.Sc./09/50997 has satisfactorily completed the requirements for award of the

degree of Master of Science in Food Science and Technology. The work embodied in this

dissertation is original and has not been submitted in part or full for any other diploma or

degree of this or other university.

------------------------------------ -------------------------------------

DR G.I OKAFOR MR C.S. BHANDARY

(SUPERVISOR) (HEAD OF DEPARTMENT)

----------------------- ----------------------

Date Date

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DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to the Holy Spirit, my source of inspiration and my family, for helping

me in ways I can never quantify.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The successful completion of this research was made possible through the efforts and

commitment of so many to whom I owe my appreciation. My foremost thanks go to the

Almighty God, who makes all things possible to them that believe in Him.

My sincere thanks goes to my Supervisor, Dr G.I. Okafor, whose advice, patience, dedication

and relentless efforts led to the successful completion of this work. I am also grateful to, Mr.

C.S. Bhandary and the entire staff of the Department: Prof P. O. Ngoddy, Prof. T. M.

Okonkwo, Prof. (Mrs.) N. J. Enwere, Dr (Mrs.) J.C. Ani, Dr. P.O. Uvere, Dr. J. I. Eze, Dr.

(Mrs.) I. Nwaoha and Mrs. Omah, for imparting the knowledge and skills that equipped me

throughout the period of this study and made this work a reality.

I owe my parents, Prof. and Mrs. S.S. Usman a lot of appreciation for their patience,

encouragement, love and support, which motivated me at every stage of this work. I fondly

appreciate my siblings, Adaji, Chide, Ugbede and Baby Praise for always being there for me.

I also extend my sincere appreciation to my brethren of the Graduate Students' Fellowship,

University of Nigeria, Nsukka for always making me feel at home.

Lastly, my profound gratitude goes to all my friends; Mary, Lucy, Toyin, Barrister, fellow

professional colleagues and all those whose names are not mentioned. I love you all.

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ABSTRACT

Six samples were generated by mixing the flours (AYB+ maize composite) with graded

levels of defatted coconut flour (100:0, 90:10, 80:20, 70:30, 60:40, 50:50), sugar, salt,

sorghum malt extract and water. Breakfast cereals were produced by roasting (280°C) -a dry

heat treatment process to gelatinize and semi-dextrinize the starch in order to generate dry

ready to eat products from blends of African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa), maize

(Zea mays) and defatted coconut (Cocos nucifera) cake. They were subjected to proximate,

functional, sensory, minerals, vitamins, anti-nutrients, amino acids and microbial analyses.

The products obtained were also served dry (without added water), with cold water, cold milk

and warm milk to 15 panelists along with Weetabix (commercial control) to evaluate for

appearance, consistency, flavour, taste, aftertaste, mouth feel, and overall acceptability using

a 9 point Hedonic scale (1=dislike extremely, 9=like extremely). The results revealed the

following ranges: proximate parameters (%): moisture (3.38-4.20), protein (15.68-18.26), fat

(1.84-2.02), crude fiber (6.70-9.08), ash (5.29-7.36), carbohydrates (60.96-64.53), and energy

(327.54-347.72Kcal). Functional properties were: pH (4.70- 6.56), bulk density (0.29-

0.71g/ml), water absorption capacity (68.31- 76.39%), oil absorption capacity (0.87- 1.32%),

foam capacity (2.48- 3.49%), viscosity (19.73-31.08%), invitro-protein digestibility (66.30-

82.2%), and gelation capacity (75.32- 89.66%). Mineral analysis showed the following

ranges (mg/100g): calcium (169-213), magnesium (290-430), potassium (88-191),

manganese (5.92-7.99), iron (9.81-14.1), copper (0.58- 0.86), sodium (7.62- 9.97), zinc (2.11-

3.35). Vitamins analysis also revealed the following ranges (mg/100g): B1 (0.09-0.31), B2,

(0.32-0.43), B6 (0.13- 0.26), B12 (0.74-1.01) and C (1.70- 2.65). Results for the anti-nutrients

showed the following ranges (mg/100g): phytates, (0.38-1.25), oxalate (0.076-0.302),

hemagluttinins, (0.10- 0.29) and tannins (0.00064-0.0016). Amino acids detected ranged as

follows (mg/100g): phenylalanine (190-320), valine (160-240), threonine (560-810),

tryptophan (380-520), isoleucine (110-220), methionine (10-100), histidine (160-240),

arginine (180-510), lysine(90-250), leucine (590-810), cysteine (210-340), alanine (110-220),

glycine (460-750), serine(80-120), aspartic acid (10-40), glutamic acid (10-40), asparagine

(190-520), glutamine (100-300) and proline (30-50). Microbial analysis revealed the

following ranges: bacteria count, 0.5x10 -1.51x102 Cfu/g, mold count, 0.0x10- 0.6x10 Cfu/g,

while coliform was not detected. The sensory results revealed that the samples obtained were

acceptable to the panelists, and there were no significant differences (p>0.05) between the

control (Weetabix) and the samples in terms of overall acceptability when served with cold

water, while significant (p<0.05) differences existed when served dry, with cold milk and hot

milk.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Title page - - - - - - - - i

Certification - - - - - - - - ii

Dedication - - - - - - - - iii

Acknowledgments - - - - - - - - iv

Abstract - - - - - - - - v

Table of Contents - - - - - - - - vi

List of Tables - - - - - - - - ix

List of Figures - - - - - - - x

Appendices - - - - - - - - xi

1.0 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION - - - - 1

1.1 Statement of Research Problem - - - - - 3

1.2 Significance of the study - - - - - - 4

1.3 Objective of the Study - - - - - - 4

2.0 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW - - - 5

2.1 Breakfast and its importance - - - - - 5

2.1.1 Constituents of a Healthy Breakfast - - - - - 7

2.1.2 History of Breakfast Cereals - - - - - - 7

2.1.3 Classification of Breakfast Cereals - - - - - 8

2.2 Cereals - - - - - - - - 10

2.2.1 Maize Production and Utilization - - - - - 11

2.2.2 Varieties of Maize - - - - - - - 12

2.2.3 Nutritional Value of Maize - - - - - - 12

2.3 Legumes - - - - - - - - 13

2.3.1 World Production of Legumes - - - - - 13

2.3.2 Nutritional Relevance of Legumes - - - - - 14

2.3.3 Anti-nutritional Factors in Legumes - - - - - 14

2.4 Underutilized Legumes - - - - - - 16

2.5 African Yam Beans (AYB) - - - - - - 17

2.5.1 Nutrient Composition of African Yam Beans - - - 17

2.5.2 Potentials of African Yam Beans - - - - - 18

2.5.3 Factors Limiting the Use of African Yam Beans - - - 18

2.6 Coconut - - - - - - - - 19

2.6.1 Origin and Morphology of Coconut - - - - - 19

2.6.2 Natural habitat of Coconut - - - - - - 19

2.6.3 Nutritional Value of Coconut - - - - - 19

2.6.4 Coconut in Traditional and Modern Medicine - - - 21

2.6.5 Coconut as a Source of Dietary Fiber in Foods - - - 22

2.7 Production and Utilization of Sorghum - - - - 22

2.7.1 The use of Sorghum for the production of malt extract - - 23

3.0 CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS - - 24

3.1 Material Procurement - - - - - - 24

3.1.1 Sample Preparation - - - - - - - 24

3.1.2 Production of Maize Flour - - - - - - 24

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3.1.3 Production of African Yam Beans Flour - - - - 26

3.1.4 Production of defatted Coconut flour - - - - 28

3.1.5 Production of Sorghum Malt Extract - - - - 30

3.2 Products Formulation - - - - - - 32

3.3 Analysis of Samples - - - - - - 35

3.3.1 Proximate Composition - - - - - - 35

3.3.1.1 Determination of Moisture Content - - - - - 35

3.3.1.2 Determination of Crude Fat Content - - - - - 35

3.3.1.3 Determination of Protein Content - - - - - 36

3.3.1.4 Determination of total Ash Content - - - - - 36

3.3.1.5 Determination of Crude Fiber Content - - - 37

3.3.1.6 Determination of Carbohydrate - - - - - 37

3.3.1.7 Determination of Energy Value - - - - - 37

3.4 Functional Properties Determination - - - - 37

3.4.1 Determination of pH - - - - - - - 37

3.4.2 Determination of Bulk Density - - - - - 38

3.4.3 Determination of Water/ Fat Absorption Capacity - - - 38

3.4.4 Determination of Foam Capacity - - - - - 38

3.4.5 Determination of Viscosity - - - - - - 38

3.4.6 Determination of In-vitro Protein Digestibility - - - 39

3.4.7 Determination of Gelation Capacity - - - - - 39

3.5 Sensory Evaluation - - - - - - - 39

3.6 Determination of Anti-nutritional Factors - - - - 40

3.6.1 Determination of Phytate or Phytic Acid - - - - 40

3.6.2 Determination of Tannin - - - - - - 40

3.6.3 Determination of Oxalate - - - - - - 41

3.6.4 Determination of Hemagluttinin - - - - - 41

3.7 Determination of Mineral content - - - - - 42

3.8 Determination of Vitamin content - - - - - 42 3.8.1 Determination of Vitamin B1 - - - - - 42

3.8.2 Determination of Vitamin B2 - - - - - 43



3.8.5 Determination of Vitamin C - - - - - 45

3.9 Determination of Essential and Non-essential Amino Acids - 46 3.10 Microbiological Examination - - - - - 46

4.0 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION - - 47

4.1 Proximate Composition - - - - - - 47

4.1.1 Moisture - - - - - - - - 47

4.1.2 Protein - - - - - - - - 49

4.1.3 Fat - - - - - - - - 49

4.1.4 Ash - - - - - - - - 49

4.1.5 Crude Fiber - - - - - - - - 49

4.1.6 Carbohydrate - - - - - - - - 50

4.1.7 Energy - - - - - - - - - 50

4.2 Functional Properties - - - - - - 52

4.2.1 pH - - - - - - - - 52

4.2.2 Bulk Density - - - - - - - - 52

4.2.3 Water Absorption Capacity - - - - - - 52

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4.2.4 Oil Absorption Capacity - - - - - - 53

4.2.5 Foam Capacity - - - - - - 53

4.2.6 Viscosity - - - - - - - 53

4.2.7 In-Vitro Protein Digestibility - - - - - - 53

4.2.8 Gelatin Capacity - - - - - - - 54

4.3 Sensory Evaluation - - - - - - - 57

4.3.1 Attribute Perception of Samples Served Dry - - - - 57

4.3.2 Attribute Perception of Samples Served With Cold Water - - 59

4.3.3 Attribute Perception of Samples Served With Cold Milk - - 61

4.3.4 Attribute Perception of Samples Served With Hot Milk - - 63

4.3.5 Effect of Serving Style on Sensory Attributes of the Samples - 65

4.4 Mineral Composition of the Breakfast cereals - - - 70

4.4.1 Calcium - - - - - - - - 70

4.4.2 Magnesium - - - - - - - - 70

4.4.3 Potassium - - - - - - - - 71

4.4.4 Manganese - - - - - - - - 71

4.4.5 Iron - - - - - - - - - 71

4.4.6 Copper - - - - - - - - 71

4.4.7 Sodium - - - - - - - - 72

4.4.8 Zinc - - - - - - - - - 72

4.5 Vitamin Composition o f the Breakfast cereals - - - 74

4.5.1 Vitamin B1 - - - - - - - - 74

4.5.2 Vitamin B2 - - - - - - - - 74

4.5.3 Vitamin B6 - - - - - - - - 74

4.5.4 Vitamin B12 - - - - - - - - 75

4.5.5 Vitamin C - - - - - - - - 75

4.6 Anti-Nutritional Factors - - - - - - 77

4.6.1 Phytate/Phytic Acid - - - - - - - 77

4.6.2 Oxalate - - - - - - - - 77

4.6.3 Hemagluttinin - - - - - - - 77

4.6.3 Tannin - - - - - - - - 78

4.7 Amino Acid Profile - - - - - - - 80

4.8 Microbial Examination - - - - - - 82

5.0 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Conclusion - - - - - - - - 84

5.2 Recommendations - - - - - - - 84

REFERENCES - - - - - - - 86

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LIST OF TABLES

Page

1 Average Contribution of Cereals and Cereal products to nutrient intake

in the U.K. - - - - - - - - - 6

2 Proximate Composition of the Cereals grown in Nigeria - - - 11

3 Gross Chemical composition of different types of Maize - - - 13

4 Proximate composition of lesser known Legumes - - - 16

5 Coconut Dietary value per 100g edible portion - - - - 21

6 Composite flour formulations for Breakfast cereals made from blends of

AYB + Maize: defatted coconut flour - - - - 33

7 Ingredients combination of Breakfast cereals made from blends of

AYB + Maize: defatted coconut flour - - - - - 33

8 Proximate composition of Breakfast cereals made from blends of


9 Functional properties of Breakfast cereals made from blends of


10 Mean sensory scores for samples served dry - - - - 58

11 Mean sensory scores for samples served with cold water - - 60

12 Mean sensory scores for samples served with cold milk - - - 62

13 Mean sensory scores for samples served with hot milk - - - 64

14 Mineral content of Breakfast cereals made from blends of


15 Vitamin content of Breakfast cereals made from blends of


16 Anti-nutritional content of Breakfast cereals made from blends of


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LIST OF FIGURES

Page

1 Taxonomy of the Graminae family - - - - - 10

2 Modified flow diagram for the production of Maize flour - - 25

3 Flow diagram for the production of African Yam Bean flour - - 27

4 Modified flow diagram for the production of defatted coconut flour - 29

5 Modified flow diagram for the production of malt extract - - 31

6 Flow diagram for the production of breakfast cereals from blends of

AYB+Maize: Defatted coconut flour - - - - - 34

7 Energy values of breakfast cereals from blends of AYB + Maize:

defatted Coconut Flour - - - - - - - 51

8 In-Vitro Protein Digestibility of breakfast cereals from blends of

AYB+Maize: defatted Coconut flour - - - - - 56

9 Effect of the serving style on the colour perception of breakfast cereals

from blends of AYB + Maize: defatted Coconut flour - - - 66

10 Effect of the serving style on the consistency perception of breakfast cereals


11 Effect of the serving style on the flavour perception of breakfast cereals


12 Effect of the serving style on the taste perception of breakfast cereals


13 Effect of the serving style on the aftertaste perception of breakfast cereals


14 Effect of the serving style on the mouthfeel perception of breakfast cereals


15 Effect of the serving style on the overall acceptability perception of breakfast

cereals from blends of AYB + Maize: defatted Coconut flour - - 69

16 Amino acid profile of breakfast cereals from blends of AYB + Maize:

defatted Coconut flour - - - - - - - 81

17 Microbial content of freshly prepared breakfast cereals from blends of

AYB + Maize: defatted Coconut flour - - - - - 83

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APPENDICES

Page

I Sensory Evaluation score sheet - - - - - 94

II Amino acid profile for formulated breakfast cereals - - 95

III Raw values for the Microbial profile of Breakfast Cereals made from

blends of AYB+Maize: Defatted Coconut flour - - - 96

IV ANOVA Table for Anti-Nutrients of formulated Breakfast Cereals 97

V ANOVA Table for Sensory Data of formulated Breakfast Cereals

served Raw - - - - - - - - 98

VI ANOVA Table for Sensory Data of formulated Breakfast Cereals

served with cold water - - - - - - 99

VII ANOVA Table for Sensory Data of formulated Breakfast Cereals

served with cold milk - - - - - - 100

VIII ANOVA Table for Sensory Data of formulated Breakfast Cereals

Served with Hot Milk - - - - - - 101

IX ANOVA Table for Functional Properties Analysis - - 102

X ANOVA Table For Proximate Composition Analysis - - 103

XI ANOVA Table for Vitamin Analysis - - - - 104

XII RDA of Vitamins for Children and Adults (mg/kg of body weight) 105

XIII RDA for Mineral requirements for Children and Adults - - 106

XIV RDA of Essential Amino Acids for Children and Adults - - 107

1

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The word “breakfast” is a compound of "break" and "fast" which literally means “breaking

the fast” from the last meal or snack from the previous day. Breakfast is the nutritional

foundation or the first meal of the day (Kowtaluk, 2001). Nutritional experts have referred to

breakfast as the most important meal of the day, citing studies that found people who skip

breakfast to be disproportionately likely to have problems with concentration, metabolism,

and weight (Mayo Clinic, 2009). Breakfast meals vary widely in different cultures around the

world. It often includes a carbohydrate source such as cereals, fruit and or vegetable, protein,

sometimes dairy, and beverage.

In developing countries, particularly sub-Saharan Africa, breakfast meals for both adults and

infants are based on local staple diet made from cereals, legumes, and cassava and potatoes

tubers. However, the most widely eaten breakfast foods are cereals (Kent, 1983).

Breakfast cereals are legally defined as foods obtained by swelling, grinding, rolling or

flaking of any cereal (Sharma and Caralli, 2004). They can be categorized into traditional

(hot) cereals that require further cooking or heating before consumption and ready-to-eat

(cold) cereals that can be consumed from the box or with the addition of milk (Fast 1990;

Tribelhorn, 1991). Ready to eat breakfast cereals are increasingly gaining acceptance in most

developing countries, and gradually displacing most traditional diets that serve as breakfast

due to convenience, nutritional values, improved income, and status symbol and job demands

especially among urban dwellers. According to Jones (2003), instantized and ready-to-eat

(RTE) cereals facilitate independence because of their ease of preparation which means that

children and adolescents can be responsible for their own breakfast or snacks. Such foods

may need to be reconstituted, pre-heated in a vessel or allowed to thaw if frozen before

consumption, or they may be eaten directly without further treatment (Okaka, 2005). The

common cereal products in Nigeria include NASCO Cornflakes, Good morning corn flakes,

Kellogg’s cornflakes, NABISCO flakes, Weetabix, Quaker Oats, Rice crisps, among others.

A study has clearly shown that 42% of 10-year-olds and 35% of young adults consumed

cereal at non-breakfast occasions (Haines et al., 1996). This may be consumed dry as snack

food, with or without cold or hot milk, based on their location, availability of resources and

habits.

2

In recent times food product developers have incorporated legumes into traditional cereal

formulations as nutrient diversification strategy as well as efforts to reduce the incidence of

malnutrition among vulnerable groups. Results from previous studies (Onweluzo and

Nnamuchi, 2009), indicated that most cereals are limited in some essential amino acids

especially threonine and tryptophan. Though cereals are rich in lysine (especially the yellow

maize), they cannot effectively provide the nutrients required by the body, especially in the

morning when the supply of nutrients from the previous day is exhausted. Cereals can

however, be supplemented with most oil seeds and legumes which are rich in essential amino

acids particularly the sulphur-containing ones (Kanu et al., 2007). Thus a combination of

such food stuffs will improve the nutritional value of the resulting blend compared to the

individual components alone. Animal products such as meat, eggs, milk, and cheese are

known to contain the essential amino acids that could complement this deficiency in cereal

foods. However, consumption of proteins from plant sources (Legumes) is encouraged

(Ofuya and Akhidue, 2005), since combination of legumes and grains provide biologically

high quality and cheaper protein that contains all essential amino acids in proper proportion

and their amino acids complement each other (Okaka, 2005).

Legumes or pulses are edible fruits or seeds of pod bearing plants (Sivasanka, 2005). Their

seeds are put to a myriad of uses, both nutritional and industrial, and in some parts of the

developing world they are the principal source of protein for humans (Trevor et al., 2005).

Legumes have high protein content, in the range of 20-40%; about twice that of cereals and

several times that in root tubers (Sivasanka, 2005). The common legumes in Nigeria include,

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), Soybeans (Glycine max), Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan),

Groundnuts (Arachis hypogea), African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa), etc. (Okaka,

2005).

A variety of legumes, including African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) are under

exploited or underutilized (Ebiokpo et al., 1998). African yam bean is the most economically

important among the seven species of Sphenostylis (Potter, 1992). It is a lesser- known

legume of the tropical and sub-tropical areas of the world which has attracted research

attention in recent times (Azeke et al., 2005). It is a climbing legume with exceptional ability

for adaptation to low lands and takes about five to seven months to grow and produce mature

seeds (Apata and Ologhoba, 1990). AYB seeds can be brown, white, speckled or marbled

with a hilum having a dark-brown border. The seeds form a valuable and prominent source of

3

plant proteins in the diet of Nigerians and are cultivated as a pulse for human consumption.

The Ibo people of the south eastern Nigeria call it “Okpodudu, Ijiriji, Azama” and the seeds

may be boiled and eaten with local seasoning, starchy roots, tubers and fruit or converted to

paste for the production of a type of “moi-moi”. The seeds can also be roasted and eaten with

palm kernels (Enwere, 1998). AYB, a non-conventional pulse has been brought into focus by

some previous workers as it is known to have a nutritive and culinary value (Agunbiade and

Ojezele, 2010).

Nutritionists recommend 20-35 grams of dietary fiber a day which could be obtained from

sources of dietary fiber such as whole grains, legumes, and nuts. Coconut is an excellent

source of dietary fiber, which has been made available as a dietary supplement (Bruce Fife,

2010). Coconut dietary fiber is made from finely ground, dried, and defatted coconut and has

higher fiber content than many other fiber supplements.

Formulating a breakfast cereal with blends of these raw materials highlighted above could

bring about diversification in the utilization of indigenous underutilized food crops for

national sustenance.

1.1 STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

African yam bean has been recognized to have vast genetic and economic potentials,

especially in reducing malnutrition among Africans; however the crop has not received

adequate research attention, thereby limiting its contribution to food security and preventing

potential food crisis. Increasing the use of underutilized crops is one of the better ways to

reduce nutritional, environmental and financial vulnerability in times of change (Jaenicke and

Pasiecznik, 2009).

Over time, some conditions have negatively influenced the productivity and acceptability of

African yam bean among cultivators, consumers, and research scientists. These include,

characteristic hardness of the seed coat (Oshodi et al., 1995) which increases the cost and

time of cooking, presence of anti-nutritional factors (ANF) or secondary metabolites

(Machuka and Okeola, 2000) and the tendency to cause flatulence in humans (Rockland and

Nishi, 1979). Therefore, it is of interest to process African yam bean seeds into acceptable,

ready-to-eat and safe products together with other locally available materials including maize

and defatted coconut flour.

4

1.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

African yam bean has been reported to have equal or higher lysine content than that of

Soybean while most of other essential amino acids correspond to the WHO/FAO

recommendation (Yetunde et al., 2009). In addition to this, it is reported to be important in

the management of chronic diabetes, hypertension and cardiovascular diseases because of its

low glycemic index and high dietary fiber content (Enwere, 1998). This research, therefore,

has the potential to address the twin problems of energy malnutrition as well as food security.

It will stimulate establishment of food industries for the production of breakfast cereals and

create other marketing and employment opportunities.

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The general objective of this study is to produce and evaluate breakfast cereals from blends

of African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa), maize (Zea mays) and defatted coconut

(Cocos nucifera).

Specific objectives:

1. To produce flours from African yam bean, maize and defatted coconut.

2. To produce breakfast cereals from blends of African yam bean, maize and

defatted coconut.

3. To evaluate the chemical, functional, sensory, and microbial as well as the anti-

nutrients, minerals, vitamins and amino acid profile of the products obtained.

5

CHAPTER TWO

2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1.0 BREAKFAST AND ITS IMPORTANCE

Breakfast is the most important meal of the day and breakfast cereals are the most nutrient-

dense, tasty, convenient and typically lowest calorie breakfast options (Hochberg-Garrett,

2008). The importance of breakfast in assuring adequate nutrient intakes has been

documented in numerous studies both in the United States and elsewhere (Yan Want, et al.,

1992). Should breakfast be omitted, food consumption during the rest of the day may not

provide sufficient nutrients to meet the recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) for

vitamins and minerals (Preziosi et al., 1999).

Previous studies define a time range for breakfast consumption, such as 5 AM to 9 AM. For

example, a study with children in developed countries used 5 AM to 10 AM on weekdays and

5 AM to 11 AM on weekends. Although the choices for breakfast foods are endless, a few

foods remain the most popular items for this meal. It was found that in some developed and

developing countries three most popular breakfast items for adults were coffee, milk, and

breads and the three most popular breakfast items for children were milk, cereal, and juice. At

this time, 75% of participants reported eating breakfast at home, 22% ate away from home,

and 3% ate at both places (Hochberg-Garrett, 2008).

Eating breakfast has been shown to be beneficial for both body and mind in several ways.

Those who eat a cereal-based breakfast (including pre-sweetened cereals), have a lower body

mass index (BMI) than those who skip breakfast or choose an alternative breakfast option

(Hunty and Ashwell, 2006). The average contribution of cereals and cereal products to

nutrient intake is shown in Table 1. It has been proven in many studies that those who eat

breakfast have a lower BMI than those who skip breakfast. Below are some interesting facts

relating to breakfast cereals which were cited by Nicklas (2004) and Hunty and Ashwell

(2006).

i. Eating breakfast contributes to cognitive performance and improves concentration

ii. Breakfast cereals supply one quarter of essential micronutrients to children’s diets.

iii. Breakfast cereals are an essential source of iron for teenagers

iv. Breakfast cereals provide an important source of folic acid as well as increasing levels

of Vitamin D, B-vitamins and minerals including zinc and iron.

6

v. Breakfast cereals are also an important source of calcium both through the product

itself and the addition of milk to the cereal.

vi. Recent studies by the Irish Universities nutrition Alliance has also shown that

breakfast cereals provide teenagers with up to 11% of their daily fiber requirements.

Breakfast is the most commonly skipped meal among children. Many reasons were given for

adults and children to skip breakfast, such as poverty and parental influences (Hochberg-

Garrett, 2008). It has been observed that children who do not have their breakfast before

leaving for school have problems, like headache, sleepiness, stomach pain, muscle fatigue,

etc. (Kartha, 2010). Indecisiveness, anger, anxiety, irritability, unhappiness, nervousness,

lethargy, hostility, etc. are some other problems that can be seen in students who skip their

breakfast. Such physical and psychological problems have the ability to hinder the learning

process; students who have their breakfast regularly score better in their tests than those who

avoid eating breakfast (Jegtvig, 2008).

A small study in adults also found that a high-fiber carbohydrate-rich breakfast was

associated with the highest post-breakfast alertness rating and the greatest alertness between

breakfast and lunch. A larger study found an association between breakfast cereal

consumption and subjective reports of health, with those adults who ate breakfast cereal

every day reporting better mental and physical health, compared to those who consumed it

less frequently (McKevith, 2004).

Table 1. Average Contribution of Cereals and Cereal Products to Nutrient Intake in the (UK %). Nutrient

Boys

Girls

Adults

Energy

35 33

31

Protein 27 26 23 Carbohydrate 45 42 45 Fat 22 21 19 NSP 40 37 42 Thiamin 43 38 34 Riboflavin 34 31 24 Niacin 38 34 27 Folate 44 37 33 Vitamin B6 30 26 21

Vitamin D 37 35 21 Iron 55 51 44 Calcium 27 27 30 Sodium 40 38 35 Potassium 15 14 12

Source: McKevith, 200

7

2.1.1 CONSTITUENTS OF A HEALTHY BREAKFAST

Though carbohydrates which provide energy to the body is one of the most important parts of

breakfast, it is necessary to make sure that the breakfast is not wholly a carbohydrate meal. A

complete breakfast should include all the necessary nutrients, including proteins, calcium,

vitamin B6, vitamin A, zinc and iron (Jegtvig, 2008). Also, it would contain low level of

sodium, salt and sugar. A basic breakfast should be nothing less than cereal, milk and fruits.

2.1.2 HISTORY OF BREAKFAST CEREALS

The history of breakfast cereals has been summarized by Carson (1957) and Wikipedia

(2009). Breakfast cereals have their beginnings in the vegetarian movement in the last quarter

of the nineteenth century, which influenced members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church in

the United States. The main Western breakfast at that time was a cooked breakfast of eggs,

bacon, sausage, and beef. The first packaged breakfast cereal, granular (named after granules)

was invented in the United States in 1863 by James Caleb Jackson, operator of the Jackson

Sanitarium in Dansville, New York and a staunch vegetarian. The cereal never became

popular; it was far too inconvenient, as the heavy bran nuggets needed soaking overnight

before they were tender enough to eat. Ferdinand Schumacher, president of the American

Cereal Company, created the first commercially successful cereal made from oats;

manufacturing took place in Akron, Ohio.

In 1877, John Harvey Kellogg, invented a biscuit made of ground-up wheat, oat, and

cornmeal for his patients suffering from bowel problems. The product was initially also

named "Granula", but changed to "Granola" after a lawsuit. His most famous contribution,

however, was an accident. After leaving a batch of boiled wheat soaking overnight and

rolling it out, Kellogg had created wheat flakes. His brother Will Keith Kellogg later invented

corn flakes from a similar method, bought out his brother's share in their business, and went

on to found the Kellogg Company in 1906. In the 1930s, the first puffed cereal, Kix, went

into the market. Beginning after World War II, the big breakfast cereal companies – now

including General Mills, who entered the market in 1924 with Wheaties – increasingly started

to target children. The flour was refined to remove fiber, which at the time was considered to

make digestion and absorption of nutrients difficult, and sugar was added to improve the

flavor for children. The new breakfast cereals began to look starkly different from their

ancestors. Today, breakfast has gained much ground in the food industry.

8

2.1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF BREAKFAST CEREALS

Breakfast cereals fall into the class of convenient foods. These can be regarded as foods

which have been fully or partially prepared, in which significant preparatory input, culinary

skills and energy have been transferred from the home maker’s kitchen to the food

processor’s factory. Such foods may need to be reconstituted, pre-heated in a vessel or

allowed to thaw if frozen before consumption, or they may be eaten directly without further

treatment (Okaka, 2005).

The classification of the breakfast cereals are based on the amount of heat required for its

preparation. According to Kent (1975), breakfast cereals can be classified according to:

a. The amount of domestic cooking required

b. The form of product or dish

c. The cereal used as raw material.

Those breakfast cereals that require cooking are of four types. The endosperm of the grains

may, sometimes, simply be broken or pressed, with or without toasting, to yield such

uncooked cereals. They include,

i. Entire grain such as rice

ii. Flaked such as rolled oats

iii. Coarsely ground such as hominy grits

iv. Finely ground such as cream of wheat

The breakfast cereals which need no cooking are called ready-to-eat cereals. For these the

endosperm of the cereal grain may be broken or ground into a mash, and then converted into

flakes by squeezing shapes; or the endosperm may be kept intact as kernels to be puffed as in

the case of puffed rice. In all cases, the flaked, formed or puffed cereals are oven cooked and

dried to obtain a toasted flavour and to obtain the crisp, brittle textures desired (Potter and

Hotchkiss, 2006). These cereals are sold in many forms e.g.:

a. Flaked cereals from corn, wheat and rice

b. Puffed cereals from rice and wheat

c. Shredded cereals from wheat

d. Granular cereals from most cereals.

9

The grains can be puffed, flaked, extruded, pelleted, shredded or produced in a granular form

and have sugar, honey or vitamin added. The ready-to-eat bran is combined with raisins or

prunes. Also, classification could be according to the manner in which the meals are served

whether they are in the ready-to-serve form (for example cornflakes) or whether they require

some cooking before being served (e.g. porridge). The ready-to-serve breakfast cereals may

be classified into hot cereal, whole-grain cereals, bran cereals, sugary cereals and organic

cereals based on the manufacturing methods (Wikipedia, 2009).

In the market today whether cereal is hot or cold, conventional or organic, the possibilities for

good nutrition are seemingly endless. Cereals are presented in various types which appeal to

the eye as well as the appetite of the consumer. Below are the different types of cereals found

in both national and international market as compiled by Kinsey (2009).

Hot Cereal: Options such as oatmeal, Cream of Wheat and Malt-O-Meal are healthy hot

breakfast that fall into this category. They come in wholesome, unsweetened versions as well

as in sugary, processed versions. By buying unsweetened, whole-grain hot breakfast cereals,

one can add healthier natural sweeteners such as honey and fruit.

Whole-Grain Cereal: Whole-grain cereals, such as Cheerios, Kashi and Shredded Wheat

fall into this category. The whole grains have very little or no added sugars. Researchers at

Columbia University Medical Center have found that oat-based whole grain cereals can help

reduce cholesterol and aid in heart health. Other whole grains, such as whole wheat, can help

an individual feel full and satisfied as the day begins.

Bran Cereal: cereals, such as Raisin Bran, Fiber One and Bran Flakes are in this category

and are high-fiber breakfast cereals. Fiber can give the feeling of fullness and aid in digestion

and regularity.

Sugary Cereal: Sugary cereals are often placed at a child's eye level in the grocery store.

These cereals are often highly processed and have loads of added sugar and preservatives.

Cereals such as Reese's Puffs, Fruit Loops and Lucky Charms can be eaten as an occasional

fun treat, but if an adult or child eats them on a daily basis, they might notice that the huge

sugar rush affects their mood and energy level.

Organic Cereal: Nature's Path, EnviroKidz and Cascadian Farm are popular organic cereal

brands. These brands produce cereals similar to most popular conventional cereals, and they

do it using ingredients free of pesticides and fertilizers. Organic foods also cannot be

10

genetically engineered. Most cereals use natural sweeteners that are not overly-processed as

well as lots of whole grains.

2.2.0 CEREALS

Cereals are fruits of cultivated grasses belonging to the monocotyledonous family Graminae.

The principal cereal crops of the world are wheat, barley, oats, rice, rye, maize, sorghum and

millets but the chief cereals in the developing countries in West Africa are maize, rice,

sorghum and millets. The taxonomy of the Graminae family is shown in Figure 1. Wheat is

the principal protein source of the world, followed by maize, rice, oats, soybeans, etc.

(National Research Council, 1988). The most commonly grown ones in Nigeria are sorghum,

millet, maize, rice and wheat. These five crops occupy an estimated measure of over 16

million hectares of farmland (Okoh, 1998). The anatomical structure of all cereals grains is

basically similar differing from one another in details only. Of the important grain cereals,

maize, sorghum, naked grain millets and rice (tropical cereals) and wheat (temperate cereal),

have a fruit coat (pericarp) and seed. The seed comprise the seed coat, germ and endoplasm

(Okaka, 2005).

Figure 1: Taxonomy of the Graminae Family

Source: Shewry et al., (1992)

11

In the tropics, cereals are the staple foods of the people providing about 75% of their total

caloric intake and 67% of their total protein intake (Adedeye and Adewoke, 1992). Table 2

shows the proximate composition of the main cereals grown in Nigeria. In the Northern part

of Nigeria, cereals are the main sources of protein and energy. These grains are consumed in

many forms as pastes, roasts, porridges, gruels and pottages or other preparation of the seed

which when milled flour, bran oil, starch, breakfast or dinner cakes as well as breakfast

cereals are obtained. Cereals therefore offer a better source of protein other than the root

crops in the diet of Nigerians; whole protein intake from animal source is low (Ihekoronye

and Ngoddy, 1985).

Table 2: Proximate Composition of the main Cereals grown in Nigeria

(% dry matter basis)

Cereal Protein Fat Carbohydrate Crude Fiber Mineral Salt

Maize 10.50 5.40 68.00 2.40 1.60

Sorghum 9.28 2.27 85.20 2.01 1.24

Millet

13.69 5.39 77.26 1.80 1.96

Rice 7.07 2.25 89.89 0.23 0.56

Wheat 11.63 2.33 81.91 2.97 1.16

Acha 6.96 2.10 87.48 1.02 2.44

Source: Mbaeyi, 2005

2.2.1 MAIZE PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION

The origin of maize is considered to be America, particularly southern Mexico. USA is one

of the major corn producing countries in the world with a production of more than 50% of the

world crop. This share however has decreased from about 40% to about 25% because of the

development of high yielding strains of hybrid maize. Maize is extensively cultivated in

India, both in the plains and in the hill regions (Shakuntala and Shadaksharswamy, 2001).

Maize (Zea mays L.) is the most important cereal in the world after wheat and rice with

regard to cultivation (Osagie and Eka, 1998). In sub-Saharan Africa maize is a staple food for

an estimated 50% population. It is an important source of carbohydrate, protein, iron, vitamin

B, and minerals. More than 40 different ways of consuming maize had been recorded in

many countries in Africa (Nago et al., 1990). Africans consume maize as a starchy base in a

wide variety of porridges, pastes, grits, and beer. Green maize (fresh on the cob) is eaten

parched, baked, roasted or boiled with or without salt and plays an important role in filling

the hunger gap after the dry season (Nicklin, 2004). Every part of the maize plant has

12

economic value: the grain, leaves, stalk, tassel, and cob can all be used to produce a large

variety of food and non-food products (Wikipedia, 2009).

2.2.2 VARIETIES OF MAIZE

The principal maize varieties are flint corn, dent corn, sweet corn, pop corn, flour corn and

waxy corn (Shakuntala and Shadaksharswamy, 2001). This classification is based on the

nature and distribution of starch in the endosperm. Flint corn has very hard kernels. The

texture is due to a rather thick layer of starch and proteins just under the bran layer. Flints

mature early and are grown mostly in India. Dent corn has hard starch at the sides, while the

major part of the endosperm contains soft starch. At maturity, a typical dent-lie depression

appears at the crown. They are grown mostly in the USA. Sweet corn has a large proportion

of carbohydrates of the kernel as dextrin and sugar in the unripe kernels are tender. When

matured and dried, the kernels are hard and have a wrinkled surface. The major part of the

endosperm of the pop corn comprises of starch on all sides, with a very small core of soft

starch. The flour corn grains are large and soft and the endosperm is very friable. These

characteristics permit easy grinding of the corn into flour (Wikipedia, 2009). Also, the waxy

corn contains a high proportion of amylopectin and is of industrial importance.

2.2.3 NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF MAIZE

Maize or corn grains consist of the outer hull or bran which contains a lot of fiber, embryo

(germ) rich in oil and the endosperm rich in starch. Whole maize contains about 11% protein,

4% fat, 3% fibre, 65% of starch and other carbohydrates and 1.5% of minerals (Sivasankar,

2005; Ihekoronye and Ngoddy, 1985). Maize is deficient in the mineral niacin. Maize is

milled to separate the outer layer and the germ from the endosperm. The germ is recovered to

obtain germ oil, a valuable product used as salad oil. Maize bran and the oil cakes are used as

animal feed. The starchy endosperm separated during milling is used to make flour and other

traditional products. Larger grits obtained by screening are used for making corn flakes and

porridge. Corn starch is hydrolyzed to give glucose and high fructose corn syrup. The

chemical composition of different varieties of maize is illustrated in Table 3.

13

Table 3: Gross Chemical Composition of Different types of Maize (%)

Maize type Moisture Ash Protein Crude

fibre

Ether

extract

Carbohydrate

Salpor 12.2 1.2 5.8 0.8 4.1 75.9

Crystalline 10.5 1.7 10.3 2.2 5.0 70.3

Floury 9.6 1.7 10.7 2.2 5.4 70.4

Starchy 11.2 2.9 9.1 1.8 2.2 72 8

Sweet 9 5 1 5 12.9 2.9 3.9 69.3

Pop 10.4 1.7 13.7 2.5 5.7 66.0

Black 12.3 1.2 5.2 1.0 4.4 75.9

Source: Cortez and Wild-Altamirano, 1972

2.3. LEGUMES

The term legume, is derived from the Latin word legumen (with the same meaning as the

English term), which is in turn believed to come from the verb legere "to gather." English

borrowed the term from the French "legume," which, however, has a wider meaning in the

modern language and refers to any kind of vegetable; the English word legume being

translated in French by the word legumineuse (Wikipedia, 2009).

2.3.1 WORLD PRODUCTION OF LEGUMES

There are over 13,000 species of plants belonging to this family. Some are cultivated as crop

plant whose seed are edible (Shakuntala and Shadaksharaswamy, 2001). Over the years wide

varieties of legumes have been domesticated. In this process, ancient Indian and Chinese

civilization seem to have played an important role in some legume species (Soybean, Bengal

gram, etc.). The world’s second largest producers of pulses is India coming next only to

China, with the production of 14.2 million tones cultivated in an area of 24.4 million hectares

with an average yield of 6.02 quintals per hectare (Sivasanka, 2005).

The legumes used for food are divided into two groups; pulses and oil seeds. Pulses are dried

edible seeds of cultivated legumes such as peas, beans and lentils. The second group, the oil

seeds, consists of those legumes used primarily for their oil content which may be extracted

14

by pressing or by solvent extraction, the residue being high oil cake. These include the

groundnuts and the soybeans (Ihekoronye and Ngoddy, 1985).

2.3.2 NUTRITIONAL RELEVANCE OF LEGUMES

Legumes are critical to the balance of nature; for many are able to fix atmospheric Nitrogen

to ammonia with the aid of nodular bacteria. A leguminous crop can add up to 500g of

Nitrogen to the soil per hectare annually (Okaka, 2005). The potentials of legumes as a

protein source, especially in regions where meat production is inadequate or is inexistent

have long been recognized (Aykroyd and Doughty, 1982). The nutritional value of legumes is

related to their high protein content (12-25%). Legumes contain relatively low quantities of

the essential amino acid methionine. To compensate, some vegetarian cultures serve legumes

along with grains, which are low in the essential amino acid lysine, which legumes contain.

Thus a combination of legumes with grains can provide all necessary amino acids for

vegetarians. Common examples of such combinations are ‘dal with rice’ by Indians, and

beans with corn tortillas, tofu with rice, and peanut butter with wheat bread (as sandwiches)

in several other cultures, including Americans (Vogel, 2003).

The enrichment of cereal based foods with legumes and oilseeds has received considerable

attention. In Nigeria, the high cost of commercial industrially produced high protein energy

rich breakfast products make them out of reach to low income earners, consequently people

in this wage category who constitute an appreciable percentage of the population depend for

their breakfast on left over super or at best on sole cereal porridge that is of low nutritional

value. There is therefore the need to develop affordable low cost high protein energy

breakfast product whose production would not require high technology (Onweluzo and

Nnamuchi, 2009).

2.3.3 ANTI-NUTRITIONAL FACTORS IN LEGUMES

Notwithstanding the agronomic and nutritional advantages of legumes as cheap protein

sources for many, especially low income persons, legumes have been reported to contain

several anti-nutritional factors which include hemaglutinins, neurotoxic factors such as β-

aminopropionitril which cause lethrism. Other anti-nutrients in legumes are hemolytic-fibrile

factor, as contained in faba beans, which causes favism, goitrogenic factors and trypsin

inhibitors (Okaka, 2005; Liener, 1983 and Osho, 1989). The anti-nutritional factors are

segregated into two major groups based on their responses to heat treatment. One group,

15

which includes protease inhibitors, lectins (hemagglutinins), goitrogens and anti-vitamin

factors are heat labile, while the other group which include saponins, eastrogens, lysino-

alanines, allergens, flatulence inducing factors and phytates are heat stable and need

treatments other than heat or other treatments in combination with heat to reduce their

negative effects on man and animals (Liener, 1980 ; Okaka, 2005). Some of these anti-

nutrients are explained below:

PHYTATES: Phytic acid phosphorus constitutes the major portion of total phosphorus in

several seeds and grains. It accounts for 50–80% of the total phosphorus in different cereals.

It was reported by some authors (Schwenke et al., 1989) that phytic acid level has no or very

little effect on binding to proteins. The investigation of the possibility of formation of ternary

complexes raises difficulties. At alkaline pH values the Ca-phytate is insoluble and forms

precipitate. At very high pH values the phytate is insoluble. From a nutrition point of view,

many studies have concentrated on the metal ion chelating property of phytic acid, its binding

of zinc and formation of less soluble complexes that reduce zinc availability (Carnovale et

al., 1988).

PROTEASE INHIBITORS: All legumes have been found to contain trypsin inhibitors to

varying degrees, in addition to chymotrypsin inhibitors. Inhibition of trypsin and

chymotrypsin leads to the hypertrophy of pancreas (Enwere, 1998). Conditions of heating-

time and temperature, moisture content, and particle size- influence the rate and extent of

trypsin inhibitor inactivation (Enwere, 1998).

HEMAGGLUTININS: These are also referred to as lectins. Their occurrence is not limited

to legumes alone as they are found in slime molds, fungi, lichens, other flowering plants and

animals such as crustaceans, snails, fish, amphibian eggs and mammalian tissues (Enwere,

1998). Crude raw extract of hemagglutinin agglutinates the red blood cells of human beings

and other animals if injected directly to the blood stream. Thus, it impairs the utilization of

legumes such as beans, groundnuts, among others (Enwere, 1998).

The other set back that has limited the use of legumes in non-traditional food formulations is

the objectionable flavour associated with the crops. This set back has been a primary focus of

research in a bid to extend the use of some legumes. The most common off-flavour producing

factors are the presence of glucosides-isoflavones, saponins, and sapogenols (Okaka, 2005).

16

2.4.0 UNDERUTILIZED LEGUMES

Lesser known and utilized legunes in Nigeria can be loosely divided into two classes - those

which are prepared and eaten as other legumes (pigeon pea, bambara groundnuts, and African

yam beans) and those which are not eaten as other legumes but may be used as thickeners,

stabilizers or processed into condiments (akparata, achi, ofor, Ukpo) or fermented food

products (African locust bean, castor oil seeds) (Enwere, 1998). The proximate composition

of lesser known legumes is shown in Table 4.

Table 4: Proximate Composition of Some Lesser known Legumes (%)

Legume Moisture Crude Crude Ash Crude Total

content protein fat fiber carbohydrates

Pigeon pea 67.40 7.0 0.60 1.3 3.50 20.20

(Unripe dried 10.10 19.2 1.50 3.8 8.10 65.40

African yam bean seed) 6.40 21.8 1.30 2.2 4.70 63.60

Bambara 9.70 16.0 5.90 2.9 ND 64.90

groundnut

Afzelia africana 5.28 27.04 31.71 3.22 ND 33.09

Deuterium 6.14 13.52 13.81 2.20 ND 64.26

microcarpiurn

Mucuna 5.84 20.41 -9.64 3.12 ND 61.10

flagellipes

Brachystegia 6.49 10.47 8.48 2.68 ND 71.94

eurycoma

Source: Mbaeyi, (2005)

Under-explored legumes are important in terms of food security, nutrition, and agricultural

development, enhancement of economy and also as rotation crops. Thus, little known

legumes can play an important role in agriculture as they are potent plants, which contribute

to the world food production due to their adaptation to adverse environmental conditions and

high resistance to diseases and pests (Sridhar and Seena, 2006).

17

2.5 AFRICAN YAM BEANS (AYB)

AYB belongs to the family Fabaceae, sub-family Papilionoideae, tribe Phaseoleae, sub-tribe

Phaseolinae, and genus Sphenostylis (Allen and Allen, 1981). The crop has twining vigorous

vines, which could be green or pigmented red. The vines twine clockwise around the stakes

or climb other supports to a height of about 3m or more. The leaves are compound trifoliate.

The large pink and purple flowers are admirable and attractive ornamentals, while the pods

are usually linear, housing about 20 seeds. These vary in size, shape, colour, colour pattern,

etc. The origins of AYB as indicated by GRIN (2009) includes the following countries within

the tropical regions of Africa: Chad and Ethiopia (Northeast tropical Africa); Kenya,

Tanzania and Uganda (East tropical Africa); Burundi, Central African Republic and

Democratic Republic of Congo (West-Central tropical Africa); Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea,

Mali, Niger, Nigeria, and Togo (West tropical Africa); Angola, Malawi, Zambia, and

Zimbabwe (South tropical Africa). The centre of diversity of AYB is only within Africa.

Nigeria is very significant for AYB production where extensive cultivation had been reported

in the eastern, western, and southern areas of Nigeria. In different yield trials in Nigeria

(IITA, Ibadan and Nsukka), the most productive accession in each case gave 1860 kg and

2000 kg of seeds/hectare (Adewale and Dominique, 2009).

2.4.1 NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF AFRICAN YAM BEAN

The African yam bean is grown for both its edible seeds and its tubers. It is a vigorous vine,

which twines and climbs to heights of about 3 m and requires staking. It flowers profusely in

100 to 150 days, producing brightly-coloured flowers, which may be pink, purple or greenish

white. The slightly woody pods contain 20 to 30 seeds, are up to 30 cm long and mature

within 170 days. The plant produces underground tubers that are used as food in some parts

of Africa and serve as organs of perennation in the wild (Porter 1992). The chemical

composition shows that it contains 21 - 29% protein, 5 - 6% crude fiber, 74.1% carbohydrate,

1.2% fat, 3.2% ash. (NAS, 1979). The proximate composition of the bean's hull shows a

reasonably high crude protein (11.4%) but very low contents of crude fat (2.6%), phytic acid

(82 mg/100 g) and phytin-phosphorus (23 mg/100 g). K and Ca are the major minerals

present in yam bean hull. The hull, rich in cell wall polysaccharides, is composed of cellulose

(35.4%); non-cellulose fractions made of pectin and hemicellulose put together (41.9%) and

lignin(3.6%) (Agunbiade and Longe, 1998). Researchers (Uguru and Madukaife 2001) who

did a nutritional evaluation of 44 genotypes of AYB reported that the crop is well balanced in

essential amino acids and has higher amino acid content than pigeon pea, cowpea, and

18

Bambara groundnut.

2.4.2. POTENTIALS OF AFRICAN YAM BEANS

Food and Nutrition: The economic potentials of AYB are immense. Apart from the

production of two major food substances, the value of the protein in both tubers and seeds is

comparatively higher than what could be obtained from most tuberous and leguminous crops.

The protein in the tuber of AYB is more than twice the protein in sweet potato (Ipomea

batatas) or Irish potato (Solanum tuberosum) and higher than those in yam and cassava

(Amoatey et al., 2000). Moreover, the amino acid values in AYB seeds are higher than those

in pigeon pea, cowpea, and Bambara groundnut (Uguru and Madukaife, 2001). Protein

content is up to 19% in the tuber and 29% in seed grain The content of crude protein in AYB

seeds is lower than that in soybean, but the amino acid spectrum indicated that the level of

most of the essential amino acids especially lysine, methionine, histidine, and iso-leucine in

AYB compares favorably with whole hens’ eggs and most of them meet the daily

requirement of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and World Health Organization

(WHO) (Ekpo, 2006). AYB is rich in minerals such as K, P, Mg, Ca, Fe, and Zn but low in

Na and Cu (Nwokolo, 1987).

Insecticidal and Medicinal Usefulness: AYB as a crop is less susceptible to pests and

diseases compared with most legumes; this quality may undoubtedly be due to the inherent

lectin in the seed of the crop (Adewale and Domonique, 2009). Omitogu et al. (1999)

advanced the prospect that the lectin in the seed of the crop is a promising source of a

biologically potent insecticide against field and storage pests of legumes. Therefore, the

inclusion of the lectin extract from AYB in the meal for three cowpea insect pests, namely,

Maruca vitrata, Callosobruchus maculatus, and Clavigralla tomentosicollis gave a mortality

rate greater than 80% after 10 days.

2.4.3. FACTORS LIMITING THE USE OF AFRICAN YAM BEANS

Over time, some conditions have negatively influenced the productivity and acceptability of

this crop among cultivators, consumers, and research scientists. Notable among the list are,

i) The characteristic hardness of the seed coat (Oshodi et al., 1995) which makes a high

demand on the cost and time of cooking,

ii) The agronomic demand for stakes, the long maturation period, and

19

iii) The presence of anti-nutritional factors (ANF) or secondary metabolites (Machuka

and Okeola, 2000).

2.5 COCONUT

2.5.1 ORIGIN AND MORPHOLOGY

The English name coconut, first mentioned in English print in 1555, comes from the Spanish

and Portuguese word coco, which means "monkey face." Spanish and Portuguese explorers

found a resemblance to a monkey's face in the three round indented markings or "eyes" found

at the base of the coconut (Filippone, 2007). The Coconut (Cocos nucifera), is an important

member of the family Arecaceae (palm family). It is the only accepted species in the genius

Cocos (Wikipedia, 2009) and is a large palm growing up to 30m tall, with pinnate leaves 4-

6m long and pinnae 60-90 cm long.

2.5.2 NATURAL HABITAT OF COCONUT

The Coconut palms are grown throughout the tropics (Ihekoronye and Ngoddy, 1985). They

thrive on sandy soils and are highly tolerant of salinity. They prefer areas with abundant

sunlight and regular rainfall (150 cm to 250 cm annually), which makes colonizing shorelines

of the tropics relatively straightforward (Wikipedia, 2009). Coconuts also need high humidity

(70–80%) for optimum growth, which is why they are rarely seen in areas with low humidity,

like the Mediterranean, even where temperatures are high enough (regularly above 24°C or

75.2°F). Coconut trees are very hard to establish in dry climates, and cannot grow there

without frequent irrigation; in drought conditions, the new leaves do not open well, and older

leaves may become desiccated; fruit also tends to be shed (Wikipedia, 2009). Coconut palms

are grown in more than 80 countries of the world, with a total production of 61 million tons

per year (FAO, 2009).

2.5.3 NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF COCONUT

The coconut provides a nutritious source of meat, juice, milk, and oil that has fed and

nourished populations around the world for generations. On many islands coconut is a staple

in the diet and provides the majority of the food eaten. Nearly one third of the world's

population depends on coconut to some degree for their food and their economy. Among

these cultures the coconut has a long and respected history. Coconut is highly nutritious and

rich in fiber, vitamins, and minerals. It is classified as a "functional food" because it provides

many health benefits beyond its nutritional content. The coconut palm is so highly valued by

them as both a source of food and medicine that it is called "The Tree of Life." Several food

20

uses or products exist for coconut. The primary product is copra, the white "meat" found

adhering to the inner wall of the shell. It is dried to 2.5% moisture content, shredded, and

used in cakes, candies, and other confections. Alternatively, coconut oil is expressed from

copra, which is used in a wide variety of cooked foods and margarine. The raw copra can be

grated and squeezed to obtain coconut "milk". Coconut water is obtained from immature

coconuts, providing a welcome source of fresh, sterile water in hot, tropical environments.

The sap from the cut end of an inflorescence produces up to a gallon per day of brown liquid,

rich in sugars and vitamin C. It can be boiled down into a brown sugar called "jaggery", used

as a sugar substitute in many areas. Left to ferment, the sap makes an alcoholic toddy, and

later vinegar; "arrack" is made by distilling the toddy. Per capita consumption of coconut is

0.6 lbs/year. Coconut oil is probably consumed in greater quantities than confectionary

coconut products, but coconut oil would be only a small percentage of the 47 pounds of

vegetable oils consumed annually. Table 5 shows the dietary value of the edible portion of

coconut.

21

Table 5: Coconut Dietary Value, per 100g edible portion

Dry coconut

(copra)

Coconut

water

Water (%) 3.3 95

Calories 556 19

Protein (%) 3.6 0.7

Fat (%) 39.1 0.2

Carbohydrates (%) 53.2 3.7

Crude Fiber (%) 4.1 1.1

% of US RDA*

Vitamin A 0.8 0

Thiamin, B1 <1 0

Riboflavin, B2 <1 0

Niacin <1 0

Vitamin C 0-7 5.3

Calcium 5.4 3.0

Phosphorus 23.9 2.5

Iron 36 3.0

Sodium 0.4 2.4

Potassium 16.4 5.3

* Percent of recommended daily allowance set by FDA,

assuming a 154 lb male adult, 2700 calories per day.

2.5.4 COCONUT IN TRADITIONAL AND MODERN MEDICINE

In traditional medicine around the world coconut is used to treat a wide variety of health

problems including the following: abscesses, asthma, baldness, bronchitis, bruises, burns,

colds, constipation, cough, dropsy, dysentery, earache, fever, flu, gingivitis, gonorrhea,

irregular or painful menstruation, jaundice, kidney stones, lice, malnutrition, nausea, rash,

scabies, scurvy, skin infections, sore throat, swelling, syphilis, toothache, tuberculosis,

tumors, typhoid, ulcers, upset stomach, weakness, and wounds (Bruce-Fife, 2010).

Modern medical science is now confirming the use of coconut in treating many of the

above conditions. Published studies in medical journals show that coconut, in one form or

another may provide a wide range of health benefits. Some of these are summarized below:

It kills viruses that cause influenza, herpes, measles, hepatitis C, SARS, AIDS, and other

illnesses. It also kills bacteria that cause ulcers, throat infections, urinary tract infections,

gum disease and cavities, pneumonia, and gonorrhea, and other diseases. It kills fungi and

yeasts that cause candidiasis, ringworm, athlete's foot, thrush, diaper rash, and other

infections and expels or kills tapeworms, lice, giardia, and other parasites. It provides a

22

nutritional source of quick energy. It also boosts energy and endurance, enhancing physical

and athletic performance (Bruce-Fife, 2010).

2.5.5. COCONUT AS A SOURCE OF DIETARY FIBER IN FOODS

Coconut dietary fiber is made from finely ground, dried, and defatted coconut meat. It has a

mild great-tasting coconut flavor. Gunathilake et al. (2009) reported that coconut flour can

provide not only value added income to the industry, but also a nutritious and healthy source

of dietary fiber. Coconut flour may play a role in controlling cholesterol and sugar levels in

blood and prevention of colon cancer. Studies revealed that consumption of high fiber

coconut flour increases fecal bulk (Arancon, 1999).

Unlike many fiber sources, coconut dietary fiber does not contain phytic acid and, therefore,

does not remove minerals from the body. Not only does coconut fiber not remove minerals,

but it also increases mineral absorption. Coconut fiber slows down the rate of emptying food

from the stomach. This allows food more time in the stomach to release minerals, leading to

higher levels of minerals available for the body to absorb (Wasserman, 2010).

A tablespoon or two of coconut dietary fiber can be added to beverages, smoothies, baked

goods, casseroles, soups, and hot cereal. This is a simple and easy way to add fiber into daily

diet without making drastic changes in the way food is eaten. Another way to add coconut

fiber into a diet is during baking. Up to 20% of the wheat in a recipe can be replaced with

coconut fiber (Gunathilake et al., 2009). Coconut dietary fiber has all the benefits of other

dietary fibers, it lowers risk of heart disease, helps prevent cancer, improves digestive

function, helps regulate blood sugar, etc. (Bruce-Fife, 2010). It also has several advantages

over most other forms of fiber including relieving symptoms associated with Crohn's disease,

expel intestinal parasites, and improve mineral absorption (Guarner, 2005).

2.6.0 PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION OF SORGHUM

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) is a warm season crop, intolerant of low

temperatures but fairly resistant to serious pests and diseases. It is known by a variety of

names (such as great millet and guinea corn in West Africa, kafir corn in South Africa, jowar

in India and kaoliang in China) and is a staple food in many parts of Africa, Asia, and parts of

the Middle East. Most of the sorghum produced in North and Central America, South

23

America and Oceania is used for animal feed (FAO, 1995). Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.

(Moench) is a cultivated tropical cereal grass. It is generally, although not universally,

considered to have first been domesticated in North Africa, possibly in the Nile or Ethiopian

regions as recently as 1000 BC (Kimber, 2000). The cultivation of sorghum played a crucial

role in the spread of the Bantu (black) group of people across sub-Saharan Africa (Taylor,

2004).

2.6.1 USE OF SORGHUM FOR THE PRODUCTION OF MALT EXTRACT

The potential of sorghum as an important source of industrial brewing material has been long

recognized. Indeed, during the World War II, sorghum was offered as a brewing adjunct

because the conventional brewing material (barley) was scarce (Odibo et al., 2007). An

important advantage of sorghum is that it can yield crop under harsh environmental

conditions such as drought, where temperate cereals like barley fail to grow. An attempt to

malt barley at a temperature higher than 18 °C showed that endosperm modification of barley

was sub-optimal because enzyme development was inadequate (Odibo et al., 2007).

In southern Africa, malting sorghum for opaque beer brewing has developed into a large

scale commercial industry with some 150,000 tonnes of sorghum being commercially malted

annually. This figure includes a small amount of sorghum malted for the production of a

sorghum malt breakfast cereal “Maltabela”. Sorghum is also malted commercially on a large

scale in Nigeria for the production of lager beer and stout and for non-alcoholic malt-based

beverages (Taylor, 2004).

24

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 MATERIAL PROCUREMENT

Sound Maize grains (Zea mays L), African yam bean seeds (Sphenostylis stenocarpa), mature

Coconut (Cocos nucifera L), salt, white Sorghum and sugar were purchased from Ogige

market, Nsukka in Enugu state, Nigeria.

3.1.1. SAMPLE PREPARATION

Maize grains and African yam bean seeds was properly cleaned and sorted to remove stones,

dirt, chaff, weeviled seeds and other extraneous matters, before they were used for further

processing.

3.1.2. PROCESSING OF MAIZE GRAINS INTO FLOUR

The method used was a modification of the method described by Iheoronye and Ngoddy

(1985) and Okaka (2005). 5kg of maize was cleaned and sorted after which it was milled into

flour. The flow diagram for the production of whole maize flour is shown in Figure 2.

25

Maize Grains

Cleaning

Dry milling

Figure 2: Modified Flow diagram for the production whole maize flour

(Source: Ihekoronye and Ngodddy, 1985).

WHOLE MAIZE FLOUR

26

3.1.3. PRODUCTION AFRICAN YAM BEAN FLOUR

The procedure as described by Enwere (1998) was used. 5kg of cleaned/sorted brown African

yam bean seeds were weighed and washed thoroughly with clean tap water after which they

were soaked for 12 hours and boiled for 30 minutes. The beans were dried in a hot air oven

(60oC for 10hours), dehulled and milled using an attrition mill. The flour obtained was sieved

using 0.5mm mesh sieve and packaged in polyethylene bags for further analysis. The flow

diagram for the production of raw fine African yam bean flour is shown in Figure 3.

27

Figure 3: Flow diagram for the production of African yam bean flour

(Source: Enwere, 1998)

Fine African yam bean flour

Sieving

Milling

Dehulling

Drying

Boiling

Washing

Cleaning

African yam beans

28

3.1.4. PRODUCTION OF DEFATTED COCONUT FLOUR

The procedure used was a modification of a method described by Sanful (2009). 3kg freshly

dehusked Coconut was properly cleaned and cracked to expel the liquid content. The coconut

flesh (meat) was removed from the shell with the aid of a sharp pointed knife. The brown

colour of the skin was scraped off with a knife. The coconut flesh was grated using a manual

grater, homogenized in boiling water (100oC) and poured into a muslin cloth and squeezed to

obtain the defatted coconut paste that was further rinsed with hot water (>70oC) till the

filtrate became colourless. The defatted coconut was then dried (60oC for 10hours) in the hot

air oven, packaged in a polythene bag and sealed for further analysis. The flow diagram for

the production of defatted coconut is shown in Figure 4.

29

Figure 4: Modified Flow Diagram for the Production of Defatted Coconut Flour.

(Source: Sanful, 2009)

Milling

Defatted Coconut flour

Grating

De-shelling

Cracking

Dehusked Coconut

Sieving/pressing

Drying

Homogenization

30

3.1.5 PRODUCTION OF SORGHUM MALT EXTRACT

The modification of the procedure described by Okafor and Aniche (1980) was used.

Malting

5kg of white Sorghum grains were steeped in tap water for 18 h and germinated on floor for

three days at room temperature (28+ 20C). The green malt was then kilned at 55

o

C for 8 hours

and further at 65o

C for 16 hours until the shoots and roots were friable and were separated

from the grains.

Mashing: Three step decoction method was used to mash the sorghum malt during which

70% of the mash was maintained at 55oC for 30 minutes and at 65

oC for 1 h and lastly at

70oC for 1 hour in a hot water bath. The conditioned mash was strained through a clean

muslin cloth and the filtrate (malt extract) stored for use. The flow chart for the production of

Sorghum malt is shown in Figure 5.

31

Figure 5: Modified Flow Diagram for the production of Sorghum malt extract

(Source: Okafor and Aniche 1980).

Cleaning

Steeping

Malting

Drying

De-rooting

Milling

Mashing/heating

Cooling

Sorghum malt extract

Straining

White Sorghum grains

32

3.2 PRODUCTS FORMULATION

Composite flour was formulated by mixing AYB and maize flour (60:40). Six samples of

breakfast cereals were generated by mixing the composite flour (made of AYB: Maize flours)

with graded levels of defatted coconut flour (100:0, 90:10, 80:20, 70:30, 60:40, 50:50), sugar,

salt, sorghum malt extract and water, and roasted at 280°C with continuous stirring till dried

products were obtained. A control sample was produced from 100% maize and African yam

bean composite flour as shown in Table 6.

The ingredient combination of the breakfast cereals formulation is shown in Table 7 and

Figure 6 shows the flow chart for the production of a roasted breakfast cereal.

33

Table 6: Composite Flour Formulations for Breakfast Cereals made from Blends of

AYB+Maize: Defatted Coconut Flour.

Sample Sample code Code Ratio Percentage (%)

A AYB+M: DF 100:0 40% M, 60%AYB

B AYB+M: DF 90:10 90%AYB+M, 10%DC

C AYB+ M: DC 80:20 80% AYB+M, 20%DC

D AYB+ M: DC 70:30 70% AYB+M, 30%DC

E AYB+ M: DC 60:40 60%AYB+M, 40%DC

F AYB+M: DC 50:50 50%AYB+M, 50%DC

M: Maize, AYB: African yam bean, DC: Defatted coconut flour

Table 7: Ingredients Combination for Breakfast Cereals

made from Blends Of AYB+Maize: Defatted Coconut

Flour per 100g

SAMPLES

Ingredient A B C D E F

M+AYB 84 74 64 54 44 34

DC - 10 20 30 40 50

Malt extract 10 10 10 10 10 10

Sugar 5 5 5 5 5 5

Salt 1 1 1 1 1 1

Legend:

A= 100:0, B=90:10, C=80:20, D=70:30, E=60:40, F=50:50

AYB = African yam bean, M = Maize, DC = Defatted Coconut

34

Figure 6: Flow diagram for the Production of Breakfast Cereal from Blends of African

Yam Bean + Maize: Defatted Coconut flour.

Breakfast Cereal

Packaging

Cooling

Roasting (285oC, 5mins)

Composite flour

Addition of water

Mixing with other

ingredients

35

3.3 ANALYSES OF SAMPLES

The following analyses were carried out on the six samples obtained.

i. Proximate analyses.

ii. Determination of the functional properties

iii. Sensory Evaluation.

iv. Determination of Anti-nutritional factors.

v. Minerals determination.

vi. Vitamins determination

vii. Essential and non-essential amino acids determination

viii. Microbiological examination

3.3.1 PROXIMATE COMPOSITION

3.3.1.1 DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE CONTENT

The standard method of AOAC (2006) was used. Cleaned crucibles were dried in a hot air

oven at 100oC for 1 hour to obtain a constant weight and then cooled in a dessicator. Two

grams of each of the samples was then weighed into the different crucibles and dried at 100oC

until a constant weight is obtained.

%moisture content = W2-W3 X 100

W2-W1

Where, W1 = Initial weight of the empty crucible

W2 = weight of dish + sample before drying

W3 = weight of dish + sample after drying.

3.3.1.2 DETERMINATION OF CRUDE FAT CONTENT

Fat content was determined by the Soxhlet extraction method of AOAC (2006). A Soxhlet

extractor with a reflux condenser and a 500ml round bottom flask was fixed. Two grams of

the sample was then weighed into a labeled thimble. Petroleum ether (300ml) was filled into

the round bottom flask and the extractor thimble was sealed with cotton wool. The Soxhlet

apparatus was the allowed to reflux for about 6 hours after which the thimble was removed.

Petroleum ether was collected from the flask after which it was dried at 105oC for 1hour in

and oven cooled in a dessicator and weighed. This procedure was carried out for all the

samples.

36

%fat = weight of fat X 100%

weight of sample

Where, F = Percent fat content

x1 = Initial weight of flask and sample

x2 = Final weight of flask

3.3.1.3 DETERMINATION OF CRUDE PROTEIN

This was determined using the micro-Kjeldahl method (AOAC, 2006). One gram weight of

each flour sample was weighed into an l00ml Kjeldahl flask. 2.5 grams of anhydrous Na2S04,

0.5 gram of CUSO4 and 5ml of concentrated H2S04 was added and allowed to stand for 2-3

hours. The flask was then heated in a flame chamber, gently boiling initially for fumes to

appear and heated more intensely until the solution is clear. After cooling, the content was

transferred into an l00ml volumetric flask and made up to the mark with repeated washing

using distilled water.

Distillation: A 5ml volume of each sample digest was mixed with 5ml of Boric acid

indicator and 3 drops of methyl red in an l00ml conical flask and then steam distilled into

conical flask using l00ml of 60% NaOH. Distillation was done for 5 minutes until colour

changed from purple to green. 5ml distillate was collected and titrated against 0.01N HC1 to

a purple colored endpoint. The percentage protein was calculated with this expression:

% Nitrogen = T x 14.01 x 0.01 x 20 x 100

1.0 x 100

Where T = Titre value

1 .0g = Weight of the sample

20 = Dilution factor (i.e. from 10015)

0.01 = Normality of HCl

14.01 = Atomic mass of nitrogen

% Protein = %Nitrogen x 6.25 (where: 6.25 => Conversion factor of protein).

3.3.1.4 DETERMINATION OF TOTAL ASH

Ash content was determined by AOAC (2006) procedure. Two grams of well blended

samples was weighed into a shallow ashing dish (a crucible) that had been ignited, cooled in

a dessicator and weighed soon after reaching room temperature. Both the crucibles and their

content were transferred into a muffle furnace ignited at 550°C. Ashing was done for 8 hours;

37

crucible and the ashed sample were removed from the muffle furnace, moistened with a few

drops of water to expose the un-ashed carbon, dried in the oven at 100°C for 4 hours and re-

ashed at 550°C for another hour. These were removed from muffle furnace, cooled in a

dessicator and weighed soon after reaching room temperature. Percentage ash was calculated

using this expression:

% Ash = Weight of ash X 100%

Weight of sample used

3.3.1.5 DETERMINATION OF CRUDE FIBER

Crude fiber was determined by AOAC (2006) method. Two grams of the sample was

weighed and put in a boiling 200ml of 1.25% H2SO4 and allowed to boil for 30minutes. The

solution was then filtered through linen or muslin cloth fixed to a funnel. It was washed with

boiling water until it is completely free from acid. The residue was returned into 200ml

boiling NaOH and allowed to boil for 30 minutes. It was further washed with 1% HCl boiling

water to free it from acid. The final residue was drained and transferred to a silica ash

crucible dried in the oven to a constant weight and cooled. Percent crude fiber was calculated

using the expression:

% Crude fiber = Loss in weight on ignition X 100

Weight of food sample

3.3.1.6 DETERMINATION OF CARBOHYDRATE CONTENT (BY DIFFERENCE)

The total carbohydrate content was estimated as the difference between 100 and the total sum

of moisture, fat, protein, crude fiber and ash as described by AOAC (2006).

3.3.1.7 DETERMINATION OF TOTAL ENERGY

The total energy was determined by the method described by Kanu et al. (2009). The total

energy or the caloric values was estimated by calculation using the water quantification

factors of 4, 9 and 4kcaV100g respectively for protein, fat and carbohydrate.

3.4. FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES DETERMINATION

3.4.1 pH DETERMINATION

The pH of the food samples was measured with a Mettler Delta 350 pH meter using the

method described by Onwuka (2005). The sample homogenates was prepared by blending

38

l0g sample in l00ml of deionized water. The mixture was filtered and the pH of the filtrate

was measured. Triplicate readings were taken for each sample.

3.4.2 BULK DENSITY DETERMINATION

Bulk density was determined for each of the formulated samples using the method described

by Onwuka, (2005). Each sample was slowly filled into l0ml measuring cylinder. The bottom

of the cylinder was gently tapped on a laboratory bench until there is no further diminution of

the sample after filling to l0ml mark. Bulk density was estimated as mass per unit volume of

the sample (g/ml). Triplicate measurements were taken.

3.4.3 DETERMINATION OF WATER AND OIL ABSORPTION CAPACITY

(WAC/FAC)

The Water and Fat absorption capacities of the formulated samples were determined using

the method described by Onwuka (2005). 1g of each of the samples was weighed into a

conical graduated centrifuge tube, and then a warring whirl mixer was used to thoroughly

mix the sample with 10ml of distilled water or oil for 30minutes. The mixture was allowed to

stand for 30minutes at room temperature and then centrifuged at 5000xg for 30minutes. The

volume of free water or oil (supernatant) was read directly from the graduated centrifuge

tube. The absorption capacity was expressed as gram of oil or water absorbed (or retained)

per gram of sample.

3.4.4 DETERMINATION OF FOAM CAPACITY

The Foam capacity was determined using the method described by Onwuka (2005). Two

grams of each of the formulated samples were blended with 100ml distilled water in a

warring blender (the suspension was whipped at 1600rpm for 5minutes). The mixture was

then poured into a 250ml cylinder and the volume after 30 seconds was recorded. The foam

capacity was calculated using the formula;

FC = Volume after whipping – Volume before whipping x 100

Volume before whipping

3.4.5 DETERMINATION OF VISCOSITY

The viscosity of the samples was determined using the method described by Onwuka (2005)

method. 10% of each formulated sample was suspended in distilled water and mechanically

stirred for 2hours at room temperature. Oswald type viscometer was used to measure the

viscosity of the mixture.

39

3.4.6 DETERMINATION OF IN-VITRO PROTEIN DIGESTIBILITY

The invitro-protein digestibility of each sample was determined using the method described

by Kanu et al. (2009). Five grams of each of the formulated samples was weighed into a 5ml

centrifuge tube and to which 15ml of 0.1N HCl containing 1.5mg pepsin-pancreatin was

added. The tube was incubated at 37oC for 3hours. The suspension was then neutralized with

a phosphate buffer (pH 8.0) containing 0.005M sodium azide. 1ml of toluene was added to

prevent microbial growth and the mixture was gently shaken and incubated for an additional

24hours at 37oC. After incubation, samples were treated with 10ml of 10% trichloroacetic

acid (TCA) and centrifuged at 5000rpm for 20minutes at room temperature. The protein in

the supernatant liquid was estimated using Kjedahl method. The percentage of protein

digestibility was calculated using the formula;

Protein digestibility (%) = Protein in the supernatant x 100

Protein in the sample

3.4.7 DETERMINATION OF GELATION CAPACITY

The gelation capacity was determined using the method described by Onwuka (2005). 2-20%

W/V suspension of each of the samples was prepared in 5ml distilled water in test tubes. The

sample test tubes were heated for 1hour in a boiling water bath which was followed by rapid

cooling under running cold tap water. The test tubes were further cooled for 2hours at 4oC.

The least gelation concentration was determined as that concentration at which the sample

from the inverted test tube did not fall down or slip visually.

3.5.0 SENSORY EVALUATION

The six formulated samples were served to 15 untrained panelists consisting of students of

the University of Nigeria, about 10.00 am along with Weetabix (commercial control) using a

9 point Hedonic scale (1=dislike extremely, 9=like extremely). The samples were served

raw/dry, with cold water, cold milk and warm milk and assessed for appearance, consistency,

flavour, taste, aftertaste, mouth feel, and overall acceptability. The sensory scores obtained

were further subjected to a one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The Least Significant

Difference (LSD) test and Duncan Multiple Range Tests were used to determine significant

differences between means and separate means respectively at p<0.05 levels using SPSS

package version 17.0.

40

3.6.0 DETERMINATION OF ANTI-NUTRITIONAL FACTORS

3.6.1 DETERMINATION OF PHYTATE OR PHYTIC ACID

The phytate determination was as described by Thompson and Erdman (1982). Two grams of

each of the formulated samples was placed in a flask into which 100.0ml of 1.2 HCl and 10%

Na2S04 were added. The flask was stoppered and shaken for 2-hours on a mechanical shaker.

The extract was vacuum filtered through No4 Whatman paper. 10.0ml of the filtrate was

pipetted into a 50ml centrifuge tube. l0ml deionized water was added, followed by 12ml of

FeCl3 solution (2.0g FeCl3.6H2O) + 16.3ml conc. HCl per litre). The contents were stirred,

heated for 75 minutes in boiling water and cooled, covered for one hour at room temperature.

The tube was centrifuged at 1000Xg for 15 minutes. The supernatant was decanted and

discarded and the pellet was thoroughly washed thrice with a solution of 0.6% HC1 and 2.5%

Na2S04. After each wash, the contents were centrifuged at 1000Xg for 10 minutes and the

supernatant discarded. l0 ml concentrated HNO3 was added to the resulting pellet and the

content transferred quantitatively to a 400ml beaker with several small portions of deionized

water. 4 drops of concentrated H2SO4 was added and contents heated approximately 30

minutes in a hot plate until only the H2SO4 is left. Approximately 4 - 5ml of 30% H2O2 was

added and the mixture returned to the hot plate at a low heat until bubbling ceases. The

residue was dissolved in 15ml 3N HCl and heated for 10-15 mixtures. The resulting solution

was made up of 100.0ml volume diluted 15 and then analyzed for iron using Franson et al.,

(1975) procedure.

3.6.2 DETERMINATION OF TANNIN

The Folin-Denis colorimetric method as described by Kirk and Sawyer (1998) was used for

the determination of tannin content in the samples as follows: 5g of the samples was

dispersed in 50ml of distilled water and agitated. The mixture was allowed to stand for 30

minutes at room temperature and shaken every 5 minutes. After 30 minutes it was centrifuged

and the extract obtained. The extract (2ml) was taken into a 50ml volumetric flask. Similarly,

2ml standard tannin solution (tannic acid) and 2ml of distilled water was put in separate 50ml

volumetric flask to serve as standard and reagent (1.0ml of Folin-Denis) added to each of the

flasks, followed by addition of 2.5ml of saturated sodium carbonate solution. The content of

each flask was made up to 50ml with distilled water and allowed to incubate for 90 minutes

at room temperature. Their respective absorbance was measured in a spectrophotometer at

260nm using reagent blank to calibrate the instrument at zero. The tannin content was

calculated using the formula,

41

% Tannin = An/W x C/Va x Vf x 100/1

Where:

An = absorbance of test sample, AS = absorbance of standard solution, C = concentration of

standard solution, W = weight of sample used, Vf = total volume of extract, Va =volume

of extract analyzed.

3.6.3 DETERMINATION OF OXALATE

The titration method (AOAC, 2006) was used. Two grams of sample was suspended in a

mixture of 190ml of distilled water in a 250ml volumetric flask. 10ml of 6M HCl and the

suspension heated for 1 hour at 100oC in a water bath. The mixture was cooled and made up

to 250ml mark with distilled water before filtration. Duplicate portion of 125ml of the filtrate

was measured into 250ml beakers. Each extract was made alkaline with concentrated sodium

then made acid by drop wise addition (4 drops) of acetic acid until the test solution is

changed from salmon pink to faint yellow (pH 4-4.5) (methyl red indicator used). Each

portion was heated at 90oC to remove precipitate containing ferrous ions. The filtrate was

heated again to 90oC on a hot water bath and 10ml and 5% calcium chloride solution added

while being stirred constantly. After heating, it was centrifuged at full speed (2500 rpm) for

5minutes. The supernatant was decanted and the precipitate completely dissolved in 10ml of

20% (v/v) H2SO4 solution and the total filtrate resulting from 2g of the sample was made up

to 300ml.

Permaganate titration: Aliqout 125ml of the filtrate was heated until near boiling and then

titrated against 0.05M KMNO4 solution to a faint pink colour which persisted for 30 seconds.

Oxalic acid content was calculated using the formula,

%Oxalic acid = T x (Vme) (Df) x 105

ME x Mf

where, T = Titre of KMNO4 (ml), Vme = volume - mass equivalent (1ml of 0.05M MNO4

solution is equivalent to 0.0022g anhydrous oxalic acid), Df = the dilution factor (i.e 300ml)

125ml, ME = the molar equivalent of KMNO4 in oxalic acid (KMNO4 redox reaction is 5),

Mf = the mass of the sample used.

3.6.4 DETERMINATION OF HEMAGGLUTININ

Hemagglutinin determination was by spectrophotometric method as described by Onwuka

(2005). Furthermore, 0.5g of the sample was weighed and dispersed in 10ml normal saline

42

solution buffered at pH 6.4 with a 0.01M phosphate buffer solution. This was allowed to

stand at room temperature for 30minutes and then centrifuged to obtain the extract. To 0.1ml

of the extract diluents in the test tube 1ml of trypsinized albino rat blood was added. The

control was mounted with the test tube containing only the red blood cells. Both tubes were

allowed to stand for 4hours at room temperature. 1ml of normal saline was added to all the

test tubes and allowed to stand for 10minutes after which the absorbance was read at 620nm.

The test tube containing only the red blood cells and normal saline served as the blank. The

result was expressed as Hemagglutinin units per milligram of the sample.

Hemagglutinin unit/mg = (b-a) x F

Where b= absorbance of test sample solution, a = absorbance of the blank control,

F= experimental factor given by

F= (1/w x Vf / Va) D

Where w= weight of sample, Vf = total volume of the extract, Va = volume of the extract

used in the assay, D = dilution factor (1ml to 10ml and 0.1ml out of 10ml) i.e 100.

3.7.0 DETERMINATION OF MINERAL CONTENT

The mineral content of the formulated samples were evaluated using the method described by

Adedeye and Adewoke (1992). One gram of dried samples was digested with 2.5ml of 0.03N

hydrochloric acid (HCl). The digest was boiled for 5 minutes, allowed to cool to room

temperature and transferred to 50ml volumetric flask and made up to the mark with diluted

water. The resulting digest was filtered with ashless Whatman No. 1 filter paper. Filtrate from

each sample was analyzed for mineral (calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, Iron, sodium,

manganese, copper and zinc) contents using an Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (Buck

Scientific Atomic Absorption Emission Spectrophotometer model 205, manufactured by

Nowalk, Connecticut, USA) using standard wavelengths. The real values were extrapolated

from the respective standard curves. Values obtained were adjusted for HCl-extractability for

the respective ions. All determinations were performed in triplicates.

3.8.0 DETERMINATION OF VITAMIN CONTENT

3.8.1 DETERMINATION OF VITAMIN B1 (THIAMINE)

Thiamin was determined using AOAC (2006) procedure. A 75 ml of 0.2 N HCl was added to

2g of sample and the mixture boiled over a water bath. After cooling, 5ml of phosphatase

43

enzyme solution was then added and the mixture incubated at 37oC overnight. The solution

was placed in 100ml volumetric flask and the volume made up with distilled H2O. The

solution was then filtered and the filtrate purified by passing through silicate column. To

25ml of the filtrate in a concical flask was added 5ml acidic KCl eluate, 3 ml of alkaline

ferricyanide solution, and 15 ml isobutanol, and shaken for 2min. The solution was allowed

to separate and the alcohol layer taken. About 3g of anhydrous sodium sulphate was added to

the alcohol layer. A 5 ml of thiamine solution was accurately measured into another 50 ml

stoppered flask. The oxidation and extraction of thiochrome as already carried out with the

sample was repeated using the thiamin solution. A 3ml of 15% NaOH was added to the blank

instead of alkaline ferricyanide. The blank sample solution was poured into fluorescence

reading tube and reading taken at the expression:

% thiamin = X/Y x 1/5 x 25/V x 100/W

Where W = weight of sample, X = reading of sample – reading of blank, Y = reading of

thiamin standard –reading of blank standard, V = volume of solution used for test on the

column.

3.8.2 DETERMINATION OF VITAMIN B2 (RIBOFLAVIN)

AOAC (2006) standard method was used. A 2 g portion of each of the formulated samples

was placed in a conical flask and 50 ml of 0.2 N HCl added .The solution was boiled for 1

hour, and cooled. The pH was adjusted to 6.0 using sodium hydroxide. A 1 N HCl was added

to the sample solution to lower the pH to 4.5. The solution was then filtered into 100 ml

volumetric flask and made up to volume with distilled water. In order to remove interference,

two tubes were taken and labeled 1 and 2. About 10 ml of water was added to tube 1. Another

10 ml of filtrate and 1 ml riboflavin standard was added to test tube 2. A 1 ml of glacial acetic

acid was added to each tube and mixed. Then, 0.5 ml 3% KMnO4 solution was added to each

tube. The test tube was allowed to stand for 2 min, after which 0.5 ml 3% H2SO4 was added

and solution mixed well. The flourimeter was adjusted to excitation wavelength of 470nm

and emission wavelength of 525nm. The flourimeter was also adjusted to zero deflection

against 0.1 N H2SO4 and 100 against tube 2 (standard).The fluorescence of tube 1 was added

to both tubes and the fluorescence measured within 10 sec. Riboflavin was then calculated as

Riboflavin mg/g = Y/Y-X x 1/W

Where W = weight of sample, X = reading of sample – blank reading,

44

Y = reading of sample + standard (tube 2)- reading of sample - standard blank.

3.8.3 DETERMINATION OF VITAMIN B6 (PYRIDOXINE)

AOAC (2006) method was used in determining vitamin B6. A 2 g portion of each of the

formulated samples was weighed into 500 ml Erlenmeyer flask and 200 ml 0.4 M HCl added.

The solution was autoclaved for 2 h at 1210C, cooled to room temperature and pH adjusted to

4.5 with 6M KOH. The solution was diluted to 250 ml with water in volumetric flask and

filtered through Whatman No. 40 paper. A 40–200 ml filtered aliquot was taken for

chromatography. Desired amount of the filtered extract was placed on ion exchange column

in 50 ml portions and allowed to pass completely through with no flow regulation. Beaker

and column were washed 3 times with 5 ml portions hot 0.02 CH3COOK (pH 5.5). Pyridoxal

was eluted with two 50 ml portion boiling 0.04 M CH3COOK (pH 6.0) using 100 ml

volumetric flask as receiver. Pyridoxine was eluted with two, 50ml portions boiling 0.1 M

CH3COOK (pH 7.0), using 100 ml volumetric flask as receiver. Pyridoxamine was eluted

with two 50 ml boiling KClK2HPO4 (pH 8.0) solution, using 250 ml beaker as receiver and

the pH adjusted to 4.5. Pyridoxine and pyridoxal eluates were diluted to 100 ml and

pyridoxamine to 200 ml with water. A 10 ml each of the standard pyridoxine, pyridoxal and

pyridoxamine solution was then neutralized with KOH and adjusted pH 4.5 with CH3COOH.

The resulting solutions were each put on column, washed and eluted as above. Eluted

pyridoxine and pyridoxal standards were diluted to 100 ml and pyridoxamine to 200 ml with

water. Each standard was diluted to 1.0 mg/ml with water.

Assay: Clean tubes and glass beads were heated at 2600C for 2 hours. Two 4 mm glass beads

were placed in each 16 x 150mm screw-cap glass culture tube. For standard curve, freshly

prepared standard working solutions was pippetted into triplicate tubes to give 0.0, 0.1, 2.0,

3.0, 4.0, and 5.0ng pyridoxine, pyridoxal, or pyridoxamine/tube respectively. Similarly test

tubes for eluted standards were prepared, omitting blanks. Test eluates from chromatographic

column were diluted to contain 1ng vitamin B6 component/ml 1,2,3,4 and 5 ml diluted eluates

were pipepetted into triplicate tubes. Tubes were capped with plastic caps with 3 mm (1/8

inch) hole through top. Entire set were autoclaved for 10 min at 1210C and cooled to room

temperature. Using automatic pipette with sterilized attachments, 5ml steamed medium

(previously prepared) was pipetted through hole in the cap. Tubes were covered with sterile

cheese cloth and placed in refrigerator for 1 hour followed by inoculation. Aseptically, 1 drop

assay inoculum of S. uvarum suspended cells was inoculated through cap of each tube, except

for first set of 0.0 level standard curves. Tubes were then inoculated on constant rotary shaker

45

22 hours in a temperature-regulated room (30 h).Tubes were steamed in an autoclave for 5

minutes, cooled, and the caps removed. % T at 550nm was read on spectrophotometer. 100%

T was set with water to read inoculated blank. 100% T was set with un- inoculated blank to

read inoculated blank. Nine inoculated blank tubes were mixed, and with this mixture set at

100% T on instrument, all other tubes were read. Readings in triplicate tubes were averaged

and % T plotted against ng eluted standard pyridoxine, pyridoxal, or pyridoxamine/tube was

determined by interpolation and µg pyridoxine, pyridoxal and pyridoxamine /g sample

reported.

3.8.4 DETERMINATION OF VITAMIN B12

AOAC (2006) method was used in determining vitamin B12. 1g of each sample was

weighted into a 250ml volumetric flask. 100ml of distilled water was added and spanned or

shaken for 45min and made up to mark with distilled water. The sample mixture was filtered

into another 250ml beaker, rejecting the first 20mls that had been filtered. Another 20ml

filtrate was collected. To the filtrate, 5ml of 1% sodium dithionite solution were added to

decolourized the yellow colour. Standard cyanocobalamin of range 0 -10 ug/ml were

prepared from stock cyanocobalamin. A sample blank made up to distilled water was also

prepared. The absorbance of samples as well as standard were read at a wavelength of 445nm

on a spectronic 21D spectrophotometer.

Vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin) = Absorbance of sample x Gradient Factor x Dil. Factor

Wt. of sample

3.8.5 DETERMINATION OF VITAMIN C (ASCORBIC ACID)

Ascorbic acid was determined according to the 2, 6 – dichlorophenol titermetric method of

AOAC (2006). A 2g of the sample was homogenized with acetic acid solution and extracted.

Vitamin C standard solution was prepared by dissolving 50 mg standard ascorbic acid tablet

in 100ml volumetric flask with distilled water. The solution was filtered out and 10 ml of the

clear filtrate added into a conical flask in which 2.5 ml acetone had been added. This was

titrated with indophenol dye solution (2,6 - dichlorophenol indophenol) for 15 seconds. The

procedure was followed for the standard as well. Ascorbic acid was calculated as:

Ascorbic acid (m/g) sample = C x V x (DF/WT)

Where C = mg ascorbic acid/ml dye, V = volume of dye used for titration of diluted sample

DF = Dilution factor, WT = weight of sample (g)

46

3.9.0 DETERMINATION OF ESSENTIAL AND NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS

The method used for the essential and non-essential amino acids was as described by AOAC

(2006). 20μg of each of the formulation was dried in conventional hydrolysis tubes. To each

tube 100μL of 6mol L-1

HCl containing 30ml phenol and 10ml 2-mercaptoethanol (6mol L-1

HPME) were added and the tubes were evacuated, sealed and hydrolyzed at 110oC for

22hours. After hydrolysis, HCl was evaporated in a vacuum bottle heated to about 60oC. The

residue was dissolved in a sample buffer and analyzed for amino acids using RP-HPLC with

an Agilent 1100 assembly system (Agilent Technologies, Palo Alto, CA 94306, USA) and

Zorbax 80A C18 column (4.6 id x 180 mm). The Excitation Wavelength (Ex) of 348 nm and

Emission Wavelength (Em) of 450 nm were chosen. The column oven was maintained at

60oC. Amounts of amino acids were determined by calculations using the recorded

chromatogram. For cystine determination, 50μg of the formulations were first oxidized with

10μl performic acid in an ice-water bath for 4 hours. The mixtures were evaporated with a

vacuum pump to remove performic acid before hydrolysis. Determination of tryptophan was

done by the ninhydrin method. One gram of each formulation was put into a 25ml polypylene

test tube with caps, 10ml of 0.075 N NaOH was added and thoroughly mixed until clear

solution was obtained. The dispersion was shaken for 30 min and centrifuged at 5000rpm for

10 min and the supernatant liquid transferred into a clean test tube. 0.5mL of the

supernatants, 5ml of ninhydrin reagent (1.0g of ninhydrin in 100 ml mixture of 37% HCl and

96% HCOOH) in a ratio of 2:3 for all the samples were added and incubated at 35oC for

2hours. After incubation, the solution was cooled to room temperature (23-25oC) and the

volumes were made up to 10ml using diethyl ether, thoroughly mixed using a vortex mixer,

filtered and the clear filtrates were analyzed with the same equipments as described above for

the other amino acids.

3.10. MICROBIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION

Microbiological analysis was carried out using the pour plate method as described by

Onwuka (2005). Total viable bacteria, molds and coliform counts were estimated by

multiplying the means of the total colonies by the dilution factor.

DATA ANALYSIS: The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design

(CRD). Data obtained were subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and mean

separation was done by Duncan multiple range test (p=0.05), using Statistical Package for

Social Sciences (SPSS) version 17.0.

47

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 PROXIMATE COMPOSITION

The mean values of the proximate composition of the formulated samples are as shown in

Table 7. The results revealed some significant changes at p<0.05.

4.1.1 MOISTURE

The moisture content ranged from 3.38+0.01 to 4.2+0.01%, with the highest value observed

in the breakfast cereal containing 50:50 formulations. This is probably due to the high content

of coconut fiber that has the ability to imbibe moisture from the environment and swell.

Coconut has been shown to have hygroscopic or water-absorbing properties (Wasserman,

2010). The low moisture content generally observed in the samples may add the advantage of

prolonging the shelf life of the products, if properly packaged.

4.1.2 PROTEIN

The protein content of the samples ranged from 15.68+0.07% to 18.26+0.13%. These values

are higher than other related previous studies; lower values were recorded for the commercial

control sample, Weetabix Original (11.50%), a breakfast meal containing AYB, maize,

sorghum and soybean (13.53+1.83-15.02+2.30%) (Agunbiade and Ojezele, 2010) as well as

breakfast cereal made from treated pigeon pea and sorghum (Mbaeyi, 2005) respectively. The

high protein content of the products may be attributed to the presence of African yam bean

(AYB) flour used in the formulations. Raw AYB has been reported to contain about 20-23%

protein (Obatolu et al., 2001). The progressive solubilization and leaching out of the

nitrogenous substances during soaking and boiling of the legume may be responsible for the

slight protein reduction in the samples (Ukachukwu and Obioha, 2000) other than these. The

generally high level of protein, however demonstrates the effect of supplementing legumes in

breakfast cereals.

48

Table 8: Proximate Composition of Breakfast Cereals from Blends of AYB +Maize:

Defatted Coconut flour

Sample Moisture Protein Fat Ash Crude Fiber Carbohydrate

(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

100:0 3.38+0.02e 18.26+0.13a 1.84+0.02d 5.29+0.02f 6.70+1.80b 64.53+0.05a

90:10 3.54+0.02d 17.98+0.09

b 1.91+0.02

c 5.59+0.01

e 8.57+0.01

a 62.41+0.41

a

80:20 3.81+0.01c 17.69+0.06

c 1.98+0.01

b 5.87+0.01

d 8.68+0.02

a 61.97+0.09

a

70:30 4.04+0.01b 17.62+0.06

c 1.99+0.03

b 5.96+0.01

c 8.81+0.01

a 61.58+0.16

a

60:40 3.99+0.08b 17.19+0.06d 1.99+0.12a 6.86+0.05b 9.01+0.01a 60.96+1.42b

50:50 4.20+0.01a 15.68+0.07f 2.02+0.02a 7.36+0.02a 9.08+0.07a 61.66+1.15a

Values are means +SD of triplicate determinations

Means differently superscripted along the vertical columns are significantly different (p<0.05)

Sample ratio - AYB+ Maize flour: defatted coconut flour.

49

4.1.3 FAT

The results of the analysis show that the fat content of the formulated breakfast cereals were

generally low, ranging from 1.84+0.02% to 2.02+0.02%. This range of values agrees with

that recorded for the control sample- Weetabix (2.00%). Significant differences (p<0.05)

were observed among the samples. The presence of graded levels of defatted coconut fiber in

the formulations may be responsible for the generally low fat content of the resulting

products, although most of the legumes, with the exception of groundnuts and soybeans

contain less than 3% fat (Ihekoronye and Ngoddy, 1985). Higher fat values were recorded for

fortified breakfast cereals made from AYB, maize, sorghum and soybean as 3.7+0.36%

(Agunbiade and Ojezele, 2010) and breakfast cereals made from Sorghum and Pigeon pea

composite flour as 8.70- 14.2% (Mbaeyi, 2005). The low fat content of the developed

products would be suitable for weight watchers.

4.1.4 ASH

The results of the ash content analysis of the formulated samples showed significant

differences (p<0.05) with values ranging from 5.29+0.02 to 7.36+0.02%. Lower values,

1.36+0.05% (Agunbiade and Ojezele, 2010) and 1.50-2.50% (Mbaeyi, 2005) were recorded

by other researchers. The high ash values recorded in this work may be attributed to the

presence of defatted coconut fiber and whole maize grains used as part of the ingredients in

this study. Coconut fiber belongs to the class of compounds known as flammable solids. It

easily catches fire upon ignition, thus producing more ash on combustion (Wasserman,

2010).

4.1.5 CRUDE FIBER

The values obtained from the determination of crude fiber content of the formulated breakfast

cereals ranged from 6.70+1.80% to 9.08+0.07%. Lower values, 3.1- 3.8% (Agunbiade and

Ojezele, 2010) and 1.54- 4.0% (Mbaeyi, 2005) were previously recorded for other breakfast

cereals formulation. The control sample- Weetabix however contained a fiber value of 10%.

Fiber is needed to assist in digestion and keep the gastrointestinal tract healthy and can also

help to keep the blood sugar stable. It slows down the release of glucose during digestion, so

cells require less insulin to absorb that glucose. The American Diabetes Association

recommends that people with diabetes should consume 25-50g of fiber per day (Trinidad et

al., 2006). The fecal bulking action of insoluble fiber makes it useful in the treatment of

constipation and diverticular disease (McKevith, 2004).

50

4.1.6 CARBOHYDRATE

The values from the carbohydrate content analysis of the formulated samples ranged from

60.96+1.42 to 64.53+0.05%. Apart from the sample containing 60:40 formulation, all other

samples were not significantly different (p<0.05). Higher carbohydrate values were reported

for breakfast cereals formulated from sorghum and pigeon pea (Mbaeyi, 2005) as well as the

control- Weetabix (68.4%). The higher carbohydrate values recorded by other researchers

may be attributed to the high content of the cereals and legumes used as the principal

ingredients in the formulations (Kanu et al., 2009).

4.1.7 ENERGY

The values obtained for the total energy content of the formulated samples shown in Figure 7,

ranged from 327.54 to 347.72Kcal and were found to be within the range of values recorded

for breakfast cereals made from treated and untreated sorghum and pigeon pea (316.46-

420kcal) as well as treated ready-to-eat breakfast cereals (314 - 420kcal) (Mbaeyi, 2005;

Kent, 1983). Similar value was also recorded for the control sample- Weetabix as 338kcal.

These values represent the amount of energy in food that can be supplied to the body for

maintenance of basic body functions such as breathing, circulation of blood, physical

activities and thermic effect of food. Increasing addition of coconut fiber was inversely

proportional to the energy value of the products.

51

LEGEND:

A= 100:0 B=90:10 C=80:20 D=70:30 E=60:40 F=50:50

Sample - AYB+ Maize flour: defatted coconut flour.

Figure 7: Energy value of Breakfast Cereals made from blends of AYB + Maize: Defatted

Coconut flour

52

4.2.0 FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES

The result of evaluation of the functional properties of the developed breakfast cereals is

shown in Table 8.

4.2.1 pH

The pH values of the products which ranged from 4.70+0.01 to 6.56+0.01 showed that there

were no significant differences (p>0.05) between samples containing 70:30, 60:40 and 50:50

formulations, as well as between samples 90:10 and 80:20 formulations, while there was

significant difference (p<0.05) in the pH of 100:0 formulation and the other samples.

Agunbiade and Ojezele (2010) recorded slightly lower values (4.88) for fortified breakfast

cereal made from maize, sorghum, AYB and soybeans. The pH range observed in this study

may be due to partial hydrolysis which might have occurred during soaking of the legume.

The higher pH values recorded for the samples with high level of defatted coconut fiber (20-

50%) may be as a result of its composition.

4.2.2 BULK DENSITY

The result of bulk density of the breakfast cereals ranged from 0.17+0.01g/ml to

0.29+0.01g/ml with the highest value found in the sample with 100:0 formulation. There was

a gradual reduction of the bulk density with increase in the addition of defatted coconut flour

content although the samples with 90:10, 80:20, 70:30 formulations did not have significant

differences (p>0.05). Higher values of bulk density (2.45+0.10 and 2.60+0.05) were recorded

by Agunbiade and Ojezele (2010) for fortified breakfast cereals made from maize, sorghum,

AYB and soybeans. However, Mbaeyi (2005) recorded values that were similar to those

obtained in this study (0.5341- 0.7267g/ml). The bulk densities of the product may require

identical packaging space. The less the bulk density, the more packaging space is required

(Agunbiade and Ojezele, 2010).

4.2.3 WATER ABSORPTION CAPACITY (WAC)

The results obtained for water absorption capacity of the formulated breakfast cereals ranged

from 68.31+0.01 to 76.39+0.01%. It was found to increase with increase in defatted coconut

flour inclusion. This may be connected to the fact that coconut fiber has hygroscopic

properties, thus, swelling on exposure to moisture (Wasserman, 2010). Similar values were

obtained from treated and untreated sorghum and pigeon pea breakfast cereals (Mbaeyi,

2005).

53

4.2.4 OIL ABSORPTION CAPACITY

The oil absorption capacity (FAC) of the breakfast cereals varied in trend from those obtained

for water absorption capacity. The values ranged from 0.87+0.01to 1.32+0.01% with the

highest value recorded for the sample with 100:0 formulation. The hydrophobicity of proteins

is known to play a major role in fat absorption. This acts to resist physical entrapment of oil

by the capillary of non-polar side chains of the amino acids of the protein molecules (Chau

and Cheung, 1998). There were significant differences (p<0.05) among all the samples. The

FAC decreased with increasing addition of defatted coconut flour.

4.2.5 FOAM CAPACITY

The foam capacity of the samples ranged from 2.48+0.01 to 3.49+0.01% with the highest

value observed in the sample with 100:0 formulation. There was a gradual decrease in foam

capacity with increasing addition of defatted coconut flour. This value is higher than those

recorded for flour obtained from boiled AYB (1.98%). Padmashree et al. (1987) also reported

the decreasing effect of processing conditions on foam capacity with processed cowpea flour.

The more pronounced reduction in foam capacity in heat-treated (boiling and roasting)

sample has been attributed to protein denaturation (Lin et al., 1974). It is also an indication of

precipitation of proteins due to temperature and some heat treatment.

4.2.6 VISCOSITY

The viscosity of the products ranged from 19.73+0.01 to 31.08+0.01cps, and it was the

sample with 50:50 formulation that had the least value. The generally low viscosity observed

may be due to less disruption of intermolecular hydrogen bonds that brought about noticeable

swelling of the granules and gelation (Iheoronye and Ngoddy, 1985). Swelling of the

granules was observed to be slight in cold water. According to Wasserman (2010), coconut

fiber has a high water absorption capacity and easily dissolves in liquids, but does not thicken

or gel.

4.2.7 IN-VITRO PROTEIN DIGESTIBILITY

The results obtained for the invitro-protein digestibility shown in Figure 8, ranged from

66.30+0.01 to 82.2+0.01%. The sample with 50:50 formulation had the highest digestibility

value. This shows that more protein was digested with the presence of more coconut fiber.

This may be connected to the fact that fiber is known to aid digestion, and this might have led

to the increase in digestibility of the proteins. The in-vitro protein digestibility has been

54

reported to be affected by many factors such as genotype and tannin content (Elsheikh et al.,

1999).

4.2.8 GELATION CAPACITY

The gelation capacity of the formulated samples varied from 75.32+0.01 to 89.66+0.01%

with the highest value found in the sample with 100:0 formulation. A gel can represents a

transitional phase between solid and liquid states. In food systems, the molecular net consists

of proteins, polysaccharides or a mixture of both, while the liquid is usually water. Ionic

strength, pH and the presence of non-protein components can influence the gelation

properties (Sridaran and Karim, 2011). The gradual reduction in the gelation capacity with

increasing defatted coconut ratio may be as a result of high fiber content which is known to

have a high water absorption capacity and thus does not thicken or gel on heating

(Wasserman, 2010).

55

Table 9: Functional Properties of Breakfast Cereals from Blends of AYB+Maize: Defatted Coconut Flour

Sample pH BD WAC FAC FC Viscosity GC

(g/ml) (%) (%) (%) (cps) (%)

100:0 4.70±0.01c 0.30±0.01

a 68.32±0.01

f 1.32±0.01

a 3.49±0.01

a 31.08±0.01

a

89.66±0.01

a

90:10 5.27±0.01b 0.26±0.01b 70.29±0.01e 1.13±0.01b 3.43±0.01a 30.56±0.01a 84.29±0.01b

80:20 5.30±0.01b 0.24±0.01

b 71.24±0.01

d 1.07±0.01

c 3.25±0.01

ab 26.41±0.01

b 81.4±30.01

c

70:30 6.23±0.01a 0.24±0.02

b 74.81±0.05

c 0.96±0.01

d 2.80±0.01

b 24.22±0.01

c 78.56±0.01

d

60:40 6.55±0.01a 0.19±0.01c 75.43±0.01b 0.93±0.01e 2.63±0.01e 21.98±0.01d 77.34±0.01e

50:50 6.56+0.01a 0.17+0.01

d 76.39+0.06

a 0.87+0.01

f 2.48+0.01

f 19.73+0.01

e 75.32+0.01

f



Sample ratio: AYB+ Maize: Defatted coconut fiber

56

LEGEND:

A= 100:0 B=90:80 C=80:20 D=70:30 E=60:40 F=50:50

Sample ratio: AYB+Maize: Defatted coconut flour

Figure 8: In-vitro protein digestibility of breakfast cereals made from blends of

AYB+Maize: coconut fiber

57

4.3.0 SENSORY EVALUATION

The mean sensory scores obtained from the formulated samples are shown in Tables 10-13. The

results were recorded in four groups according to the way they were served to the panelists. The

groups included:

i. Samples served dry (as it is).

ii. Sample served with cold water (added to a bowl of cold water).

iii. Sample served with cold water and milk (Peak instant full cream powder).

iv. Sample served with hot water and milk (Peak instant full cream powder).

4.3.1 ATTRIBUTE PERCEPTION OF THE SAMPLES SERVED DRY

The result obtained from serving the samples obtained as they were (dry) to the assessors is

presented in Table 10. It shows that there were no significant (p>0.05) differences between the

samples in all the attributes evaluated, except the control that was significantly different

(p<0.05) in terms of appearance, flavor, taste, consistency and overall acceptability. In terms of

consistency, the sample with 70:30 formulation ranked next to the control sample (Weetabix),

while samples with 90:10 and 50:50 formulations showed closest similarities to the control

sample in terms of flavour. The reason for this may be attributed to the strong AYB and coconut

flavours which were observed to be outstanding in these samples, thus comparing well with the

control sample. In terms of taste, the sample with 70:30 formulation ranked next to the control

sample, although it showed no significant (p>0.05) difference with other samples. In terms of

aftertaste, the judges preferred the samples containing 90:10 and 50:50 formulations along with

the control. This also may be due to the strong taste and flavor in the AYB and defatted coconut

prominent in these samples, which lingered in the mouth after swallowing. It is also an

indication that the processing technique employed in the production of the formulated samples

was able to significantly reduce the beany flavor inherent in AYB, thus making the products

desirable.

In terms of mouthfeel, sample ratios 100:0 and 60:40 were significantly different (p<0.05) from

the control and the rest. In terms of overall acceptability, none of the samples was rejected by the

assessors; however the commercial control was the most acceptable probably because the

assessors were accustomed to the product, then followed by sample ratios 70:30, 50:50, 100:0,

90:10, 80:20 and finally 60:40.

58

Table 10: Mean Sensory Scores for Formulated Breakfast Cereals Served Dry

Sample Appearance Consistency Flavour Taste Aftertaste Mouthfeel Overall

Acceptability

100:0 5.73+ 1.79a 6.00+1.36b 5.27+1.27b 5.60+1.76b 5.00+1.65b 5.60+1.24b 5.93+1.16b

90:10 6.73+0.79a 6.07+0.59b 6.00+1.00b 5.87+0.99b 5.93+1.22ab 6.00+1.07ab 5.87+1.25b

80:20 6.13+1.13a 5.93+0.88b 5.60+1.12b 5.67+1.04b 5.47+1.19b 5.80+0.94ab 5.67+1.23b

70:30 6.53+1.30a 6.07+1.33

b 5.67+1.17

b 6.07+1.28

b 5.53+1.25

b 5.80+1.01

ab 6.13+1.36

b

60:40 6.13+1.01a 5.80+1.42b 5.40+1.35b 5.33+1.49b 4.93+1.33b 5.40+1.35b 5.47+1.36b

50:50 6.27+1.49a 5.53+1.81b 5.93+1.16ab 5.87+1.12b 6.00+1.13ab 5.53+1.13ab 6.00+0.85b

Weetabix 5.67+2.06a 7.20+0.94a 6.87+1.41a 7.07+1.22a 6.67+1.50a 6.53+1.55a 7.13+1.19a




59

4.3.2 ATTRIBUTE PERCEPTIONS OF THE SAMPLES SERVED WITH WATER

The results of the sensory scores of the samples served by placing the samples in a bowl of water

at room temperature (t = 28±2°C) is shown in Table 11. Addition of water altered the assessors’

perception of the samples’ attributes. The samples and the control were not significantly

different (p>0.05) from each other in terms of flavor, taste, aftertaste, mouthfeel and overall

acceptability. This may be attributed to dissolution of the samples, which neutralized some of the

attributes by the water used to serve the samples. In terms of appearance the samples with 70:30,

60:40 and 50:50 formulations were most preferable. Their scores were significantly higher

(p<0.05) than other samples including the control. In terms of consistency, all the samples,

except that with 100:0 showed no significant difference (p>0.05) from the control. Consuming

the samples in water reduced the differences in the ratings between the samples and the control.

The fact that the samples had closer attributes shows that the formulated samples have the

potential of being acceptable when introduced to consumers.

60

Table 11: Mean Sensory Scores for Samples Served with Cold Water

Sample Appearance Consistency Flavour Taste Aftertaste Mouth feel Overall

Acceptability

100:0 5.25+2.08ab

5.13+2.42b 6.79+2.12

a 6.06+2.17

ab 5.12+2.21

a 5.25+2.49

ab 5.44+2.42

a

90:10 5.80+2.21ab

6.07+1.94ab

5.27+2.34a 5.07+2.22

b 6.33+2.09

a 4.80+2.14

ab 5.60+2.26

a

80:20 5.67+2.06ab

5.80+2.24ab

6.00+2.07a 5.27+1.94

ab 5.20+2.08

a 4.60+1.99

b 5.53+2.20

a

70:30 6.53+1.60a 5.60+2.10ab 6.60+1.45a 6.20+1.97ab 5.60+2.50a 6.00+1.77ab 5.53+1.99a

60:40 6.47+2.03a 6.13+1.92

ab 6.13+1.92

a 5.27+1.88

ab 5.67+1.80

a 5.67+1.84

ab 6.00+1.51

a

50:50 5.81+2.16a 5.57+2.79

ab 6.18+2.09

a 6.86+1.87

a 6.36+2.09

a 6.36+1.95

ab 6.07+2.89

a

Weetabix 4.40+1.99b 7.13+2.26

a 6.47+2.26

a 6.33+2.69

ab 6.40+2.82

a 6.47+2.89

ab 6.47+2.77

a




61

4.3.3. ATTRIBUTE PERCEPTION OF THE SAMPLES SERVED WITH COLD MILK

The mean sensory scores of serving the samples with cold milk shown in Table 12, revealed that

there were significant differences (p<0.05) between the samples and the control in all the

attributes except appearance, probably because of the masking effect of the colour of the

samples by milk.

In terms of consistency, the samples with 100:0 and 90:10 formulations ranked next to the

control. This may be as a result of the low content of defatted coconut fiber that visibly

improved uniformity of these samples, and enhanced dissolution of the samples into tiny

particles, which made them more desirable. The sample with 50:50 formulation scored the least

mark, which may be related to the high fiber in the sample making it less homogenous. In terms

of flavour, significant changes (p<0.05) were observed in all the samples; however the control

shared some similarities with the samples containing 100:0 and 90:10 formulations. These

however had some similarities with samples containing 80:20 and 70:30 formulations. The

samples with 60:40 and 50:50 formulations attracted least scores, which may be due to the high

level of defatted coconut fiber present in them, thus masking all other ingredients. In terms of

taste and aftertaste, significant differences (p<0.05) were observed between the samples and the

control which had the highest score, while samples with 60:40 and 50:50 formulations were

scored least. This again may be due to the higher percentage of the defatted coconut fiber present

in these samples that may have masked all other ingredients, thereby altering their taste. In terms

of mouthfeel and overall acceptability, all the samples were preferred next to the control, except

50:50 formulation that was least acceptable.

62

Table 12: Mean Sensory Scores for Formulated Breakfast Cereals served with cold

Milk


Acceptability

100:0 6.40+1.30a 6.00+1.31

b 6.40+0.99

ab 6.77+1.36

b 6.07+1.22

b 6.00+1.13

b 6.00+1.31

bc

90:10 6.60+0.83a 5.93+0.96

b 6.27+0.70

ab 6.20+0.94

bc 5.80+1.08

b 6.00+1.13

b 6.13+0.74

b

80:20 6.13+1.19a 5.73+0.96

bc 5.53+1.13

bc 5.73+1.22

bcd 5.47+1.13

b 5.40+0.99

bc 5.80+0.94

bc

70:30 6.33+0.98a 5.80+1.21

bc 5.80+1.42

bc 5.60+1.55

bcd 5.40+1.35

b 5.20+1.37

bc 5.53+1.46

bc

60:40 6.20+1.01a 5.47+0.99

bc 5.13+1.06

c 5.20+1.15

d 5.13+1.30

b 5.07+1.22

bc 5.13+1.25

b

50:50 5.87+1.13a 5.07+0.96c 5.33+1.45c 5.27+1.09cd 5.20+1.26b 4.67+1.23c 5.13+0.92c

Weetabix 5.93+1.98a 7.40+0.83

a 7.00+1.07

a 7.33+0.89

a 7.07+1.09

a 7.33+0.98

a 7.47+0.83

a




63

4.3.4. ATTRIBUTES PERCEPTION OF THE SAMPLES SERVED WITH HOT MILK

The mean sensory scores presented in Table 13 shows the influence of serving the samples with

warm milk (50°C), which altered the attributes perception of the samples compared to the

samples served with cold milk. The commercial control sample was the most preferred in all the

attributes except appearance that the sample with 90:10 formulation was most preferred, and

significantly different (p<0.05) from the control sample, which was least preferred, probably

because of its darker colour compared to the formulated samples. In terms of consistency, all the

formulated samples however showed no significant difference (p>0.05) among them. In terms of

flavor, samples with 100:0 and 90:10 formulations were not significantly (p>0.05) different from

the control. These two samples shared similarities with the sample containing 70:30 formulation

and then with the other samples. In terms of taste, the samples with 100:0, 90:10, 70:30

formulations were preferred alongside the control which were significantly different (p<0.05)

from other formulated samples that shared similar characteristics. In terms of aftertaste the

samples with 100:0, 90:10 and 70:30 formulations showed no significant (p>0.05) difference

with the control. The samples with 80:20, 60:40 formulations were scored below average but

shared similarities with the samples containing 100:0 and 50:50 formulations respectively. In

terms of mouth feel, only the sample with 90:10 formulation shared some similarities with the

control. This sample also shared some similarities with samples containing 100:0 and 70:30

formulations, but was significantly different (p<0.05) from samples with 80:20, 60:40, 50:50

formulations. All the samples except those containing 60:40, 50:50 formulations scored above

average. In terms or overall acceptability, it was observed that the samples with 90:10

formulation shared some similarities with the control as well as other samples except that with

60:40 formulation.

64

Table 13: Mean Sensory Scores for Samples Served with Hot Milk (50°C)


Acceptability

100:0 6.53±1.36ab

5.67±1.40b 5.73±1.51

bc 5.47±1.36

abc 5.40±1.45

ab 5.33±1.35

bc 5.80±1.36

bc

90:10 6.80±0.68a 6.13±0.92

b 6.20±0.86

ab 6.33±0.89

ab 5.87±0.92

ab 6.13±0.83

ab 6.20±0.77

ab

80:20 6.00±1.07ab

5.53±1.25b 5.00±1.25

c 5.33±1.45

bc 4.73±1.16

c 5.00±1.25

c 5.47±1.36

bc

70:30 6.53±0.83ab

5.67±1.40b 5.53±1.51

bc 5.47±1.36

abc 5.40±1.45

ab 5.33±1.35

bc 5.47±1.36

bc

60:40 6.33±0.97ab 5.27±0.80b 4.73±1.33c 4.73±1.16c 4.40±1.30c 4.67±0.98c 5.07±1.10c

50:50 6.27±1.28ab 5.27±1.39b 5.73±1.36abc 5.27±1.62bc 5.00±1.65bc 4.87±1.46c 5.33±1.20bc

Control 5.73±1.94b 7.40±1.01

a 6.67±1.45

a 6.53±1.68

a 6.40±1.76

a 6.87±1.88

a 6.87±1.81

a




65

4.3.5 EFFECT OF SERVING STYLE ON SENSORY ATTRIBUTES OF THE

SAMPLES (AYB+ Maize: Defatted coconut flour)

The serving styles of the formulated samples influenced the general perception and the ratings of

the 15 panelists used for the sensory evaluation. The pictorial representations of the effect of the

various serving styles on each of the attributes are shown in Figures 9-15.

The charts revealed that the sample with 90:10 (AYB+Maize: Defatted coconut fiber)

formulation was rated highest in terms of appearance when served with hot milk. This may be

due to complete homogenization of the sample and milk by hot water, thereby presenting a more

uniform appearance.

The consistency perception revealed that the control was most preferred when served with both

cold and hot milk. This may not be unconnected with the fact that the judges would have been

familiar with the control sample served with milk, since it is a commercially available product.

The judges also gave low scores for flavour, taste, after taste and overall acceptability to the

control sample, especially when served with cold milk. The hot served samples got gelatinized

and became very thick and they eventually got lower ratings for these parameters. It is important

to note however, that almost all the perception ratings for all the serving styles were above

average.

66

Figure 9: Effect of Serving Style on the Appearance Perception of breakfast cereals

made from blends of AYB + Maize: Defatted coconut flour

Figure 10: Effect of Serving Style on the Consistency Perception of breakfast cereals


Legend:

A= 100:0 B=90:10 C=80:20 D=70:30 E=60:40 F=50:50 G= control (Weetabix) Sample ratio: AYB+ Maize: Defatted coconut fiber

SAMPLE FORMULATION

AT

TR

IBU

TE

R

AT

ING

S

AT

TR

IBU

TE

RA

TIN

GS

SAMPLE FORMULATION

67

Figure 11: Effect of Serving Style on the Flavour Perception of breakfast cereals


Figure 12: Effect of Serving Style on the Taste Perception of breakfast cereals


Lgend: A= 100:0 B=90:10 C=80:20 D=70:30 E=60:40 F=50:50 G= control (Weetabix)


SAMPLE FORMULATION

AT

TR

IBU

TE

R

AT

ING

S

SAMPLE FORMULATION

AT

TR

IBU

TE

RA

TIN

GS

68

Figure 13: Effect of Serving Style on the Aftertaste Perception of breakfast cereals


Figure 14: Effect of Serving Style on the Aftertaste Perception of breakfast cereals


Legend:

A= 100:0 B=90:10 C=80:20 D=70:30 E=60:40 F=50:50 G= control (Weetabix)


SAMPLE FPRMULATION

AT

TR

IBU

TE

RA

TIN

GS

A

TT

RIB

UT

E R

AT

ING

S

SAMPLE FORMULLATION

69

Figure 15: Effect of Serving Style on the Overall acceptability Perception of breakfast

Cereals made from Blends of AYB + Maize: Defatted coconut flour

Legend:

A= 100:0 B=90:10 C=80:20 D=70:30 E=60:40 F=50:50 G= control (Weetabix)


SAMPLE FORMULATION

AT

TR

IBU

TE

RA

TIN

GS

70

4.4.0 MINERAL COMPOSITION OF THE BREAKFAST CEREALS

The mineral composition of the formulated breakfast cereals is shown in Table 14. These

values are presented alongside the corresponding values obtained from the control sample

(Weetabix) as well as the United States Recommended Dietary Allowance (USRDA) for each

mineral value. Generally, significant differences (p<0.05) existed between the samples in

almost all the parameters. The minerals decreased with increasing addition of defatted

coconut flour in the formulations.

4.4.1 CALCIUM

The Calcium content obtained from the samples indicated values ranging between

169±0.01mg/100g and 213±0.02mg/100g. The highest value occurred in the sample

containing 100:0 formulation, while the least value occurred in the sample with 50:50

formulation. These values were higher than that recorded for the control sample- Weetabix

(100mg/100g) and less than the US RDA (1000mg). Thus, 100g of the formulated samples

can provide about 16.9- 21.3% of the US RDA. Lower values were also recorded for

breakfast cereals made from maize, sorghum, soybeans and AYB composite flour

(156±13.2mg/kg) (Agunbiade and Ojezele, 2010) and breakfast cereals made from sorghum

and pigeon pea (137.05-156.34mg) (Mbaeyi, 2005).

Calcium is by far the most important mineral that the body requires and its deficiency is more

prevalent than any other mineral (Kanu et al., 2009). Calcium, Phosphorus and vitamin D

combine together to eliminate rickets in children and osteomalacia (the adult rickets) as well

as osteoporosis (bone thinning) among older people (Adeyeye and Agesin, 2007). Since the

products contain significant amounts of the element they can make an ideal meal for children

and adults alike.

4.4.2 MAGNESIUM

The Magnesium content obtained for the sample ranged from 29.0±0.02mg/100g to

43.0±0.01mg/100g. The highest value was recorded for the sample containing 50:50

formulation. These values were lower than the values recorded for the magnesium content of

the control (92.00mg) and the US RDA which was 350mg for men and 280mg for women.

Magnesium is an activator of many enzyme systems and maintains the electrical potential in

the nerves (Adeyeye and Agesin, 2007). It works with calcium to assist in muscle

contraction, blood clotting, and the regulation of blood pressure and lung functions

(Swaminathan, 2003).

71

4.4.3 POTASIUM

The potassium content of the breakfast cereals ranged from 88.0±0.02 to

191.0±0.02mg/100g. The highest value occurred in the sample containing 100:0 formulation.

This range was lower than the value recorded for the control (545mg) but higher than the US

RDA for both men and women (3.5mg). Higher values (70.19±6.82mg/kg) were recorded for

fortified breakfast cereals (Agunbiade and Ojezele, 2010), while similar values (107.0-

238.0mg/100g) were recorded from breakfast cereals made from sorghum and pigeon pea

(Mbaeyi, 2005). Potassium is primarily an intercellular cation, in large part this cation is

bound to protein and with sodium influences osmotic pressure and contributes to normal pH

equilibrium (Adeyeye and Agesin, 2007).

4.4.4 MANGANESE

The manganese content of the samples ranged from 5.92±0.02 to 7.99±0.16 mg/100g. No

value was recorded for the control sample (Weetabix) but the US RDA records 2.5mg/100g.

The higher tolerable upper intake was 11mg/100g. Manganese functions as an essential

constituent for bone structure, for reproduction and for normal functioning of the nervous

system; it is also a part of the enzyme system. Manganese is readily found in nuts, whole

grains, leafy vegetables, and tea (Adeyeye and Agesin, 2007; Ryan, 2009).

4.4.5 IRON

The iron content of the products ranged from 9.81±0.30 to 14.10mg/100g. The values

obtained in this study are higher than the values recorded for the control (5.16mg/100g) but

lies within the range of the US RDA (10-15mg/100g). Similar results have been recorded

(13.46±1.74) for breakfast cereals made from maize, sorghum, soybeans and AYB composite

(Agunbiade and Ojezele, 2010). When foods with iron are eaten, it is absorbed into proteins

and helps these proteins take in, carry, and release oxygen throughout the body. An iron

deficiency called iron-deficiency anemia is very common around the world, especially for

women and children in developing nations. Symptoms of iron deficiency take years to

develop and include fatigue, weakness, and shortness of breath (Ryan, 2009).

4.4.6 COPPER

The copper content of the samples revealed values ranging from 0.58±0.003 to

0.86±0.03mg/100g. These values were more than that of the control (0.23mg/100g), but less

than the US RDA which is 1.5-3.0mg/100g. Copper and iron are present in the enzyme

72

cytochrome oxidase involved in energy metabolism. Copper deficiency is of little concern

since it is widely distributed in other types of food (Adeyeye and Agesin, 2007). Copper

makes up approximately 0.9g of the body. It can be found in some enzymes that are crucial to

oxygen reactions and the way iron is metabolized. It also colors hair and skin, and helps form

the protective shield around nerve fibers (Ryan, 2009).

4.4.7 SODIUM

Results show that the sodium content of the samples ranged from 7.62+0.03 to

28.36+1.33mg/100g. These were far less than the value recorded for the control- Weetabix

(387mg/100g) and the USRDA (500mg/100g). Higher sodium values (97.5-187.3mg/100g)

were also reported for fortified breakfast cereals (Mbaeyi, 2005). Sodium is normally

consumed in the form of salt. It is essential in the regulation of water content and in the

maintenance of osmotic pressure of the body fluid. It also aids in the transport of CO2 in the

blood. However, sodium is one of the minerals whose intake is considered a factor in the

etiology of hypertension, hence its low intake is encouraged (Okaka, 2010).

4.4.8 ZINC

The zinc content of the formulated samples showed a range of 1.97+0.05 to

3.35+0.01mg/100g. These values were higher than that recorded for the control- Weetabix

(1.72mg/100g) but lower than the US RDA (15mg/100g- for men, 12mg/100g- for women).

Agunbiade and Ojezele (2010) recorded lower values for fortified breakfast cereals as

1.54+0.30mg/kg and 1.64+0.4mg/kg. Zinc is a component of every living cell and plays a

role in hundreds of bodily functions, from assisting in enzyme reactions to blood clotting, and

is essential to taste, vision, and wound healing (Ryan, 2009).

The decreased level observed in some of the minerals may be associated with the processing

techniques. Vegetable protein-containing raw materials were lost during soaking, boiling and

frying. In any situation body mineral is threatened, supplementation may be contemplated

(Agunbiade and Ojezele, 2010).

73

Table 14: Mineral Content of Breakfast Cereals made from Blends of AYB+Maize: Defatted Coconut (mg/100g)

Sample Ca Mg K Mn Fe Cu Na Zn

100:0 213+0.22a 430+0.01

a 191+0.02

a 7.99+0.16

a 14.01+0.06

a 0.86+0.01

a 9.97+0.04

a 3.35+0.01

a

90:10 204+0.03b 420+0.01

a 113+0.03

b 7.89+0.95

a 13.83+0.04

a 0.73+1.28

b 9.97+0.04

a 3.11+0.07

a

80:20 191+0.02

c 390+0.02

ab 109+0.02

c 7.41+0.12

b 13.49+0.17

b 0.73+0.07

b 9.02+0.96

b 2.80+0.32

b

70:30 184+0.02

d 380+0.01

ab 103+0.02

d 6.92+1.05

b 12.12+0.26

c 0.70+0.02

b 8.23+1.30

c 2.60+0.12

b

60:40 172+0.02

e 310+0.01

c 95.0+0.02

e 6.10+0.10

c 10.01+0.56

d 0.58+0.03

c 8.01+0.03

c 2.11+0.05

c

50:50 169+0.01

e 290+0.06

c 88.0+0.06

f 5.92+0.02

c 9.81+0.30

d 0.58+1.28

c 7.62+0.03

cd 2.11+0.05

c

Weetabix 100 92.0 545 - 5.16 0.23 387 1.72

US RDA 1000 280-350 3.5 2-5 10-15 1.5-3 500 12-15

Data represents mean + SD (n=3)

Means differently superscripted along the vertical column are significantly (P<0.05) different

Legend:

USRDA= United States Recommended Dietary Allowance

Sample: AYB+ Maize: defatted coconut fiber

74

4.5.0 VITAMINS COMPOSITION OF THE BREAKFAST CEREALS

The results of the vitamin content of the breakfast cereals are shown in Table 15. The values

are tabulated alongside the corresponding values for the control sample- Weetabix and the

United States Recommended Dietary Allowance (USRDA) values for vitamins intake.

Significant differences (p<0.05) were observed between most of the samples in the vitamins

evaluated. The vitamins decreased with increase in the addition of defatted coconut flour.

4.5.1. VITAMIN B1 (THIAMINE)

The values obtained for the thiamin content of the products ranged from 0.09+0.01 to

0.31+0.01mg/100g. These values are lower than those stated for the control sample

(1.08mg/100g) and the USRDA (1.5mg/100g). Thus 100g of the formulated samples can

provide 6-20% of vitamin B1 of the US RDA for adults and 10-33.3% for children between

the ages 4-10.

4.5.2 VITAMIN B2 (RIBOFLAVIN)

The values for the vitamin B2 content of the products ranged from 0.32+0.10 to

0.43+0.02mg/100g, and were lower than the recorded values for the control (1.08mg/100g)

and the US RDA (1.70mg/100g). Thus, 100g of the formulated samples can provide about

18.82- 25.3% of the US RDA for vitamin B2. Like thiamin, B12 acts as a coenzyme in the

breakdown of fats, proteins, carbohydrate, and other nutrients. It also helps fatty acid

reduction and also necessary for catabolism of nutrients in the liver. Furthermore, it assists

eye and skin maintenance (White and Merrill, 1988)

4.5.3 VITAMIN B6

The results for B6 content of the breakfast cereals showed values ranging from 0.13+0.01 to

0.26+0.01mg/100g. These were lower than the values recorded for both the control sample

(0.46mg/100g) as well as the US RDA (2.00mg/100g). Thus the formulated samples can

provide about 6.5-13% of the US RDA for vitamin B6. B6 acts as a coenzyme for

approximately 100 essential chemical reactions. These include protein and glycogen

metabolism, proper action of steroid hormones, pyruvate production, production of red blood

cells and much more. It assists in many decarboxylation reactions (removal of carboxyl

group) for the production of several compounds such as glutamate (major neurotransmitter of

the central nervous system). It also is of great use to the immune system in that it helps

hemoglobin production and increases the amount of O2 carried by it (Bender, 1992).

75

4.5.4 VITAMIN B12

The results for the vitamin B12 content of the products ranged from 0.74+0.02 to

1.01+1.07mg/100g. These values are higher than the US RDA value (6µg). It was discovered

that the commercial control sample does not contain vitamin B12. Vitamin B12 plays a large

part in the conversion of homocysteine to methionine, which helps protect the heart from

disease and also essential for the function and maintenance of the central nervous system, and

severe deficiency in pernicious anemia produces a neurological disease of posterolateral

spinal cord degeneration (Herbert and Das, 1999). It helps nerve cells, red blood cells, and

the manufacturing/repair of DNA. It is vital for processing carbohydrates, proteins and fats,

which help make all of the blood cells in our bodies (Bender, 1992).

4.5.5 VITAMIN C

The results obtained for vitamin C content of the formulated samples ranged from 1.70+0.02

to 2.65+0.02mg/100g. These values are lower than the US RDA for men, women and

children (30-60mg/100g), but it was discovered that the control sample does not contain

vitamin C. Cordain (1999) reported that cereals contain no vitamin C or vitamin B12

, no

vitamin A and, apart from yellow corn, no beta-carotene.

76

Table 15: Vitamins Content of Breakfast Cereals made from Blends of AYB + Maize:

Defatted Coconut Flour (mg/100g)

Sample B1 B2 B6 B12 C

100:00 0.31+0.01a 0.43+0.02

a 0.26+0.02

a 1.00+0.07

a 2.65+0.02

a

90:10 0.30+0.02a 0.41+0.02

a 0.21+0.02

b 1.00+0.02

a 2.49+0.13

a

80:20 0.19+0.01b 0.41+0.02

a 0.20+0.06

b 0.95+0.03

ab 2.13+0.01

b

70:30 0.13+0.02c 0.39+0.43

a 0.20+0.02

b 0.90+0.03

b 2.10+0.02

b

60:40 0.12+0.02d 0.33+0.02

b 0.14+0.01

c 0.88+0.03

b 1.87+0.04

bc

50:50 0.09+0.01e 0.32+0.10

b 0.13+0.02

c 0.74+0.02

c 1.70+0.02

bc

Weetabix 1.08 1.08 0.46 0.00 0.00

US RDA 1.50 1.70 2.00 6mcg 60.00

Means differently superscripted along the vertical column are significantly (P<0.05) different

Values are mean of triplicate readings +SD

Sample ratio: AYB+ Maize: defatted coconut

77

4.6 ANTI-NUTRITIONAL CONTENT

The anti-nutritional contents of the products are shown in Table 15. There were significant

differences (p<0.05) in the samples as the level of the inclusion of defatted coconut flour

increased.

4.6.1 PHYTATE/PHYTIC ACID

The result obtained for the phytate content of the products ranged from 0.38 to 1.25mg/100g.

A gradual decrease of the phytate was observed with increase in the level of the defatted

coconut flour. Many dietary fibers contain phytic acid which binds minerals in the digestive

tract, which eventually expels the minerals from the body. Some of these minerals are

essential for good health, including zinc, iron and calcium. Although health experts

recommend increasing intake of dietary fiber, eating too much fiber containing phytic acid

can cause mineral deficiencies (Wasserman, 2010). Unlike many fiber sources, coconut

dietary fiber does not contain phytic acid and, therefore, does not reduce availability of

minerals in the body Wasserman, 2010. Not only does coconut fiber prevent the removal of

minerals, it also increases mineral absorption and slows down the rate of emptying food from

the stomach, which allows food more time to release more minerals for absorbtion

(Wasserman, 2010).

The highest value of phytate was found in the sample containing 100:0 formulation. Legume

seeds are known to constitute 1-3% of phytate and are dependent on species, cultivars and

germination (Sridhar and Seena, 2006). The presence of vitamin C however, counteracts the

inhibitory effects of phytate for consumption (Siegenberg et al., 1991).

4.6.2 OXALATE

The results obtained for the oxalate content of the products ranged from 0.076 to

0.302mg/100g. The highest value was observed in the sample with 50:50 formulation. The

oxalate content was directly proportional to the addition of the defatted coconut flour.

4.6.3 HEMAGLUTTININ

The results for the hemagluttinin content of the products ranged from 0.10 to 0.29mg/100g.

The highest value was observed in the sample with 50:50 formulation. The hemagluttinin

content was inversely proportional to the addition of defatted coconut flour. However, there

were no significant differences (p>0.05) between samples containing 70:30, 60:40 and 50:50

formulations as well as between samples containing 90:10 and 80:20 formulations. The

78

sample with 100:0 formulation, however, was significantly different (p<0.05) from other

samples in the hemagluttinin contents.

4.6.4 TANNIN

The tannin contents of the products were significantly (p<0.05) low and ranged from 0.00064

to 0.0016mg/100g. Higher values (0.035 to 0.130mg/100g) were recorded for breakfast

cereals made from Pigeon pea and Sorghum (Mbaeyi. 2005). Tannins are located in the

seed coat of the grains and are known to have deleterious effects due to their strong

interactions with proteins, with the resulting complexes which are not readily digested by

monogastrics. This lowers the protein digestibility, PER and weight (Mbaeyi. 2005; El-Niely,

2007).

Although legumes contain a wide range of toxic components, the term toxic being referred to

‘an adverse physiological response produced in man or animals by a particular food or

substance derived there from, the effects of most of these components are small or negligible

in a mixed diet especially when legumes are properly cooked. During the processing of

legumes it is important that toxic components be reduced to levels that pose no threat to

health (Walker and Ochhar, 1982).

79

Table 16: Anti-Nutritional Factors of the Formulated Samples (mg/100g)

Sample phytate Oxalate Hemagluttinin Tannin

(unit/mg)

100:0 1.25+0.01a 0.08+0.01

d 0.29+0.01

a 0.0016+0.0001

a

90:10 1.13+0.01b 0.15+0.01

c 0.18+0.01

b 0.0013+0.0001

b

80:20 1.00+0.1c 0.15+0.01

c 0.17+0.01

b 0.0013+0.0001

b

70:30 1.00+0.1c 0.23+0.01

b 0.11+0.01

c 0.00084+0.00001

c

60:40 0.50+0.01d 0.23+0.01

b 0.10+0.01

c 0.00075+0.00001

cd

50:50 0.38+0.01e 0.30+0.01

a 0.10+0.01

c 0.00064+0.00001

d




80

4.7 AMINO ACID PROFILE OF THE BREAKFAST CEREALS

Figure 16 shows the amino acid profile of the breakfast cereals. The results reveal that the

products contained varying amounts of both essential and non-essential amino acids. Aspartic

acid, glutamic acid and proline recorded the least values, while higher values were recorded

for threonine, leucine and glycine. Apart from isoleucine which had similar values with the

United States Recommended Dietary Allowance (USRDA) and valine, which had slightly

lower values, the essential amino acids in all the products were higher than the USRDA

values (Weetabix, 2010). It is important to note that the consumption of these products with

milk will make up for all the required amino acids lacking in the products.

Although proteins from plant sources tend to have a relatively low biological value, in

comparison to protein from eggs or milk, they are nevertheless "complete" in that they

contain at least trace amounts of all of the amino acids that are essential in human nutrition.

Eating various plant foods in combination can provide a protein of higher biological value

(McDougall, 2002).

81

Figure 16: Amino Acid Profile of Breakfast Cereals Made From Blends of AYB +

Maize: Defatted Coconut Flour (mg/100g)

Legend:

A=100:0, B= 90:10, C=80:20, D=70:30, E=60:40, F=50:50 Sample ratio: AYB+ Maize: Defatted Coconut Flour

82

4.8 MICROBIAL EXAMINATION

The microbial examination of the products revealed different values for total viable count,

molds and coliform counts, as shown in Figure 17. The total viable count ranged from 0.5 to

1.51x102Cfu/g, while the mold count ranged between 0.00 to 6.0x10Cfu/g. The

contamination could have occurred during cooling and before packaging.

Yeasts are commonly present as contaminants in cereals and can probably be attributed to the

low value of the pH which creates ideal conditions for yeast growth (Serna-Saldivar and

Rooney, 1995). The presence of micro flora may be also due to availability of more nutrients

for microbial proliferation and enhanced metabolic activities (Mbata et al., 2009). However,

the samples had low levels of bacteria and mold growth. No coliform was detected. Thus the

consumption of these products may not be fraught by the danger of contacting any food borne

disease.

83

Figure 17: Microbial Content of Freshly Prepared Breakfast Cereals made from Blends

of AYB + Maize: Defatted Coconut flour Legend:

A=100:0, B= 90:10, C=80:20, D=70:30, E=60:40, F=50:50

Sample ratio: AYB+ Maize: Defatted Coconut Flour

84

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSION

The study showed that acceptable ready-to-eat breakfast cereals could be produced from

maize, African yam bean and defatted coconut flour. Evaluation of the products showed

values that compared favourably with the commercial control sample (Weetabix) as they

have been shown to be good sources of protein, energy, vitamins and minerals.

The study has shown that producing breakfast cereals with seed legumes could boost the

protein level (up to 18%) in the final products. It also played a role in providing micro-

nutrients like minerals and vitamins, especially Vitamin B12 and C which are absent in the

commercial control sample. The roasting process employed in the study played a role in

reducing the relatively high level of anti-nutrients associated with leguminous food sources.

The process also influenced low moisture content (3-4%) of the products, which is important

for transportation and extension of the shelf life of properly packaged products. Furthermore,

it limited the micro-flora of the final products to insignificant levels; thereby making the

products safe for consumption. The introduction of defatted coconut fiber increased the fiber

content of the final products, although it gradually reduced the overall nutritional value. It

was however aimed at increasing bulk and aiding digestion. Most of the formulated samples

were scored above average by sensory judges and showed some similarities with Weetabix

(control) (p>0.05), implying its potential acceptability when commercialized.

The seeds of African yam beans are projected by the findings of this work to be promising

cheap source of nutrients that are lacking in most expensive ready-to-eat food products and

could also play a key role in the acceptability and nutritional value of monotonous diets in the

world at large.

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

More studies should be carried out on the products to determine their health benefits on

humans such as insulin sensitivity, as AYB has been proposed in previous research findings

as beneficial to diabetics and patient with other relative illnesses.

85

Further research should be carried out to ascertain the shelf life and the best packaging

recommended for the formulated samples. These, along with other factors will influence the

commercialization of the products for national sustenance.

86

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Yan Want, C; Reilly, C; Patterson, C; Morrison, E and Tinggi, A (1992). Contribution of

Breakfast Cereals to Australian intake of trace elements. Food Austral., 44: 70–72.

Yetunde, E.A., Ukpong, S.U., Lawal, O. and Ime, F.A. (2009). Nutrient Composition and

Sensory Properties of Cake made from African yam bean Flour Blends. J. Food

Tech., 7(4): 115.

93

94

APPENDIX I

SENSORY EVALUATION SCORE SHEET

Instructions

1) You are served coded samples of instant breakfast cereals

2) You are requested to take a sip of water to gaggle your mouth before tasting each sample.

3) Rate the samples according to your degree of acceptance from 1-9 as shown below.

4) Enter the appropriate scale in the box provided for each attribute.

Attributes A B C D E F G

Colour

Consistency

Flavour

Taste

Aftertaste

Mouth feel

Overall acceptability

Extremely like = 9, Very much like = 8, Moderately like = 7, Slightly like = 6, Neither like nor

dislike = 5, Slightly dislike = 4, Moderately dislike = 3, Very much dislike = 2, Extremely

dislike = 1.

Which sample do you like most?

……………………………………………………………………………………………….

Reason(s) for preference:……………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

Any other comments:

95

APPENDIX II

AMINO ACID PROFILE OF FORMULATED BREAKFAST CEREALS (mg/100g)

SA

MP

LE

Ph

enyL

am

ine

Vali

ne

th

rosi

ne

Try

pto

ph

an

e

Iso

leu

cin

e

Met

hio

nin

e

His

tid

ine

Arg

en

ine

Lysi

ne

Leu

cin

e

Cry

stei

ne

Ala

nin

e

Tyro

sin

e

Gly

cin

e

Ser

ine

Asp

eti

c. A

Glu

tam

ic.

A.

Asp

ara

gin

e

Glu

tam

ine

Pro

lin

e

100:0 320 240 810 520

220

100

240

510

250

810

340

220

560

750

120

40

40

520

310

50

90:10 310

210 730 500 190

100 210 470

240 770

310

190

490

720

110

40

30 480 300 50

80:20 290 180 730 420 180 90 210 390 210 680 280 180 440 550 100 30 30 250 290 50

70:30 250 180 710 410 150 90 190 380 170 650 250 150 390 530 80 20 20 220 280 40

60:40 220 160 660 400 180 80 180 210 130 610 210 130 310 520 70 20 10 210 160 40

50:50 190 200 560 380 150 70 160 180 90 590 109 110 280 460 50 10 10 190 140 30

Sample: AYB+ Maize: defatted coconut fiber

96

APPENDIX III

RAW VALUES FOR MICROBIAL PROFILE OF BREAKFAST CEREALS MADE FROM

BLENDS OF AYB+MAIZE: DEFATTED COCONUT FLOUR

Samples Bacteria Count,

Cfu/g

Mould Count,

Cfu/g

Coliform Count,

Cfu/g

100:0 0.5x10 0.0x10 0.0x10

90:10 0.8x10 0.1x10 0.0x10

80:20 1.1x10 0.2x10 0.0x10

70:30 1.6x10 0.25x10 0.0x10

60:40 2.4x10 0.3x10 0.0x10

50:50 1.51x102 0.6x10 0.0x10

Means of Cfu/g as indices of microbial stability of samples

Sample: AYB+maize : defatted coconut fiber

97

APPENDIX IV

ANOVA TABLE FOR ANTI-NUTRIENTS STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

PHYTATE Between Groups 1.868 5 .374 109.859 .000

Within Groups .041 12 .003

Total 1.908 17

OXALATE Between Groups .092 5 .018 183.600 .000


Total .093 17

HEMAGLUTTINNIN Between Groups .078 5 .016 156.000 .000


Total .079 17

TANNIN Between Groups .000 5 .000 86.362 .000


Total .000 17

98

APPENDIX V

ANOVA TABLE FOR SENSORY DATA OF FORMULATED BREAKFAST CEREALS

SERVED RAW


COLOUR Between Groups 13.581 6 2.263 1.102 .367

Within Groups 201.333 98 2.054

Total 214.914 104

CONSISTENCY Between Groups 24.895 6 4.149 2.652 .020


Total 178.229 104

FLAVOUR Between Groups 25.429 6 4.238 2.562 .024


Total 187.562 104

TASTE Between Groups 27.790 6 4.632 2.741 .017


Total 193.390 104

AFTER TASTE Between Groups 33.295 6 5.549 3.113 .008


Total 207.962 104

MOUTH FEEL Between Groups 12.724 6 2.121 1.469 .197


Total 154.190 104

OVERALL ACC. Between Groups 25.714 6 4.286 2.933 .011


Total 168.914 104

99

APPENDIX VI


SERVED WITH COLD WATER


Colour Between Groups 59.176 6 9.863 2.263 .043


Total 486.190 104

Consistency Between Groups 36.650 6 6.108 1.203 .311


Total 534.229 104

Flavour Between Groups 22.267 6 3.711 .843 .540


Total 453.562 104

Taste Between Groups 39.672 6 6.612 1.469 .197


Total 480.857 104

Aftertaste Between Groups 27.569 6 4.595 .906 .494


Total 524.800 104

Mouthfeel Between Groups 48.281 6 8.047 1.673 .136


Total 519.562 104

overall acceptability Between Groups 13.134 6 2.189 .403 .875


Total 544.800 104

100

APPENDIX VII


SERVED WITH COLD MILK


Colour Between Groups 6.057 6 1.010 .645 .694


Total 159.390 104



Total 154.229 104

Flavour Between Groups 39.657 6 6.610 5.071 .000


Total 167.390 104



Total 190.914 104

Aftertaste Between Groups 40.800 6 6.800 4.636 .000


Total 184.533 104



Total 201.333 104

Overall acceptability Between Groups 57.562 6 9.594 8.031 .000


Total 174.629 104

101

APPENDIX VIII

ANOVA FOR SENSORY DATA OF FORMULATED BREAKFAST CEREALS

SERVED WITH HOT MILK

Sum of

Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Colour Between Groups 11.562 6 1.927 1.250 .288


Total 162.629 104



Total 172.857 104

Flavour Between Groups 42.648 6 7.108 4.379 .001


Total 201.714 104



Total 223.390 104

Aftertaste Between Groups 41.448 6 6.908 3.511 .003


Total 234.248 104



Total 218.057 104

Overall acceptability Between Groups 33.790 6 5.632 3.578 .003


Total 188.057 104

102

APPENDIX IX

ANOVA TABLE FOR FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES ANALYSIS

Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.

Ph Between

Groups

9.180 5 1.836 18359.300 .000


Total 9.181 17

Bulk density Between

Groups

.034 5 .007 54.918 .000


Total .035 17

Water abs cap Between

Groups

158.194 5 31.639 66220.709 .000


Total 158.200 17

Oil abs cap Between

Groups

.404 5 .081 807.200 .000


Total .405 17

Foam cap Between

Groups

2.812 5 .562 6326.763 .000


Total 2.813 17

Viscosity Between

Groups

314.189 5 62.838 628378.400 .000


Total 314.190 17

In-vitro PD Between

Groups

494.963 5 98.993 128191.799 .000


Total 494.972 17

Gelation cap Between

Groups

412.669 5 82.534 825337.200 .000


Total 412.670 17

103

APPENDIX X

ANOVA TABLE FOR PROXIMATE COMPOSITION ANALYSIS

Sum of

Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

N% Between Groups .323 5 .065 363.281 .000


Total .325 17

PROTEIN% Between Groups 12.624 5 2.525 383.196 .000


Total 12.703 17

FAT% Between Groups .252 5 .050 206.441 .000


Total .255 17

ASH% Between Groups 9.386 5 1.877 3519.90

0

.000


Total 9.393 17

CRUDEFIBER% Between Groups 11.847 5 2.369 4.376 .017

Within Groups 6.497 12 .541

Total 18.344 17

MOISTURE% Between Groups 1.487 5 .297 225.898 .000


Total 1.503 17

CARBOHYDRATE% Between Groups 12.547 5 2.509 4.249 .019

Within Groups 7.087 12 .591

Total 19.634 17

104

APPENDIX XI

ANOVA TABLE FOR VITAMIN ANALYSIS


vitB1(ppm) Between Groups 12.332 5 2.466 11095.654 .000


Total 12.334 17

vitB2(ppm) Between Groups 3.083 5 .617 584.140 .000


Total 3.096 17

vitB12(ppm) Between Groups 14.768 5 2.954 2671.582 .000


Total 14.781 17

vitC(ppm) Between Groups 194.012 5 38.802 11918.834 .000


Total 194.051 17

vitB6(ppm) Between Groups 3.802 5 .760 1160.042 .000


Total 3.810 17

105

APPENDIX XII

RDA OF VITAMINS FOR CHILDREN AND ADULTS (mg/kg of body weight)

Age Ascorbic

Acid

Folacin/

Folate

Niacin Riboflavin Thiamine Vitamin

B6

Vitamin B12

mg Mcg Mg Mg mg Mg Mcg

Children 4-6 40/45 200/75 12 1.1 0.9 0.9/1.1 1.5/1.0

7-10 40/45 300/100 16/13 1.2 1.2/1.0 1.2 2.0/1.4

Males 15-18 45/60 400/200 20 1.8 1.5 2.0 3.0/2.0

19-24 45/60 400/200 20/19 1.8/1.7 1.5 2.0 3.0/2.0

25-50 45/60 400/200 18/19 1.6/1.7 1.4/1.5 2.0 3.0/2.0

50+ 45/60 400/200 16/15 1.5/1.4 1.2 2.0 3.0/2.0

Females 15-18 45/60 400/180 14/15 1.4/1.3 1.1 2.0/1.5 3.0/2.0

19-24 45/60 400/180 14/15 1.4/1.3 1.1 2.0/1.6 3.0/2.0

25-50 45/60 400/180 13/15 1.2/1.3 1.0/1.1 2.0/1.6 3.0/2.0

50+ 45/60 400/180 12/13 1.1/1.2 1.0 2.0/1.6 3.0/2.0

* First figure refers to the old RDA listing while the second figure refers to the newer DRI listing (www.nap.edu)

106

APPENDIX XIII

DATA FOR MINERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR CHILDREN AND ADULTS

Age Calcium Phosphorous Iodine Iron Magnesium Zinc Selenium Fluoride

mg Mg ug mg mg mg *ug *mg

Children 4-6 800 800/500 80/90 10 200/130 10 -/20 -/1.1

7-10 800 800 110/120 10 250 10 -/30 -/3.2

Males 15-18 1200/1300 1200/1250 150 18/12 400/410 15 -/50 -/3.8

19-24 800/1000 800/700 140/150 10 350/400 15 -/70 -/3.8

25-50 800/1000 800/700 130/150 10 350/420 15 -/70 -/3.8

50+ 800/1200 800/700 110/150 10 350/420 15 -/70 -/2.9

Females 15-18 1200/1300 1200/1250 115/150 18/15 300/360 15/12 -/50 -/3.1

19-24 800/1000 800/700 100/150 18/15 300/310 15/12 -/55 -/3.1

25-50 800/1000 800/700 100/150 18/15 300/320 15/12 -/55 -/3.1

50+ 800/1200 800/700 80/150 10 300/320 15/12 -/55 -/3.1

* first figure refers to the old RDA listing while the second figure refers to the newer DRI listing -. www.nap.edu

107

APPENDIX XIV

RDA OF ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS FOR CHILDREN AND ADULTS

Requirement - mg. per kg. of body weight

Infant Child Adults

Amino acid 3 - 6 mo. 10 - 12 yr.

Histidine 33 not known not known

Isoleucine 80 28 12

Leucine 128 42 16

Lysine 97 44 12

S-containing amino

acids

45 22 10

Aromatic amino acids 132 22 16

Threonine 63 28 8

Tryptophan 19 4 3

Valine 89 25 14

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