VCE Psychology Revision 1-3

8/10/2019 VCE Psychology Revision 1-3

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Psychology Revision (1-3)

CHAPTER 1: RESEARCH METHODSPsychology- systematic study of the mind and behaviour

Research - 7 steps:

Step

1 Identify the research problem (topic of interest)

2 Constructing the research hypothesis

3 Designing the method

4 Collecting the data

5 Analysing the data

6 Interpreting the data

7 Reporting the research findings

Experiment: test a cause-effect relationship with controlled variable

Independent variable (IV):

Controlled by the experimenterDependent variable (DV):

measured Effects of a changed IV

UNWANTED - Extraneous variable (EV):

Variables NOT IV but could cause changes to the DV Identify the EV

Remove as many as possible

Controlled variableso

Potential effects have been removed from the experiment (experimental design)

UNCONTROLLABLE Confounding variable (CV):

Not IV but has had a systematic effect on the value of the DV If there is a confounding variable, no valid conclusionscan be drawn from the research. Mixed up with the IV

Hypothesis: SPECIFIC!Testable prediction of the relationship between two+ events or characteristics

Population

IV

Prediction


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4.

DV

Operational hypothesis:

Research hypothesis that states how the variables studied will be observed, manipulated and measured Population

Prediction

3. IV manipulation

4. DV measurement

Control group- for comparison reasons

Research Methods - Identifying extraneous and potential confounding variables

Type Definition Examples & text reference

Individual

participant

differences

-Differences in personal characteristics

-Each can affect how a participant may respond in an

experiment

GenderAgeReligionMotivationPast experience

ethnicity

Placebo effect

-occurs when there is a change in the responses of the

participants due to their belief that they have been given

something.

Placebo: Substance

Doctor gives a pill that does

nothing to a patient, but

they experience changes

anyway

Experimenter

effects

- occurs when there is a change in a participant's response due

to the researcher's (experimenter's) expectations, biases or

actions, rather than to the effect of the IV.

Experimenter expectancy - The experimenter provides

cues about the expected responseso

Self-fulfilling prophecy- when the researcher

obtains results that they expect due to the cues

they provide rather than due to the IV e.g. facial expressions Mannerisms Tone of voice

Experimenter bias- unintentional biases in collecting and

analysing data

Participant expectations

Students whose teachers

thought they were fast

learners performed better

than students whose

teachers thought they were

slow learners.

Order effects

-When the performance(DV) is influencedby the specific

orderin which the conditions, treatmentsor tasksare

presented. Performing one task affects the performance of the

next

Practice effect- the influence on performance (DV) that arises

from practising the task.

Perform betterthe second timeBoredom or fatigue effect- due to the repetitive nature of the

same task.

Perform worsethe second time


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Carry-over effect- particular treatment or task has on

performance in a subsequent treatment/task.

Non-

standardisedinstructions

and

procedures

- when the procedures are not uniform, or the same, for all

participants.

Procedures

Selection of participants

Instructions for differentgroups

Interaction with

participants Use of materials Use of rooms or other

settings Observation and

measurement of

variables Data-recording

techniques

SamplingPopulation: larger group from which a sample is drawn

Sample:a group that is a subset of a population

Convenience samplingo

Selecting readily available participants Random sampling

o Randomly selectedo

Ensures every member of the population of research interest has an equal chance of being selected Stratified sampling

o

Dividing the population into distinct subgroups - selecting sample from each stratum, as they occur in

the target population. e.g. Income, age, sex, religion, cultural background, residential area, IQ score

Random-stratified samplingo

Randomly sampling from each strata

Allocation Experimental and control groups

o participants are either allocated to either control or experimental groups


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Random allocationo

each participant has an equal chance of being selected from any of the groups used. e.g. coin flipping or drawing names out of a hat

Counterbalancing - used to minimise order effects such as practice and carry-over.

Systematically changing the order of treatment or tasks for participants in a balanced way to counter the

unwanted effects on performances of any one order.

Single and double blind procedures Single-blind- participants do not know which group they are allocated to Double-blind- neither participant nor experimenter know which participants have been allocated

Placebos

The control group is given a placebo, to eliminate a potentially confounding variable in the experimental

group

Standardised instructions and procedures

Minimise any differences among participants

Experimental DesignsIndependent Groups Design:

Each participant randomly allocated to control or experimentalo

Coin toss

Advantages Disadvantages

No order effects to control for Less control for participant differences

Participant attrition is less common (pulling out of the exp) Large number of participants required

Quick and easy to administer

Repeated-measures design

Same participants are used in both experimental and control conditionso

e.g. loud music on studying Group listens to loud music, then listens to soft music

Advantages Disadvantages

Eliminates potential confounding variables from

participant differences

Demand characteristics - guess the purpose of the

experiment

Small number of participants Participant attrition (turn up for the first condition, but

not for second

Order effects.

Boredom/practice effect

Order effects can be removed by counterbalancing

Half complete the control condition first --> experimental Other half, vice versa Random selection should be used to determine which participants perform the tasks in which order

Matched-participants design

Match participants - similar characteristics - reduce individual differenceso

Can influence the DV


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Divided attention: ability to distribute attention and undertake two or more activities simultaneously

Cocktail phenomenon

Content limitation:

Restricted/limited Control what enters consciousness

Controlled (unfamiliar) Information processing - conscious/alert awareness - mental effort focused on achieving a particular goal Serial activity is difficult or unfamiliar

o e.g. learning to drive

Automatic (familiar)

little conscious awareness/mental effort, minimal attention - does not interfere with the performance of

other activities Parallel - we can handle two or more activities at the same time

Stroop effect

Altered State of Consciousness (ASC):a distinctly different level of mental awareness to that normalwaking consciousness, in that major changes occur in the qualities, or characteristics of an individual's thoughts,

feelings and perceptions

Naturally occurring- sleep, daydreaming and dreaming

Daydreaming(external to internal)o

Shift attention from external to internal, feelings, imagined scenarios Occurs naturally When stationary, routine/boring activities

Freud - fantasies

Purposefully induced- meditation, hypnosis, alcohol, medication or illegal drugs.

AlcoholPsychoactive drug/depressant

Concentration Amount of alcohol consumed Amount of food in stomach Weight Gender

Emotional state Physical wellbeing etc.

Shortened attention span Impaired thinking Impaired memory Slower reaction times Impaired perception of time Less self-control Reduced self-awareness Difficulties with voluntary muscular control and fine movements

Characteristics of ASC

4 characteristics which can distinguish whether a person is in ASC:

Distortion of perception and cognition:


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Senses more receptive or dulled Thinking more illogical/lacking in sequence

Time orientation:

Distorted

Changes in Emotional Awareness

Turmoil; uncharacteristic responses

maintain self-control

Change in Self Control:

Physical or otherwise

MEASURING LEVELS OF ALERTNESS Electroencephalograph (EEG)

Corresponding Mental State

Alpha Very relaxed or meditating

High frequency and slightly larger amplitude

Beta Awake and alert

They have low amplitude and high frequency

Theta Lightly asleep-

Medium frequency and combination of amplitude waves

Delta Deeply asleep

Lowest frequency and highest amplitude

Heart rateECG - electrocardiogram - measures electrical activity of the heart muscle.o

Increases or decreases dependent on state of consciousness

Body temperatureCore body temperature varies over a 24-hour period day.

Depends on physical activity during NWCo

Must be strenuous Can change with ASCs

o e.g. physical health problem

o

Diseaseo

Illegal drug such as ecstasyo

DROPS 1 DEGREE DURING SLEEP

Galvanic skin response (GSR)


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Emotional experiences/alertness

Physiological response - change in resistance of the skin's surface to the passage of an electrical current.

Electrodes are attached to the hairless areas of the hando

e.g. if sweat is secreted (when aroused or stressed) Resistance against electrical conductivity decreases

ASCs - change in emotional response

Therefore can be detected by GSR

Measures of physiological responses can provide useful information,

BUT CANNOT BE THE ONLY INDICATOR of a state of consciousness.

Physiological responses in conjunction with other observations and data-collection techniques to obtain more

accurate data.

Because in psychology - mental processes - difficult to measure things

Many things cannot be measured - can only be inferred, or physiological result --> displayed effect

Therefore a psychological construct is a concept that is 'constructed' to describe a particular psychological

activity, or pattern of activity, that is believed to occur or exist but cannot be directly observed or measured(Grivas p115).

Information provided by the individualo

e.g. self-reports Behaviour that is demonstrated

o e.g. experimental research

Physiological changes that can be measuredo

e.g. brain recording and scanning techniques

Chapter 3 Sleep

Sleep: a regularly and naturally occurring ASC and is characterised by a loss of conscious

awareness

Sleep labs or sleep study units

Polysomnography- monitoring and recording of physiological responses a sleeping individual.

Important physiological information on changes that occur as we fall asleep and during sleep

Electrical activity of the brain, eye movements and muscle tension

Self-reports used with other measures

PHYSIOLOGICAL

Method Function Description What it

measures in

relation to

sleep

EEG (brain

waves)

Detect/amplify/record

electrical activity generatedby the brain whilst

sleeping/dreaming

Identifies the different electrical patterns

generated by the brain

Brain activity

(patterns) Stages

of sleep


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EOG (eye

movement)

Eye movements/electrical

activity in muscles that

control movement of eyes

Electrodes attached around the eye Change of eye

movements

over time

(REM sleep)

EMG

(muscle

tension)

Electrical activity of muscles Attach electrodes to the skin above monitored

muscles

Identifies

changes in

activity

(movement)and muscle

tone (tension)

May

relax

(deep

sleep) Spasm

(light

sleep)

Videomonitori

ng

Physiological responsesduring sleep

e.g. posture/position Tossing and turning Awakening from nightmare Sleepwalking

Examined together with others

Self-

reports

Problems/answers/rating

scales etc.

Sleep diary Time

o Trying to fall asleepo

Sleep onset occurredo

Number/time/length of

awakeningso

Waking upo

Getting up after wakening

NREM - non-rapid-eye movement sleep

REM- rapid-eye movement sleep

Aka 5th stage of sleep

Continuous cycleso

NREM 70-80 minso

4 stages Different brain wave pattern

Complete sleep cycle 80-120 minso

4-5 times during 8 hours of sleep

STAGE PROGRESSION

Awake --> stage 1 --> stage 2 --> stage 3 --> stage 4 | --> stage 3 --> stage 2 --> stage 1 (REM)

Repeat


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Sleep stages

Stage Duration Wave Physiological Description etc.

Awake Beta

Alert High frequency/low

amplitude

Relaxed/hypnogogi

c

1-2 minutes Alpha

High frequency/highamplitude

Slow rolling eye

movements

Flashes of

light/colourDreamlike imagesFloating/weightless

ness

Stage 1 5-10 minutes Alpha/theta

THETA:

irregular/mixture of

high and low

amplitude

Lower level of

bodily arousalHeart

rate/respiration

/body

temperature/m

uscle tensionDECREASE

Hypnic jerk

Stage 2

Truly asleep

10-20 minutes Theta with SLEEP SPINDLES

and K-COMPLEXES

Sleep spindleso

Burst of high

frequency

brain activityo

ONLY OCCURS

IN STAGE 2 K-complexes

o

Response toarousing

stimuli

Body

movements

lessenBreathing more

regularBlood

pressure/tempe

rature fallHeart rate

slower

Truly asleep

Stage 3 10 minutes Theta/delta (20 - 50%, Heart Sleepwalking/sleep


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Moderately deep

sleep

SWS slow wave sleep)

DELTA: low

frequency/high

amplitude

rate/blood

pressure/body

temperature

dropBreathing

steady

talking

Stage 4

Very deep sleep

20 minutes,

graduallyshortens

Delta (more than 50%) Difficult to

arouse (sleepinertia)Muscles

completely

relaxed

Night terrors

No stage 3 or 4 latercycles

REM

20-30%

Paradoxic

al sleep

At first,

a few

minute

s - up

to anhour

Beta-like waves:

Relatively

high

frequency

/lowamplitude

Body is paralysedOccasional twitching in

fingersLowest muscle tone

Heart ratefaster/irregularBlood pressure risesBreathing

quicker/irregular

DREAMLight/deep


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Time spent in each stage of NREM or REM sleep is variable Birth to old -> time spent sleeping generally decreases REM decreases infancy to adolescence

o Then relatively stable until senility

YOUNG ADULT VS. ELEDERLY SLEEP PATTERN

Newborn

16 hours 50% REM sleep

Adolescence

9 hours 20% REM sleep

Late adulthood

6-7 hours


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33% REM sleep60+

Lighter/increased awakenings Mostly stage 2 shallow sleep

90 yrs

Stage 3&4 rarely experienced

Sleep-wake cycle shiftduring adolescence More than 9 hours Biologically driven Each day the body goes through a cycle (circadian rhythmor cycle)

o Hormones produced to control bodily functions

Melatonin - sleepinesso

Linked to light cues

DURING ADOLESCENCEo

Hormone induced shift of body clock forward 1-2 hours

SLEEP WAKE CYCLE SHIFT

Later sleeping

Sleep debt

Sleep owed, needs to be made up Nightly sleep debt of 90 minutes Mon-Fri = 7.5 hours debt Weekends - sleep in Results in going to bed later

o

Shifts sleep period further forward Monday is hell.

Psychological (Cognitive) Emotional Behavioural

(actions)

Physiological

Partial Lapse in attentionInability to concentrateSlower reaction times

Thinkillogically/irrationallyDifficulty making

decisions/solving

problems that require

Loss of

interest/enjoyment

in previously

enjoyed activitiesLow level ofmotivationIrritability

FatigueLack of energyImpaired motor skills

Headaches


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creative thinking

Total HallucinationsDelusionsAnxiety disorders

Depressionparanoia

Anxiety

disordersHypertensionSleep

disorders

Collapse of immune systemUnable to regulate body

temperatureSleepinessFatigue

Hand tremorsDrooping eyelidsDifficulty focusing eyesLack of energy/strengthSlurred speechIncreased sensitivity to painHeart and respiratory

system are slowerBody temperature dropsImpaired production of

hormones

Heart disease Diabetes Obesity Cancer Acceleration of aging

PURPOSE OF SLEEP:

Two main theories:

Restoration- including REM reboundmake up for lost REM Survival: inactive during the day most risky/dangerous

SLEEP RECOVERY PATTERNS- Catch up to repay sleep debt

o Lots the first day, less each successive day until normal

-

REM reboundmake up for lost REM

- Microsleepspartial/total sleep deprivation.

o short period of drowsiness or sleeping occurs when person is apparently awake

EEG pattern like early stages of NREM sleep

No memory of what happens during microsleep

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VCE Psychology Revision 1-3

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