AP Language and CompositionHandbook and Tools for

Critical Reading and Writing

The AP language exam will be at 8

am on Wednesday, May

10th.

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AP Writing Tips and Guidelines and Words, Words, Words!

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Tips and Guidelines for Your Writing in AP LangStyle:

Diction (word choice) matters Vocabulary above high school level matters Never drop in quotes – never begin a sentence with a quote –

always embed the evidence Know your rhetorical devices so you can use them effectively Know your rhetorical purposes so you can recognize and use

them

Syntax: No abbreviations No contractions No 2nd person pronouns Never use the writer’s first name only when analyzing a piece –

always use the full name (especially the first time you mention him) OR use the last name only (AFTER you have stated the writer’s full name one time)

Underline (when handwriting) or italicize (when typing) the titles of books, plays, artwork, movies, television series, newspapers, and magazines

Use quotation marks for essays, short stories, and poetry. If at all possible avoid beginning sentences with these

conjunctions: and, but, or -- use the conjunction because sparingly to start a sentence

Vary your sentence structure, i.e. simple, compound, complex Vary your sentence beginnings, i.e. phrases, clauses, etc. Learn to use transition words and phrases Learn to eliminate the to be verbs in your writing

Organization: Introductory Paragraph – must be three sentences minimum for

timed writings and five sentences minimum for out of class writings; must have a clear, strong, well-defined thesis statement as the last sentence

Body Paragraphs – please realize there is nothing magical (or even desirable) about three body paragraphs! Each body paragraph must have a topic sentence; each must contain strong evidence, either quoted or paraphrased, preferably a combination of the two; be very clear in establishing your purpose – name your rhetorical devices (and note the purpose, too)

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Conclusion Paragraph – it is time to move PAST the rehashing of your intro as your conclusion! Do what the word conclusion implies… draw some conclusions about your analysis, and BE SURE to tie it back to the overarching theme or purpose of the text – this is the place for your final thoughts on what you have discovered about the piece

A few things to keep in mind with EVERY writing assignment:

Use MLA format for EVERY assignment Always tie your structural analysis to the MEANING of the text If you’re writing about figurative language ask yourself, what

is it’s purpose? Why? What is the impact? When you write about syntax you must tie it back to attitude

and meaning When you write about diction, try to pair the words and ask

yourself, why did these words catch my attention? Why? What is the impact?

EVERY out of class (typed) assignment will be submitted to turnitin.com (your grade will suffer if you don’t!) perhaps you should record your user name and password in this book or in your agenda

Rubric for Essays:This rubric is generic, but it will serve as a scoring guide for your essays. Please refer to this section if you have questions about your score on an essay. Please talk with me about matters of concern or confusion – regarding either the score or your writing.

9 A Excellent thesis – excellent illustrations (support) – effective

imagination (sees and makes connections) – excellent organization – these essays are particularly persuasive or carefully reasoned and demonstrate impressive stylistic control – there may be an infrequent minor infelicity

8 A- Excellent thesis – excellent illustrations (support) – less imagination or speculation – effective organization – these essays are cohesive

and demonstrate the writer’s ability to control a wide range of the elements of effective writing, but they are not flawless

7 B+ Intelligent, yet less effective thesis – effective illustrations, sound

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organization – somewhat imaginative – a few lapses in syntax may be present, but for the most part, the prose style is strong

6 B- Adequate thesis – some illustrations – significantly less imagination

and risk taking – a “safe” paper, carefully done – some lapses in diction or syntax may be present, but for the most part, the prose conveys the writer’s ideas clearly though not with significant intellectual leaps

5 C Thesis unnecessarily imprecise – predictable illustrations – analysis

itself is general and evidence and illustrations may be superficial or limited – uneven development though the prose is generally clear – the essay has “moments” when it’s an effective essay

4 D+ Inadequate response – if a thesis exists, it is hiding and up to the

reader to find it – the writer may misunderstand or misrepresent the task or use inappropriate or insufficient evidence and illustrations – while the prose usually conveys the writer’s ideas, it generally suggests inconsistent control over the elements of writing—such as grammar, diction, and syntax – organization is usually rambling

3 F No discernible thesis – may misread or substitute a simpler task

thus only tangentially addressing the question – an assortment of rambling generalizations or a paraphrase takes the place of cogent analysis – there is little attention to structural and rhetorical technique – the prose reveals consistent weaknesses in control of the elements of writing – a lack of development and organization, grammatical problems, and a lack of control

Word lists that should help with writingCheck these lists (and the lists in the Critical Reading section) when you are writing for this class.

Rhetorical Purposes:

to describe to narrate to inform

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to persuade/convince to instruct/teach to preachto elaborate to satirize to criticizeto lament to eulogize to espouse one’s views

Transitional Words and Phrases:These words and phrases help the reader understand how your text is organized and help to connect ideas and make connections clear.

Denote sequence:first next then finally after nowat last during again earlier

before

Denote important or special emphasis:most important least important a major developmenta key feature most of all a significant factora primary concern above all a distinctive qualityremember that a major event a central issuemost noteworthy the main value especially importantthe chief outcome a vital force the principal item

Add more information:and another also in addition tooagain and finally other first of all

furthermorewith likewise more secondly a final reasonnext moreover one reason similarly last of all

Compare/Contrast:but on the other hand however the oppositerather different from conversely whilestill instead of rather in contrast to thislike on the contrary yet even thoughalike the same as resemble eitherequally in spite of although neverthelesswhereas in the same manner although not withstandingsimilarly

Introduce illustrations or examples:much like to illustrate for example for instance

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similar to to begin with specifically same as

Show inexact ideas:almost could sort of should

maybe purported toprobably if except some looks like was reportednearly alleged might seems like

Signal a conclusion:therefore finally so henceas a result consequently last of all seen from thisin conclusion in summary as one can see overall

More transitions! Over the years Mrs. Henderson has complied a list of helpful transitions … these are in no particular order, but you may find browsing the list helpful. Hopefully there are no duplicates—let us know if you find some!

interestingly oddly enough consequently as a consequencepresumably funnier still parallels also appear even more impressiveuntil then one factor leading to possibly to concludeuntil that point stranger yet on another note after thatin a like manner with that in mind yet another example despite the fact thatall in all equally important obviously likewiseinterestingly enough although it is true in retrospect the best exampleeven more interesting beyond that equally

naturallyin contrast beforehand eventually on a more serious noteeventually to extend the idea in any case afterwardin the meantime thereafter granted that undoubtedlyhumorously despite the fact otherwise while recognizing thatsimply stated certainly as a result indeedgranted that in any event on the whole without a doubtfor this reason in the end in a similar mannerin the meantimeas a matter of fact until now lastly to beginin the same way luckily simultaneously meanwhileregardless hence presently basicallythus far yet more proof as a result on the wholein the same way worse still presently in reality

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initially miraculously defying comprehension alternativelybalancing this in the same way briefly in essencemore importantly by way of contrast in connection with with this in mindforemost in any case it remains to be seen at first glanceworth discussing ultimately following that logic impossible to ignoreat the outset after all ironically in any eventin truth in comparison happier yet

because of this factstrangely enough simultaneously possibly upon further analysisunderscoring it all it also follows that beyond that looking deeperin the final analysis in any case in other words above allmost important in spite of at the beginning indeedapparently generally speaking also important to note although less notable less obvious prior to that without further delaygreater still subsequently all things considered

alternately

Literary Analysis Word Bank:

conveys underscores emphasizes highlightshints at intimates paints a picture portraysexplores shows develops

demonstratesillumines illuminates depicts displaysproves suggests implies symbolizesrepresents introduces sets forth expandsfurthers hearkens back to recalls echoesreiterates repeats reveals explicatessuggests clarifies points to revealsmanifests illustrates expounds satirizes

Action verbs: (the underlined verbs are especially good for pointing out accomplishments) – this list is handy since you need to get rid of “to be” verbs!

Management skills:administered analyzed assigned attained chairedconsolidated contracted coordinateddelegated developeddirected evaluated executed improved increasedorganized oversaw planned prioritized producedrecommended reviewed scheduled strengthened supervisedCommunication skills:

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addressed arbitrated arranged authored collaboratedconvinced corresponded developeddirected draftededited enlisted formulated influenced interpretedlectured mediated moderated negotiated persuadedpromoted publicized reconciled recruited spoketranslated wrote

Research skills:clarified collected critiqued diagnosed evaluatedexamined extracted identified inspected interpretedinterviewed investigated organized reviewed

summarizedsurveyed systemized

Technical skills:assembled built calculated computed designedengineered fabricated maintained operated overhauledprogrammed remodeled repaired solved

upgraded

Teaching skills:adapted advised clarified coached communicatedcoordinated demystifieddeveloped enabled encouragedevaluated explained facilitated guided informedinstructed persuaded set goals stimulated trained

Financial skills: administered allocated analyzed appraised auditedbalanced budgeted calculated computed developedforecasted managed marketed planned projectedresearched

Creative skills:acted conceptualized created customizeddesigned developed directed established fashionedfounded illustrated initiated instituted integratedintroduced invented originated performed plannedrevitalized shaped

Helping skills:assessed assisted clarified coached counseleddemonstrated diagnosed educated expedited facilitatedfamiliarized guided motivated referred

rehabilitatedrepresented

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Clerical or Detail skills:approved arranged catalogued classified collectedcomplied dispatched executed generated implementedinspected monitored operated organized preparedprocessed purchased recorded retrieved screened specified systemize tabulated validated

More verbs for accomplishments:achieved expanded improved pioneered re duced resolved restored spearheaded

transformed

More stuff to keep in mind while you are writingTo Be or Not to Be – getting rid of “to be” verbs takes work, but it is the quickest way to improve your writing! Here are some ways to eliminate those bothersome “bees”:

Combining:Condense two sentences or clauses into one, using the action verb of one.ChangeJoan loves to sing. Her other passion is writing.toJoan loves both singing and writing.

Using an appositive phrase:ChangeJonson was the most popular poet of his time. He wrote several plays as well and was an avid linguist. toJonson, an avid linguist and the most popular poet of his time, also wrote several plays.

Using an infinitive phrase: (to + verb)ChangeThe lifeguard was swimming rapidly, and he reached the victim.toTo reach the victim, the lifeguard swam rapidly.

Using a participle phrase:ChangeThe lifeguard was swimming rapidly, and he reached the victim.

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toSwimming rapidly, the lifeguard reached the victim.

Making the object the subject:ChangeMany people say Colorado (object) is a beautiful place. That is why it is a preferred vacation spot.toColorado’s famed beauty makes it a preferred vacation spot.

Making a participle or gerund: (add –ing to a word)ChangeI want to be a guitar player someday. I know that to do that I must practice every day.toI know I must practice everyday to realize my dream of playing guitar.

Making an adjective phrase:ChangeIn the attic, Richard discovered a crate. It was full of diaries.toIn the attic, Richard discovered a crate full of diaries.

Grammar & punctuation things to keep in mindPunctuation rules:A period is used:

1. at the end of a declarative sentence

2. at the end of an imperative sentence

3. after an abbreviation4. after an initial5. in outlining and

numbering

A question mark is used:1. at the end of an

interrogative sentence

An exclamation point is used:1. at the end of an

exclamatory sentence

2. after an interjection that expresses strong feeling

A comma is used:1. between the name of a

town or city and the state2. between the day of the

month and the year3. between the words and

phrases in a series4. after the complimentary

close of a letter5. after the salutation of a

friendly letter6. to set off the name of a

person addressed

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7. to set off words like yes and no when the answers to questions are followed by other words

8. after a mild interjection9. after a person’s last name

when it is used as an address

10. to separate a direct quotation from the rest of the sentence

11. before the conjunction that joins two simple sentences in a compound sentence

A semicolon is used:1. to join the parts of a

compound sentence when no coordinating conjunction is used

Underlining is used:1. for titles of books, movies,

magazines, newspapers

A colon is used:1. after the salutation in a

business letter2. to introduce a list3. in writing time to separate

the hour from the minutes

An apostrophe is used:1. to show possession2. to take the place of the

omitted letter or letters in a contraction

Quotation marks are used:1. to enclose a direct

quotation2. to mark the title of a short

story, poem, song, chapters in a book, episodes in a TV series, or

articles in magazines or newspapers

3. to distinguish words or letters referred to as such

A hyphen is used:1. to separate the parts of a

word at the end of a line2. in compound numbers

from twenty-one to ninety-nine

3. in fractions4. to separate the parts of a

compound noun5. between words that make

up a compound adjective used before a noun

Capital letters are used:1. first word of every

sentence2. first word and all

important words in the titles or books, booklets, poems, songs, stories, essays

3. first word of each line of poetry

4. first word in the complimentary close of a letter

5. important words in the salutation of a letter

6. first word of a direct quotation

7. in outlining, the first word of each main head and subhead

8. names of buildings9. names of churches and

religious denominations10. names of countries,

languages, and nationalities

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11. names of days of the week, the months of the year, and special days

12. names of businesses13. names of rivers,

oceans, seas, lakes, bays, gulfs, and mountains

14. names of states, cities, and towns

15. names of streets

16. the words I and O17. the titles of people 18. The Bible and its

books and the names of the Deity

19. initials20. abbreviations of

proper names21. abbreviations of a

title AP Terms and Definitions(Terms most applicable to AP Language are in bold.)

Abstract Language-Language describing ideas and qualities rather than observable or specific things, people, or places. The observable or "physical" is usually described in concrete language.

Ad hominem—Latin for "against the man." When a writer personally attacks his or her opponents instead of their arguments

Ad populum—Latin for "to the crowd." A fallacy of logic in which the widespread occurrence of something is assumed to make it true.

Allegory—A narrative or description having a second meaning beneath the surface one. A story, fictional or nonfiction, in which characters, things, and events represent qualities or concepts. The interaction of these characters, things, events is meant to reveal an abstraction or a truth. These characters, etc. may be symbolic of the ideas referred to.

Allegorical fable—a brief tale told to point out a moral in which characters are animals

Alliteration—The repetition at close intervals of initial identical consonant sounds. Or, vowel sounds in successive words or syllables that repeat.

Allusion—An indirect reference to something (usually a literary text) with which the reader is expected to be familiar. Allusions are usually literary, historical, Biblical, or mythological.

Ambiguity—An event or situation that may be interpreted in more than one way. Also, the manner of expression of such an event or situation may be ambiguous. Artful language may be ambiguous. Unintentional ambiguity is usually vagueness.

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Ambiguity—the multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, or a word, phrase, sentence, or passage

Ambivalence—the coexistence of opposing attitudes or feelings, such as love and hate, toward a person, an object, or an idea

Anachronism—Assignment of something to a time when it was not in existence, e.g. the watch Merlyn wore in The Once and Future King.

Analogy—An analogy is a comparison to a directly parallel case. When a writer uses an analogy, he or she argues that a claim reasonable for one case is reasonable for the analogous case.

Anaphora—Repetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of two or more sentences in a row. This device is a deliberate form of repetition and helps make the writer's point more coherent.

Anecdote—A brief recounting of a relevant episode. Anecdotes are often inserted into fictional or nonfiction texts as a way of developing a point or injecting humor.

Antecedent—the word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP Lang exam OFTEN EXPECTS you to identify the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences.

Angst—A term used in existential criticism to describe both the individual and the collective anxiety-neurosis of the period following the Second World War. This feeling of anxiety, dread, or anguish is notably present in the works of writers like Jean Paul Sartre and Albert Camus.

Annotation—Explanatory notes added to a text to explain, cite sources, or give bibliographic data (by the author or student).

Antithesis—A balancing of two opposite or contrasting words, phrases, or clauses.

Aphorism—a short, often witty statement of a principal of a truth about life.

Apostrophe—An address to the dead as if living; to the inanimate as if animate; to the absent as if present; to the unborn as if alive. Examples: "O Julius Caesar thou are mighty yet; thy spirit walks abroad," or "Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll."

Archetype—A term borrowed by psychologist Carl Jung who described

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archetypes as "primordial images" formed by repeated experiences in the lives of our ancestors, inherited in the "collective unconscious" of the human race and expressed in myths, religion, dreams, fantasies, and literature. These "images" of character, plot pattern, symbols recur in literature and evoke profound emotional responses in the reader because they resonate with an image already existing in our unconscious mind, e.g. death, rebirth.

Argument—a single assertion or a series of assertions presented and defended by the writer.Argumentation—Exploring of a problem by investigating all sides of it; persuasion through reason. One of the four chief forms of discourse, the others being exposition, narration, and description. The purpose of argumentation is to convince by establishing the truth of falsity of a proposition.

Aside—A dramatic convention by which an actor directly addresses the audience but it is not supposed to be heard by the other actors on the stage.

Assonance—Repetition of a vowel sound within two or more words in close proximity. "Fake" and "lake" denote rhyme; "lake" and "fate" demonstrate assonance.

Asyndeton—A series of words separated by commas (with no conjunction), e.g. "I came, I saw, I conquered." The parts of the sentence are emphasized equally; in addition, the use of commas with no intervening conjunction speeds up the flow of the sentence.

Atmosphere—the emotional mood created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the author’s choice of objects that are described. Even such elements as a description of the weather can contribute to the atmosphere. Frequently atmosphere foreshadows events. See also mood.

Attitude—the relationship an author has toward his or her subject and/or his or her audience.

Authority—support that draws on recognized experts or people with highly relevant experience

Balance—Construction in which both halves of the sentence are about the same length and importance, sometimes used to emphasize contrast.

Bandwagon—Trying to establish that something is true because

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everyone believes it is true.

Burlesque—broad parody, whereas a parody will imitate and exaggerate a specific work, such as Romeo and Juliet, a burlesque will take an entire style or form, such as myths, and exaggerate it into ridiculousness.

Cacophony—harsh, awkward, or dissonant sounds used deliberately to create an effect (opposite of euphony).

Caricature—descriptive writing that greatly exaggerates a specific feature of a person’s appearance or a facet of personality.Catharsis—The process by which an unhealthy emotional state produced by an imbalance of feelings is corrected and emotional health is restored.

Causal Relationship (cause and effect)—In causal relationships, a writer assert that one thing results from another. To show how one thing produces or brings about another is often relevant in establishing a logical argument.

Characterization—The method an author uses to develop characters in a work. In direct characterization, the author straightforwardly states the character’s traits. With indirect characterization, those traits are implied through what the character says, does, how the character dresses, interacts with other characters, etc.

Chiasmus—Arrangement of repeated thoughts in the pattern of X Y Y X. Chiasmus is often short and summarizes a main idea, e.g., "ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country."

Chronological Ordering—Arrangement of ideas in the order in which things occur; may move from past to present or in reverse, from present to past.

Churlish indifference—an attitude in which one has a bad disposition causing him/her not to care one way or the other.

Classicism—the principles and styles admired in the classics of Greek and Roman literature, such as objectivity, sensibility, restraint, and formality.

Classification (as means of ordering)—Arrangement of objects according to class; e.g., media classified as print, television, radio.

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Coherence—quality of a piece of writing in which all the parts contribute to the development of the central idea, theme, or organizing principle.

Colloquial /colloquialism—the use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable in formal writing, colloquialisms give a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include local or regional dialects. (see as example, McCourt’s Angela’s Ashes)

Comedy of Manners—Deals with the relations and intrigues of gentlemen and ladies living in a polished and sophisticated society; it evokes laughter mainly at the violations of social conventions and decorum and relies on the wit and humor of the dialogue for its effect.

Comic relief—Humorous speeches and incidents in the course of the serious action of a tragedy; frequently comic relief widens and enriches the tragic significance of the work.

Conceit—Unusual or surprising comparison between two very different things (a special kind of metaphor or complicated analogy.

Concrete Language—Language that describes specific, observable things, people or places, rather than ideas or qualities.

Conflict—a clash between opposing forces in a literary work, such as man v. man; man v. nature; man v. society; man v. technology; or man v. self.

Connotation—Rather than the dictionary definition, the associations associated by a word. Implied meaning rather than literal meaning or denotation.

Consonance—Repetition of a consonant sound within two or more words in close proximity.

conundrum—a riddle whose answer is or involves a pun; it may also be a paradox or difficult problem.

Conventional—Following certain conventions, or traditional techniques of writing. An over reliance on conventions may result in a lack of originality. The five-paragraph theme is considered conventional.

Cumulative—Sentence which begins with the main idea and then

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expands on that idea with a series of details or other particulars.

Deduction—A form of reasoning that begins with a generalization, then applies the generalization to a specific case or cases.

Denotation—literal meaning of a word, as defined by dictionary (see also connotation).

Description—the picturing words of something or someone through detailed observation of color, motion, sound, taste, smell, and touch; one of the four modes of discourse.

Dialect—the recreation of regional spoken language, such as the Irish dialect as used in McCourt’s Angela’s Ashes.

Diction—the author’s choice of words that creates tone, attitude, and style and meaning, particularly with regard to correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. For the AP Exam, be able to describe an author’s diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain) and understand the ways in which diction can compliment the author’s purpose. Diction, combined with syntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc., creates an author’s style. See also syntax.

Didactic—A term used to describe fiction or nonfiction that teaches a specific lesson or moral or provides a model or correct behavior or thinking.

Digression—A temporary departure from the main subject in speaking or writing.

Discourse—spoken or written language, including literary works; the four traditionally classified modes of discourse are description, exposition, narration, and persuasion.

Disjointed—lacking order or coherence

Dramatic Irony—When the reader is aware of an inconsistency between a fictional or nonfiction character's perception of a situation and the truth of that situation.

Dramatic monologue—a poem that reveals a “soul in action” through the speech of one character in a dramatic moment in the speakers life.

Effusive—spread out loosely.

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Either-OR-reasoning—an argument or issue of two polar opposites ignoring an alternatives. (also known as False dichotomy)Elegy—A formal sustained poem lamenting the death of a particular person.

Elliptical—Sentence structure which leaves out something in the second half. Usually, there is a subject-verb-object combination in the first half of the sentence, and the second half of the sentence will repeat the structure but omit the verb and use a comma to indicate the ellipsed material.

Emotional Appeal—When a writer appeals to an audience's emotions (often through "pathos") to excite and involve tem in the argument.

Enthymeme—A syllogism in which one of the premises—often the major premise—is unstated, but meant to be understood, e.g. "Children should be seen and not heard. Be quiet, John." Here, the minor premise—that John is a child—is left to the ingenuity of the reader.

Epigraph—A quotation or aphorism at the beginning of a literary work suggestive of a theme. One found at the beginning of John Kennedy Toole's Confederacy of Dunces: "When a true genius appears in the world, you may know him by this sign; that all the dunces are in a confederacy against him." —Jonathan Swift.

Epiphany—A major character's moment of realization or awareness.

Epithet—a term used to characterize a person or thing, such as rosy-fingered in rosy-fingered dawn or the Great in Catherine the Great. Also a term used as a descriptive substitute for the name or title or a person, such as The Great Emancipator for Abraham Lincoln.

Ethical Appeal—When a writer tries to persuade the audience to respect and believe him or her based on a presentation of image of self through the text. Reputation is sometimes a factor in ethical appeals, but in all cases the aim is to gain the audience's confidence.

Ethos—in persuasion and argumentation the use of ethical appeals. Refers to the character of a person

Euphemism—The use of a word or phrase that is less direct, but is also considered less distasteful or less offensive than another. E.g. "He is at rest" instead of "He is dead." Also consider "Technicolor yawn" for "vomiting."

Evocation—creation anew through the power of memory or imagination.

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Example—An individual instance taken to be representative of a general pattern. Arguing by example is considered reliable if examples are demonstrably true or factual as well as relevant.

Explication—The act of interpreting or discovering the meaning of a text. Explication usually involves close reading and special attention to figurative language.

Exposition—Background information provided by a writer to enhance a reader's understanding of the context of a fictional (or nonfiction) story.

Extended analogy—a comparison of two things alike in certain aspects which appears throughout a piece of writing.

Extended metaphor—a sustained comparison, often referred to as a conceit. The extended metaphor is developed throughout a piece of writing.

False Analogy—When two cases are not sufficiently parallel to lead readers to accept a claim of connection between them.

Farce—A type of comedy in which one-dimensional characters are put into ludicrous situations; ordinary standards of probability and motivation are freely violated in order to evoke laughter.

Fiction—A product of a writer's imagination, usually made up of characters, plot, setting, point of view, and theme.

Figurative Language—A word or words that are inaccurate literally, but describe by calling to mind sensations or responses that the thing described evokes. Figurative language may be in the form of metaphors or similes, both non-literal comparison. Shakespeare's "All the world's a stage" is an example of non-literal figurative language (metaphor specifically).

Figure of Speech—A form of expression in which words are used out of the usual sense in order to make the meaning more specific

Flat Character—A character constructed around a single idea or quality; a flat character is immediately recognizable.

Foil—A character whose traits are the opposite of another and who thus points up the strengths and weaknesses of the other character.

Freight-train—Sentence consisting of three or more very short independent clauses joined by conjunctions.

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Generalization—When a writer bases a claim upon an isolated example or asserts that a claim is certain rather than probable. Sweeping generalizations occur when a writer asserts that a claim applies to all instances instead of one.

Generic conventions—this term describes traditions of each genre. These conventions help to define each genre; for example, they differentiate between an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing. On the AP exam, try to distinguish the unique features of a writer’s work from those dictated by convention.

Genre—French, a literary form or type; classification. e.g. tragedy, comedy, novel, essay, poetry. On the AP Lang exam, expect the majority of the passages to be from the following genres: autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing. On the AP Lit exam, expect the majority of the passages to be from poetry, drama, and fiction.

Homily—this term literally means “sermon,” but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.Hubris—Overwhelming pride or insolence that results in the misfortune of the protagonist of a tragedy. It is the particular form of tragic flaw that results from excessive pride, ambition, or overconfidence. The excessive pride of Macbeth is a standard example of hubris in English drama. Also spelled hybris

Hyperbole—Conscious exaggeration used to heighten effect. Not intended literally, hyperbole is often humorous. Example: "And fired the shot heard round the world."

Idiom—any expression peculiar to a language whose meaning cannot be construed from the meanings of words composing it.

Image—A word or group of words, either figurative or literal, used to describe a sensory experience or an object perceived by the senses. An image is always a concrete representation.

Imagery—The use of images, especially in a pattern of related images, often figurative, to create a strong unified sensory impression.

Induction—A form or reasoning which works from a body of facts to the formulation of a generalization; frequently used in science and history. EX: because I teach AP Lang, I can induce that all juniors are geniuses!

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Inference—to draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. On the AP exam, when a multiple choice question asks for an inference to be drawn from a passage, the most direct, most reasonable inference is the safest answer choice. If an inference is implausible, it is unlikely to be the correct answer. Note that if the answer choice is directly stated, it is NOT inferred and is wrong.

Invective—a verbally abusive attack

Inversion—Variation of the normal word order (subject first, then verb, then complement) which puts a modifier or the verb as first in the sentence. The element that appears first is emphasized more than the subject.

Irony—When a reader is aware of a reality that differs from a character's perception of reality (dramatic irony)/ The literal meaning of a writer's words may be verbal irony. Generally speaking, a discrepancy between expectation and reality.

Litotes—Opposite of hyperbole; litotes intensifies an idea understatement by stating through the opposite. E.g. saying "It wasn't my best day" instead of "It was my worst day."

Logic—to be logically acceptable, an argument or claim must be supported with appropriate details or facts. It must be consistent and believable.Logical Appeal—Relies on the audience's logical faculties; logical appeal moves from evidence to conclusion.

Logical Fallacy—a mistake in reasoning that renders an argument invalid. Student writers should beware so that they do not claim too much; they do not oversimplify complex issues; and they should support the argument with concrete evidence and specific proposals.

logos—an appeal to logic. See Logical appeal

loose sentence—a type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed at the end of the independent clause, the clause would be a complete sentence. A work containing many loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, and conversational. See Periodic sentence.

Metaphor—A comparison of two things, often unrelated. A figurative verbal equation results where both "parts" illuminate one another. Metaphors may occur: in a single sentence —"Talent is a cistern; genius is a fountain;" as a controlling image of an entire work —"Pilgrim at Sea by Par F. Lagerkvist; as

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obvious ("His fist was a knotty hammer.") or implied (But O beware the middle mind that purrs and never shows a tooth."). Dead Metaphor—So overused that its original impact has been lost.Extended Metaphor—One developed at length and involves several points of comparison.Mixed Metaphor—When two metaphors are jumbled together, often illogically.

Metonymy—Designation of one thing with something closely associated with it. E.g. calling the head of a committee a CHAIR, the king the CROWN, a newspaper the PRESS, or old people the GRAY HAIRS.

Mood—An atmosphere created by a writer's word choice (diction) and the details selected. Syntax is also a determiner of mood because sentence strength, length, and complexity affect pacing.

Monologue—a speech given by one character

Moral—The lesson drawn from a fictional or nonfiction story. A heavily didactic story.

Motif—A frequently recurrent character, incident, or concept in literature.

Negative-Positive—term used in syntax to refer to a sentence that begins by stating what is not true, but ending by stating what is true.Non-sequitur—Latin for "it does not follow." When one comment isn't logically related to another.

Novel—An extended piece of prose fiction. Some examples include:sociological novel —emphasizes the influence of economic and social conditions on characters and events and often embodies an implicit thesis for social reform. historical novel —takes its setting and a number of its characters and events from history. regional novel —emphasizes setting and mores of a particular locality as these affect character and action (local color); e.g. Confederacy of Dunces by John Kennedy Toolenovel of ideasepistolary novel—tells narrative through letters (beginning of Frankenstein by Mary Shelly).

Onomatopoeia—The use of a word whose pronunciation suggests its meaning. "Buzz," "hiss," "slam," and "pop" are commonly used examples. On the AP Lang exam, this term is not used in the

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multiple-choice section, but if it is used in the essay passage, be sure to note the effect.

Oxymoron—A rhetorical antithesis. Juxtaposing two contradictory terms, like "wise fool" or "deafening silence."

Pacing—the relative speed (or slowness) with which a story is told or an idea is presented.

Parable—A short story from which a lesson may be drawn.

Paradox—A seemingly contradictory statement or situation which is actually true. This rhetorical device is often used for emphasis or simply to attract attention.

Parallelism—Sentence construction which places in close proximity two or more equal grammatical constructions. Parallel structure may be as simple as listing two or three modifiers in a row to describe the same noun or verb; it may take the form of two or more of the same type of phrases (prepositional, participial, gerund, appositive) that modify the same noun or verb; it may also take the form of two or more subordinate clauses that modify the same noun or verb. Or, parallel structure may be a complex blend of single-word, phrase, and clause parallelism all in the same sentence.

Parody—An exaggerated imitation of a usually more serious work for humorous purposes. The writer of a parody uses the quirks of style of the imitated piece in extreme or ridiculous ways.

Pathos—Qualities of a fictional or nonfiction work that evoke sorrow or pity. Over-emotionalism can be the result of an excess of pathos.

Pedantic—a term used to describe writing that borders on lecturing. It is scholarly and academic and often overly difficult and distant.

Periodic Sentence—Sentence that places the main idea or central complete thought at the end of the sentence, after all introductory elements—e.g. "Across the stream, beyond the clearing, from behind a fallen a tree, the lion emerged."

Persona—A writer often adopts a fictional voice to tell a story. Persona or voice is usually determined by a combination of subject matter and audience.

Personification—Figurative Language in which inanimate objects,

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animals, ideas, or abstractions are endowed with human traits or human form—e.g. "When Duty whispers…”

Persuasion—a form of argumentation, one of the four modes of discourse; language intended to convince through appeals to reason or emotion.

Plot—System of actions represented in a dramatic or narrative work.

Point of View—The perspective from which a fictional or nonfiction story is told. First-person, third-person, or third-person omniscient points of view are commonly used. On the AP exam, be sure to note (and analyze) the perspective and shift associated with point of view.

Polysyndeton—Sentence which uses and or another conjunction, with no commas, to separate the items in a series, usually appearing in the form X and Y and Z, stressing equally each member of the series. It makes the sentence slower and the items more emphatic than in the asyndeton.

Post Hoc Fallacy—Latin for "after this, therefore because of this." When a writer implies that because one thing follows another, the first caused the second. Establishes an unjustified link between cause and effect.

Protagonist—Chief character in a dramatic or narrative work, usually trying to accomplish some objective or working toward some goal.

Pun—A play on words that are identical or similar in sound but have sharply diverse meanings.

Red Herring—Device through which a writer raises an irrelevant issue to draw attention away from the real issue.

Refutation—Occurs when a writer musters relevant opposing arguments.

Regional dialect—when the same language is spoken in a variety of regions but using very different types of words depending upon regional influences.

Regionalism—an element in literature that conveys a realistic portrayal of a specific geographical locale, using the locale and its influences as a major part of the plot.

Repetition—Word or phrase used two or more times in close proximity.

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Rhetoric—The art of effective communication, especially persuasive discourse. Rhetoric focuses on the interrelationship of invention, arrangement, and style in order to create felicitous and appropriate discourse. It refers to the entire process of written communication.

Rhetorical Criticism—Emphasizes communication between the author and reader. Analyzes the elements employed in a literary work to impose on the reader the author's view of the meaning, both denotative and connotative, of the work.

Rhetorical strategies and devices—these are those tools that enable a writer to present ideas to an audience effectively. It is the art of using language effectively and involves (1) writer’s purpose, (2) his or her consideration of the audience, (3) the exploration of the subject, (4) arrangement and organization of the ideas, (5) style and tone of expression, and (6) form.

Rhetorical Fallacies—(Also called logical fallacies)sometimes writers have trouble making convincing “honest” arguments with the facts that they have on hand – when that happens they often resort to rhetorical fallacies (also known as faulty logic). Ad hominem—Latin for "against the man." When a writer personally attacks his or her opponents instead of their argumentsAd populum—Latin for "to the crowd." A fallacy of logic in which the widespread occurrence of something is assumed to make it true.Appeal to Ignorance—based on the assumption that whatever has not been proven Argument from Authority (or false authority)—tempts readers to agree with the writer’s assumptions based on the authority of a famous person or entity or the writer’s own characterfalse must be true (OR whatever has not been proven true must be false)Bandwagon Appeals—see Ad populum Begging the Question—fallacious form of argument in which someone assumes that parts (or all) of what a person claims to be proving are proven facts. This circular form of reasoning is easier grasp by example: The Loch Ness monster spoke to me in my dreams, so it must exist.Dogmatism—does not allow for discussion because the speaker presumes that his or her beliefs are beyond question; essentially, the “logic” runs as follows: “I’m correct because I’m correct.”Equivocation—telling part of the truth, while deliberately hiding the entire truth; typically this is considered lying by omission.False Dichotomy—the consideration of only the two extreme sides when there are one or more intermediate possibilities (also known as either-or-reasoning)Faulty Analogy—an illogical, misleading comparison between two

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things.Faulty Causality—refers to the (sometimes unintentionally) setting up of a cause-and-effect relationship when none exists. In faulty causality, one event can happen after another without the first necessarily being the direct cause of the secondHasty Generalization—deliberately leading to a conclusion by providing insufficient, selective evidenceNon-sequitur—Latin for "it does not follow." When one comment isn't logically related to another.Red Herring—Device through which a writer raises an irrelevant issue to draw attention away from the real issue.Scare Tactics—used to frighten readers into agreeing with the speaker—often used when the writer has no logical argument on which to fall back.Sentimental Appeals—appealing to the hearts of readers so that they forget their minds.Slippery Slope—arguments suggest dire consequences from relatively minor causesStraw Man Argument—consists of oversimplification of an opponent’s argument to make it easier to attack. (EX: Students who want to eliminate the school’s uniform are exhibitionists who want to show off bare midriffs.) OR the writer argues against a claim that nobody actually holds or is universally considered weak; this draws attention away from the real issue.

Rhetorical modes—describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing. These four writing modes are sometimes referred to as the modes of discourse. Rhetorical modes and their purposes are as follows: exposition—expository writing used to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. On the AP exam, essay questions are frequently set up as expository topics.argumentation—persuasive writing used to prove the validity of an idea of an idea or point of view by presenting sound reasoning, discussion, and argument that thoroughly convinces the reader; it also has the additional aim of urging some form of action. On the AP exam, essay questions are set up for argumentative (persuasive) writing.description—used to re-create, invent, or visually present a person, place, event, or action so that the reader can picture that being described; sometimes an author engages all five senses in description; good descriptive writing can be sensuous and picturesque, it may be straightforward and objective, or it can be highly emotional and subjective.narration—used to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events; uses the tools of descriptive writing.

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Rhetorical Question—A question asked for rhetorical effect to emphasize a point; no answer is expected.

Round Character—A character drawn with sufficient complexity to be able to surprise the reader without losing credibility.

Sarcasm—A type of verbal irony in which, under the guise of praise, a caustic and bitter expression of strong and personal disapproval is given. Sarcasm is personal, jeering, and intended to hurt.

Satire—A work that reveals a critical attitude toward some element of human behavior by portraying it in an extreme way. Satire doesn't simply abuse (as with invective) or get personal (as with sarcasm). Satire usually targets groups or large concepts rather than individuals; its purpose is customarily to inspire change.

self-deprecating humor—humor that undervalues oneself and one’s abilities.

Setting—Locale and period in which the action takes place.

Simile—A figurative comparison of two things, often dissimilar, using the connecting words: "like," "as," or "then." E.g. "More rapid than eagles his coursers they came."

Situational Irony—Applies to works which contain elaborate expressions of the ironic spirit. Also, irony applies to both Hamlet's situation and to his famous soliloquy, "To be or nor to be."

Soliloquy—When a character in a play speaks his thoughts aloud —usually by him or herself.

Stereotype—a character who represents a trait that is usually attributed to a particular social or racial group and who lack individuality.

Stock Character—Conventional character types that recur repeatedly in various literary genres. E.g. the wicked stepmother or Prince Charming or the rascal.

Straw Man Argument—consists of oversimplification of an opponent’s argument to make it easier to attack. (EX: Students who want to eliminate the school’s uniform are exhibitionists who want to show off bare midriffs.) OR the writer argues against a claim that nobody actually holds or is universally considered weak; this draws attention away from the real issue.

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Stream of Consciousness—Technique of writing that undertakes to reproduce the raw flow of consciousness, with the perceptions, thoughts, judgments, feelings, associations, and memories presented just as they occur without being tidied into grammatical sentences or given logical and narrative order.

Style—the unique way an author presents his ideas; diction, syntax, imagery, structure, and content all contribute to a particular style. Consideration of style has two purposes: (1) an evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other literary devices because some authors; styles are so idiosyncratic that we can quickly recognize works by the same author (or a writer emulating that author’s style); (2) classification of authors to a group and comparison of an author to similar authors can help readers see how an author’s style reflects and helps to define a historical period or literary movement. Style can be called flowery, explicit, succinct, rambling, bombastic, commonplace, incisive, or laconic, to name only a few examples.

Subject complement—the word (with any accompanying phrases) or clause that follows a linking verb and compliments, or completes, the subject of the sentence by either renaming it or describing it. On the AP exam, this term is occasionally used in a multiple-choice question.

Syllogism—From the Greek for “reckoning together,” a deductive system of formal logic that presents a major premise, a minor premise, and a sound conclusion that follows the two. A syllogism’s conclusion is valid only if each of the two premises is valid.

Major premise: All men are mortal.Minor premise: Socrates is a man.Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

Symbol /symbolism—generally, anything that represents or stands for something else; usually a symbol is something concrete, such as an object, action, character, or scene that represents something more abstract. Symbols and symbolism can often be more complex, and one system classifies symbols in three categories:natural symbols –use objects and occurrences from nature to represent ideas commonly associated with them (dawn symbolizes hope or a new beginning; a rose symbolizes love; and a tree symbolizes knowledge)conventional symbols—those that have been invested with meaning by groups (religious symbols, national symbols or group symbolsliterary symbols—sometimes also conventional in the sense that they are found in a variety of works and are generally recognizedOn the AP exam, try to determine what abstraction an object is a

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symbol for and to what extent it is successful in representing that abstraction.

Synecdoche—Part of something is used to stand for the whole —e.g. "threads" for clothes; "wheels" for cars.

Syntax—the way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is similar to diction, but they can be differentiated by thinking of syntax as groups of words while diction refers to individual words. On the AP exam, in the multiple choice section expect to be asked some questions about how an author manipulates syntax, and in the essay section, you will need to analyze how syntax produces effects.

Syntactic fluency—ability to create a variety of sentence structures, appropriately complex and/or simple and varied in length.

Syntactic permutation—sentence structures that are extraordinary complex and involved; they are often difficult for a reader to follow.

Theme—A central idea of a work of fiction or nonfiction, revealed and developed in the course of a story or explored through argument. Frequently the theme is unstated, but in essay writing it may be stated overtly.

terse—brief and to the point

Thesis—in expository writing, the thesis statement is the sentence or group of sentences that directly expresses the author’s opinion, purpose, meaning, or proposition. Expository writing is usually judged by analyzing how accurately, effectively, and thoroughly a writer has proven the thesis.

Tone—A writer's attitude toward his or her subject matter revealed through diction, figurative language, and organization of the sentence and global levels. Tone is generally easier to determine in spoken language than written. A few examples: acerbic – sour or bitter; capricious – impulsive, unpredictable; conciliatory – friendly, appeasing; condescending – displaying a patronizingly superior attitude; cynical – scornful of motives, virtue, or integrity of others; irate – angry; judicious – having or expressing judgment; lyrical –expressing deep, personal emotions or enthusiasm

Tragedy—Representations of serious actions which turn out disastrously.

Tragic Flaw—Tragic error in judgment; a mistaken act which changes the

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fortune of the tragic hero from happiness to misery; also known as hamartia.

Transition—a word or phrase that links one idea to th e next and carries the reader from sentence to sentence, paragraph to paragraph.

Understatement-Deliberately representing something as much less than it really is —e.g. "Last week I saw a woman flayed, and you will hardly believe how much it altered her appearance." —Jonathan SwiftUnity—A work of fiction or nonfiction is said to be unified is all the parts are related to one central idea or organizing principle. Thus, unity is dependent upon coherence.

Verbal Irony—When the reader is aware of a discrepancy between the real meaning of a situation and the literal meaning of the writer's words.

Voice—can refer to two different areas of writing: (1) the relationship between a sentence’s subject and verb (active or passive voice) and (2) the total “sound” of a writer’s style or the way a written work conveys an author’s attitude. (FYI it’s related to, but not the same thing as tone)

Vulgar—refers to language spoken by common people; a word, phrase, or manner of expression used chiefly by uneducated people; also can be offensively excessive in self-display or expenditure as to be ostentatious.

Wit—in modern usage, intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights. Wit uses terse language that makes a pointed statement.

Zeugma—The writer uses one word to govern several successive words are clauses —e.g. She discovered New York and her world.

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Critical Reading and Rhetorical Analysis

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The Rhetorical Triangle

Speaker/Writer (ETHOS)

Creditability, fairness – use of DICTION, TONE, and SYNTAX to establish fairness and credibility

Message (LOGOS)

Logic of argument – use of DICTION and SYNTAX to create logic

Audience (PATHOS)

Reaching out to the audience through DICTION, IMAGERY, and SYNTAX

CONTEXT & PURPOSE – establish the genre & impact decisions on message to identified audience

You cannot miss the essential step of looking at the larger meaning of the piece. If you miss that then you will just give a listing of items used by the writer, not an explication of the work, which always involves the context.

The triangle is surrounded by the CONTEXT.

If you are able to offer an informed opinion about the purpose and merits of a text, then you are on the road to true literacy.

The AP Exam in Language and Composition seeks to identify readers who can not only describe what happened, but also explain why and how it happened.

More specifically, as a critical reader you will: Summarize and outline complex material Critically examine a text’s reasoning Analyze the ways a text achieves its effects, especially through

stylistic choice Evaluate a text, deciding whether it is accurate, authoritative,

and convincing Determine a text’s significance Compare and contrast different text Synthesize information from one or more related text Apply concepts in one text to another

Here is your mantra for close reading: What does it mean? How does it make meaning? Why did the writer make this choice?

There are six strategies a critical reader can employ when reading prose passages:1. Get the facts straight

Preview Annotate Outline Summarize

2. Analyze the argument What is the author’s thesis? What kinds of support are used? What is fact and what is fiction? Is support sufficient and appropriate? What is based on emotion and what is based on reason? Is there satisfactory conclusion?

3. Identify basic features of style Diction (word choice) Tone Sentence structure Sentence types Verb choices

4. Explore your personal response What is your response? What are the sources and causes of your response?

5. Evaluate the text and determine its significance Era Social Intellectual

6. Compare and contrast related texts

As you analyze a work, the following will help you organize your response.

GENRE1. Typically, the four purposes of academic non-fiction prose are:

Description Explanation Information Persuasion

2. Persuasion stems from three sources Ethos (ethics)-an author may rely on his own reputation to move

an audience Pathos (emotion)-an author may rely on the feelings of the

audience Logos (logic)-an author may use reason to persuade the

audience3. Is the passage an excerpt from fiction?

A fictional passage tends to be a description of character or a location; it is seldom a philosophical commentary.

ORGANIZATION1.If the passage is descriptive, is it organized spatially or by order of importance? What is the overall effect?2. If the passage is narrative, is the chronological order of events interrupted by flashback, foreshadowing, episodic events?3. If the passage is expository, are any of the following devices or methods used: definition, cause and effect, comparison/contrast, classification, examples, analogy?4. If persuasion is used, what methods does the author use to bolster the argument? Does the author deal with opposing evidence? Does the author fall into any logical fallacies?

TONE AND MOOD1. What is the mood (effect on the reader)?2. What is the tone (author’s attitude)?

LANGUAGE AND STYLE1. What is the word choice? Is it colloquial, idiomatic, scientific,

Latinate, formal, concrete, abstract, scholarly, allusive? 2. To what senses does the author appeal?3. What literary devices of sense does the author use (personification, metaphor, simile, allusion)?

4. What literary devices of sound does the author use (alliteration, assonance, consonance, repetition)?

5. Does the language have rhythm?6. Are the sentences long or short? Where does the author use sentences or fragments for special emphasis? Where does the author use long sentence or run-ons for special effect?7. Are the sentences simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex? Where does the author use sentence variety to emphasize and idea?8. What specialized sentence structure does the author use? Balanced, freight train, inverted, parallel, periodic? Is there use of anaphora, antithesis, asyndeton, chiasmus, negative-positive, restatement, polysyndeton?9. Do any sentences begin or end with a significant word or phrase? Do any sentences have the main idea hidden in the middle, in an interrupter, so as to create surprise or suspense?10. Does the author use colors to enhance moods or characterize someone?11. What are the best-worded phrases or best chosen words?

An Explanation of Style

Style, is the habitual, repeated patterns that differentiate one writer from another. Hemingway is noted for his sparse, objective style indicative of the isolation of people in the twentieth century; Hawthorne for his flamboyant exaggerated word pictures that create a mood of horror or fearful introspection. It is also about the deviation from the expected pattern. This

is called Expectation (the pattern) and Surprise (deviation from the pattern). A discussion of style also is a discussion of the well-chosen word or phrase.

The most important thing about discussing style is to show its relationship to the theme or main idea of the passage. You must interpret the link between theme and language. For example if the theme is about fertility and success, does the author use images of spring, blossoming, growth, or fruition? Does the word choice have connotations of positive, safe, or loving feelings?

Colloquial word choice is not standard grammatical usage and employs slang expressions; this word usage develops a casual tone. Scientific, Latinate (words with Latin roots or origins), or scholarly language would be formal and employ standard rules of usage. Concrete words form vivid images in the reader’s mind, while abstract language is more appropriate for discussion of philosophy. Allusive style uses many references to history, literature, or other shared cultural knowledge to provoke or enlighten the reader. Appeals to the senses make the writing more concrete and vivid. Since prose does not have a natural rhythm, an obvious metrical pattern in a passage signals an important idea.

Any time an author uses similes or metaphors, or any other poetic devices, it is because the author wants to draw attention to that particular characteristic and perhaps suggest a more complex relationship to the implied or stated theme.

If the author suddenly or obviously varies sentence structure or length of a sentence, this signals important ideas. Most certainly, a detail or action will appear in these sentences that the author considers crucial. Most sentences in English are loose sentences (subject, predicate, modifiers – He went to the store.). Any time an author wishes to call attention to an important idea a different sentence structure can be used. These different structures are called emphatic because they emphasize the ideas contained in them.

In analyzing an author’s style, then, seek out patterns, and spot variations from the norm. Suppose an author employs many lengthy, balanced sentences with the frequent use of parallelism and anaphora, and the word choice is formal and Latinate. You can say that his style is formal and balanced. If this same author then includes one or two short sentences, a metaphor, and an inverted word order, you can point out these constructions and discuss the importance of the ideas contained in and signaled by these constructions. In addition, you should be on the lookout for the well-chosen word, and/or the compelling turn of phrase. Don’t forget: all discussion of style should show the relation to the tone or theme of the selection.

D-I-D-L-SWhat in the world is D-I-D-L-S??? (so glad you asked!)

How to Analyze Each Quotation’s Language and Style: D-I-D-L-S Just as each of us has a particular, unique way of presenting ourselves, writers

have unique ways of presenting themselves. Our personalities shine through the way we talk, the words we choose, the gestures we use, the clothes we wear. A writer has only language to express his/her personality. The qualities below are the basic elements of a writer's style.

Diction – The author’s choice of words and their connotations. What words does the author choose? Consider his/her word choice compared to another. Why did the author choose that particular word? What are the connotations of that word choice? What effect do these words have on your mood as a reader? What do they seem to indicate about the author’s tone?

E.g. Author 1: Bill was unintelligent. (relatively neutral, as far as lack of intelligence goes) E.g. Author 2: Bill was a zipperhead. (less of a low IQ, more like someone who acts like an idiot) Images – The use of descriptions that appeal to sensory experience.What images does the author use? What does he/she focus on in a sensory way? The kinds of images the author puts in or leaves out reflect his/her style? Are they vibrant? Prominent? Plain? What effect do these images have on your mood as a reader? What do they seem to indicate about the author’s tone? NOTE: Images differ from details in the degree to which they appeal to the senses.

Details – Facts that are included or those that are omitted. What details are does the author choose to include? What do they imply? What does the author choose to exclude? What are the connotations of their choice of details? What effect do these included and excluded details have on your mood as a reader? What do these included and excluded details seem to indicate about the author’s tone? PLEASE NOTE: Details are facts or fact-lets. They differ from images in that they don’t have a strong sensory appeal.

E.g. An author describing a battlefield might include details about the stench of rotting bodies or he might not.

Language – Characteristics of the body of words used; terms like slang, formal, clinical, scholarly, and jargon denote language.What is the overall impression of the language the author uses? Does it reflect education? A particular profession? Intelligence? Is it plain? Ornate? Simple? Clear? Figurative? Poetic? What effect does language have on your mood as a reader? What does language seem to indicate about the author’s tone?

E.g. This is the step I’m most apt to skip.

Sentence Structure – The fashion in which the sentences are constructed. What are the sentences like? Are they simple with one or two clauses? Do they have multiple phrases? Are they choppy? Flowing? Sinuous like a snake? Is there antithesis, chiasmus, parallel construction? What emotional impression do they leave? If we are talking about poetry, what is the meter? Is there a rhyme scheme? What effect do these structures have on your mood as a reader? What do these structures to indicate about the author’s tone? PLEASE NOTE: Short = emotional or assertive; longer = reasonable or scholarly.

Now that you have a plan of attack, you will need words to describe language

Students often need to develop a vocabulary that describes language.  Different from tone, these words describe the force or quality of the diction, images, and details.  These words qualify how the work is written, not the attitude or tone.

jargon pedantic poeticvulgareuphemistic moralistic scholarlypretentiousslang insipid sensuousidiomaticprecise exact concrete esotericlearned cultured connotative symbolicpicturesque plain simplehomespunliteral figurative provincial colloquialbombastic trite artificial abstruseobscure detached grotesque precise

DICTIONIn all forms of literature—non-fiction, fiction, poetry, and drama—authors choose particular words to convey effect and meaning to the reader. Writers employ diction, or word choice, to communicate ideas and impressions, to evoke emotions, and to convey their views of truth to the reader. The following definitions may be useful in helping students understand and appreciate the deliberate word choices that writers make.

LEVELS OF DICTIONHigh or formal diction usually contains language that creates an elevated tone. It is free of slang, idioms, colloquialisms, and

contractions. It often contains polysyllabic words, sophisticated syntax, and elegant word choice. The following is an example:

Discerning the impracticable state of the poor culprit’s mind, the elder clergyman, who had carefully prepared himself for the occasion, addressed to the multitude a discourse on sin, in all its branches, but with continual reference to the ignominious letter. So forcibly did he dwell upon this symbol, for the hour or more during which his periods were rolling over the people’s heads, that it assumed new terrors in their imagination, and seemed to derive its scarlet hue from the flames of the eternal pit.(Hawthorne, Nathaniel. The Scarlet Letter. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1850.)

Neutral diction uses standard language and vocabulary without elaborate words and may include contractions. The following is an example:

The shark swung over and the old man saw his eye was not alive and then he swung over once again, wrapping himself in two loops of the rope. The old man knew that he was dead but the shark would not accept it. Then, on his back, with his tail lashing and his jaws clicking, the shark plowed over the water as a speedboat does. The water was white where his tail beat it and three-quarters of his body was clear above the water when the rope came taut, shivered, and then snapped. The shark lay quietly for a little while on the surface and the old man watched him. Then he went down very slowly.(from The Old Man and the Sea by Hemingway, Ernest, Scribner’s, 1995. Copyright Gale Group, 1995. Reprinted with permission of Gale Group.)

Informal or low diction is the language of everyday use. It is relaxed and conversational. It often includes common and simple words, idioms, slang, jargon, and contractions. The following is an example:

Three quarts of milk. That’s what was in the icebox yesterday. Three whole quarts. Now they ain’t none. Not a drop. I don’t mind folks coming in and getting what they want, but three quarts of milk! What the devil does anybody want with three quarts of milk!(Morrison, Toni. The Bluest Eye. Reprinted with permission of International Creative Management, Inc. Copyright 1970 by Toni Morrison.)

TYPES OF DICTION

Slang refers to recently coined words often used in informal situations. Slang words often come and go quickly, pushing in and out of usage within months or years.Colloquial expressions are nonstandard, often regional, ways of using language appropriate to informal or conversational speech and writing. The characteristic “ayah” of Maine or the southern word “y’all” are examples.

Jargon consists of words and expressions characteristic of a particular trade, profession, or pursuit. Some examples of nautical jargon from The Secret Sharer by Joseph Conrad are “cuddy,” “mizzen,” and “binnacle.”

Dialect is a nonstandard subgroup of a language with its own vocabulary and grammatical features. Writers often use regional dialects or dialects that reveal a person’s economic or social class. Mark Twain makes use of dialect in the following passage:

“Sho, there’s ticks a plenty. I could have a thousand of ‘em if I wanted to.”“Well, why don’t you? Becuz you know mighty well you can’t. This is a pretty early tick, I reckon. It’s the first one I’ve seen this year.”(Twain, Mark. The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1946.)

Concrete diction consists of specific words that describe physical qualities or conditions. The following passage uses concrete diction to describe an experience:

The tears came fast, and she held her face in her hands. When something soft and furry moved around her ankles, she jumped, and saw it was the cat. He wound himself in and about her legs. Momentarily distracted from her fear, she aquatted down to touch him, her hands wet from the tears. The cat rubbed up against her knee. He was black all over, deep silky black, and his eyes, pointing down to his nose, were blush green. The light made them shine like blue ice. Pecola rubbed the cat’s head; he whined, his tongue flicking with pleasure. The blue eyes in the black face held her.Morrison, Toni. The Bluest Eye. Reprinted by permission of International Creative Management, Inc. Copyright 1970 by Toni Morrison.

Abstract diction refers to language that denotes ideas, emotions, conditions, or concepts that are intangible. Some examples of abstract diction from Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness are such words as impenetrable, incredible, inscrutable, inconceivable, and unfathomable.

Denotation is the exact, literal definition of a word independent of any emotional association or secondary meaning.

Connotation is the implicit rather than explicit meaning of a word and consists of the suggestions, associations, and emotional overtones attached to a word. For example, the word “house” has a different emotional effect on the reader than does the word “home,” with its connotation of safety, coziness, and security.

Good writers value both denotation and connotation, but while scientists may use more denotative words, literary artists tend to rely more heavily on connotative words for deepest meaning and strongest effect. Since connotative words have complex layers of associations and implications, writers spend a considerable amount of time searching for just the “right words” to convey experience and truth.

Style Analysis Terms(Inclusive of tone as well as words that describe and qualify how a work is written)

Abrupt Diffident Ironic ProvincialAbstruse Disbelieving Irreverent ReflectiveAcerbic Disdainful Irritated ReminiscentAccusatory Disorganized Jargon

ResignedAmbivalent Dramatic Jovial RestrainedAmused Dry Journalistic SanguineApathetic Earnest Judicious SarcasticApprehensive Effusive Jumbled SardonicAudacious Elaborate Laconic SatiricAustere Elated Lighthearted

ScholarlyAuthoritative Elegant Lilting

ScornfulAwe Elegiac Lugubrious SentimentalBaffled Enraptured Lyrical ShockedBantering Enthusiastic Macabre SoberBenevolent Erudite Malicious SolemnBewitching Esoteric Matter-of-fact SolidBitter Exuberant Melancholic SomberBombastic Euphoric Mellifluous SpareCallous Facetious Mesmerizing SpectralCandid Flippant Mock-heroic SprawlingCapricious Flowery Mock-serious StaccatoCeremonial Foreboding Moralistic StridentChaotic Forthright Mournful SympatheticCheery Frivolous Musical TauntingCholeric Gloomy Nostalgic TerseClinical Grating Objective ThreateningCompassionate Grotesque ObfuscatingTrite Complimentary Harsh ObsequiousTurgid Concerned Haughty OptimisticUrgent Conciliatory Haunted OrnateVexed Condemnatory Hopeful OutragedVibrant Condescending Humorous Passionate

Vulgar Confident Idiomatic PatronizingWhimsical Contemplative Impartial PedanticWistful Contentious Incisive PessimisticWrathful Conventional Incredulous PettyCritical Indignant Poetic

CynicalInflammatory Poignant Despondent

InsipidPompous Derisive Insolent PreciseDetached Irate Pretentious

More Words to Use When Describing Tone(loosely grouped according to connotation)

admiring, worshiping, approving strident, subdued, harsh, acerbic, angry disliking, abhorring, contemptuous simple, straightforward, direct, unambiguous complicated, complex, difficult forceful, powerful, confident, self-assured ironic, sardonic, sarcastic, mocking, sly indirect, understated, evasive bitter, grim, cynical sympathetic, interested indifferent, unconcerned, apathetic, detached humorous, playful, flippant resigned, calm, tranquil melancholy, despairing solemn, serious, somber pensive, thoughtful reverent, respectful excited, exhilarated happy, contented, ecstatic incredulous, questioning, skeptical insistent, urgent commanding, demanding self-deprecating bemused, wry whimsical reassuring, comforting

ADJECTIVES USED TO DESCRIBE TONE ON PREVIOUS SAT’S dogmatic-authoritative, assertive, arrogant didactic-instructive elegiac-expressing sorrow, longing ironic-showing the unexpected or opposite effect

condescending-showing superiority pedantic-petty, ostentatious, unimaginative ambivalent-indecisive, mixed emotion patronizing-condescending aloof-haughty, distant skeptical-questioning, doubting sympathetic-favoring, expressing sorrow sentimental-maudlin, affected emotionally apathetic-uncaring, uninvolved hypnotic-intriguing, trance-like satirical-ridiculing, ironic candid-frank, truthful bitter-hating, malicious loathing-abhorring, dislike reverent-having deep respect pompous-arrogant, self-important cathartic-purging, cleansing lugubrious-dismal, mournful having levity-humor supercilious-lofty pride, arrogant fatalistic-deadly, pessimistic incongruous-not coinciding, disharmonious somber- dark, gloomy, serious dispassionate-unaffected, logical threatening-imposing harm complimentary-favorable contemptuous-scornful galling-causing exasperation soporific-causing sleep, soothing, dull theatrical-dramatic pungent- sharp, penetrating appeal to the sense desultory-off the main idea, wandering ethnic-racial, cultural tongue-in-cheek-ironic, facetious, sarcastic

SyntaxThe manner in which a speaker or author constructs a sentence affects what the audience understands. At the simplest level, syntax consists of sentence structure, but analysis of style and meaning never relies on one concept alone.

Sentence PatternsOne of the most important elements of syntax is the way the words, phrases and clauses are arranged. This is key element of the author’s style and can have a marked effect on meaning.

1. A declarative sentence makes a statement: e.g., “The king is sick.”2. An imperative sentence gives a command: e.g., “Cure the king.”

3. An interrogative sentence asks a question: e.g., “Is the king sick?”4. An exclamatory sentence provides emphasis or expresses strong

emotion: e.g., “The king is dead! Long live the king!”5. A simple sentence contains one independent clause: e.g., “The

singer bowed to her adoring audience.”6. A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a

coordinating conjunction or by a semicolon: e.g., “The singer bowed to her audience, but she sang no encores.”

7. A complex sentence contains an independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses: e.g., “Because the singer was tired, she went straight to bed after the concert.”

8. A compound-complex sentence contains two or more independent clauses and one or more subordinate clauses: e.g., “The singer bowed while the audience applauded, but she sang no encores.”

9. A loose or cumulative sentence makes complete sense if brought to a close before the actual ending: e.g., “We reached Edmonton that morning after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, tired but exhilarated, full of stories to tell our friends and neighbors.” The sentence could end before the modifying phrases without losing its coherence.

10. A periodic sentence makes sense fully only when the end of the sentence is reached: e.g., “That morning, after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, we reached Edmonton.”

11. In a balanced sentence, the phrases or clauses balance each other by virtue of their likeness of structure, meaning, or length: e.g., “He maketh me to lie down in green pastures; he leadeth me beside still waters.”

12. Natural order of a sentence involves constructing a sentence so the subject comes before the predicate: e.g., “Oranges grow in California.”

13. Inverted order of a sentence involves constructing a sentence so the predicate comes before the subject: e.g., “In California grow the oranges.” This pattern can be used to create an emphatic or rhythmic effect.

14. Juxtaposition is a poetic and rhetorical device in which normally unassociated ideas, words, or phrases are placed next to one another, often creating an effect of surprise and wit: e.g., “The apparition of these faces in the crowd: / Petals on a wet, black bough.”

15. Parallel structure (Parallelism) refers to a grammatical or structural similarity between sentences or parts of a sentence. It involves an arrangement of words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs so that elements of equal importance are equally developed and similarly phrased: e.g., “He loved swimming, running, and playing tennis.”

16. Repetition is a device in which words, sounds, and ideas are used more than once to enhance rhythm and to create emphasis: e.g.,

“. . . government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth>” (“Address at Gettysburg” by Abraham Lincoln)

17. A rhetorical question is a question that requires no answer. It is used to draw attention to a point and is generally stronger than a direct statement: e.g., “If Mr. Ferchoff is always fair, as you have said, why did he refuse to listen to Mrs. Baldwin’s arguments?”

18. A rhetorical fragment is a sentence fragment used deliberately for a persuasive purpose or to create a desired effect: e.g., “Something to consider.”

Argumentative Structure and DefinitionComposing an argument is a little like preparing for a debate. You should approach the subject carefully defining it from the opposition’s perspective. Sometimes it’s at this level (definition) that the real controversy is revealed.The next step is to offer reasoning and evidence which support your “side” of the issue. Good evidence can take a variety of forms, but fallacious reasoning is equally abundant. (Analogy, authority, and example are all good evidence. Begging the question, either-or reasoning, and non sequitur are common fallacies in argument.) In this stage of the argument, your job is to make clear how and why you arrived at your position. The reader should be able to follow your logic readily and should be able to trust your evidence.

The next step involves covering your opponent’s objections. In any argument, two or more positions may exist. Rather than discount your opposition’s point of view (since this merely alienates—it does not win arguments), you should make a reasonable effort to deal with the major points of conflict and demonstrate where his argument fails.

Lastly, your argument should offer a solution to the issue’s problem(s). No reader likes to read an argument that complains but does not offer alternatives. Argument Outline

I. State premise or thesis: define issueA. Provide details about the nature of the issueB. Articulate how your definition differs from the opposition;

analyze their argument carefullyC. Define by denotation, connotation, example, and/or cause

and effectII. Offer reasoning and evidence

A. Provide readers with logic that led you to your conclusionB. Offer supporting evidence (comparison, analogy, authority,

quotation, statistics, etc.)C. Check your reasoning and evidence for fallacies

III. Cover the opposition’s objectives to your positionIV. Offer a solution or alternative

DefinitionsAnalogy: a comparison to a directly parallel case. When a writer uses analogy, he argues that a claim reasonable for one case is reasonable for an analogous case.Authority: support that draws on recognized experts or persons with highly relevant experienceExample: arguing by example is considered reliable if examples are factual and relevantBegging the Question: often called circular reasoning, begging the question occurs when the believability of the evidence depends on the believability of the claimEither-Or Reasoning: an argument or issue of two polar opposites, ignoring any alternatives Ex.; “Either we abolish cars or the environment is doomed.”Non sequitur: Latin for “it does not follow;” when one statement isn’t logically connected to anotherDenotation: the dictionary meaning of a wordConnotation: implied meaning rather than the literal or dictionary meaningCause and Effect: one thing results from anotherStraw man: when a writer argues against a claim that nobody actually holds or is universally considered weak; setting up a straw man diverts attention from the real issuesRed Herring: when a writer raises an irrelevant issue to draw attention away from the real issuePost hoc, ergo prompter hoc: Latin for “after this, therefore because of this;” implies that because one thing follows another, the first caused the second, but sequence is not the causeLogic: to be logically acceptable, support must be appropriate to the claim, believable and consistentGeneralization: asserts that a claim applies to all instances instead of someEmotional appeal: appeals to an audience’s emotions to excite and involve them in argumentBacking: support or evidence for a claim in an argumentAd hominem: Latin for “against the man;” a personal attack rather than attacking the argumentsCreating a false dilemma: presenting a choice that does not include all possibilitiesDescribing with emotionally charged terminology: vocabulary carrying strong connotative meaning, either positive or negative

The Parts of an Argument

1. Assertion: what the writer is claiming, the main point2. Evidence: the data, information, and knowledge which a

historian, social scientist, or any communicator uses to support an argument. It is only when we know the sources of the evidence that we can judge how valid the evidence actually is. Four ways to evaluate evidence:

P: Is it the primary or secondary source? Primary sources are better

R: No reason to distort. Does the writer have reason to distort, cover up, give false impressions, lie, etc.?

O: Are there other sources of evidence? P: Is it a public or private statement? Private is usually

better because it is usually said in confidence3. Words: Word choice cues the reader to the author’s beliefs

* Jargon: needless use of big words* Equivocation: use of key word in two or more senses in the same argument* Weasel Words: suggest without giving proof

4. Reasoning: reasoning gets from evidence to conclusion* Comparison and analogy: This type of reasoning compares two cases. The cue word “like” identifies comparison reasoning* Sample or generalization: Argues what is true for some part or sample of a group will be true for the rest of the group* Cause and effect: Reasoning that argues that something has or will cause something else

5. Assumptions: An assumption is something that is not stated but is taken

for granted in an argument. Some assumptions are not warranted and

should not be accepted5. Values: Values are conditions that a communicator of an

argument believes are intrinsically good, or thinks are important and

worthwhile

Evaluation Questions For ArgumentAsk the following questions of any selection with argumentative elements.

1. What is the assertion made by the author? State this in your own words.

2. What is your initial position on the issue? Do you have any prejudicial attitudes, sentiments, or stereotypes?

3. What arguments (logical reasonings) are made? Are they unified, specific, adequate, accurate, and representative?

Does the author represent the important opposing arguments fairly?

Does the author use specific examples, detailed description, quotations from authorities, facts, statistics, etc.?

Are there any omissions?4. What emotional appeals are made? Be aware of illogical fallacies

which are based on appeals to traditions, desires, prejudices, etc.5. What attempts are made to establish the writer’s credentials?

Does the wrier use a reasonable tone, treating the opponent with respect by avoiding such things as illogical statements or inflammatory language?

Does the wrier reveal any prejudicial attitudes? Does the writer attempt to embody some evidence of

personal knowledge of the subject? Note the writer’s style, e.g. sentences or vocabulary

which was effective, too simple or too difficult. Was the writing clear? Was the language and tone effective and appropriate for the intended audience?

6. Did the article change or modify your initial position on the subject?

During the course of the year we’ll look at a great deal of American Literature – use this list to guide your independent reading on the literary movements. You will get details on the requirements for these readings at the beginning of each semester.

American Literary Movements

PuritanAnne Bradstreet-poemsJonathan Edwards-sermonsWilliam Bradford-governor, histories

Age of EnlightenmentAll the history guys-Jefferson, Franklin, Paine

RomanticismWashington Irving-short storiesHenry Wadsworth Longfellow-poemsJames Fennimore Cooper-novelsNathaniel Hawthorne-dark romantic-stories and novelsHerman Melville-dark romantic -stories and novelsEdgar Allen Poe-dark romantic -poems and storiesWalt Whitman & Emily Dickenson-both poets- are in this time period but really don’t fit the characteristics

TranscendentalismHenry David Thoreau-essaysRalph Waldo Emerson-essaysBronson Alcott-poems, essays

RealismHenry James-novelsEdwin Arlington Robinson -poemsWilla Cather-novelsMark Twain-sometimes called a local color writer or regionalist-stories and novels

NaturalismSteven Crane-poems and novelsFrank Norris-novelsJack London-stories and novelsHarlem RenaissancePaul Lawrence Dunbar-poemsLangston Hughes-poemsZora Neal Hurston-novelsClaude McKay-poems

Countee Cullen-poems

ModernF. Scott Fitzgerald-stories and novelsEarnest Hemingway-stories and novelsWilliam Faulkner-stories and novelsEugene O’Neill-playsTennessee Williams-playsRobert Frost-poetsJohn Steinbeck-stories and novelsArthur Miller-playsContemporaryJohn Updike-essays and novelsMaya Angelou-poemsToni Morrison-novelsTim O’Brien-stories, non-fiction and novelsFrank McCourt-non-fiction, memoirJonathan Safran Foer-novelsCould be anybody current