memoryThe persistence of learning over time through the
encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.
encoding
The processing of information into the memory system —for example, by extracting meaning.
storageThe process of retaining encoded information over
time.
retrieval
The process of getting information out of memory storage.
parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious
problem solving.
sensory memoryThe immediate, very brief recording of sensory
information in the memory system.
short-term memory
Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten.
long-term memory
The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills,
and experiences.
working memory
A newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of
incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.
explicit memory
Memory of facts and experiences that one canconsciously know and “declare.” (Also called declarative memory.)
effortful processing
Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
automatic processing
Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information,
such as word meanings.
implicit memory
Retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.)
iconic memory A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image
memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.
echoic memoryA momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can
still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.
chunkingOrganizing items into familiar,
manageable units; often occurs automatically.
mnemonics
Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
spacing effect
The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term
retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.
testing effect
Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a
retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.
hippocampusA neural center located in the limbic system; helps process
explicit memories for storage.
flashbulb memory
A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.
long-term potentiation
(LTP) an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation.
Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
recallA measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier,
as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
recognitionA measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a
multiple-choice test.
relearningA measure of memory that assesses the amount of
time saved when learning material again.
primingThe activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response.
mood-congruent memory
The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.
serial position effect
Our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list.
anterograde amnesia
An inability to form new memories.
retrograde amnesia
An inability to retrieve information from one’s past.
proactive interferenceThe disruptive effect of prior learning on the
recall of new information.
retroactive interference
The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.
repressionIn psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense
mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and
memories.
misinformation effect
Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event.
source amnesia
Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.)
Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many
false memories.
déjà vuThat eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues
from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
cognitionAll the mental activities associated with thinking,
knowing, remembering, and communicating.
conceptA mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or
people.
prototype A mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into
categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin).
creativityThe ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.
convergent thinkingNarrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.
divergent thinking
Expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions).
algorithm
A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier—but also more error-prone—use of
heuristics.
heuristic
A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than
algorithms.
insight A sudden realization of a problem’s solution;
contrasts with strategy-based solutions.
confirmation bias
A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.
mental set
A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.
intuition
An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.
representativeness heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular
prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.
availability heuristic
Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we
presume such events are common.
overconfidenceThe tendency to be more confident than correct—to
overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
belief perseverance
Clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.
framingThe way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and
judgments.
language
Our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.
phonemeIn a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.
morpheme
In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix).
grammarIn a language, a system of rules that enables us to
communicate with and understand others. In a given language, semantics is the set of rules for deriving
meaning from sounds, and syntax is the set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible
sentences.
babbling stage
Beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to
the household language.
one-word stage
The stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.
two-word stage
Beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements.
telegraphic speech
Early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—“go car”—using mostly nouns and verbs.
aphasia
Impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage
either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area
(impairing understanding).
Broca’s areaControls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.
Wernicke’s areapart of the temporal lobe involved in understanding
speech
linguistic determinismWhorf’s hypothesis that language determines the
way we think.
