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Psalms

Schippers, A.

Published in:Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an

Link to publication

Citation for published version (APA):Schippers, A. (2005). Psalms. In J. Dammen Mc Auliffe (Ed.), Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an (pp. 314-318).([Volume Four P-Sh]). Brill.

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Download date: 21 Jan 2021

PSALMS

Secondary; K, Aland, The problem of anony­mity and pseudonyraity in Christian literature of the first two centuries, in Journal of theological studies [N.S.]i2 (1961), 39-49; H. Bandt et al., Zorn Gottes, in K. Galling (ed.), Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart. Handworterbuchfiir Theologie undReligionswissenschajl, 6 vols., 1957-623, vi, cols. 1929-33; R. Ettinghause'n,/4nft'A«'rfn«(rAe Polemik im Koran, Gelnhausen 1934; R. Otto, Das Heilige, Miinchen 1979, 14-22; M. Radscheit, Die koranische Herausforderung. Die tahaddl- Verse im Rahmen der Polemikpassagen des Korans, Berlin 1996; id.. Word of God or prophetic speech? Reflections on the qur'anic y«/-statements, in L. Edzard and Chr Szyska (eds.), Encounters of words and texts. Intercultural studies in honor of Stefan Wild, Hildesheim 1997, 33-42; G. Richter, Der Sprachstil des Koran, Leipzig 1940; H. Strathmann, Martus, in Theologisches Worterbuch zum Neuen Testament 4 (1942), 486-7.

Psalms

T h e tide of a book of religious songs and

poems of praise and prayer poems in the

Hebrew Bible to which, according to most

interpretations, reference is made in the

Qur 'an . I t is called Tehillim. in rabbinical

Hebrew (lit. "songs of praise") with the

connotation in post-exilitic Bible books of

"songs of Temple worship";/)M/mo.f is

Greek for "a song sung to a harp." One

of the common words for this kind of com-

posidon found in the book of Psalms itself

is mizmor, which is related to the Arabic

mizmdr, "single-pipe woodwind instrument

resembling the oboe," and mazmur,

• "psalm." T h e Hebrew psalms were not all

composed at the same time but — because

they exist in Greek translation — they

must date back to at least the second half

of the second century B . C . E . T h e so-called

Davidic psalms constituted the very first

stage in the compilation of the Hebrew

book of Psalms.

Although the various versions of the

book of Psalms consist of 149,150 or 151

psalms, 150 seems to be the ideal number

because the Greek version contains an ad­

ditional psalm which is considered super-

^ 314

numerary, that is. Psalm 151 which is also

marked as apocryphal. The book of

Psalms is divided into five chapters or

books, each comprising a number of

psalms. Each of the first four books is

marked off by a doxology or formulaic

expression of praise to God, for instance,

"Blessed is the Lord, from eternity to eter­

nity," "Blessed be the Lord into eternity,"

or "Amen and amen ."

The re are several genres to be distin­

guished in the Psalms: the leading one is

the hymn. Some psalms specifically extol

God's royal role in the universe, his city,

and his Torah (q.v.). About one third of the

Psalter is devoted to laments in which the

speaker may be either the individual or

the community (faced with national

oppression or misfortune) making a strong

plea for divine help. Those songs in which

one is sure of God's help are called

"psalms of confidence." There is also the

genre of thanksgiving. The "royal psalms,"

in which the center of attention is the

anointed one (Messiah) of God, the earthly

king of Israel, and which contain no direct

reference to a reigning monarch, constitute

a separate class. Another genre derives

from wisdom literature; psalms of this

type may be reflective or sententious. T h e

contents are often linked to particular

situations such as repentance for the sins

of the poet, or thanksgiving to the lord for

liberating the poet from his enemies (see

GRATITUDE AND INGRATITUDE).

T h e mixing of genres to be found in the

Psalms is paralleled in the Qur ' an , which is

not a homogeneous collection but a com­

bination of many genres whose suras (q.v.)

are often mixed compositions (see FORM

AND STRUCTURE OF THE Q.UR'AN). A Com­

parison of the two holy books — the

Hebrew Psalms and the Arabic

Qur ' an — makes us aware of the complex

composition of these sacred scriptures:

individual genres such as hyrnns, wisdom

sentences, prophecie

bined, each genre h:

vocabulary and forn

LANGUAGE AND STY)

Some sense of this s

the Qur ' an , where t

Psalms granted by C

17:55), is recognized

preceding the Qur'<

AND THE Q^UR'AN) .

Legendary author

kings David (q.v.) ai

Solomon (q.v.), and

tion of the poet in 1

to events that took;

lifetime. T h e book

ered as " the writini

recitative accompa

Davidic innovatior

ing to die Talmud,

spired (Pes. 117a) a)

supply the inspirat

pended above the

midnight came thf

and it p roduced m

Immediately Davi

himself with the 1

he occupied himsi

from then with so:

Islamic hterature ,

devoted himself ti

tioned by al-Taba

567; Eng. trans, h

In the Q u r ' a n , t

AND THE Q , U R ' A N )

ets" [qisas al-anbiy

P R O P H E T H O O D ; ^

historical writ ing

considered a fam

tioned in several

Q, 21:105 the won

God: "We have \

my righteous ser

earth," which ve

Hebrew psalm {1

shall inheri t the

H

Im 151 which is also

1. The book of

five chapters or

ig a number of

rst four books is

ogy or formulaic

) God, for instance,

rom eternity to eter-

Lord into eternity,"

ires to be distin-

the leading one is

IS specifically extol

universe, his city,

Dout one third of the

Tients in which the

the individual or

vith national

le) making a strong

lose songs in which

Ip are called

' There is also the

The "royal psalms,"

ittention is the

of God, the earthly

h contain n o direct

nonarch, constitute

r genre derives

psalms of this

r sententious. T h e

1 to particular

:ance for the sins

ang to the lord for

his enemies (see

ITUDE).

0 be found in the

te Qur 'an, which is

xtion but a com-

whose suras (q.v.)

tions (see FORM

Q.UR'AN). A com-

)ooks — the

\rabic

re of the complex

red scriptures:

hymns, wisdom

315

sentences, prophecies and poetry are com­

bined, each genre having its own style,

vocabulary and formal language (see

LANGUAGE AND STYLE OF THE ( J U R ' A N ) .

Some sense of this similarity is captured in

the Qur 'an, where the zabur, " the book of

Psalms granted by God to David" (Q^ 4:163;

17:55), is recognized as a holy scripture

preceding the Qur ' an (see SCRIPTURE

AND THE Q U R ' A N ) .

Legendary authors of psalms were the

kings David (q.v.) and, to a lesser extent,

Solomon (q.v.), and sometimes the situa­

tion of the poet in the psalms can be Unked

to events that took place during David's

lifetime. The book of Psalms was consid­

ered as "the writings of David." Musical-

recitative accompaniment is attributed to

Davidic innovation (2 Chron 23:18). Accord­

ing to the Talmud, the Psalms were in­

spired (Pes. 117a) and music helped to

supply the inspiration: "A harp was sus­

pended above the bed of David. When

midnight came the north wind blew on it

and it produced music of its own accord.

Immediately David arose and occupied

himself with the Torah. . . . Until midnight

he occupied himself with the Torah; and

from then with songs and praises." In ,

Islamic literature, the tradition that David

devoted himself to the Torah is also men­

tioned by al-Taban (d. 310/923; Ta'nkh, i,

567; Eng. trans. History, iii, 147).

In the Qur'an, the hadith (see HADITH

AND THE QUR'AN), the "tales of the proph­

ets" {qisas al-anbiyd'; see PROPHETS AND

PROPHETHOOD; NARRATIVES) and Arabic

historical writings, the prophet David is

considered a famous musician. H e is men­

tioned in several places in the Qur ' an . In

Q, 21:105 the word zabUr is used again by

God: "We have written in the zabUr... that

my righteous servants shall inherit the

earth," which verse is reminiscent of a

Hebrew psakn {Ps 37:9, 11, 29: "they who

shall inherit the earth"). God gave David

P S A L M S

the rule of the kingdom (see KINGS AND

RULERS), knowledge {'Urn; see KNOWLEDGE

AND LEARNING) and wisdom (q.v; hikma),

and the abOity to do justice (hukm, esp.

Q, 21:78 f.; c£ 38:20-4, 26; see JUSTICE

AND INJUSTICE). God made the birds and

mountains his servants, so that they unite

in his praise (a 21:79; 34:10; 38:18 f). There

is no mention of the wrong David did to

Ur iah in order to win Bathsheba's affec­

tion, but some qur'anic verses show that

the king feels himself to be guilty. His

prayer for forgiveness (q.v.) is heard

iZ 38:24 f).

T h e hadith (accounts of Muhammad ' s

deeds and sayings) stress David's zeal in

prayer (q.v.) and especially in fasting (q.v.)

and his readiness to do penance (see

REPENTANCE AND PENANCE). Another

favorite theme is David's gift in singing

psalms. His voice has magical power over

not only humans but also over wild beasts

and inanimate nature (see MAGIC). In other

Islamic literature, such as that of Qur ' an

commentators, historians and compilers of

the "tales of the prophets," the works of

the two historians al-Ya'qubl (d. ca. 2 9 2 /

905) and al-Tabarl are especially impor­

tant. Even though both probably based

their works upon texts derived from the

same sources (cf Tha'labi-Brinner,

Lives, 462-81), the works of these two

men are strikingly independent of each

o the r

Al-Ya'qubl has a long passage about

David (cf. Ebied and Wickham, Al-

Ya'kubi's account, 87-91 for an Eng. trans.

of al-Ya'qubi's text on David). H e is por­

trayed as the successor to Saul (q.v.) and as

subduing the Philistines. T h e affair with

Bathsheba and the prophet Nathan's words

of reproach to David are mentioned, the

child he had with Bathsheba being the

later king, Solomon. T h e family affairs

with his brothers are described more or less

according to the Bible, such as the revolt

by his son Absalom, who is killed by Yoab.

Contrary to the biblical version, in al-

Ya'qQbi's text Barzillay marched against

David a n d when G o d saved David from his

hands, David recited a psalm. This psalm

is repor ted in Arabic and is very similar to

Psalm i 8 , in which he thanks God for hav­

ing saved him from his enemies. There

then follows an Arabic rendition of Psalm

I, which begins "Blessed are the ones who

do no t follow the pa th of the sinners."

Other laudatory psalms are quoted in

Arabic, reflecting, respectively. Psalms 148,

149 a n d 150. T h e n the apocryphal Psalm

151 is also quoted in Arabic. This psalm is

conceived as highly autobiographical: in it

David tells us that he was the youngest

among his brethren, herded the sheep of

his father and cut flutes from reed. But

God sent his angels and took h im away

from his sheep a n d from his brethren and

destined him to fight Goliath (q.v.). David

killed this worshipper of idols (see IDOL­

ATRY AND IDOLATERS) by cutting off his

head wi th his own sword. After this pas­

sage, al-Ya'quhl deals with David's old age

and Solomon, David's successor.

Al-Tabar l collects the comments of early

qur 'anic exegetes (see EXEGESIS OF THE

Q,UR'AN: CLASSICAL AND MEDIEVAL) in his

Tqfsir (his exegetical work), including defi­

nitions of terms such as zabur (with the

plural zit-bur), which vary^depending on the

verse. In his commentary on Q, 21:105, he

records a variety of meanings for zabQr:

"all the books of the prophets that God

brought down to t h e m " (Sa'Td b. Jubayr,

Ibn Zayd; see BOOK) , "the books revealed

to the prophets after Moses" (q.v.; Ibn

'Abbas, al-Dahhak) and "a specific.book

revealed to David" ('Amir, al-Sha'bl). In his

commentary on Q, 3:184, al-zubur is a ge­

neric t e rm for a book based on pre-Islamic

poetic evidence (see POETRY AND POETS;

PRE-ISLAMIC ARABIA AND THE Q U R ' A N ) .

Commenting on Q, 4:163, he-writes "the

316

Arabs (q.v.) say zabUr ddwUd (David), and

because of that the rest of the peoples

know his book."

Al-Tabarl includes a section on Saul,

David and Solomon in his Ta'rikh, i.e. his

history of the world. In this work, he

explains David's connection with the

Psalms thus:

When the Israelites gathered around

David, God revealed the Psalms to him,

and taught him ironworking, making it

supple for him. He also ordered the moun­

tains and the birds to sing praise with him

when he sang. According to what they have

mentioned, God did not give anyone in his

creation a voice like his. So when David

recited the Psalms, wild beasts would gaze

at him with delight, until they were lined

up, intentiy listening upon hearing his

voice. The demons invented flutes, lutes

and cymbals with only his voice as a

model. David was extremely diligent, con­

stant in worship (q.v.) and wept much

[Ta'rikh, i, 562; Eng. trans. History, iii, 143;

see WEEPING).

Al-Tabarl incorporates Qur'an as well as

hadith passages into his Ta'rikh; among

them is Q̂ 38:17-8, in which God describes

David to Muhammad, saying: "And

remember our servant David, possessor of

might. Lo! We subdued the hills to sing the

praises with him at nightfall and sunrise."

Al-Tabarl adds, "It has also been men­

tioned to us that David would stay up at

night and fast half of the time. And

according to what has been mentioned,

four thousand men guarded him every day

and night." Just as Abraham (q.v.) was put

to the^ t̂est with the sacrifice (q.v.) of his

son, and Jacob (q.v.) was tested with his

grief over his son Joseph (q.v.), David-

wanted to be tested. But he did not with­

stand the temptation when confronted with

the seductive beauty of Bathsheba, who

was married to Uri

in the Qur'an there

Bathsheba story, al

when speaking abc

for marrying Baths

her husband Urial

trate (see BOWING

he repented." All t

refer to David as ti

praise of God as w

ones. (See also Ha

to other Muslim ti

only engaged to U

him.) At an early stage

was available in A

have learned from

Ya'qubi. A fragmc

translation of the

20-31, 51-61 in Qr

from the second/(

tified in Damascu

sprachiges Psalml

In Jevvdsh and C

(= translation inti

tary) by Sa'adya (

al-Fayyumi (d. 33

famous, but mem

such as Japheth b

'All al-Basri; four

worth mentionin

Psalms reached i

(384-456/994-io(

(al-Fisalfi l-milal)

century Muslim

lated the Psalter

probably not dire

a Latin version c

By that time thei

translations of ti

Ibn Hazm in his

the contents of ;

as Psalm 2:7, wh

God's son (see E

POLEMICAL LAN

about ten other

iwud (David), and

t of the peoples

section on Saul,

his Ta'rikh, i.e. his

I this work, he

ction with the

hered around

e Psalms to him,

rking, making it

ordered the moun-

ig praise with him

g to what they have

t give anyone in his

So when David

beasts would gaze

1 they were fined

5n hearing his

ited flutes, lutes

is voice as a

nely diligent, con-

d wept much

i. History, iii, 143;

Qur'an as well as

Ta'rikh; among

;h God describes

ying: 'And

avid, possessor of

[le hills to sing the

"all and sunrise."

Iso been men-

ould stay up at

time. And

m mentioned,

ed him every day

a.m (q.v.) was pu t

;e (q.v.) of his

ested with his

q.v), David.

e did not with-

1 confronted with

ithsheba, who

317

was married to Uriah (Ahriya). Although

in the Qur'an there is no mention of the

Bathsheba story, al-Tabarl quotes (̂ 38:24

when speaking about David's repentance

for marrying Bathsheba and get t ingj id of

her husband Uriah: "He fell down pros­

trate (see BOWING AND PROSTRATION) and

he repented." All these items of course

refer to David as the singer of psalms in

praise of God as weU as of penitential

ones. (See also Hasson, David; according

to other Muslim traditions Bathseba was

only engaged to Uriah, not marr ied to

him.)

At an early stage, the book of Psalms

was available in Arabic translation, as we

have learned from the translations of al-

Ya'qubl. A fragment of a Christian Arabic

translation of the Psalms (containing Ps 78:

20-31, 51-61 in Greek majuscule writing

from the second/eighth century) was iden­

tified in Damascus by B. Violet (Ein zwei-

sprachiges Psalmfragment).

In Jewish and Christian circles, the Tqfsir

[— translation into Arabic with commen­

tary) by Sa'adya Gaon alias Sa'd b. Yusuf

al-FayyumI (d. 331/942) was especially

famous, but members of the Karai te sect

such as Japheth b. Eli (Abtl 'All Hasan, b .

'All al-Basn; fourth/tenth century) are also

worth mentioning. In Spain, interest in the

Psalms reached its apogee with Ibn Hazm's

(384-456/994-1064) "Book on religions"

(al-Fisalft l-milal). Already in th i rd /n in th

century Muslim Spain, Hafs a l -QuS trans­

lated the Psalter into P\iabic.rajaz verse,

probably not direcdy from Arabic bu t from

a Latin version of Jerorne (347-420 C.E . ) .

By that time there were already two prose

translations of the Psalms in al-Andalus.

Ibn Hazm in his Fisal criticized very much

the contents of a number of psalms, such

as Psalm 2:7, which has a statement about

God's son (see EZRA; JESUS; POLEMIC AND

POLEMICAL LANGUAGE). He also dealt with

about ten other psalms, e.g. Ps 81:6 and

P S A L M S

44:7 (cf Ljamai, Ibn Hazm, 115-8). This is a

sign of the immense popularity of the

Psalms, which is also reflected in the style

of some poems by poets from the east as

weD as the west of the Islamic world, such

as Abu l-'Atahiya (130-211/748-826) and

Ibn Khafaja (450-533/1058-"39)- T h e

Andalusian poet Ibn Khafaja says in one of

his poems [Diwdn, no. 162): "Happy is the

one who stands in the fear of the lord (q.v.)

while darkness (q.v.) sets up its cupola of

darkness," which clearly echoes Psalm 1:1.

In modern times the Urdu poet Iqbal

(1877-1938) has composed a Psalter, but

the poems are not really reminiscent of

Davidic psalms (see also LITERATURE AND

THE C>UR'AN; see esp. NATURE AS SIGNS;

PRAISE for discussion of "psalmodic"

qur 'anic passages).

Arie Schippers

Bibliography Primary: Ibn al-Athlr, Kdmil, i, 153-9; Ibn Hazm, Milal, ch. 15 (end; criticisms of the Psalms of David); Sp. trans. M. Asin Palacios, Abenhdzam de Cordobay su Historia critica de las ideas religiosas, Madrid 1928, ii, 363-6; Ibn Khafaja, Z)m)5n, ed. M, GhazI, Alexandria i960; M. Iqbal, Persian psalms (ZabUr-i 'ajam), trans, A.J. Arberry, Lahore 194B; Japheth b. Eli, In librum psalmorum com-mentarii Arabici, ed. L. Barges, Paris 1846; Kisa'i, Qisas, 252-78; Mas'udi, Munyj i, 106-10; Sa'adyah Gaon, Psalms with translation into Arabic and commentary, ed. Y Kapakh, Jerusalem 1966 [5726]; Suyuti, Z)ur5 vii, 148-76; Tabarl, Tafsir, ed. Shakir, v, 354-71; ix, 401-2; xi, 507-8; xvii [ed. M.M. al-Halabi, 30 vols, Cairo 1968], 50-4; id., Ta'rikh, ed. M.J. de Goeje, i, 554-72; Eng. trans. W. Brinncr, The history of al-Tabafi. iii The Children of Israel, New York 1991, 135-51; Tha'labl-Brinner, Lives — Tha'IabI, Qisas, trans. W.M. Brinner, Lives of the prophets, Leiden 2002; M.-T. Urvoy, Le Psautier mozarabe de Hafs le Goth, Toulouse 1984; Ya'qubi, Ta'rikh, i, 53-64; Dutch trans. G. Juynboll, in A. VroUjk, Taal der engelen, Amsterdam 2002, 69-77.

Secondary: C. Adang, Muslim writers on Judaism and the Hebrew Bible. From Ibn Rabban to Ibn Hazm, Leiden 1996, 119 f.; B. Carra de Vaux, Da'ud, in Ei; i, 927-8; R.Y. Ebied and L.R. Wickham, Al-Ya'kubl's account of the Israelite prophets

111! |!i :

i

P U N I S H M E N T S T O R I E S

and kings, in JNES 29 {1970), 80-98; E Eifller, Konigspsalmen und kardische Messiaserwartung, Tiibingen 2002; Encyclopaedia judaica, Jerusalem 1971, s.v. "Psalms" and "David"; I. Hasson, David, in ig , i, 495-7; J Horovitz/R. Firestone, Zabur, in EI', xi, 372-3; A. Ljamai, Ibn Hazm et la polemique islamo-chretienne dans I'histoire de I'islam, Leiden 2003; D. Masson, Le Coran et la revelation

judlo-chretienne, Paris 1958, 21-3; 40-4; 245; Neuwirth, Studien, 9; R. Paret, DawiJd, in EI', ii, 182; J. Sadan, Some literary problems concern-ingjudaism and Jewry in medieval Arabic sources, in M. Sharon Studies in Islamic history and civilization in honour of Professor David Ayalon, Jerusalem/Leiden 1989, 396-7 (on the apocry­phal psalms known as the Z^bUr); A. Schippers, Haf; al-Qptl's Psalms in Arabic rajaz metre {9th century). A discussion of translations from three psalms (Ps. 50, I and 2), in U. Vermeulen et al. (eds.). Law, Christianity, and modernism in Islamic society, Leuven 1998, 133-46; B. Violet, Ein zwei-sprachiges Psalmfragment aus Damascus, in OLZ i (1901), 384-403. 425-41. 475-88; Wild, Text, 95.

Psychology see SOCIAL SCIENCES AND

THE QUR'AN

P u b e r t y see MATURITY; BIOLOGY AS THE

CREATION AND STAGES OF LIFE

P u n i s h m e n t see CHASTISEMENT AND

PUNISHMENT; R E W A R D AND PUNISHMENT;

PUNISHMENT STORIES; RETALIATION;

VENGEANCE

Punishment Stories

T h e Qur ' an contains many stories, over­

whelmingly from the Meccan period (see

CHRONOLOGY AND T H E QUR'AN), which

describe God's destruction of unbelieving

communities in the generations before

M u h a m m a d (see BELIEF AND UNBELIEF). A

key feature of these stories, at least in their

more developed forms, is the encounter

between a messenger (q.v.) and the par­

ticular community to which he is sent to

preach God's message. The messenger typ­

ically encounters opposition and ridicule

318

but finally God intervenes to destroy the

unbehevers. It is to be noted that these

stories depict a punishment inflicted by

God in this world rather than in the after­

life (see CHASTISEMENT AND PUNISHMENT;

REWARD AND PUNISHMENT). This article

gives a survey of the relevant qur 'anic ma­

terial and also suggests how these stories

illuminate the context in which Muham­

mad was preaching (see OCCASIONS OF

REVELATION).

Early Meccan period

From this period there are a number of

passages vvhich are so brief that they can

scarcely be described as punishment sto­

ries, but which nevertheless point ahead to

the more developed narratives (q.v.) to b e

considered below (see FORM AND STRUC­

TURE OF THE QUR'AN). These early Meccan

passages give short, allusive accounts of

the destruction by G o d of unbelieving

communities of the past, along with

occasional references to messengers sent

by God. T h e relevant passages, in chrono­

logical order, are: 105; 91:11-5; 85:17-20;

73:15-6; 79:15-26; 89:6-14; 53:50-4; 69:4-12;

51:24-46. (See for an analysis of these pas­

sages Marshall , God, 39-52.)

Middle and late Meccan periods

M a n y of the typical features of the punish­

ment stories from these periods are present

in the following account of the preaching

of the messenger Shu'ayb (q.v.) to the

"men of the thicket" (see PEOPLE OF THE

T H I C K E T ) , their rejection of his message

a n d their consequent punishment by God.

T h e men of the thicket cried lies to the

envoys when Shu'ayb said to them: "Will

you not be godfearing? I am for you a

faithful messenger, so fear God and obey

me (see FEAR; OBEDIENCE). I ask of you no

wage for this; my wage falls only upon the

lord (q.v.) of all being. Fill up the measure,

i

and be not cheatei

straight balance,

goods of the peop

WEIGHTS AND MEA

J U S T I C E AND I N J U S

chief in t h e ear th

(q.v.). Fear h i m

C R E A T I O N ) , a n d

the ancients ." T h

one of t h o s e th

INSANITY);, y o u

like us; i n d e e d ,

of the l iars (see

us lumps f r o m

the t ru thful ." H -

very well w h a t

cried h im lies;

p u n i s h m e n t of

edly it w a s t h e

day. Sure ly in

them are n o t

is the a l l -mighb

(0,26:176-91).

This is t h e last

gether f o r m a

stituting v i r t u a

these s even , th

on the m e s s e n

Salih (q.v.). Lot

many similari t ies

and are l i nked

phrases.

These five

ment of t h e

ticular p e o p l e

typically o n e

each s t o r y is

the unbel ievers

the messengers

emphat ica l ly

of unbel ie f

T h e o p e n i n

the m e s s e n g

people t o b

edge h i s o w n