GRAMATICA DE INGLES English Grammar 1.1. TIEMPOS VERBALES * Presente simple 1 * Presente simple 2 * Presente simple To be * Presente simple To have * Presente continuo * Presente simple Vs. Presente continuo * Pasado simple * Pasado simple To be * Lista de verbos irregulares * Pasado continúo * Pasado simple Vs. Pasado continúo * Presente perfecto 1 * Presente perfecto 2 (for-since-ago) * Presente simple Vs. Presente perfecto * Presente perfecto continúo * Pasado perfecto * Pasado perfecto continúo * Futuro simple * Futuro simple Vs. To be going + inf * Futuro continuo * Futuro perfecto * Futuro perfecto continúo 2. ESTRUCTURAS VERBALES * There is/are * there was/were * Used to / to be used to 3. VERBOS MODALES * Can – could y be able to * Must – have to y don´t have to * Mustn`t * Should y ought to * May y might 1
Transcript
GRAMATICA DE INGLESEnglish Grammar
1.1. TIEMPOS VERBALES
* Presente simple 1* Presente simple 2* Presente simple To be* Presente simple To have* Presente continuo* Presente simple Vs. Presente continuo* Pasado simple* Pasado simple To be* Lista de verbos irregulares* Pasado continúo* Pasado simple Vs. Pasado continúo* Presente perfecto 1* Presente perfecto 2 (for-since-ago)* Presente simple Vs. Presente perfecto* Presente perfecto continúo* Pasado perfecto* Pasado perfecto continúo* Futuro simple* Futuro simple Vs. To be going + inf* Futuro continuo* Futuro perfecto* Futuro perfecto continúo
2. ESTRUCTURAS VERBALES
* There is/are * there was/were* Used to / to be used to
3. VERBOS MODALES
* Can – could y be able to* Must – have to y don´t have to* Mustn`t* Should y ought to* May y might* Need y needn`t* Verbos + ing* Verbos + inf con / sin to
5. ARTICULOS
* The * A/an
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6. CONJUNCIONES
* And,* But or so* Because
7. SUSTANTIVOS
* Contables e incontables * Plural sustantivo* Genitivo
8. ADJETIVOS:
* Adjetivos some y any * Posición de adjetivos* Formación de adjetivos* Adjetivos posesivos* Adjetivos comparativos* Adjetivos superlativos* Palabras interrogativas* Adjetivos o pronombres
9. ADVERBIOS
* Adverbios de frecuencia
10. PREPOSCICIONES
* In, at, on de lugar* In, at, on de tiempo* Varias
11. PRONOMBRES- SUSTITUCION DE PALABRAS
* Posesivos (mine, yours)* Objeto (me, you)* Reflexivos (myself)* One/ones* So, such
12. IMPERATIVO
* Oraciones de relativo* Condicionales* Estilo indirecto (reported speech)
13 . VOZ PASIVA 1
14. VOZ PASIVA 2
15. ORDEN DE LAS PALABRAS
* Inversión verbo – sujeto
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16. VOCABULARIO
* Abbreviations* American and british* Common expresions* Idioms 1* Make or do* Ok* Proverbs* Idioms 2* Phrasal Verbs (1-11)
Vocabulario Temático
* Birds* Body parts* Colours* Computers* Countries and nations* Fruit* Internet* Jobs* The city* The house* Languages* Money* Sport* Sationery (art. Papeleria)* Television* Travel and accomodation* Work
17. LECTURAS
* How to be a hypocrite* How to be rude* Irish symbols* The national* The weather
18. INGLES COMERCIAL
* Business English vocabulary* Formal letters (general structure)* Letter of application for a job* Letter of enquiry (pedir información)* Phone conversations
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1. VERBOS
1.1.TIEMPOS VERBALES
* Presente simple 1
Uso: normalmente se utiliza para hablar de acciones habituales, pero en ocasiones puede tener sentido de futuro.
Afirmativa
I workYou workHe / she / it worksWe workYou workThey work
1. He/she/it: Sólo la tercera persona del singular (he/she/it) es diferente de las demás, ya que se le añade “-s”.
2. Existen verbos a los que se añade “-es” en lugar de “-s”:
3. La terminación es “– ies” cuando un verbo acaba en “consonante +y”. La “y” se Convierte en “i” y se añade “-es”:
- study - studies- carry - carries
Negación
Forma completa Forma contraída
I do not work I don´t workYou do not work You don´t workHe / she / it does not work He / she /it doesn´t workWe do not work We don´t workYou do not work You don´t workThey do not work They don´t work
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Interrogación
Pregunta breve Respuesta breve
Do I work? Yes, I do No, I don´tDo you work? Yes, you do No, you don´tDoes work? Yes, he does No, he doesn´tDo we work? Yes, we do No, we don´tDo you work? Yes, you do No, you don´tDo they work? Yes, they do No, they don´t
Presente simple con valor de futuro
Utilizamos el presente simple para hablar de hechos futuros que dependen de algún horario o programa.
Ejemplos:
- The train to Norfolk leaves from platform 7 in 10 minutes.- The next conference takes place in the other building.- They arrive before lunch tomorrow and catch the last bus.
Presente histórico
El presente simple se puede utilizar para hablar de hechos pasados. En estos casos, el presente confiere una sensación de realidad y cercanía a los hechos narrados.
Ejemplos:
- Christopher Columbus discovers America by mistake in 1492.- She was very late and then she tells me she must leave early because she has to work the next day.
* Presente simple To be
To be = ser o estar.
La forma completa y la contraída son igualmente correctas, aunque la contraída es algo más informal.
Afirmativa
Forma completa Forma contraída
I am I´mYou are you´reHe is he´s We are we´reYou are you´reThey are they´re
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Negación sujeto + verbo + not
Forma completa Forma contraída
I am not I´m notYou are not you aren´tHe is not he isn´tWe are not we aren´tYou are not you aren´tThey are not they aren´t
Interrogación verbo + sujeto
Am I ...? Yes, I am No, I´m notAre you...? Yes, you are No, you aren´tIs he ...? Yes, he is No, he isAre we...? Yes, we are No, we aren´tAre you....? Yes, you are No, you aren´tAre they....? Yes, they are No, they aren´t
Ejemplos:
- Are you a student? Yes, I am.- Is she your friend? Yes, she is.- Are they your classmates? No, they aren´t.
* Presente simple To have
To have = tener o haber
Afirmativa Negación
I have I do not have I don´t haveYou have you do not have you don´t haveHe has he does not have he doesn´t haveWe have we do not have we don´t haveYou have you do not have you don´t haveThey have they do not have they don´t have
Interrogación
Do I have...? Yes, I do No, I don´tDo you have...? Yes, you do No, you don´tDoes he has… ? Yes, he does No, he doesn´tDo we have...? Yes, we do No, we don´tDo you have...? Yes, you do No, you don´tDo they have...? Yes, they do No, they don´t
Have (got) = tener, es algo más común que have .
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Afirmativa
I have got I´ve got lots of booksYou have got you´ve got a carHe has got he´s got a brown dogWe have got we´ve got a penYou have got you´ve got a pretty catThey have got they´ve got friends
Negación
I have not got I haven´t gotYou have not got you haven´t gotHe has not got he hasn´t gotWe have not got we haven´t gotYou have not got you haven´t gotThey have not got they haven´t got
Interrogación
Have I got...? Yes, I have No, I haven´tHave you got...? Yes, you have No, you haven´tHas he got…? Yes, he has No, he hasn´thave we got...? Yes, we have No, we haven´tHave you got...? Yes, you have No, you haven´tHave they got...? Yes, they have No, they haven´t
* Presente continuo
Uso: se utiliza normalmente para hablar de acciones que están ocurriendo en el momento en el que se habla. En español suele equivaler a: estar + gerundio.
Afirmativa
I am working I´m workingYou are working you´re workingHe is working he´s workingWe are working we´re workingYou are working you´re workingThey are working they´re working
Negación
I am not working I´m not workingYou are not working you aren´t workingHe is not working he isn´t workingWe are not working we aren´t workingYou are not working you aren´t workingThey are not working they aren´t working
Interrogación
Am I working? Yes, I am No, I´m not
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Are you working? Yes, you are No, you aren´tIs he working? Yes, he is No, he isn´tAre we working? Yes, we are No, we aren´tAre you working? Yes, you are No, you aren´tAre they working? Yes, they are No, they aren´t
Reglas ortográficas de los verbos acabados en –ing:
1. Los verbos que acaban en una sola –e pierden esta vocal y añaden –ing:
write - writing have - having come - coming
2. Los verbos de una sílaba acabados en “vocal + consonante” duplican la consonante y añaden –ing (excepto en el caso de w y y):
put - putting stop - stopping shop - shopping
* Presente simple Vs. Presente continuo
El presente simple se utiliza para hablar de cosas que ocurren habitualmente o en general:
- James studies German at university.- My parents live in the south.- Jane works in Italy every summer.- My friends have a car.- Water boils at 100 Celsius degrees.- Sharks are dangerous animals.
El presente continuo, en cambio, se utiliza para hablar de cosas que están ocurriendo en el momento en el que se habla:
- Mary is playing the guitar now.- Take an umbrella. It´s raining.- Let´s go to the park! The sun is shinning.- They are working in the garage at the moment.
Existen verbos que sólo pueden utilizarse en presente simple
Like - depend - remember – relieve – dislike - know - forget - prefer - love – mean- want – hate - understand - need
* Pasado simple
Uso: el pasado simple se utiliza normalmente para referirnos a hechos que sucedieron en un momento concreto del pasado.
Existen verbos regulares, a los que se añade –ed en el pasado, como work (worked en pasado) y otros irregulares, que es necesario aprender, como go (went en pasado).
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Afirmativa
Verbos regulares (work)
I worked You workedHe workedWe workedYou workedThey worked
Ortografía de las formas de pasado regulares
1. Verbos acabados en “consonante + y” ied:
study - studiedcarry – carried
2. Verbos monosilábicos acabados en “vocal + consonante” duplican la consonante (excepto They worked “y” o “w”)
Stop - stoppedShop - shopped
Pronunciación de la terminación “–ed ” de pasado
Se puede pronunciar como /t/ /d/ o /id/, dependiendo del sonido en el que acabe el infinitivo:
/t/ watched, stopped, shopped, washed, worked (cuando el verbo acaba en sonido sordo) /d/ lived, arrived, opened, called, changed (cuando el verbo acaba en sonido sonoro)
/id/ started, painted, needed (cuando el verbo acaba en sonido /t/ o/d/).
Verbos irregulares (go)
Go (ir) went gone
I wentYou wentHe wentWe wentYou wentThey went
Negación
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Verbos regulares (work)
I did not work I didn´t workYou did not work You didn´t workHe did not work He didn´t workWe did not work We didn´t workYou did not work You didn´t workThey did not work They didn´t work
Verbos irregulares (go)
I did not go I didn´t goYou did not go You didn´t goHe did not go He didn´t goWe did not go We didn´t goYou did not go You didn´t goThey did not go They didn´t go
Interrogación
Verbos regulares (work)
Did I work? Yes, I did No, I didn´tDid you work? Yes, you did No, you didn´tDid he work? Yes, hedid No, he didn´tDid we work? Yes, we did No, we didn´tDid you work? Yes, you did No, you didn´tDid they work? Yes, they did No, they didn´t
Verbos irregulares (go)
Did I go? Yes, I did No, I didn´tDid you go? Yes, you did No, you didn´tDid he go? Yes, he did No, he didn´tDid we go? Yes, we did No, we didn´tDid you go? Yes, you did No, you didn´tDid they go? Yes, they did No, they didn´t
* Pasado simple To be
Afirmativa
I wasYou wereHe wasWe wereYou wereThey were
Negación sujeto + verbo + not
I was not I wasn´t
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You were not you weren´tHe was not he wasn´tWe were not we weren´tYou were not you weren´tThey were not they weren´t
Interrogación verbo + sujeto
Was I ...? Yes, I was No, I wasn´tWere you...? Yes, you were No, you weren´tWas he....? Yes, he wasn´tWere we...? Yes, we were No, we weren´tWere you....? Yes, you were No, you weren´tWere they....? Yes, they were No, they weren´t
Ejemplos:
- Were you a student? Yes, I was.- Was she your friend? Yes, she was.- Were they your classmates? No, they weren´t.
* Lista de verbos irregularesInfinitivo Pretérito Participio Pasado
Wear (vestir) wore wornWeave (tejer) wove wovenWeep (llorar) wept weptWin (ganar) won wonWind (enrollar) wound woundWring (retorcer) wrung wrungWrite (escribir) wrote written
* Pasado continuo
Uso: se utiliza para hablar de acciones que ocurrieron durante un tiempo en el pasado. En español equivale normalmente a “estaba + gerundio”
Afirmativa
I was workingYou were workingHe was workingWe were workingYou were workingThey were working
Negación
I was not working I wasn´t workingYou were not working you weren´t workingHe was not working he wasn´t workingWe were not working we weren´t workingYou were not working you weren´t workingThey were not working they weren´t working
Interrogación
Was I working? Yes, I was No, I wasn´tWere you working? Yes, you were No, you weren´tWas he working? Yes, he wasn´tWere we working? Yes, we were No, we weren´tWere you working? Yes, you were No, you weren´tWere they working? Yes, they were No, they weren´t
* Pasado simple Vs. Pasado continuo
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El pasado simple: se suele utilizar para referirnos a situaciones o acciones completas del pasado o a situaciones permanentes o de larga duración, también en el pasado.
Ejemplos:
- I lived in Rome till I was 10.- She bought chocolates because she thought you liked them.
El pasado continuo: se refiere a situaciones o eventos temporales de un momento del pasado. Muchas veces se utiliza el pasado continuo para describir una situación durante la cual se produjo otro evento (en pasado simple) que la interrumpió o se produjo paralelamente.
The phone rang--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------We were watching television
Ejemplos:
-She arrived when we were having dinner.-Tom was having a shower when someone knocked at the door.-The neighbour felt ill while he was working in the garden.
Cuando hablamos de situaciones o eventos simultáneos en el pasado, puede utilizarse el pasado simple o el pasado continuo:
Ejemplos:
-They went on holiday while their son was at university.-Jill was making dinner while he was laying the table.
* Presente perfecto 1
Así se forma el presente perfecto en su forma afirmativa: Sujeto + have/has + participio de un verbo al igual que en la forma de pasado, los verbos regulares añaden –ed en el participio. En el caso de los irregulares, es necesario saberlo.
Afirmativa
I have worked I´ve workedYou have worked you´ve workedHe has worked he´s workedWe have worked we´ve workedYou have worked you´ve workedThey have worked they´ve worked
Negación
I have not worked I haven´t workedYou have not worked You haven´t workedHe has not worked He hasn´t workedWe have not worked We haven´t worked
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You have not worked You haven´t workedThey have not worked They haven´t worked
Interrogación
Have I worked? Yes, I have No, I haven´tHave you worked? Yes, you have No, you haven´tHas he worked? Yes, he has No, he hasn´tHave we worked? Yes, we have No, we haven´tHave you worked? Yes, you have No, you haven´tHave they worked? Yes, they have No, they haven´t
Uso del Presente Perfecto:
1. Para expresar una acción o estado que comenzó en el pasado y aún continúa.
- I have lived in Brussels for 3 years = Llevo viviendo en Bruselas 3 años (Aún vivo allí)- She has studied English since last year = Lleva estudiando inglés desde el año pasado(Aún está estudiándolo)
-------------I have worked since 2000 -------------
2. Para expresar un hecho que ocurrió en algún momento indeterminado del pasado.
- I have read that book. (no se especifica cuando)- She has been to Paris.- She has been there
3. Para expresar una acción ya concluida, pero que afecta de alguna manera al presente.
- I´ve lost my keys and I can´t go out now.- It´s rained a lot. Are you wet?
NOTA: Al contrario que en español, el presente perfecto no se utiliza para hablar de algo ocurrido en el pasado reciente. En esos casos se usa el pasado simple:
- He desayunado a las diez (hoy) I had breakfast at 10.- Ha llegado esta tarde He arrived this afternoon.- ¿Qué has hecho por la mañana? What did you do this morning?
* Presente perfecto 2 (for-since-ago)
For siempre va seguido de un periodo de tiempo y puede traducirse como durante. Puede acompañar al presente perfecto y al pasado simple.
Ejemplos:
- I have studied English for four years.- She´s lived here for ages. (= for a very long time)
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- We´ve been on holiday for two weeks.- We were friends for more than 10 years.
Since va seguido de una expresión de tiempo concreta, como un día, un año, una estación, o un hecho concreto. Se traduce como desde. Acompaña al presente perfecto, aunque puede ir seguido de una oración en pasado simple.
Ejemplos:
- She´s lived with her father since she was 10.- They have known each other since 1990.- Peter´s worked there since last April.- He´s had that car since last autumn.
Ago se traduce como hace... Acompaña sólo al pasado simple y va precedido de un periodo de tiempo.
Ejemplos:
- I went to France two years ago.- She met him at school 10 years ago.- Phil went shopping two weeks ago.- My friends did a yoga course a couple of months ago.
* Pasado simple vs. Presente perfecto
Uno de los aspectos gramáticales del inglés más conflictivos para los hablantes de español es el uso del pasado simple y el presente perfecto. De hecho, en este punto el inglés se diferencia bastante del español. Por ello, observa atentamente los siguientes pares de ejemplos:
1. Acciones que comenzaron en el pasado:
- I have lived in Brussels for 3 years = Llevo viviendo en Bruselas 3 años (Aún vivo allí) P.F
- I lived in Brussels for 3 years = Viví en Bruselas durante tres años. (Ya no vivo allí) P.S
2. Acciones acabadas que tuvieron lugar en algún momento del pasado:
- I have read that book. (No se especifica cuando) P.F.
- I read that book two summers ago. (Se especifica cuando) P.S.
3. Acciones que han tenido lugar en un pasado reciente.
- I´ve lost my keys and I can´t go out now. (La acción pasada tiene una relación directa con el presente) P.F.
- I had cereals and orange juice for breakfast this morning. (La acción no tiene ninguna repercusión en el presente, aunque haya ocurrido en el mismo día en el que se habla) P.S.
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* Presente perfecto continúo
Así se forma el presente perfecto en su forma afirmativa: Sujeto + have/has + been + verbo principal acabado en -ing
Afirmativa
I have been working I´ve been workingYou have been working you´ve been workingHe has been working he´s been workingWe have been working we´ve been workingYou have been working you´ve been workingThey have been working they´ve been working
Negación
I have not been working I haven´t been workingYou have not been working You haven´t been workingHe has not been working He hasn´t been workingWe have not been working We haven´t been workingYou have not been working You haven´t been workingThey have not been working They haven´t been working
Interrogación
Pregunta breve Respuesta breve
Have I been working? Yes, I have No, I haven´tHave you been working? Yes, you have No, you haven´tHas he been working? Yes, he has No, he hasn´tHave we been working? Yes, we have No, we haven´tHave you been working? Yes, you have No, you haven´tHave they been working? Yes, they have No, they haven´t
El presente perfecto contínuo se utiliza para expresar acciones o situaciones que se han producido durante un tiempo y han finalizado hace muy poco o aún continúan. A menudo se acompaña de una expresión de tiempo con since o for, por ejemplo.
- I´ve been trying to talk to him for weeks.- She´s been studying French since she was 15, but she still can´t speak fluently.- He´s been living in Rome for five months now.
También se utiliza frecuentemente en preguntas que comienzan con How long...?
- How long have you been waiting for the bus?- How long has she been trying to find a job?- How long have they been living there?
* Pasado perfecto
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Así se forma el pasado perfecto en su forma afirmativa: sujeto + had + participio de un verbo Al igual que en la forma de pasado, los verbos regulares añaden –ed en el participio. En el caso de los irregulares, es necesario saberlo.
Afirmativa
I had worked I´d workedYou had worked you´d workedHe had worked he´d workedWe had worked we´d workedYou had worked you´d workedThey had worked they´d worked
Negación
I had not worked I hadn´t workedYou had not worked You hadn´t workedHe had not worked He hadn´t workedWe had not worked We hadn´t workedYou had not worked You hadn´t workedThey had not worked They hadn´t worked
Interrogación
Had I worked? Yes, I had No, I hadn´tHad you worked? Yes, you had No, you hadn´tHad he worked? Yes, he had No, he hadn´tHad we worked? Yes, we had No, we hadn´tHad you worked? Yes, you had No, you hadn´tHad they worked? Yes, they had No, they hadn´t
Uso del Pasado Perfecto:
Este tiempo se utiliza para referirnos a un hecho pasado que tuvo lugar antes que otra acción también pasada o antes de algún momento concreto del pasado:
- When he arrived, the film had finished.
1º acción: the film had finished.
2º acción: he arrived.
- She found out that the he hadn´t gone to school.- She said she had been at home that morning.
Pasado perfecto con already y just.
- I had already had dinner when he phoned. (Ya había cenado cuando él llamó)- She told me to buy some bread when I had just come back from the supermarket.(Me pidió que comprara pan cuando yo acababa de volver del supermercado)
* Pasado perfecto continuo
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Así se forma el pasado perfecto continuo en su forma afirmativa: Sujeto + had + been + verbo principal acabado en -ing
Afirmativa
I had been working I´d been workingYou had been working you´d been workingHe had been working he´d been workingWe had been working we´d been workingYou had been working you´d been workingThey had been working they´d been working
Negación
I had not been working I hadn´t been workingYou had not been working You hadn´t been workingHe had not been working He hadn´t been workingWe had not been working We hadn´t been workingYou had not been working You hadn´t been workingThey had not been working They hadn´t been working
Interrogación
Had I been working? Yes, I had No, I hadn´tHad you been working? Yes, you had No, you hadn´tHad he been working? Yes, he No, he hadn´tHad we been working? Yes, we had No, we hadn´tHad you been working? Yes, you had No, you hadn´tHad they been working? Yes, they had No, they hadn´t
- El pasado perfecto contínuo se utiliza para expresar acciones o situaciones que se produjeron durante cierto tiempo en el pasado y finalizaron en un momento concreto también del pasado, o poco antes de ese momento:
- Jim had been watching TV all evening when she phoned.- I had been doing some work before going to bed.- They had been trying to save for the summer holidays.- Her parents had been trying to persuade her for weeks but she didn´t listen to them.
El pasado perfecto continuo enfatiza la duración de una acción o situación, mientras que el pasado perfecto se refiere más a la finalización de una actividad o sus efectos:
- She had been phoning for hours but she hadn´t got any answer.
* Futuro simple
Afirmativa
I will work I´ll workYou will work you´ll workHe will work´ll work
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We will work we´ll workYou will work you´ll workThey will work they´ll work
Negación
I will not work I won´t workYou will not work you won´t workHe will not work he won´t workWe will not work we won´t workYou will not work you won´t workThey will not work they won´t work
Interrogación
Will I work? Yes, I will No, I won´tWill you work Yes, you will No, you won´tWill he work? Yes, he will No, he won´tWill we work? Yes, we will No, we won´tWill you work? Yes, you will No, you won´tWill they work? Yes, they will No, they won´t
Shall: Con I y we se puede utilizar shall en lugar de will , pero su uso es menos común:
- I will go to work in five minutes = I shall go to work in five minutes.- We will buy vegetables this afternoon = We shall buy vegetables this afternoon.
* Futuro simple Vs. To be going + inf
Planes futuros
1. To be going to + infinitivo se utiliza para expresar acciones futuras ya planeadas (excepto las que forman parte de un horario o programa):
- I´m going to buy a new car next week.- They ´re going to move house.- She´s going to have a baby.- We´re going to get married next summer.- Linda´s going to learn Italian.
2. El futuro simple (will), sin embargo, se usa cuando tomamos la decisión de hacer algo en el momento de hablar, sin haber hecho ningún plan previo:
- The phone is ringing. I´ll get it.- I´ll take my umbrella because it´s very cloudy.- I´ll have a cup of tea.- We´ll go for a walk if you want.
También se utiliza cuando se habla de acciones que forman parte de un horario o programa:
- The train to Liverpool will leave from platform 11.
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- The conference will start in half an hour.
Predicciones
1. To be going to + infinitivo se utiliza también para hacer predicciones cuando tenemos algún indicio para hacerlas:
- There´re very dark clouds. I think it´s going to rain very soon.- She didn´t study for the exam. She´s going to fail.- We´ve missed the bus, so we´re going to be late.
2. El futuro simple (will) se utiliza para hacer predicciones, pero cuando no hay indicios de ellas, sino que son fruto de la opinión del hablante:
- Buy her that book. She´ll like it a lot.- I think England will lose.- It´ll be cold tonight.
* Futuro continuo
Sujeto + will + be + verbo principal en su forma -ing
Afirmativa
I will be working I´ll be workingYou will be working you´ll be workingHe will be working he´ll be workingWe will be working we´ll be workingYou will be working you´ll be workingThey will be working they´ll be working
Negación
I will not be working I won´t be workingYou will not be working you won´t be workingHe will not be working he won´t be workingWe will not be working we won´t be workingYou will not be working you won´t be workingThey will not be working they won´t be working
Interrogación
Will I be working? Yes, I will No, I won´tWill you be working Yes, you will No, you won´tWill he be working? Yes, he will No, he / she / it won´tWill we be working? Yes, we will No, we won´tWill you be working? Yes, you will No, you won´tWill they be working? Yes, they will No, they won´t
- El futuro continuo se utiliza para referirnos a acciones que ocurrirán en un momento concreto del futuro o durante cierto tiempo en el futuro. A veces se trata de acciones ya planeadas. Se suele mencionar el complemento circunstancial de tiempo (tomorrow, next time, etc.).
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- I´ll be wearing a suit at work every day.- She´ll be leaving tomorrow morning at 9.- Martha will be renting her flat next year.
* Futuro perfecto
Uso: se utiliza para expresar que algo ya habrá sucedido o se habrá completado en cierto momento futuro:
Ejemplos:
- I´ll have finished my exams by 20th June. (habré terminado los exámenes el 20 de junio)- She´ll have paid her mortgage when she is 55. (Habrá terminado de pagar cuando tenga 55)- I´ll have done the shopping by the time you get home. (Habré hecho la compra antes de que llegues)
Afirmativa
I will have worked I´ll have workedYou will have worked you´ll have workedHe will have worked he´ll have workedWe will have worked we´ll have workedYou will have worked you´ll have workedThey will have worked they´ll have worked
Negación
I will not have worked I won´t have workedYou will not have worked you won´t have workedHe will not have worked he won´t have workedWe will not have worked we won´t have workedYou will not have worked you won´t have workedThey will not have worked they won´t have worked
Interrogación
Will I have worked? Yes, I will No, I won´tWill you have worked? Yes, you will No, you won´tWill he have worked? Yes, he will No, he won´tWill we have worked? Yes, we will No, we won´tWill you have worked? Yes, you will No, you won´tWill they have worked? Yes, they will No, they won´t
* Futuro perfecto continuo
Sujeto + will + have + been + verbo principal acabado en -ing
Afirmativa
I will have been working I´ll have been workingYou will have been working you´ll have been working
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He will have been working he´ll have been workingWe will have been working we´ll have been workingYou will have been working you´ll have been workingThey will have been working they´ll have been working
Negación
I will not have been working I won´t have been workingYou will not have been working You won´t have been workingHe not have been working He won´t have been workingWe will not have been working We won´t have been workingYou will not have been working You won´t have been workingThey will not have been working They won´t have been working
Interrogación
Will I have been working? Yes, I will No, I won´tWill you have been working? Yes, you will No, you won´tWill he/she/it have been working? Yes, he will No, he won´tWill we have been working? Yes, we will No, we won´tWill you have been working? Yes, you will No, you won´tWill they have been working? Yes, they will No, they won´t
- El futuro perfecto continuo se utiliza para expresar cuanto tiempo habrá durado una acción o situación cuando llegue cierto momento. Es necesario mencionar la duración de dicha acción (one year, two days...) y el momento futuro que se toma como referencia (next summer, tomorrow...)
- Next year we´ll have been living in this house for 2 years.- He´ll have been travelling around the world for one month on Monday.
2. ESTRUCTURAS VERBALES
* There is/are
There is/are equivalen en español a hay.
There is se utiliza para el singular y there are para el plural:
There is a bottle of wine on the table.There are three potatoes on that plate.
Afirmación
There is a pen here. There´s a pen here.There are many books. There´re many books.
Negación
There is not a pen here. There isn´t a pen here.There are not many books. There aren´t many books.
Interrogación
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Is there a pen here? Yes, there is. No, there is not No, there isn´t.Are there many books? Yes, there are. No, there are No, there aren´t.
* There was/were
There was/were son las formas de pasado, para el singular y el plural respectivamente:
There was a big cat at the door.There were many children in the park.
There have/has been son las formas de Presente perfecto (present perfect), también para el singular y plural respectivamente:
There has been a mistake here.There have been many storms since April.
There will be es la forma única de futuro:
There will be a big prize for the winner.There will be many ecological problems in the near future.
* Used to / to be used to
Used to + infinitivo se utiliza para hablar de acciones habituales del pasado. Puede traducirse por “solía ...”. Esta construccion sólo es posible en pasado.
Ejemplos:
- I used to play with dolls when I was a child.- They used to go to Ibiza every summer but last year they decided to stay at home.- John didn´t use to be so hardworking. He´s definitely changed.- Did you use to eat vegetables when you were a teenager?
To be used to + verbo–ing / sustantivo se utiliza para hablar de nuestros hábitos actuales, de aquello a lo que estamos acostumbrados. Sólo se utiliza en presente.
Ejemplos:
- I´m used to getting up early for work.- She´s not used to dealing with kids any more.- They´re used to having all the house for themselves at the weekend.- Are you used to do the housework?
3. VERBOS MODALES
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* Can – could y be able to
Can expresa la capacidad para hacer algo, una posibilidad, y también se usa para pedir permiso. Pero no se utiliza para expresar probabilidad. (Ver May y might)
Afirmativa - Negación
I can cook I cannot cook I can´t cookYou can cook you cannot cook you can´t cookHe can cook he cannot cook he can´t cookWe can cook we cannot cook we can´t cookYou can cook you cannot cook you can´t cookThey can cook they cannot cook they can´t cook
Interrogación
Can I cook? Yes, I can No, I can´tCan you cook? Yes, you can No, you can´tCan he cook? Yes, he can No, he can´tCan we cook? Yes, we can No, we can´tCan you cook? Yes, you can No, you can´tCan they cook? Yes, they can No, they can´t
Could es la forma de pasado de can.
Afirmativa Negación
I could cook I could not cook I couldn´t cookYou could cook you could not cook you couldn´t cookHe could cook he could not cook he couldn´t cookWe could cook we could not cook we couldn´t cookYou could cook you could not cook you couldn´t cookThey could cook they could not cook they couldn´t cook
Interrogación
Could I cook? Yes, I could No, I couldn´tCould you cook? Yes, you could No, you couldn´tCould he cook? Yes, he could No, he couldn´tCould we cook? Yes, we could No, we couldn´tCould you cook? Yes, you could No, you couldn´tCould they cook? Yes, they could No, they couldn´t
Ejemplos:
- When I was young I could run very fast, but now I can´t- I could walk when I was ten months old.- Paul can´t cook. His meals are terrible.- I can drive, but Sarah can´t.
Be able to tiene un significado similar a can/could, pero suele utilizarse para expresar la habilidad de hacer algo de cierta dificultad (en español equivale a “ser capaz de”):
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I can walk very fast They were able to escape from the fire.She could draw very well at 10. When she was five, she was able to draw wonderful pictures.
- También se utiliza en lugar de can en el futuro , ya que can no tiene una forma para ese tiempo:
I can/could find that street I´ll be able to find that street.
- Otros casos en los que se utiliza be able to, y no can, es cuando tiene que ir seguido de un infinitivo con to o una forma en –ing , ya que can/could sólo puede ir seguido de un infinitivo sin to.
We were very happy to be able to be there (no We were very happy to can to be there*)I have to be able to run the marathon (no I have to can.....*)
Sujeto + verbo to be (en cualquier tiempo) + to + infinitivo
* Must – have to y don´t have to
Must es un verbo modal que expresa la obligación de hacer algo. Como todos los modales, va seguido de otro infinitivo sin “to”.
Afirmativa
I must workYou must workHe must workWe must workYou must workThey must work
Interrogación
Must I work? Yes, I must No, I mustn´tMust you work? Yes, you must No, you mustn´tMust he work? Yes, he must No, he mustn´tMust we work? Yes, we must No, we mustn´tMust you work? Yes, you must No, you mustn´tMust they work? Yes, they must No, they mustn´t
Negación: Mustn´t está explicado en otro apartado de los Verbos Modales, por la diferencia de significado con must.
Must también se utiliza para expresar una conclusión :
- The light is on. He must be at home.- It´s very windy and cloudy. It must be cold.- He´s got a lot of white hair. He must be over 40.- There´re pieces of glass on the road. There must have been an accident.
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Must sólo tiene forma de presente. Por ello, para cualquier otro tiempo se utiliza have to:
- I´ll have to work next Sunday.- She had to clean all the house.
Have to indica obligación, al igual que must.
Afirmativa
I have to workYou have to work He has to work we have to workyou have to workthey have to work
Interrogación
Do I have to work? Yes, I do No, I don´tDo you have to work? Yes, you do No, you don´tDoes he have to work? Yes, he does No, he doesn´tDo we have to work? Yes, we do No, we don´tDo you have to work? Yes, you do No, you don´tDo they have to work? Yes, they do No, they don´t
- También puede utilizarse have got to, que es algo más informal.
Existe una pequeña diferencia de significado entre must y have to:
Must indica una obligación que se impone uno mismo, más que las circunstancias:
- I must study for the exam.- He must work more to have enough money.
Have to, en cambio, expresa una necesidad impuesta por las circunstancias externas:
- She has to get up at 7 every morning.- We have to work till 6 on Mondays.
Don´t have to
Expresa que no es necesario u obligatorio hacer algo.
I do not have to work I don´t have to workYou do not have to work you don´t have to workHe does not have to work he doesn´t have to workWe do not have to work we don´t have to workYou do not have to work you don´t have to workThey do not have to work they don´t have to work
Ejemplos:
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- You don´t have to do the shopping. I´ll do it tomorrow.- I don´t have to go to school at weekends.- They don´t have to wash by hand because they´ve got a washing machine.
* Mustn`t
Mustn´t se utiliza para expresar prohibición. Al igual que must, va seguido de un infinitivo sin to:
- I mustn´t be late for dinner.- You mustn´t walk on the grass.- He mustn´t go out without telling his parents.- We musn´t talk during the exam.- You mustn´t tell anyone.- They mustn´t eat chocolate.
La forma no contraida es must not
* Should y ought to
Should y ought to se utilizan para dar consejos, hablar de responsabilidades o probabilidad. Recuerda que should jamás va seguido ni precedido de to.
Afirmativa
I should / ought to workYou should / ought to workHe should / ought to workWe should / ought to workYou should / ought to workThey should / ought to work
Negativa
I should not / ought not to work I shouldn´t / oughtn´t toYou should not / ought not to work you shouldn´t / oughtn´t toHe should not / ought not to work he shouldn´t / oughtn´t toWe should not / ought not to work we shouldn´t / oughtn´t toYou should not / ought not to work you shouldn´t / oughtn´t toThey should not / ought not to work they shouldn´t / oughtn´t to
Interrogación
Should / ought I to work? Yes, I should /ought to. No, I shouldn´tShould / ought you to work? Yes, you should/ought to No, you shouldn´tShould / ought he to work? Yes, he should /ought to No, he shouldn´t Should / ought we to work? Yes, we should /ought to No, we shouldn´t Should / ought you to work? Yes, you should /ought to No, you shouldn´tShould / ought they to work? Yes, they should /ought to No, they shouldn´t
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Should y ought to en pasado: estos verbos no tienen una forma propia de pasado. Su forma no cambia, pero sí se pone el infinito que les acompaña en tiempo perfecto : have + participio.
Ejemplos:
- You should have eaten more for breakfast.- They ought to have arrived earlier.- I should have told them the truth.
Consejos: should y ought to equivalen en español a debería + infinitivo . Ejemplos:
- You should / ought to eat less fat.- They should / ought to be more careful about what they say.- You should / ought to come with me to the party. It will be fun.- She shouldn´t / oughtn´t to be so rude.
Responsabilidades: should y ought to también expresan algo que se debería hacer o haber hecho.
Ejemplos:
- I should / ought to be early tomorrow because I´ve got lots to do at work.- We should / ought to save some money.- I should / ought to have known all the answers to the test. It was so easy!
Probabilidad: estos verbos pueden expresar algo que debería ser cierto.
Ejemplos:
A: I can´t find the keys.B: Well, they should / ought to be in the first drawer.
- They said on TV that it would be sunny for a couple of days, so it shouldn´t / oughtn´t to rain yet.
* May y might
Tanto may como might se utilizan para expresar una posibilidad. La diferencia es que might indica una probabilidad algo menor que may.
Ejemplos:
- It may rain this afternoon.- She may have to pay a fine for speeding up.- They might arrive earlier than we expected.- I might buy those jeans. They suit me.
Could (pero no can) se puede utilizar también como may y might para expresar una posibilidad. Might también indica una probabilidad menor que could. Pedir permiso
May y might también se utilizan para pedir permiso para hacer algo. También aquí se puede utilizar can o could, pero may y might son más formales.
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Ejemplos:
- May I ask you a question?- Might I come a bit later tomorrow, please?
* Need y needn`t
Need puede traducirse como necesitar y puede ser un verbo modal o uno ordinario.
- Verbo modal seguido de un infinitivo sin to (bare infinive): You needn´t clean the house
- Verbo ordinario seguido de un infinitivo con to u otros elementos: She needs some free time. She needs to go home.
Need como verbo modal se utiliza casi únicamente en frases negativas e interrogativas, por lo que decimos She needs to go home, en lugar de She need go home.
Afirmativa Negación
I need to cook I don´t need to / needn´t cookYou need to cook you don´t need to / needn´t cookHe needs to cook he doesn´t need to / needn´t cookWe need to cook we don´t need to / needn´t cookYou need to cook you don´t need to / needn´t cookThey need to cook they don´t need to / needn´t cook
Interrogación
Need I cook? do I need to cook? Yes, I need/do No, I needn´t/don´tNeed you cook? do you need to cook? Yes, you need/do No, you needn´t/don´tNeed he cook? Does he need to cook? Yes, he need/doesNo, he doesn´tNeed we cook?/do we need to cook? Yes, we need/do No, we needn´t/don´tNeed you cook?/do you need to cook? Yes, you need/do No, you needn´t/don´tNeed they cook?/do they need to cook? Yes, they need/do No, they needn´t/don´t
Needn´t o don´t need to expresan que no existe necesidad de hacer algo y su significado es similar al de don´t have to.
- You don´t need to do the washing now. (You don´t have to do the washing now)- She needn´t do it today (She doesn´t have to do it today)
En cualquier tiempo verbal diferente al presente se utiliza need como un verbo normal:
- She needed to go out.- They will need some help.
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* Verbos + ing
Los siguientes verbos van seguidos de otro verbo acabado en –ing.
(1) También pueden ir seguidos de to + infinitivo, sin cambio de significado.
(2) Regret puede ir acompañado de –ing o to + infinitivo, dependiendo del uso:
- I regret to tell you that the trip has been cancelled. (lamentarse de algo que vamos a hacer)
- She regretted accepting that job. (Arrepentirse de algo ya hecho)
(3) Remember puede ir seguido de –ing o to + infinitivo, dependiendo del uso:
- Remember to post that letter. (Primero se recuerda y luego se hace algo)- I remember telling her about it. (Primero se realiza una acción y luego se recuerda)
Expresiones seguidas de un verbo acabado en –ing.
There´s no point (= no sirve de nada, no tiene sentido)It´s no use / It´s no good (= no sirve de nada)It´s not worth (= no merece la pena)Have difficulty (= tener dificultad para)Be used to (= estar acostumbrado a)Look forward to (= esperar con impaciencia, desear)Object to (= objetar)
*Verbos + (to) + infinitivo
afford intendagree manageaim need (4)arrange offerbegin (1)chooseconsentcontinue (1)dare (4)
(1) También pueden ir seguidos de un verbo acabado en -ing, sin cambio de significado.
(2) Regret puede ir acompañado de –ing o to + infinitivo, dependiendo del uso:
- I regret to tell you that the trip has been cancelled. (Lamentarse de algo que vamos a hacer)- She regretted accepting that job. (Arrepentirse de algo ya hecho)
(3) Remember puede ir seguido de –ing o to + infinitivo, dependiendo del uso:
- Remember to post that letter. (Primero se recuerda y luego se hace algo)- I remember telling her about it. (Primero se realiza una acción y luego se recuerda)
(4) Need y dare pueden utilizarse como verbos modales, en cuyo caso van seguidos de infinitivo sin to o como verbos normales, seguidos de to + infinitivo.
- I need to tell you / I need tell you. (La primera opción es la más usual en afirmativa)- How dare you do that? / How do you dare to do that?
Verbos seguidos de objeto + to + infinitivo
adviseallowaskcause
enableexpecthelpinvite
leadpermit
Verbos seguidos de objeto + infinitivo
Make, let, notice, feel, hear, overhear, see, persuade, Remond, teach, tell, train, trust, urge, use, warn
To be used to + verbo–ing / sustantivo se utiliza para hablar de nuestros hábitos actuales, de aquello a lo que estamos acostumbrados. Sólo se utiliza en presente.
Ejemplos:
- I´m used to getting up early for work.- She´s not used to dealing with kids any more.- They´re used to having all the house for themselves at the weekend.- Are you used to the housework?
5. ARTICULOS
* The
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Es el único artículo determinado en inglés (el/la/lo/los/las). Como regla general, se utiliza the cuando hablamos de algo en concreto o único en el mundo. Pero existen otros casos.
Expresiones con the
the sea I go to sea every summer. He lives at sea. Pero: That house is near the seathe sky The sky is bright blue today.the ground Suddenly he fell to the groundthe country(side) I´d like to live in the countryside.the cinema We go to the cinema every now and then.the theatre they hardly ever go to the theatre.the radio She´s always listening to the radio. Pero:television There´s nothing on television tonight.
the + nombres de periódicos the Times, the Independent, the Herald...
Expresiones sin the
Normalmente no se utiliza the con las comidas diarias (meals).
breakfastlunchtea timedinnersupper
bed I´m tired, I´m going to bed.work It´s late, I´m going to work now.home Why don´t you go home?prison The killer will go to prison.school Children go to school every day.university After the exam, I´ll go to university.college Anne goes to college on Mondays.church We usually go to church on Sundays.Hospital He must go to hospital for the operation.
Utilizamos estos lugares sin the cuando pensamos en ellos como lugares con una utilidad concreta y no como edificios específicos. Sin embargo, llevan the cuando nos referimos al edificio en sí:
The prison looks very old. They should rebuild it.She works in the school over there.The university lectures were ok but I was tired.She goes to the church to clean it.We work in the hospital across the road.
The con nombres de lugares. No se utiliza the antes de los topónimos, excepto en estos casos:
- Cuando contienen otras palabras, como republic, union, kingdom, states, ...the United Kingdom, the United States, the Republic of Ireland, ...
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- Nombres de países en plural the Nederlands, the Philippines...- Grupos de islas the Canaries (the Canary Islands), the Bahamas, ...- Regiones the Far West, the Middle East...- Cadenas montañosas en plural: the Alps, the Andes, the Pyrenees...- Océanos, mares, rios o canales: the Mediterranean (sea), the Thames, the English Channel...
Para hablar de cosas o personas en general:
- the + nombre contable sing. The carnation is a beautiful flower.- nombre contable plural Carnations are beautiful flowers.
En ambos ejemplos se habla de la flor en general, no de una específica.
- the + adjetivo the homeless, the rich, the beautiful, the talented, the old, the young...En estos casos se habla de colectivos de personas, en plural por tanto.- the + nacionalidad the Irish, the English, the Scottish, the Welsh, the Spanish, the Dutch...- (the) + nacionalidad + s the Italians, the Greeks, the Bulgarians, the Russians...Así nos referimos a la población de un país. Añadimos –s a la nacionalidad cuando ésta no acaba en –sh, -ch, -s, se.
* A/an
Es el artículo indeterminado “un” o “una”.Se utiliza a delante de palabras que empiezan por consonante, como por ejemplo:
a joba bottle of winea beda glass of watera house
También, las palabras que comienzan por el sonido / ju :/ van precedidas de “a”, aunque comiencen con la vocal “u”:
a universitya uniforma European citya universe
En cambio, utilizamos an cuando la siguiente palabra empieza por vocal o sonido vocálico:
an umbrellaan applean ice-creaman orangean hour (porque la “h” no se pronuncia)
6. CONJUNCIONES
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* And es la conjunción copulativa y en español. Puede unir varias palabras o frases:
- I have a book, a pen and a pencil in my bag.- Paul and Sarah are at home.- I work in a school. And I also work in a hospital.- She comes here every day and we´re friends.
* But es la conjunción adversativa pero en español y va precedida de coma:
- I´m hungry, but the fridge is empty.- It´s raining a lot, but it´s warm.- I want to go on holidays, but I don´t have any money.- She lives in Italy, but she doesn´t speak a word of Italian.
* Or es la conjunción disyuntiva o, que puede unir palabras o frases:
- Do you like tea or coffee?- I don´t like bananas, oranges or apples.- We can go to the cinema or we can stay at home.- They don´t work or do anything.
* So es una conjunción resultativa que une oraciones (en español, por tanto, por eso....):
- It was raining, so we didn´t go out.- I don´t have money, so I can´t go shopping.- Mary insulted him, so he was very angry.- We use lots of paper every day. So, we must recycle.
* So that tiene un uso diferente (para que…):
- I´m buying a present for him so that he´s happy.- She tells jokes so that we laugh.
* Because es una conjunción causal, porque en español:
- He´s cleaning the house because it´s very dirty.- I´m taking my umbrella because it´s raining.- They´re tired because they work many hours.
7. SUSTANTIVOS
* Contables e incontables
Los sustantivos contables son aquellos que se pueden contar por unidades (a car, two apples, three cups...).Estos sustantivos tienen forma singular y plural. Sin embargo, existen cosas que no pueden dividirse en unidades, por lo que son incontables (some bread, some cheese...). Los nombres incontables solo tienen forma singular.
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Los sustantivos contables pueden ir precedidos de a/an, de un numeral o some (algunos/as), por ejemplo.
A flowerAn elephantFour bottlesSome bananas
Los nombres incontables nunca pueden ir acompañados de a/an o de un numeral. En su lugar se utiliza some (algo de...).
Nota: todos los líquidos son incontables, aunque en el lenguaje coloquial se pueden utilizar expresiones como:
a tea, a coffee (en lugar de a cup of tea/coffee)a beer... (a glass/pint/bottle of beer.)
Aparte de some, se pueden utilizar otras expresiones con los sustantivos incontables:
A bar of chocolate (tableta de chocolate)A loaf of bread (barra de pan)A bar of soap (pastilla de jabón)A bottle/glass/pint of milk(or any other drink)A piece of cheese (un trozo de queso)A jar of marmalade (un frasco de mermelada)A bowl of cream (un bol de nata)
* Plural sustantivo
Normalmente, el plural de los sustantivos se forma añadiendo –s
name nameshouse housesanimal animals
Las palabras con las siguientes terminaciones forman el plural con –es
-s bus buses-sh dish dishes-ch match matches-x box boxes-z buzz buzzes-to potato potatoes
tomato tomatoes
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Las palabras acabadas en “consonante + y” forman el plural con –ies (convirtiendola “y” en “i” y añadiendo –es)
party parties baby babies story stories memory memories
Las palabras acabadas en –f/-fe forman el plural con –ves (eliminando la –f o –fe finales).
glasses (a pair of glasses / some glasses)pyjamas (a pair of pyjamas / some pyjamas)scissors (a pair of scissors / some scissors)trousers (a pair of trousers / some trousers)clothes (some clothes)
Palabras con plural irregular:
Man men Woman women child childrenMouse mice sheep sheep fish fishFoot feettooth teeth
Casos especiales:
A person two people (People are polite)A police officer the police (The police are on their way)
* Genitivo
El genitivo sajón sirve para expresar que una cosa pertenece a alguien. Observa:
My sister´s book = el libro de mi hermanaJohn´s key = la llave de JohnMary´s brown dog = el perro marrón de MaryThe children´s toys = los juguetes de los niños
Nombre de persona + ´s + cosa que posee esa persona (propio o común)
Cuando el nombre del poseedor acaba en –s, ya sea porque es plural o porque es un nombre propio, sólo se añade el apóstrofe ´:
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James´ sisterThe boys´ excursionA girls´ dressSeamus´ house
El genitivo sajón se utiliza sólo cuando el poseedor es una persona, no una cosa:
The legs of the table (pero no the table´s legs*)
Observa que ´s también es la forma contraida de is. Pero siempre puede saberse por el contexto de cual de los dos significados se trata:
Ann´s bag is there (genitivo sajón)Ann´s in the toilet at the moment = Anne is .......
8. ADJETIVOS:
* Adjetivos some y any
Some puede traducirse como algunos/as o algo de . Aparece en oraciones afirmativas.También en preguntas, pero sólo cuando ofrecemos o pedimos algo, normalmente comida o bebida.
Ejemplos:
- I´ve got some chocolate in the kitchen.- There are some socks in that drawer.- There´s some water in that glass.- Can I have some ice cream, please?- Would you like some wine?
Some puede ir seguido de un sustantivo contable en plural (some apples) o de un sustantivo incontable en singular (some wine). (Ver las diferencias entre sustantivos contables e incontables en la sección de Gramática)
Any, al contrario que some, aparece en oraciones negativas y en las preguntas (a excepción de los casos mencionados arriba). Su traducción en español depende de la oración en la que se utilice.
Ejemplos:
- I haven´t got any money. (No tengo dinero)- She doesn´t want any sugar in her tea. (Ella no quiere azúcar/nada de azúcar en el té)- Have you got any problem? (¿Tienes algún problema?)- Is there any apple? (¿Hay alguna manzana?) Observa:
- She has got some books. She hasn´t got any books- There´s some water Is there any water?
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* Posición de adjetivos
Los adjetivos se sitúan normalmente antes de los sustantivos, pero existen excepciones:Con estos pronombres el adjetivo se sitúa detrás y no delante:
- The boy was afraid (pero: the frightened boy)- The bug was alive (pero: the living bug)- The two sisters are alike (pero: the similar sisters)- The dog was alone (pero: the lonely horse)- He was awake- He was asleep (pero: the sleeping person)- People were aware of that- She was ashamed
Algunos adjetivos acabados en –ible o –able pueden seguir a un sustantivo siempre y cuando a éste le precedan palabras como first, last, next, only , adjetivos superlativos o cuando al adjetivo le sigue un sintagma preposicional.
- There´re still two rooms available.- This is the only position suitable for you / This is the only suitable position for you.- That was the worst choice imaginable.
El orden más usual de los adjetivos delante del sustantivo es:
Opinión + tamaño / cualidad física / forma / edad + color + origen + material + tipo + utilidad+ sustantivo
- the black leather jacket- a good big round table- two huge wooden wardrobes- a useful green alarm clock
Cuando dos adjetivos graduables van delante del sustantivo, se unen con coma o and a big, cheap desk / a big and cheap desk
(Cuando se trata de colores siempre se unen con and: a blue and white flag)
- Cuando se trata de adjetivos no graduables, se utiliza and solo si son de la misma clase:- unfair and illegal circumstances / - shocking illegal circumstances
* Formación de adjetivos
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Muchos de los adjetivos más utilizados en inglés contienen sólo una o dos sílabas, como: good, bad, tall, short, cheap, long, etc.
Muchos otros adjetivos derivan de sustantivos, verbos u otros adjetivos y se forman añadiendo sufijos. Existe un gran número de dichos sufijos, pero estos son los más frecuentes:
Il: illegal, illiterate (siempre con adjetivos que comienzan con l-)
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Ir: irregular, irresponsible (siempre con adjetivos que comienzan con r-)
Y también estos sufijos ya mencionados anteriormente:
- ful / -less: useful /useless
* Adjetivos posesivos
Los adjetivos posesivos siempre acompañan a un sustantivo.
Pronombres personales adjetivos posesivos.
I myYou yourHe hisShe herIt itsWe ourYou yourThey their
Ejemplos:
- My book is in the cupboard.- Her hair is very nice.- That is my red bag.- They can´t find their money.- Your house is beautiful.- Do you know our sister?- His teacher isn´t very good.- The dog has a little house. Its house is red and yellow.
* Adjetivos comparativos y de igualdad
Para expresar que una cosa es igual que otra utilizamos esta construcción: as + adjetivo + as
Ejemplos:
- My car is as good as yours.- That dress is as expensive as the other.- Her house is as big as mine.
Y para decir que algo no es igual que otra cosa:
not as / not so + adjetivo + as
Ejemplos:
- Her job isn´t so good as his. / Her job isn´t as good as his.
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- Today the weather isn´t so nice as yesterday. / Today the weather isn´t as nice as yesterday.
Adjetivos comparativos
1. Para expresar que “una cosa es más ..... que otra” se utilizan estas formas del adjetivo: adjetivos de una sílaba + er adjetivos de 2 sílabas acabados en –y + er
short shorter easy easiertall taller happy happierfast faster heavy heavier
big biggerhot hotter
Observa que los adjetivos monosílabos acabados en “vocal + consonante” también duplican la consonante cuando se les añade “-er”.
Ejemplos:
- Paul is shorter than John.- Planes are faster than cars.- Exercise number 4 is easier than number 2.
more + adjetivos de más de una sílaba
beatiful more beautifulexpensive more expensiveinteresting more interestingmodern more modern
Ejemplos:
- That house is more beautiful than that one.- Gabriel is more intelligent than his brother.- This book is more interesting than this one.
Adjetivos irregulares
good betterbad worsefar farther / furthermuch/many more
Ejemplos:
- The blue skirt is better than the red one.- The village is further than the mountain.- I´ve got more chocolates than you.
2. Para expresar que “una cosa es menos ..... que otra”: less + adjetivo + than
Ejemplos:
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- The blue shirt is less expensive than the red one.- Paul is less happy than Jill.
* Adjetivos superlativos
1. Los adjetivos superlativos expresan que “algo es lo más ... “:
the + adjetivos de una sílaba + est the + adjetivos de 2 sílabas acabados en –y + est
short the shortest easy the easiesttall the tallest happy the happiestfast the fastest heavy the heaviestslow the slowest
big the biggesthot the hottest
Observa que los adjetivos monosílabos acabados en “vocal + consonante” también duplican la consonante cuando se les añade “-est”.
Ejemplos:
- Paul is the shortest in the classroom.- Planes are the fastest mean of transport.- Exercise number 4 is the easiest.
the most + adjetivos de más de una sílaba
beatiful the most beautifulexpensive the most expensiveinteresting the most interestingmodern the most modern
Ejemplos:
- That house is the most beautiful in the city.- Gabriel is the most intelligent.- This book is the most interesting in the library.
Adjetivos irregulares
good the bestbad the worstfar the farthest / furthestmuch/many most
2. Para expresar que “algo es lo menos ...”: the least + adjetivo
Ejemplos:
- That is the least interesting book I have ever read.- These houses are the least ugly.
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* Palabras interrogativas (adjetivos o pronombres)
Palabras interrogativas (wh- words)
What suele equivaler a qué o cuál en español.
- What´s your name?- What´s that?- What do you do?
Which suele ser cuál. Se utiliza cuando existen varios elementos.
- Which dress do you like, the red or the blue one?- Which dog is yours?- Which house do you live in?
Who significa quién.
- Who´s that woman over there?- Who lives in the blue house?- Who´s that present for?
When es cuándo.
- When´s your birthdday?- When does the film start?- When do your parents come?
Where es dónde.
- Where are you from?- Where do you live?- Where is your friend?
Whose se utiliza para preguntar de quién es algo.
- Whose pencil is this?- Whose house is it?
Why significa por qué.
- Why are you here?- Why don´t you go home?- Why is the dog blue
How suele ser cómo .
- How are you?- How old are you?- How do you know that?
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How often se utiliza para preguntar por la frecuencia con la que algo sucede.
- How often do you go to the cinema?- How often does he brush his teeth?- How often do you go on holiday?
How long sirve para preguntar por el tiempo de duración o el tiempo necesario para algo.
- How long does it take to go to London?- How long is the film?- How long does it take to drive to Paris?
9. ADVERBIOS
* Adverbios de frecuencia
Estos adverbios pueden utilizarse para responder a preguntas que comienzan con How often? o How frequently? Estos son los adverbios de frecuencia ordenados de mayor a menor frecuencia.
100% always siempre
usually/normally normalmenteoften a menudo
50% sometimes a veces
occasionally ocasionalmenterarely rara vez, pocas vecesseldom rara vezhardly e ver casi nunca
0% never nunca
Los adverbios de frecuencia se situan delante del verbo, excepto en el caso del verbo to be.
- I always get up at 9 on weekdays.- They hardly ever go out at night.- My parents often go bowling.
Pero
- She´s always worried about something.- They were never very good at maths.
Cuando el tiempo verbal es compuesto el adverbio de frecuencia se situa entre el auxiliar y el verbo principal.
- I´ve never seen anything like that.- She had always told him that story.
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Occasionally, sometimes, often, frequently y usually también puede situarse al principio o final de la oración.
- Occasionally he goes for a walk in the forest.- They eat Chinese food sometimes.
Rarely y seldom también pueden aparecer al final de una oración (a menudo con very).- Bill goes on holiday very seldom.- They eat vegetables rarely.
10. PREPOSCICIONES
* In, at, on de lugar
In, at, on y to – Preposiciones de lugar
In se utiliza generalmente cuando estamos dentro de un lugar cerrado o en una zonadelimitada:
We´re playing in the park.They swim in the sea.I fish in the lake.She´s in the kitchen / living room / bedroom / garden.I´m still in Italy / in the south of England.We had dinner in a restaurant.The stars are in the sky.In a carIn a taxiIn bed
On puede referirse a estar sobre una superficie, pero también se utiliza con estas expresiones:
On a bus On the way (de camino)On a plane You´re on my way (estás en medio)On a trainOn a bike / motorbikeOn horseOn foot
At expresa, en general, una situación más concreta que in:
at home at the bus stop at the end of at the airportat school at the traffic lights at the beginning of at the stationat university at the door at the top (of) at the theatreat work at the bottom (of) at a partyat the doctor´sat the hairdresser´sat the grocer´s
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at Melinda´sat my parents´
To indica movimiento hacia un lugar:
We´re going to the cinema.Let´s walk to the park.They´ll fly to Italy.I drive to work every morning.Pero: I go / walk / drive home.
* In, at, on de tiempo
At, in, on – Preposiciones de tiempo
At se utiliza con las horas, algunos periodos festivos y otras expresiones:
at half past six. at the weekend / at weekends at nightat three o´clock at Easter at the end of (June...)at midday at Christmas at the beginning of ....at midnight at the momentat present
In acompaña a las partes del día (excepto night), meses, estaciones, años y siglos:
in the morning in summer/spring.... in 5 minutes/one hourin the afternoon in July/May.....in the evening in 1965in the 21st century
On precede a los días de la semana y fechas concretas:
on Monday/Tuesday.... on Saturday nighton 20th May on Wednesday afternoonon Christmas Day on Monday morningon New Year´s Eve on Thursday eveningon St. Patrick´s Day
Cuando la expresión de tiempo va precedida de last, next o every, no se usa ninguna preposición:
Last week I went to the cinemaI´ll see you next Monday.I visit him every Sunday.
* Varias
About: sobre, acerca deAbove: encima de, sobre, por encimaAcross: al otro lado deAfter: después deAlong: por, a lo largo deAmong: entreAround: al rededor de
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Before: antes deBehind: detrás deBelow: debajo deBeneath: debajo deBeside: al lado deBetween: en medio de, entrebeyond: mas allá deby: cerca de, para, pordespite: a pesar dedown: debajo deduring: durantefor: parafrom: dein: eninto: en, hacialike: como near: cercaof: deon: sobre, enout: fueraover: encima desince: desdethrough: a través de throughout: por todas partestill: untilto: a, hastatoward: hacia, porunder: debajountil: hastaup: hacia arribaupon: sobrewith: conwithin: dentro dewithout: sin
11. PRONOMBRES- SUSTITUCION DE PALABRAS
* Posesivos (mine, yours)
Los pronombres posesivos sustituyen a un nombre, como cualquier pronombre, y en español son “mío, tuyo, suyo,...”
I mineYou yoursHe hisShe hersIt itsWe oursYou yoursThey Theirs
Observa como se puede sustituir un “adjetivo posesivo + nombre” por uno de estos pronombres:
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- That´s her book That´s hers.- My bag is on the desk Mine is on the desk.- This is his pen. Where´s your pen? This is his. Where´s yours?- I think this is their money I think this is theirs.
Por supuesto, cuando se utilizan estos pronombres es porque ya antes se ha mencionado la cosa poseída o ésta es evidente por el contexto: That´s mine el hablante señala algo o se refiere a alguna cosa ya mencionada
* Objeto (me, you)
Los pronombres objeto son aquellos que sustituyen a un nombre cuando este actúa como complemento directo o indirecto.
I meYou youHe himShe herIt itWe usYou youThey them
Observa como se puede sustituir un nombre por uno de estos pronombres:
- Paul tells John everything Paul tells him everything.- I give Mary a box of chocolates I give her a box of chocolates.- Take the dog for a walk! Take it for a walk!- Tell your parents “goodbye”! Tell them “goodbye”!
Más ejemplos:
- Laura lends me lots of books.- He invites you all the time.- She reads us all the letters.
* Reflexivos (myself)
Los pronombres reflexivos se utilizan cuando el sujeto y el objeto de una oración son la misma persona o cosa.
I myselfYou yourselfHe himselfShe herselfIt i itselfWe ourselvesYou yourselvesThey themselves
Ejemplos:
- She bought herself a new skirt.
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- I enjoyed myself at the party.- They washed themselves after working in the garden.- We cooked ourselves a very nice stew.
También se utiliza by myself, by yourself, by himself.... para expresar que una o más personas están solas o hacen alguna acción sola. Estas expresiones equivalen a on my own, on your own, on his own ...
- I went to the cinema by myself.- She was by herself when I arrived.- They did all the work by themselves.
Cuando expresamos que una o más personas realizan la misma acción la una a la otra utilizamos one another o each other.
- They looked at each other.- They help each other with their homework.- We disagree with each other on that topic.
* One/ones
One y ones se utilizan para sustituir un sustantivo contable en singular y plural , respectivamente. Este sustantivo tiene que haber sido mencionado antes para que sepamos a qué se refiere.
Ejemplos:
- Which dress do you prefer? The blue one. (the blue dress)- There were many books but she took the thickest one. (the thickest book)- Which jumpers do you like best? The colourful ones. (the colourful jumpers)
Para sustituir un sustantivo incontable se utiliza some en lugar de one/ones.
Ejemplos:
- Would you like some drink? I´ll bring you some.- There isn´t any more paper. We need to buy some.
Se puede omitir one/ones después de:
- which - Which (one) would you like?- superlativos - She is the most intelligent (one).
- this, that, these, those - I ve got some pencils. Take this one/these ones/that one/those ones.
- either, neither, another, each, the first/second/last... - There are some cakes left. Would you like another (one). (En estos casos resulta más formal mantener one/ones)
No se puede omitir one/ones después de:
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- the, the only, the main y every She told every one what she thought of them; That´s the Orly one left.
- Adjetivos Will you take the blue folder? No, I prefer the red one.
* So, such
So se puede utilizar para sustituir un adjetivo, adverbio o una oración completa ya mencionada.
- I couldn´t believe she was getting married, but she told me so. (she was getting married)- His parents were very worried although the teacher told them not to be so. (worried)- She did everything very carefully but her colleague did it even more so. (more carefully)
So se utiliza para sustituir oraciones especialmente con verbos de pensamiento:
appear/seem, assume, believe, be afraid, expect, guess, hope, imagine, presume, suppose, suspect y think. Y también con say y tell.
- It seems Paul´s doing all right. – Yes, it seems so.- I don´t know for sure if she´s coming to the party, but I assume so.- Do you think that dress suits me? – Yes, I think so.- Did you ask him if he´s going to be at home? – Yes, and he said so.
Sin embargo, no se utiliza con estos verbos: accept, admit, agree, be certain, claim, doubt, hear, intend, promise, suggest o be sure .
- I´m sure they´ll arrive on time. – Yes, I´m sure they will.- My neighbours said they´d stop making noise. But I doubt it / they would.
So también se puede utilizar en respuestas cortas en lugar de la típica respuesta “Yes,...”.Indica que estamos de acuerdo con lo que oimos y que además nos sorprende. La estructura es siempre so + pronombre personal + auxiliar .
- She has bought a new car. – So she has (ya lo veo y además me sorprende)- Look! John´s coming for dinner. – So he is.- He looks much better with that new hair cut. – So he does.
So se utiliza de forma similar en respuestas cortas con verbos como hear, tell, say, seem,gather, understand, appear (precedido de it) o believe. La estructura es so + pronombre personal + verbo. Lo que expresamos es que ya conociamos la información.
- Carol won the lottery last week. – So I hear. (eso había oido)- He isn´t on good terms with his mother. – So I understand.- They´re going to build a new shopping centre over there. – So it appears.
Do so
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Se utiliza para evitar repetir un verbo y un objeto o un complemento. Pero solamente puede utilizarse cuando ya se ha mencionado dicha información y es evidente por el contexto.
- I asked him to do the washing up, the ironing and the dusting. I asked him to do so.- They were nervous until he told them everything. But when he did so, they relaxed.- He should be studying for the exam. I hope he´s doing so.
Do so se suele utilizar en inglés formal, mientras que más informalmente se utiliza do that o do it.
Do so sustituye a verbos de acción, pero no a verbos de estado o de pensamiento.
- I didn´t enjoy the party last Friday but he did. (no he did so)- She loves eating out although he doesn’t. (no he doesn´t do so).
Such + (a/an) + nombre se utiliza para referirnos a algo ya mencionado recientemente.
Significa “de este tipo” o “dicho...”. Es especialmente común en el lenguaje formal escrito yhablado.
- The company decided to employ more personnel. Such a measure was welcome by the staff.- The price of housing went up by 10% last year. Such an increase is very unusual.
12. IMPERATIVO
El imperativo afirmativo Se construye simplemente con el verbo en infinitivo, omitiendo la persona:
Open the door. It´s cold.Give me my book, please!Close that window.Bring me a cup of tea, please.
El imperativo negativo Se forma con don´t/do not + infinitivo:
Don´t open the door!Don´t give me that book.Dont´close that window.Don´t bring me a cup of tea.
Nota: Para enfatizar una orden podemos mencionar la persona (you), pero puede interpretarse como una señal de mala educación o rudeza, por lo que no es tan frecuente.
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You get out of this room!You stay here.Don´t you try to do that.Don´t you speak so loud.
* Oraciones de relativo (relative clauses)
Las oraciones de relativo nos proporcionan información adicional sobre algo ya mencionado:
- The man who lives next door is Italian. who se refiere a “the man”- She´s got a cat which she found in the street. which se refiere a “a cat”
Los pronombres relativos
Los principales son: who y which (que a veces se sustituyen por that) y equivalen en español a “que”.
Who se utiliza para referirnos a personas y which a cosas o animales.
Más ejemplos:
- I like those houses which have a garden.- The dress which she bought was very expensive.- These are the cakes which Paul likes.- They are looking for someone who speaks Japanese.- Is that the woman who lives upstairs?- That´s the boy who goes to school with Jill.
Dos tipos de oraciones de relativo: defining relative clauses y non-defining relative clauses:
· Defining relative clauses
Ejemplos:
- The man who works in the bar is a friend of mine.- That house which has been painted is my aunt´s.
En los ejemplos anteriores no se puede omitir la oración de relativo, ya que ésta proporciona información esencial para poder identificar a “the man” y “that house”.
1. That: en las defining relative clauses, who y which pueden sustituirse por that:
- The man that works in the bar is a friend of mine.- That house that has been painted is my aunt´s.
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2. Omisión de who, which o that: cuando estas palabras actúan como objeto de la oración, y no como sujeto, pueden omitirse.
- The book which/that you bought for me. The book you bought for me.- The person who/that I met on holidays. The person I met on holidays.
Sin embargo, no se pueden omitir en estos casos porque actúan como sujeto:
- The man who/that works in the bar is a friend of mine.- That house which/that has been painted is my aunt´s.
· Non-defining relative clauses
Ejemplos:
- My friend Sarah, who lives in Germany, has won the lottery.- We went to see a film yesterday, which was quite good.
En estos ejemplos la oración de relativo nos presenta información adicional, pero no esencial. Podríamos omitir la oración de relativo y el sentido general del enunciado sería el mismo.
1. Comas: estas oraciones llevan siempre coma delante del pronombre relativo.
2. Who y which: no es posible sustituirlos por that, ni omitirlos.
Las preposiciones van al final en las oraciones de relativo:
- That´s the boy (who) I was talking to.- Tim is the friend (who)she went to the cinema with.
Excepción: puede utilizarse una preposición + whom en lugar de situar who al final, pero resulta más formal:
- The girl (who) he talked to The girl to whom he talked.- The friend (who) Tom went out with The friend with whom Tom went out.
Otros pronombres de relativo:
- Where The resort where I spent my last holidays.- When The day when I met you.- Whose The boy whose mother is a dentist. (whose significa cuyo/a/os/as)
* Condicionales
Primer condicional: este tipo de oraciones se utiliza para expresar algo que siempre es verdad o muy probable en el presente o futuro.
Ejemplos:
- If you eat too much sugar, you´ll have to visit the dentist.- If you are late again, your boss won´t be happy.
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- If it rains, we won´t have to water the plants.- We´ll still catch the train if we leave now.
La estructura del primer condicional es:
If + frase en presente simple + frase en futuro
Segundo condicional: se utiliza para expresar condiciones que son improbables o imposibles en el presente o futuro.
Ejemplos:
- If I were you, I would change jobs.- If she arrived soon, we could go to the cinema.- If they knew that, they would be very upset.- I would go home if I didn´t have so much to do.
La estructura del segundo condicional es:
If + frase en pasado simple + frase en condicional simple (would/could/might + infinitivo)
Tercer condicional: estas oraciones expresan condiciones irreales en el pasado, es decir, condiciones que podrían haberse dado pero no se dieron.
Ejemplos:
- If I had known that, I would have told you immediately.- If the weather had been nice, we would have gone for a walk.- I wouldn´t have gone to the theatre if I had known that the play was so boring.- If you had been here earlier, you would have met Maria.
La estructura del tercer condicional es:
If + frase pasado perfecto (had + participio) + frase condicional compuesto (would/could/might have + inf.)
Unless, as long as ...
- Unless significa if not (si no, a menos que). Por tanto puede utilizarse en lugar de if, pero transformando la oración:
Ejemplos:
- If you´re here on time, we´ll go to the cinema. Unless you´re here on time, we won´t go to the cinema tomorrow.- If you study enough, you´ll pass this exam. Unless you study enough, you won´t pass the exam.- Otros conectores que pueden introducir un condicional son as long as (mientras que...), on condition that (a condición de ...) o suppose/supposing that (suponiendo que...), etc.
Notas:
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- Los tres tipos de condicionales explicados son los más frecuentes, pero pueden darse combinaciones de estos tres tipos.
- Si la frase que comienza por If va primero, va seguida de una coma. Sin embargo, si la frasecon If es la segunda, no se pone coma.
- En contextos formales (como cartas comerciales) should puede reemplazar a if :
- Should you have any questions, do not hesitate to contact us.
* Estilo indirecto (reported speech)
Compara la diferencia entre el estilo directo y el indirecto:
Estilo directo:
- He said: “I don´t want to go home yet.”
Estilo indirecto o reported speech:
- He said (that) he didn´t want to go home yet.
En estilo indirecto that es opcional. Si se incluye, el registro es algo más formal que si se omite.
Cuando los verbos como say, ask, tell, etc. (reporting verbs) están en pasado, cambia el tiempo verbal del resto de la oración en el estilo indirecto.
La excepción se produce cuando hablamos de algo que aún tiene validez en el presente:
- They told me: “Water boils at 100 degrees”They told me (that) water boils at 100 degrees.
- She said: “He has to work all weekend” She said (that) he had to work all weekend.
Cambios de tiempo verbal en el estilo indirecto:
Estilo directo Estilo indirecto (Reported speech)
Presente simpleI enjoy reading comics.
Pasado simpleHe said he enjoyed reading comics
Presente continuoShe´s washing the dishes.
Pasado continuoHe said she was washing the dishes.
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Pasado simpleI worked for an art gallery.
Pasado perfectoHe said he had worked for an art gallery.
Pasado continuoHe was making dinner.
Pasado perfecto continuoHe said he had been making dinner.
Presente perfectoWe have watched all those films.
Pasado perfectoHe said they had watched all those films.
FuturoI´ll post those letters.
Condicional simple (would)He said he would post those letters.
CanI can´t wait any longer.
CouldHe said he couldn´t wait any longer.
MustI must take that train.
Had toHe said he had to take that train.
MayShe may lend me some money.
MightHe said she might lend him some money.
Reporting verbs:
- Verbo + (that): say, claim, explain, insist, agree, complain, deny, reply.- Verbo + pron objeto + (that): tell (She told me that...)- Verbo + infinitivo con to: offer, refuse, agree, promise...- Verbo + for + verbo(-ing): apologise, thank
Expresiones que cambian en estilo indirecto:Estilo directo Estilo indirecto (Reported speech)
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Pronombres personales y objeto
“I don´t know you”“We are late”She said she didn´t know me.He said they were late.
Posesivos
“That´s not my book” He said that wasn´t his book.
the next day / the following daythat daythe day before / the previous daythe following weekthe week before, the previous weekthen / at that momenttherethat week
Peticiones e imperativos en estilo indirecto: (not) to + infinitivo
- “Shut up!” He asked me to shut up.- “Don´t open that window” He ordered them not to open that window.
Preguntas en estilo indirecto: al pasar de estilo directo a indirecto las preguntas tienen el orden sujeto + verbo. Hay que diferenciar entre dos tipos de preguntas:
- Preguntas con palabra interrogativa (what, who, where, etc.):He asked: “Where are you?” He asked me where I was.
- Preguntas cuya respuesta es sí o no (sin palabra interrogativa).She asked: are you ok? She asked me if / whether I was ok.
Sugerencias en estilo indirecto: suggest + ing / that should...
They suggested leaving early.They suggested that we should leave early.
13 . VOZ PASIVA 1
Observa la diferencia entre estos dos grupos de oraciones:
- She ate an apple. An apple was eaten (by her).- Jill washed the dishes. The dishes were washed (by Jill).- They buy the newspaper on Sundays.The newspaper is bought (by them) on Sundays.- We feed the dog every day. The dog is fed (by us) every day.
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Las oraciones del primer grupo están en voz activa y las del segundo en pasiva. Al transformar una oración activa en otra pasiva el sujeto y la forma verbal cambian.
Puede ser el complemento directo de la oración activa el que pasa a ser el sujeto de laoración pasiva:
She ate an apple. An apple was eaten (by her).(an apple = complemento directo) (an apple = sujeto)
La estructura verbal de las oraciones pasivas es esta:
sujeto + verbo to be (en cualquier tiempo) + participio pasado del verbo principal
She ate an apple. An apple was eaten (by her).
(ate = pasado simple de eat) (was eaten = pasado de to be + participio de eat)
14. VOZ PASIVA 2
I read a book every week. A book is read by me every week.She is cooking dinner now. Dinner is being cooked by her now.They bought too many vegetables. Too many vegetables were bought by them.They were discussing the film. The film was being discussed.I have done all the work. All the work has been done by me.We´ve been reading that book. That book has been being read. (poco frecuente)She had cleaned everything. Everything had been cleaned by her.They had been learning that. That had been being learnt by them. (muy pocofrecuente)I will pay that. That will be paid by me.He´ll have finished the work. The work will have been finished.
El sujeto agente (la persona o cosa que realiza la acción) se puede indicar en la oración pasiva si se desea. Tiene que ir precedido de by:
She ate an apple. An apple was eaten (by her).(she = sujeto) (by her = sujeto agente)
Pero muchas veces no se menciona quien realiza la acción en la pasiva porque se entiende por el contexto o no interesa.
El complemento indirecto de una oración activa puede convertirse también en el sujeto de una oración pasiva, algo que no es posible en español:
His parents gave him a present. He was given a present by his parents.
(him = CI, a present = CD) A present was given to him by his parents.
Otros ejemplos:
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- They told her the truth She was told the truth.- He paid me I was paid by him.- They sent him a letter He was sent a letter.
La voz pasiva se usa con mucha más frecuencia en inglés que en español.No todos los verbos se pueden utilizar en voz pasiva.
Ésta es sólo posible con los verbos transitivos, es decir, con aquellos que necesitan ir acompañados de un complemento directo.
Ejemplos de oraciones que sólo son posibles en voz activa:
- I went to the cinema.- She´ll become a doctor when she grows up.- We aren´t happy in this company.
Voz Pasiva 2: get
Para expresar una acción o estado accidental o casual no se suele utilizar la voz pasiva conel verbo to be como auxiliar, sino con get:
Sujeto + get (en el tiempo correspondiente) + participio del verbo principal
Ejemplos:
- The door closed behind us and we got locked out.- The window got broken.- My bag got stolen in the crowd.- The man got killed in the streets.- Fortunately, nobody got hurt.- He got stung by a bee.
También se utiliza la voz pasiva con get en el lenguaje coloquial, aunque no nos refiramos necesariamente a una acción casual o accidental.
Ejemplos:
- I get/am paid at the beginning of every month.- She gets/is asked that same question every day.- That room doesn´t get/isn´t used very often.
15. ORDEN DE LAS PALABRAS
* Inversión verbo – sujeto
Aunque el orden de palabras en inglés en las oraciones afirmativas es de sujeto + verbo, este orden se ve alterado cuando la oración comienza con alguna expresión de significado negativo. Estas construcciones son más comunes en la lengua escrita, pero también se utilizan en la lengua hablada formal.
Ejemplos:
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- Not only does he know how to cook but he also cleans after him.- Never have I seen such a beautiful landscape.- Nowhere will you find such nice people.
Las expresiones más comunes que provocan este cambio en el orden de palabras cuando se sitúan al comienzo de la oración son estas:
NeverNowhereNot for one minuteNever againRarelyHardly…. when…No sooner… than…LittleNot onlyOnlyAt no timeIn no wayOn no account
• Cuando se trata de oraciones con el verbo to be o verbos modales (todos ellos son verbos que nunca llevan auxiliares), simplemente hay que situar el verbo delante del sujeto:
- Only was he happy when he got his way.- Not for one minute is she sad.- Little could he do about it.
● Cuando se trata de cualquier otro verbo, debemos usar: el auxiliar correspondiente + sujeto + verbo principal:
- No sooner had he got home than the phone rang.- Little did he know about her real character.- Never again does she want to go back to her old job.- Not for one minute has she thought of selling her house.
16. VOCABULARIO
* Abbreviations
adjourn (a meeting) postponer, dar por terminada hasta próxima fechaamount to ascender a xapprove of aprobararrange a meeting organizar una reuniónbe in business (company) estar operando, en activobe in power estar en el poder/gobiernobe short of tener escasez de...boom resurgirbreak even ni obtener beneficios ni perder dinero (al final de año)bring sb around persuadir a alguien para que este de acuerdo con algo
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chair presidircontract out subcontratar contratar a otra empresa para que haga ciertos trabajoscredit ingresar una cantidad en una cuentadebit adeudar, descontar de una cuentadecrease/go down/decline decrecer fall/drop delegate delegar (autoridad, tareas)do business hacer negociosdo general paperwork hacer papeleosearn interest cobrar interesesearn your own living ganarse la vidaempower sb conceder más poder a alguien (poder de decisión, p. Eje)exceed excederexpand expandirse / expandirexpire/run out caducar (documentos)export exportarfinance financiarfluctuate fluctuar (gráficos)go bankrupt irse a la bancarrotagrant licenses /patents conceder licencias o patentesgrow / expand crecer / expandirse (una empresa)have a document stamped hacer que te sellen un doc.have a stake in a company tener accioness en una empresaimport importarincrease raise aumentar, subirissue shares emitir accioneskill cancelar una orden de compra o venta de una acción level off nivelar o igualarmake a bid hacer una oferta para adquirir algomake a complaint presentar una quejamake a deal hacer un tratomake a deposit hacer un ingresomake a loss perder dineromake a profit obtener beneficiosmake money hacer dineromake sb redundant despedir por reducción de plantillameet the required standards requirements cumplir la normativa/control de calidadorder pedirpay back devolverpay interest (on a loan) pagar intereses por un préstamoplace an order hacer un pedidopurchase goods comprar mercancíasput money aside ahorrarquit / resign dimitir, despedirserationalise hacer un negocio más efectivo reach a peak of alcanzar... remain stable permanecer estable renew (a visa,...) renovarreport to sb on sth informar a alguien, rendir cuentas, estar bajo el controlretreat renegociar
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settle an invoice pagar una facturasoar subir de golpestagnate estancarsestand at estar a ...stand down dimitir, despedirsestock abastecer, surtir; tener existencias, acopiar, almacenarsurge subir rápidamente take shorthand taquigrafiarthrive/prosper prosperar, tener éxito (una empresa)transfer funds hacer una transferenciatriple triplicartumble desplomarseturn out producirunderestimate infravalorarupdate actualizarwork at the computer trabajar con el ordenador
* Common expresions
Think of an appropriate expression to say to someone in these situations. Then check the answers below. (Of course, sometimes there´s more than one correct answer)
1. It´s somebody´s birthday2. Someone is sick3. Someone sneezes4. Some anniversary (wedding anniversary, etc)5. It´s Friday evening, when you finish work. You tell your colleagues....6. Someone is going on holidays7. At Christmas8. In Halloween9. Some people are going to a party10. Someone is going to bed at night11. When you get up in the morning12. Someone is having lunch/dinner13. Someone is taking an exam today14. Someone got a very good job / had a baby / won the lottery, etc.15. Someone lost his job / had an accident....16. Someone dies (what you tell the family and friends)
Answers
1. Happy birthday! 9. Have fun! / Enjoy yourselves!2. Get well! 10. Good night.3. Bless you! 11. Good morning.4. Happy anniversary! 12. Enjoy your meal5. Have a nice weekend! / Enjoy the weekend! 13. Good luck!6. Have a good holiday / nice trip / flight /...! 14. Congratulations!7. Merry / Happy Christmas! 15. I´m sorry.
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8. Happy Halloween! 16. My commiserations
* Idioms 1
Idioms with parts of the body
Arm, back, blood and bone
- To give one´s right arm to … (Dar lo que fuera por...)I´d give my right arm to have that wonderful job.
- To keep someone at arm´s length (Mantenerse alejado de alguien)He´s a weird man. You´d better keep him at arm´s length.
- With open arms (Con los brazos abiertos)They welcomed her with open arms.
- Behind someone´s back (Sin conocimiento de alguien)He was furious when he discovered they had insulted him behind his back.
- To see the back of something (Ver algo terminado).I´m looking forward to finishing all this work. I´ll be glad to see the back of it.
- To get someone´s blood up (Ponerse de los nervios, odiar algo)It gets my blood up to see how bad behaved those children are.
- To be in someone´s blood (Llevar algo en la sangre)She´s really good at dancing. It must be in her blood.
- To make no bones about something (Decir algo que puede ser desagradable directamente y sin rodeos)He didn´t make any bones about it and told his wife he had met another woman.
- To have a bone to pick with someone. (Tener una cuenta pendiente con alguien)He´s got a bone to pick with her since she refused to help him with the report.
Brain, chest, ear and elbow
- To be wet behind the ears (No tener experiencia)He´s just finished his degree and is still wet behind the ears.
- To go in one ear and come out the other (Entrar por un oido y salir por el otro)I´ve told him a million times but it goes in one ear and comes out the other.
- To keep one´s ear to the ground (Mantenerse atento)I´ve heard they´re selling that house very cheap, so keep your ears to the ground.
- To be up to one´s ears (also eyes or neck) (Estar hasta arriba de …)I´m up to my ears in all this work.
- To play something by ear (improvisar)I haven´t planned anything for the weekend. Let´s play it by ear.
- To get something off someone´s chest (quitarse algo de encima, confesar)
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I´ve been worried since we argued, so I´ll tell her the truth and get it off my chest.
- To rack one´s brains (devanarse el cerebro)I´ve been racking my brains for hours but at last I´ve come up with a solution.
Eyes and fingers
- To be up to the eyes in something (estar hasta el cuello de…)I´m up to the eyes in work today.
- To catch someone´s eye (atraer la atención de alguien)She fancies him and keeps on trying to catch his eye.
- To turn a blind eye to something (ignorar algo)He prefers turning a blind eye to his debts and not worrying about them.
- To keep one´s fingers crossed (cruzar los dedos)I´m taking my driving test for the fourth time. So, fingers crossed!
- To have a finger in every pie (estar involucrado en muchas actividades)She has a finger in every pie: she does yoga, heads several associations…
- To be all fingers and thumbs (tener poca habilidad con las manos)I broke three glasses and two plates today. I´m all fingers and thumbs!
Neck, nose and shoulder
- To be neck and neck (estar a la misma altura)The cyclists were neck and neck up to the last minute.
- To be up to the neck in something (estar gasta el cuello)They´re up to the neck in housework.
- To pay through the nose for something (pagar demasiado por algo)They paid 500 euros for an old TV set. Definitely, they paid through the nose!
- To give someone the cold shoulder (ignorar a alguien, dejar de hablarle)After they argued, she´s been giving him the cold shoulder.
- To rub shoulders with someone (codearse con alguien)Now that she is managing director she rubs shoulders with important people.
- To breathe down someone´s neck (observar/leer por encima del hombro de alguien)
I wish she´d stop breathing down my neck when I´m reading.
Tongue and tooth
- To have a sweet tooth (ser goloso)Children usually have a sweet tooth. They love sweets.
- To hold one´s tongue (callarse algo)I thought her outfit was awful but I hold my tongue.
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- To have something on the tip of one´s tongue (tener algo en la punta de la lengua)I had the word on the tip of my tongue but couldn´t remember it.
- To bite one´s tongue off (morderse la lengua)I knew he was lying and I wanted to tell the others, but I bit my tongue off.
Idioms and colloquialisms
- A little bird told me. Me lo ha dicho un pajarito
- Cheer up! It´s not the end of the world. ¡Anímate! No es el fin del mundo.
- Cheers! Salud (al brindar); Gracias; Hasta luego.
- Couldn´t be better. Estoy muy bien, no podría estar mejor.
- Enjoy your meal! ¡Qué aproveche!
- Fire away. I´m all ears. Dispara / cuenta. Soy todo oídos.
- Get a life! Ocúpate de tus asuntos / Preocúpate de otras cosas.
- Go for it! ¡A por todas!
- Have a nice / good flight! ¡Buen vuelo!
- Have a safe journey! ¡Buen viaje!
- Have fun! ¡Qué te diviertas!
- Help yourself!. Sírvete tu mismo.
- Hold on. Espera.
- How´s it going? ¿Qué tal?, ¿Cómo te va?
- I can´t be bothered. No tengo ganas.
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- I couldn´t care less. Me importa un comino.
- I don´t mind. No me importa, no me molesta.
- I´m having second thoughts. Me lo estoy pensando dos veces / replanteando.
- I´m keeping my fingers crossed. Mantendré los dedos cruzados.
- Keep it to yourself. No lo cuentes.
- Let me sleep on it. Déjame que lo consulte con la almohada.
- Make yourself at home. Siéntete como en casa.
- My lips are sealed. Mis labios están sellados.
- Never mind. No importa, no te preocupes.
- No way! De ningún modo, ni hablar.
- Not at all. En absoluto.
- Not on your life! Ni loco, ni por todo el oro del mundo
- Now you´re talking. Ahora si nos entendemos / estamos de acuerdo
- Sure thing. Claro, por supuesto.
- Take a seat. Toma asiento.
- Take care and keep in touch. Cuídate y nos mantenemos en contacto.
- Take it easy. Tómatelo con calma, relájate.
- That´s a load / weight off my mind. Me quito un peso de encima.
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- That´s too bad. Que mala suerte.
- This is on me / This is on the house. A esto invito yo / invita la casa.
* Make or do
There is no rule to deduce when to use make or do with an expression. Although make usually means “create, manufacture”, this definition is not applicable in lots of cases.
The only fixed rule is do + the + verb (-ing): do the ironing / shopping / washing up...
Make
- make a breakthrough hacer un descubrimiento, avanzar- make certain asegurar- make a discovery hacer un descubrimiento- make a mistake cometer un error- make sense tener sentido- make sure (that) asegurarse de que...- make an appointment concertar una cita (médico, abogado, ...)- make arrangements hacer preparativos / planes- make a bid hacer una oferta, pujar- make a cancellation cancelar- make a charge for cobrar a alguien por algo- make a cheque out to hacer un cheque a alguien- make a complaint presentar una queja- make a concesión hacer un descuento- make contact with contactar con- make demands on exigir- make an enquiry/inquiry hacer una consulta- make headway progresar, hacer un progreso- make an investment realizar una inversión- make a loss perder, registrar pérdidas- make money hacer dinero- make an offer hacer una oferta- make a packet ganar un montón de dinero (coloquial)- make an effort hacer un esfuerzo- make a phone call hacer una llamada- make a point of doing something hacer algo especificamente- make a request hacer un petición- make preparations hacer preparativos- make progress progresar- make a profit tener beneficios- make a provision hacer previsiones- make someone redundant despedir por regulación de empleo- make a speech/statement/declaration dar un discurso/enunciar- make a suggestion hacer una sugerencia
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- make a trip hacer un viaje breve / excursión- make use of hacer uso de...- make work for someone dar más trabajo a alguien - make the bed hacer la cama- make breakfast/lunch/dinner hacer el desayuno / la comida / la cena- make a cake hacer café- make (a cup of) coffee/tea hacer una taza de café / té- make ends meet ganar suficiente para cubrir los gastos- make a mess desordenar, ensuciar- make amends enmendar- make the best of aprovechar al máximo algo- make a choice hacer una elección- make a confession confesar- make someone´s day alegrar el día a alguien- make a difference cambiar algo- make all the difference cambiar por completo algo- make an excuse poner una excusa- make an exception hacer una excepción- make eyes at hacerle ojitos a alguien- make faces hacer gestos (con la cara)- make a fool of ridiculizar- make friends with hacerse amigo/a de...- make fun of reirse de...- make a fuss about armar jaleo por algo- make a habit of …+ing convertir algo en costumbre- make haste darse prisa- make love hacer el amor- make a journey hacer un viaje (largo)- make the most of aprovechar al máximo algo- make (a) noise hacer (un) ruido- make peace with hacer las paces con...- make trouble causar problemas- make room for hacer sitio para...- make a success of something convertir algo en un éxito- make up your mind (to) decidirse a...- make war (on someone) hacer la guerra a alguien- make a will hacer testamento- make one´s way to ir a un sitio, dirigirse a...- make way for permitir- make a pass at someone insinuarsele a alguien (coloquial)- make a deal (Br. English) hacer un trato- make an example of someone hacer un ejemplo de alguien
Do
- do an experiment hacer un experimento- do an operation hacer una operación- do research investigar- do a test hacer un test- do business hacer negocios- do a deal (Am English) hacer un trato- do a (good/bad) job hacer un (buen/mal) trabajo- do something for a living hacer algo para ganarse la vida
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- do a roaring trade tener un negocio exitoso- do some/any work hacer algo de trabajo, trabajar un poco- do the housework hacer las tareas domésticas- do the shopping/ironing/cleaning… hacer la compra, planchar, limpiar...- do repairs hacer reparaciones, reparar- do away with eliminar, abolir- do your best hacer algo lo mejor que puedas- do your bit hacer tu parte, contribuir- do damage dañar- do your duty cumplir con tu deber- do an exam hacer un examen- do evil hacer el mal- do someone a favour hacerle un favor a alguien- do good hacer bien, sentar bien- do someone a good turn hacerle un favor a alguien- do harm hacer daño- do nothing no hacer nada- do something/anything hacer algo- do wonders (for) hacer maravillas para/a...- could do with hacer bien, necesitar, sentar bien- do justice to hacer justicia a ...- do military service hacer el servicio militar- do your homework hacer los deberes
* Ok
OK: spelling, uses and origins
Spelling: this word can be spelled either OK, O.K. or okay. All of them are considered equally correct.
Uses: OK is probably the most versatile word in English. It can be used as:
- A noun: They need your OK to issue the ticket.- An adjective: The party was OK.- A verb: Can you OK these documents before you go?- An adverb: She did OK in her exams.
* Proverbs
- A stitch in time saves nine.Una puntada a tiempo salva ciento.
- The early bird catches the worm.A quien madruga Dios le ayuda.
- To strike while the iron is hot.Batir el hierro cuando está al rojo.
- Don´t count your chickens before they are hatched.No vendas la piel del oso antes de cazarlo.
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- A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.Más vale pájaro en mano que ciento volando.
- Easier said than done.Es más fácil decirlo que hacerlo.
- Better late than never.Más vale tarde que nunca.
- Blood is thicker than water.La sangre tira.
- Once bitten, twice shy.El gato escaldado del agua fría huye.
- Easy come, easy go.Igual que vino, se fue.
- It´s no use crying over spilt milk.A lo hecho, pecho.
- The last straw that broke the camel´s backLa gota que colma el vaso.
- One swallow doesn´t make a summer.Una golondrina no hace verano.
- Let sleeping dogs lie.Deja las cosas como están.
- There´s no smoke without fire.Cuando el río suena, agua lleva.
- Truth is stranger than fiction.La realidad supera a la ficción.
- No news is good news.La ausencia de noticias es una buena noticia.
- Actions speak louder than words.Obras son amores y no buenas razones.
- Don´t look a gift horse in the mouth.A caballo regalado no le mires el diente.
- Make while the sun shines.Hacer el agosto.
- A fool and his money are soon parted.A un tonto le dura poco el dinero.
- All´s well that ends well.
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Bien está lo que bien acaba.
- A rolling stone gathers no moss.Hombre de muchos oficios pobre seguro.
- A friend in need is a friend indeed.En el peligro se ve al amigo.
- All that glitters is not gold.No es oro todo lo que reluce.
- As well be hanged for a sheep as for a lamb.De perdidos al río.
- Birds of a feather flock together.Dios los cría y ellos se juntan.
- Better alone than in ill company.Mejor estar solo que mal acompañado.
- Every cloud has a silver lining.No hay mal que por bien no venga.
- Half a loaf is better than no bread.Más vale poco que nada.
- He laughs best who laughs last.El que ríe el último ríe mejor.
- Grasp all, lose all.La avaricia rompe el saco.
- Hunger is the best sauce.A buen hambre no hay pan duro.
- In a blind man´s country the one-eyed is the king.En el país de los ciegos el tuerto es el rey.
- It´s the pot calling the kettle black.Apártate que me tiznas, le dijo la sarten al cazo.
- To jump from the frying-pan into the fire.Es peor el remedio que la enfermedad.
- To kill two birds with one stone.Matar dos pájaros de un tiro.
- To look for a needle in a haystack.Buscar una aguja en un pajar.
- Lucky at cards, unlucky in love.Afortunado en el juego, desgraciado en amores.
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- Money talks.Poderoso caballero es don dinero.
- One can´t make an omelette without breaking the eggs.El que algo quiere algo le cuesta.
- One man´s meat is another man´s poison.Sobre gustos no hay nada escrito.
- Out of sight, out of mind.Ojos que no ven, corazón que no siente.
- Prevention is better than cure.Más vale prevenir que curar.
- Robbing Peter to dress Paul.Desnudar a un santo para vestir a otro.
- Seeing is believing.Ver para creer.
- Such a father, such a son.De tal palo tal astilla.
- The exception proves the rule.La excepción que confirma la regla.
- The gods send nuts to those who have no teeth.Dios da pan a quien no tiene dientes.
- The grass always looks greener on the other side of the fence.La gallina del vecino pone más huevos que la mía.
- The third time pays for all.A la tercera va la vencida.
- Union is strength.La unión hace la fuerza.
* Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal Verbs 1
- act up comportarse mal (personas); no funcionar bien (máquinas)
The children acted up until their mother got really angry with them.That washing machine is new but it´s acting up already.
- add up tener sentido (a menudo en frases negativas); sumar
He seemed to believe the story but I don´t think it adds up.We bought too many things. Can you add up the amounts of the bills?
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- add up to ascender a (una cantidad)The total amount of all those bills adds up to over 1,000 euros.
- ask out invitar a alguien a una citaHe´s fancied her for months and last night he finally asked her out.
- back down/off echarse para atrásPaula said she´d help us, but she´s backed down/off.
- back up retroceder; avalar, respaldar, confirmar; hacer una copia de seguridadI can´t open the door, can you back up, please?I know it´s an incredible story but there are people who can back me up.Back up all the database. It´s really important and we can´t lose it.
- beg off declinar una invitación dando una excusaWe thought she was coming but she begged off in the last minute.
- blow up inflar; explotar; enfadarse mucho repentinamenteI hate blowing up balloons.They put a bomb in the building, so everything blew up.When he was told he wouldn´t get a pay rise, he blew up.
- bone up on estudiar, ponerse al día en alguna materia (coloquial)You´d better bone up on your computer skills if you want to get that job.
- break down descomponer cifras o datos, analizar; estropearse (máquina); echarse a llorarI´ll break down the total expenses to see how much each person must pay.My car just broke down in the middle of the motorway.He broke down when his girlfriend left him.
- break in/into entrar por la fuerza en una casa o edificioThe burglars broke in/into the big house at the end of the street.
- break in domar; ablandar (calzado)That horse was born wild but they broke it in.The shoes are a bit uncomfortable, but I hope I break them in soon.
- break in (on) interrumpirSorry for breaking in on your meeting, but I need your help.
- break up terminar una relación personalThey used to argue every day, so they broke up.
- bring/take back devolver algoI can lend you those books but don´t forget to bring them back.
- bring off lograr, conseguir algo difícilIt was incredibly difficult to win that race, but she brought it off.
- bring up mencionar; educar, criar; vomitarI didn´t want to talk about his divorce, but he brought it up.They were brought up in Manchester by their uncle.I think the fish we ate was off because I brought up after eating it.
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- brush up on repasar, refrescar conocimientosI need to brush up on my German before leaving for Austria.
- burn down quemarse totalmente (cosas verticales como casas, árboles...)The office building burned down due to a short-circuit.
Phrasal Verbs 2
- butter someone up hacer la pelotaHe´s been buttering up his boss all week. I think he´ll get the promotion.
- call off cancelarThe meeting was called off because too many people were missing.
- calm down calmarse, calmar a alguienI know they´ve broken into your house but you must calm down.
- catch on comprender o aprenderI´m not good at computers but I´m catching on with these lessons
- catch up (with) ponerse al mismo nivel, dejar de estar detrásHe started the course later but he´s caught up with his classmates.
- check in/into registrarse, anunciar la llegada; facturar (el equipaje)We checked into the hotel when we arrived.You must arrive in time at the airport to check in your luggage.
- check off marcar los puntos de una lista cuando ya se han completadoTake the list of things to do for today. Check each off once they´re done.
- check out abandonar un hotel; realizar el procedimiento para sacar un libro de unabiblioteca, por ejemploWe must check out of the hotel before 12 am.If you want to borrow those books you must check them out first.
- cheer up animarse, animar a otra personaHe´s so sad! We should do something to cheer him up
- chicken out perder el valor para hacer algoHe was going to tell her the truth, but he chickened out in the end.
- chip in contribuir con dinero para comprar algoWe´re going to buy a present for Nora, do you want to chip in?
- clam up callarse por completo repentinamenteShe was talkative but when I asked her about her job she clammed up.
- come across encontrar por casualidadI´m looking for this customer´s file, so let me know if you come across it.
- come down with enfermar de…
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I seemed to be ok yesterday, but I came down with the flu this morning.
- come to ascender a (una cifra); recobrar el conocimientoOur monthly expenses come to over a thousand euros.She fainted after the blow but she came to after a few minutes.
- count on contar con alguien o algoCan I count on you to help me with the move?
- cross out tachar algo escritoPaula isn´t coming to the wedding, so cross out her name on the list.
- cut back (on) reducir el consumo de algoYou should cut back on fattening food if you want to lose weight.
- do in cansar; asesinar (coloquial)All those hours in the office really did me in.The film has just started and four people have already been done in.
- do over hacer algo de nuevo, repetir algoI spilled water over the paper I was writing, so I´ll have to do it over.
- drag on durar más de lo esperado o de lo necesarioI almost fell asleep at the cinema. The film dragged on for three hours!
- draw up redactar, preparar documentos legalesI´m waiting for the lawyer to draw up the contract.
- drop off entregar una mercancia; dejar a alguien en algún sitioCan you drop off this parcel at the post office?We live very near. I can drop you off if you like.
Phrasal Verbs 3
- drop in (on) / by visitar a alguien informalmente, sin avisarWhile I was in town I dropped in on Terry to see how he was.If you have time next week, try to drop by the house.
- drop out (of) dejar de asistir al colegio o a una instituciónHe dropped out of university many years ago but he´s gone back now.
- egg on incitar a alguien a hacer algoHer wife egged him on to accept that job even though he didn´t like it.
- end up acabar haciendo algo o acabar en algún sitioIf you don´t stop drinking so much you´ll end up in hospital.
- fall through fracasar (plan, acuerdo)My holiday plans fell through when I was dismissed.
- feel up to sentirse con fuerzas o ganas para hacer algoThe walk to the peak is quite long. Do you feel up to it?
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- figure out comprender, encontrar la solución a un problema reflexionando;comprender el comportamiento de alguienI must figure out all these notes before the exam.He´s a really weird person. I can´t figure him out.
- fill in / out rellenar (un impreso)I had to fill in/out lots of forms to apply for a mortgage in the bank.
- fill someone in (on) poner al corriente, informarI missed last meeting. Could you fill me in on it?
- find out averiguar, enterarseDid you know the library is closed for works? I just found out yesterday.
- get across comunicar, hacer entender una idea; atravesar (río)I said many times I couldn´t go, but I didn´t get the idea across.We got across the river and then walked through the forest.
- get along with llevarse bien con alguienI´ve just started working there, but I get along with everyone already.
- get (a)round evitar hacer algo, librarse de hacer algo; desplazarse, moverseI got round that English exam because I had already done a course.You can get around on foot in a small town.
- get (a)round to encontrar el tiempo para hacer algo finalmenteI hope to get round to doing all the housework sometimes tomorrow.
- get by sobrevivir, arreglarselas en una situación económica difícilMy salary isn´t great but I manage to get by anyway.
- get in entrar en un vehículo pequeñoCome on, get in the car now or we´ll miss the plane!
- get on entrar en un vehículo grandeHe got on the train/bus/plane carrying lots of luggage.
- get off bajar de un vehiculo grande (tren, autobús, metro, avión); tener un día libreI got off the bus and then got on the train.Thank God I´m getting some days off. I´m exhausted.
- get out of bajarse de un vehiculo pequeño; librarse de hacer algoWhen I got out of the car the weather had changed completely.I got out of doing the housework because I had to leave for work.
- get something terminar una tareaover with This essay is boring me to death. I just want to get it over with.
- get over recuperarse de una enfermedad o mala experienciaShe´s still getting over her broken leg.They broke up a year ago, but he still hasn´t got over her.
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Phrasal Verbs 4
- get rid of deshacerse de algo; despedir del trabajoYou never wear those jeans. Why don´t you get rid of them?He was always late, so his boss got rid of him.
- get up levantarse de la camaI must get up at 8 every day to go to work.
- give up dejar de hacer algo (un hábito); rendirse, darse por vencidoI gave up smoking alter the doctor advised me to do it.I tried to learn Japanese but I gave up after one month.
- go out with salir con alguienHe´s been going out with his girlfriend for over a year.
- go (well) with conjuntar, quedar bien varias cosas juntasI think that red T-shirt doesn´t go well with your pink skirt.
- goof off holgazanearI didn´t do anything at the weekend. I just goofed off.
- grow up crecer, convertirse en adultoLaura grew up in London, that´s why she speaks English so well.
- hand in entregar un trabajo, deberes, etc.I haven´t started writing the essay and I must hand it in tomorrow.
- hand out distribuir, repartirThe teacher handed out the corrected homework to the students.
- hang up colgar el teléfonoWe didn´t talk much. He had to hang up because his boss arrived.
- hold up levantar; retrasar; atracarThe teacher held up the book so that the pupils could see it.Sorry, I was hold up by a traffic jam.She´s been quite frightened since she was held up in the street.
- iron out resolver (dificultades, desavenencias…)They had very different opinions but they ironed them out.
- jack up levantar con un gato; subir los preciosWe had a puncture, so we had to jack up the car and change the tyre.Shops always jack up the prices before Christmas.
- jump all over sb regañar, echar la broncaHis mother jumped all over him for arriving so late.
- keep on continuar; recordar a alguien continuamente lo que tiene que hacerHe keeps on telling her how rich he is..You have to keep on her if you want her to study for the exams.
- kick out expulsar a alguien de algún lugar o institución (coloq.)
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They kicked him out of the course for missing too many lessons.
- knock out dejar inconscienteThey started fighting and one of them knocked the other one out.
- knock oneself out trabajar más de lo normal o de lo esperadoI knocked myself out to have everything ready for the presentation.
- lay off despedir por falta de trabajo o recursos económicosThe company was doing quite badly, so it laid off lots of employees.
- leave out omitir, olvidar incluirThis report is too long. You should leave out some details.
- let down decepcionarHe let her down when he forgot her birthday.
- let up aflojar, amainarIt´s been raining for hours but it seems to be letting up now.
- look back on recordar, volver la vista atrás sobre algoI laugh when I look back on my school years.
Phrasal Verbs 5
- look after cuidarCould you look after the dog this weekend, please?
- look down on considerar inferior a alguien, mirar con aires de superioridadHe always looks down on people who don´t make as much money as him.
- look forward to tener ganas de que llegue/ocurra algoI´m looking forward to going on holiday. I´m so tired of working!
- look in on ir a ver algo o a alguien para comprobar su estadoI haven´t seen my grandma in weeks, I´ll look in on her today.
- look into investigar, buscar más información sobre algoI haven’t received any letters in a month. I´ll tell the postman to look into it.
- look like parecerse físicamenteShe looks exactly like her mother.
- look on plantearse; quedarse mirandoThe city centre is too expensive. I´m looking on moving to the suburbs.He saw that I was being robbed but he just looked on.
- look out tener cuidadoLook out! That step is about to collapse.
- look out for estar atento aLook out for animals crossing the road when you drive on country roads.
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- look over repasar, comprobarHe´s looking over her son´s homework.
- look up buscar algo en un diccionario, enciclopedia, etc; mejorar (intransitivo)You´ll need to look up a few words to understand that text.After so many problems, it seems things are looking up.
- look up to respetar, admirar a alguienShe´s so efficient at work that all her colleagues look up to her.
- luck out estar de suerte, tener suerteHe lucked out! The exam was about the only unit he had studied.
- make after perseguir, correr trasThe dog made after the ball its owner had thrown.
- make away escaparse, largarseThe police tried to catch the burglars, but they made away.
- make away with suprimir, acabar con; largarse con; matar (en literatura)The government made away with the new law.The robbers made away with the money.He made away with himself.
- make for ir, dirigirse a; conllevar, resultar enWe made for the city centre after lunch to do some shopping.So much traffic makes for lots of pollution.
- make fun of reirse / hacer bromas sobre alguienThey started making fun of him when he dyed his hair red.
- make out comprender lo que se ve o escucha (a menudo en oraciones negativas).The picture was blurred and I could hardly make it out.
- make over to transferir, ceder propiedades o dineroHer grandfather made over the land to her.
- make up inventar información (historia, etc)I can´t believe that story. I think they made it up.
- make up (for) compensar por algoI know you´re upset for what I said. Can I make it up?I forgot his birthday, but I´ll make up for it by giving a party next week.
- make up (with) reconciliarseThey didn´t talk for a month, but now they´ve made up (with each other).
Phrasal Verbs 6
- mark down reducir el precio deClothes are marked down during the sales period.
- mark up aumentar el precio de
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Shops always mark things up at Christmas.
- mix up confundir a alguienThe map was wrong so it mixed me up and I couldn´t find the place.
- nod off quedarse dormido (a menudo sin pretenderlo)The film was so tedious that some people nodded off at the cinema.
- pan out tener éxito, salir bien (planes) (a menudo en oraciones negativas)He won´t be promoted because his business strategy didn´t pan out.
- pass away fallecer, morirHe passed away after a very long disease.
- pass off as hacerse pasar alguien / algo porHe passed himself off as a journalist to get into the concert.
- pass on pasarPlease, pass on the message/information.
- pass out desmayarse, perder el conocimiento; distribuirHe passed out during the concert because it was too hot and crowded.Can you please pass out these sheets to the rest of the class?
- pass up dejar pasar, desaprovechar (una oportunidad) (coloquial)You mustn´t pass up that opportunity! It´s the job of your dreams.
- pick on meterse con alguienHe´s always picking on her, telling her how terrible she looks.
- pick (out) elegirThe painting is beautiful. The person who picked it out has good taste.
- pick up recoger, levantar; recoger a alguien con un vehículo; mejorar (salud,tiempo, economía), ligar conPlease, pick up those toys from the floor and put them away.I´ll pick you up at the airport at ten.It seems the weather is picking up after all the rain.He spent the whole night trying to pick her up.
- pitch in ayudar, colaborar con entusiasmoIf we all pitch in, we can get this finished before going home.
- pitch on optar porAfter some discussion the company pitched on the older candidate.
- pull out sacar, extraer; salir, irse en un cocheI´m afraid the dentist will have to pull that back tooth out.That car was parked there for two hours but it´s just pulled out.
- pull over parar el coche en un lado de la carreteraThe car was making a strange noise, so I pulled over and had a look.
- pull up arrancar (plantas); detener un vehículo; parar a alguien (policía)
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I must pull up all those weeds in my garden.Look! He´s here, he´s just pulled up (the car).The police pulled him up for speeding.
- put away guardar, devolver a su sitioThis room is a mess! Why don´t you put all that stuff away?
- put back devolver a (un sitio), volver a poner enPlease, put the cutlery back in the top drawer.
- put off posponer; apagar (luz); disuadir a alguien de hacer algo; dar ascoWe had to put off the meeting because too many people were absent.I forgot to put the light off before leaving.He tried to put me off moving to that area.That smell really puts me off.
Phrasal Verbs 7
- put on ponerse (ropa); encender; poner (música).It´s a bit cold. I´ll put my coat on.Please, put the kettle on.Shall I put this cd on?
- put out apagar (luz, fuego); molestarPlease put out the lights before leaving.I don´t want to put you out, but I need help with this.
- put up levantar, subir; montar; colgar en la pared; alojar a alguien.Put up your hands if you agree.It´s not always easy to put up a tent.Why don´t you put those pictures up?Don´t worry, I can put you up for the night.
- put up with soportar, aguantarYou don´t have to put up with your rude colleagues. Try talking to them.
- rip off cobrar demasiado por algo, estafarDon´t buy anything in that shop. They´ll rip you off.
- round off redondear (una cifra)Some shops round off prices, $1.99 becomes $2.
- run after perseguir, correr detrasThey ran after the pickpocket but he was faster than them.
- run away escapar, huirHe tried to catch the dog but it ran away.
- run down gastarse (pila, batería)The radio isn´t working because the batteries have run down.
- run into/across encontrarse a alguien por casualidadYou won´t believe it, but I ran into Tom in the supermarket the other day.
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- run into atropellar (con un vehículo)That man ran into a poor dog by accident.
- run out of acabársele algo a alguienWe´re running out of milk. Why don´t you go to the shop and get some?
- run over atropellar (con un vehículo)The poor woman was ran over when she was crossing the road.
- run through hojear; repasar (plan), ensayar (teatro).I´ve run through the book but I haven´t read it yet.Ok, let´s run through your schedule for next week.
- see to someone atender a alguien (en una tienda)Can I see that bag over there, please? – Sure, I´ll see to you in a moment.
- see to something ocuparse de algo, encontrar la solución a algún problemaCan you write me a report, please? – I´ll see to it in a moment.
- see someone off despedir a alguien que va a viajar (acompañándole al aeropuerto, etc.)I prefer not to see you off at the airport. It would make me too sad.
- see someone out despedir a alguien acompañándole hasta la puerta.It´s getting late. I´ve got to go. – I´ll see you out.
- see (you) through tener suficiente dinero para comprar lo necesarioI´ve got 100 euros to see me through the month.
- see through descubrir las verdaderas intenciones de alguienHe seemed nice but I could see through him and I knew he wasn´t honest.
- set up crear (empresa, etc.); convocar (reunión, etc.); tender una trampaHe´s thinking of setting up his own business.We must set up a meeting for next Wednesday afternoon.They set me up! They said John was not going to the party but he went.
Phrasal Verbs 8
- set back retrasar, entorpecer; costar (fam.)The bus didn´t arrive on time, so that set us back an hour.Her new flat is amazing, do you know how much it set her back?
- show sb (a) round enseñar una casa o lugar a alguienDo you like my new flat? I´ll show you (a) round.
- show off presumir, alardear, llamar la atenciónHe´s always talking about how big his house is just to show off.
- show sb out acompañar a la puerta para despedirseDo you have to go now? I´ll show you out.
- show up llegar, aparecer
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It´s about time you showed up! We´ve beenwaiting for an hour.
- show sb up hacer algo mejor que otra persona haciéndola parecer inferiorJim was so good at bowling that he showed us all up.
- slip up cometer un errorI slipped up and wrote 3 instead of 5.
- stand down renunciar a un puesto, dimitirHe should stand down as president of the company. He´s useless.
- stand for representar; tolerar (a menudo en forma negativa)UNO stands for United Nations Organization.I won´t stand for that kind of behaviour.
- stand in for sb sustituir a alguienI have to stand in for my colleague because she´s got the flu.
- stand out destacar, sobresalirShe´s so tall that she stands out wherever she goes.
- stand up levantarse (cuando se está sentado); dejar plantado, no acudir a una citaI´m so tired I don´t feel like standing up.He was supposed to meet her at 10 but he stood her up.
- stay away from mantenerse alejadoYou´d better stay away from that area. It doesn´t have a good reputation.
- stay in quedarse en casaDo you prefer to stay in or would you rather go out?
- stay out salir por la nocheI´m very sleepy because I stayed out until late last night.
- stay over quedarse a dormirYou can stay over for the night if you like.
- stay up estar levantado, no irse a dormirI stayed up until 3 o´clock watching that comedy.
- stick by ser fiel a; atenerseI´ll stick by him no matter what he´s done.You must stick by your promise.
- stick in meter, introducirLet´s watch a film. Stick the dvd in.
- stick out sobresalir, resaltar; sacar (lengua, pecho)You really stick out in that bright orange top.Don´t stick out your tongue!
- stick to atenerse, ceñirse aWe don´t have much time, so we´d better stick to our plan.
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- stick up ponerse de punta (pelo)Your hair is sticking up.
- stick up for sb defender a alguien (a menudo alguien a quien se está criticando)Everybody criticises her for her clothes, but I´ll always stick out for her.
- stick up on pegar, adherirYou´re not allowed to stick posters up on the wall.
Phrasal Verbs 9
- take after sb parecerse físicamenteShe definitely takes after her father. She´s got his eyes.
- take apart desmontarBefore I realised it he had taken the whole computer apart.
- take/bring back devolverShe lent me this book a month ago, so I should take it back to her.Don´t forget to bring back those dvds if you´ve already watched them.
- take back retirar (un comentario, insulto, etc.)He called me stupid! If he doesn´t take it back I won´t speak to him again.
- take care of cuidar de alguien, cuidarse; encargarse de planificar algo He always takes care of the baby whenever he gets sick. Can you please take care of booking a table for ten for tomorrow?
- take down anotarI tried to take down the address but she spoke too fast.
- take in asimilar, comprender; estrechar, subir el bajo (ropa)The grammar explanation was too long and I couldn´t take everything in.These jeans need taking in.
- be taken in ser engañadoI was taking in by his flattering comments.
- take off quitarse (ropa); despegar; tomarse días libres.It was so hot I had to take off my jacket and jumper.
- The plane took off on time.I´m exhausted. I think I´ll take a couple of days off.
- take on contratar, emplear, aceptar, hacerse cargo deThe company needs to take on a new receptionist.I´ve taken on too many responsibilities and I´m starting to regret it.
- take out sacar; firmar, aceptar (hipoteca, préstamo)She took out 20 euros from the cashpoint machine.I had to take out a huge mortgage to be able to pay my house.
- take it out of sb cansar, fatigar
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Going shopping takes it out of me.
- take it out on sb enfadarse con alguien injustamente, pagarlo con alguienDon´t take it out on me just because you´ve been fired.
- take over tomar el control de un negocioIf the president of the company decides to retire, his son will take over.
- take up comenzar a practicar un deporte, hobby o actividad de ocio.He needed to do some sport, so he took up rowing and he loves it.
- take sb up on sth tomarle la palabra a alguien, aceptar su propuesta/ofrecimientoHe offered me a job in his shop and I took him up on it.
- talk around evitar hablar de un temaAfter his girlfriend left him he always talked around the subject/it.
- talk away hablar sin parar durante un largo ratoI told her I was in a hurry but she continued talking away.
- talk back to sb contestar a alguien con malos modales.Even though he was 2 hours late he still talked back to his best friend.
- talk down to sb hablar a alguien con aires de superioridad.She always talks down to her employees.
- talk sb into sth convencer a alguien para que haga algoI didn´t want to go to the party but my friend talked me into it.
- talk sb out of sth convencer a alguien para que no haga algo.Her mother talked her out of marrying him.
- talk over discutir, debatir algoI´m not sure about selling the house. We should talk it over carefully.
- tell off regañarHe told off the children for being so noisy.
Phrasal Verbs 10
- throw about/around pasarse una pelota de una persona a otraWhy don´t we go to the park and throw the ball around?
- throw away /out tirar a la basuraDon´t throw those books away/out. Someone might want them.
- throw back beberse algo muy rápidamenteHe threw back a pint of beer in a couple of seconds.
- throw sth back to sb tirar algo a alguien para devolvérseloCome on, throw the ball back to me!
- throw sb off despistar a alguien que te sigue o buscaShe took a different bus that day to throw off her husband.
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- throw off quitarse la ropa rápidamenteThrow off your clothes and get into the shower!
- throw out echar a alguien de un lugar; vomitarHe was thrown out of the pub for being drunk.I ate so much that I threw up.
- throw together preparar una comida rápidamente usando alimentos que ya se tienen.I usually throw some food together when I´ve just arrived from a trip.
- tick off irritar a alguien; poner una marca al lado de los puntos de una lista paraindicar que la acción ya se ha realizado.
He really ticks her off when he starts talking so loud.At last I have ticked off all the items on my to-do list.
- try on probarse (ropa)I´d like to try on that dress in the shop window.
- try out probar una máquina para ver como funcionaI love your car! Can I try it out for a minute?
- try out (for) hacer una prueba para entrar en un equipo, orquestra, etc.He sings so well he should try out for the choir.
- turn against volverse en contra deThe dog turned against its owner.
- turn (a)round girarse o girar algoWhen I turned around I saw him coming towards me.
- turn away negar la entrada a alguien; apartarse.They were turned away when they tried to enter the pub.He was going to kiss the girl but she turned away.
- turn back volverse; atrasar (el reloj)We had to turn back because of the bad weather.We turned the clock 2 hours back when we arrived.
- turn down bajar el volumen o la temperatura; rechazarCan you turn down your hifi, please?He turned down the job in spite of being a very good one.
- turn in entregar, enviar; irse a dormir; entregar a las autoridadesI must turn in this report by Monday.I´m exhausted, I think I´m turning in.Fortunately the burglars were caught and turned in to the police.
- turn off apagar (girando algo); repugnar, no gustar en absolutoI turned off the oven half an hour ago.Fish really turns me off.
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- turn on encender girando algo; interesar, gustar, excitar.Do you want me to turn on the heating?Good food always turns her on.
- turn out producir; apagar (la luz); desahuciar; resultarThe company turns out over a million cars a year.Please, turn out the lights before you leave.The landlord turned him out for not paying the rent.I didn´t want to see that film but it turned out really moving.
Phrasal Verbs 11
- turn over dar la vuelta; facturarYou must turn over the omelette so that both sides get cooked.The company turns over a million euros every year.
- turn up subir el volumen o la temperatura; aparecer de pronto, presentarseI can´t hear the music. I´ll turn it up.He turned up at the end of the party, when we weren´t expecting him.
- wait for esperarWe waited for her to finish work and then we went shopping.
- wait on servir, atender (en restaurante, tienda, etc.)The shop assistant that waited on us was really nice.
- wake up despertarse o despertar a alguienI woke up at dawn because I was having a nightmare.
- watch out for tener cuidado conWatch out for bees while you are in the garden. There´re lots of them.
- wear out desgastar, usar algo hasta dejarlo inservible; cansar, extenuarI must buy a new pair of trainers. I´ve worn these out.All that uphill walking has worn me out.
- work out hacer ejercicio; solucionar un problema, encontrar una solución; resultar, salir bien.
She´s been working out hard at the gym because she wants to lose weight.I don´t know how we´re going to pay for the holidays but we´ll work it out.We weren´t sure about the plan, but it worked out.
- wrap up abrigarse, llevar suficiente ropa; terminarIt´s freezing outside, so wrap up well.We´ve been writing this report for five hours and I hope to wrap it up by 8.
- write back contestar por escritoI sent an email to him last week and he wrote back yesterday.
- write down anotar, escribirDid you write down the address?
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- write off destrozar un vehículo en un accidente, dejar para el desguace; cancelar (deuda)They wrote off the car when they crashed against the tree..We´ll try to write off our debts by the end of the summer.
- write sb off descartar a alguien por incapazJill was written off for the job because she can´t type.
- write out anotar; extender (un cheque); pasar a limpioDid you write out the phone number?The company wrote me up a cheque for 500 euros.You should write up your notes before you start studying them.
- zip up subir una cremalleraCan you zip up my dress, please?
- beige beige, beis- black negro- blue azul- brown marrón- burgundy burdeos- fuchsia fucsia- golden dorado- green verde- grey gris- maroon granate- navy azul marino- ocher-colored ocre- olive-colored verde aceituna- orange naranja- pink rosa- purple morado- red r ojo- silver plateado- sky blue azul celeste- violet violeta- white blanco- yellow amarillo
- dark = oscuro: dark blue, dark green, dark brown...- light = claro: light blue, light green, light brown...
* Computers
- back-up copy (to make a …) copia de seguridad- bug defecto de software- computer literate / illiterate (adj.); sabe/no sabe utilizar un ordenador- CPU central processing unit CPU- database base de datos- desktop escritorio- direct access acceso directo- document documento- DSL ADSL- floppy disk diskette
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- folder carpeta- font fuente- format formato- graphic gráfico- hard disk disco duro- hardware hardware- icon icono- ink cartridge cartucho de tinta- Internet connection conexión a internet- key tecla- keyboard teclado- laptop ordenador portátil- laser printer impresora láser- memory memoria- menu menú- monitor monitor- mouse ratón- mouse pad alfombrilla para el ratón- network red- password contraseña- Power Point presentation presentación de Power Point- programme programa- screen pantalla- screen saver salvapantallas- software software- speaker altavoz- spreadsheet hoja de cálculo- to click (on) hacer clic- to copy copiar- to crash dejar de funcionar (ordenador)- to cut cortar- to download (e.g.from the Internet) descargar, bajar- to edit editar- to log in iniciar sesión- to log out / off finalizar sesión- to paste pegar- to print (out) imprimir- to save guardar- tool herramienta- virus virus- window ventana- word processor procesador de textos
* Countries and nations
- Afghanistan Afghan- Andorra Andorran- Antilles Antillean- Argentina Argentinian- Australia Australian- Austria Austrian- Belgium Belgian- Bolivia Bolivian- Brazil Brazilian
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- Bulgaria Bulgarian- Burma (Birmania) Burman- Cambodia Cambodian- Cameroun Cameroun- Ceylon Ceylonese- Chile Chilean- China Chinese- Colombia Colombian- Congo Congolese- Costa Rica Costa Rican- Croatia Croatian- Cuba Cuban- Cyprus Cypriot- Czech Republic Czech- Denmark Danish- Dominican Republic Dominican- Ecuador Ecuadorians- Egypt Egyptian- El Salvador Salvadoran, Salvadorian- England English- Ethiopia Ethiopian- Finland Finnish- France French- Gabon Gabonese- Gambia Gambian- Germany German- Ghana Ghanian, Ghanaian- Great Britain British- Greece Greek- Guatemala Guatemalan- Guinea Guinean- Haiti Haitian- Holland / the Netherlands Dutch- Honduras Honduran- Hungary Hungarian- Iceland Icelander- India Indian- Iran Iranian- Iraq Irakian, Iraki- Ireland Irish- Israel Israeli- Italy Italian- Jamaica Jamaican- Japan Japanese- Jordan Jordanian- Kenya Kenyan- Korea Korean- Kuwait Kuwaiti- Laos Laotian- Latvia (Letonia) Latvian- Lebanon Lebanese- Liberia Liberian- Libya Lybian- Luxembourg Luxembourger
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- Malaya (Malasia) Malayan- Mali Malian- Malta Maltese- Mauritania Mauritanian- Mexico Mexican- Monaco Monegasque- Morocco Moroccan- Nepal Nepali, Nepalese- New Zealand New Zelander- Nicaragua Nicaraguan- Nigeria Nigerian- Norway Norwegian- Pakistan Pakistani- Panama Panamanian- Paraguay Paraguayan- Peru Peruvian- Philipines Filipino- Poland Polish- Portugal Portuguese- Puerto Rico Puerto Rican- Rhodesia Rhodesian- Romania Romanian- Russia Russian- Rwanda Rwandese- San Marino San Marinese- Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabian- Scotland Scottish- Senegal Senegalese- Somalia Somalian- South Africa South African- Spain Spanish- Sudan Sudanese- Sweden Swedish- Switzerland Swiss- Syria Syrian- Tanzania Tanzanian- Thailand Thai- Togo Togolese- Tunisia Tunisian- Turkey Turkish- Uganda Ugandan- Ukraine Ukrainian- United States of America North American- Uruguay Uruguayan- Venezuela Venezuelan- Vietnam Vietnamese- Wales Welsh- Yemen Yemeni- Zaire Zairian- Zambia Zambian
Continents
- Europe European
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- Asia Asian- Africa African- America American- Oceania Oceanian
- anti-virus antivirus- application aplicación, programa- @ (at) arroba- to attach adjuntar- authentication autentificación- to back up hacer una copia de seguridad- bandwidth ancho de banda- banner anuncio rectangular, banner- Bcc: copia oculta- to bookmark marcar un espacio web, añadir a Favoritos- to bounce rebotar- broadband banda ancha
96
- to browse hojear, rastrear, ojear- browser navegador, explorador- Cc: copia- CD-ROM drive lector de CD-ROM- chat chat, conversación- chat room canal de conversación- checkbox casilla, cuadro- to click hacer clic- command orden, mandato- compatible compatible- to compose escribir (email...)- configuration configuración- cookie cookie- to crash colgar, congelar, bloquearse- crawler rastreador, araña- cyber ciber- cybernaut cybernauta- cybernetics cybernética- cyberspace ciberespacio- data datos- database base de datos- to debug depurar, limpiar- default por omisión, por defecto- to delete borrar- to dial (up) marcar- domain dominio- to double click hacer doble clic- to download bajar, descargar- to drag arrastrar- to drag & drop arrastrar y soltar- e-business, electronic business negocio electrónico- e-mail address dirección de correo electrónico- e-mail box buzón de correo electrónico- e-zine (electronic magazine) revista electrónica- emoticon / smiley emoticón- feedback feedback, realimentación, retroalimentación- firewall cortafuegos- folder carpeta- to forward reenviar, pasar- grid cuadriculado, cuadrícula- to hack amañar, sabotear, piratear- hacker pirata informático- hard disk disco duro- hit impacto, golpe de clic- home page página inicial- HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) lenguaje de marcado de hipertexto, HTML- HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) protocolo de transmisión de hipertexto,
- to input teclear, introducir- internaut internauta- (the) Internet Internet, la Red- Internet service provider proveedor de servicios de Internet- intranet intranet- IP (Internet Protocol) protocolo de Internet (IP)- jam atascamiento- junk mail / spam correo basura- keyword palabra clave- to link hacer un link, enlazar- link link, enlace- to load cargar- to log in hacer la conexión- to log off terminar el modo de diálogo- to log on comenzar la sesión- mail server servidor de correo- mailing list lista de correo, lista de distribución- newsletter boletín de noticias/novedades- newsgroups foro de discusión- nick apodo, Nick- nickname apodo- offline fuera de línea, desconectado- online en línea, conectado- password contraseña, clave de acceso- Pay-Per-View (PPV) pago por visionado- PIN (Personal Identification Number) número personal de identificación, PIN- pop-up menu menu desplegable- portal portal- to post poner una nota, anunciar- to refresh (a screen) actualizar (la pantalla)- to right click pulsar el botón derecho del ratón- route ruta- router direccionador- to run (software, a program) ejecutar (un programa)- to scan escanear, rastrear, buscar- to scroll desplazarse en sentido vertical por la
pantalla- scrollbar barra del lateral derecho para desplazarse- search engine buscador- to select seleccionar, resaltar- to sign in registrarse, iniciar sesión- to sign out terminar la sesión persona- site (website) página web, website, sitio web- to spam enviar correo basura- spammer remitente de correo basura- to subscribe suscribirse- to surf explorar, navegar- surfer usuario, navegante- thumbnail imagen en miniatura- to unsubscribe darse de baja, anular la suscripción- to upload subir, cargar, copiar
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- URL (Uniform Resource Locator) URL, localizador uniforme de recursos- username nombre de usuario- virus virus- web page página web- webmaster administrador de web, webmaster- World Wide Web (WWW, W3, the Web) red mundial- worm gusano
* Jobs- Actor / actress actor / actriz- Administrative assistant auxiliar administrativo- Agronomist ingeniero agrónomo- Air hostess / flight attendant azafata auxiliar de vuelo- Ambassador embajador- Archaeologist arqueólogo- Architect arquitecto- Artist artista- Athlete atleta- Baby sitter niñera- Baker panadero- Ballet dancer bailarín de ballet- Bank employee empleado de banco- Barman (bar tender) barman- Barrister (Br.) / attorney (Am.) abogado (cualificado para acudir a juicios)- Beautician esteticién- Bellboy / bell attendant botones- Biologist biólogo- Builder trabajador de la construcción- Bus driver conductor de autobús- Butcher carnicero- Cameraman cámara (de tv)- Carpenter carpintero- Cashier (Br.) / teller (Am.) cajero de banco- Chambermaid camarera de piso (hoteles)- Cleaning lady/man limpiadora limpiador- Clothes designer diseñador de ropa- Clown payaso- Comedian cómico- Computer programmer programador informático- Cook cocinero- Decorator decorador- Dentist dentista- Doctor médico- Electrician electricista- Engineer ingeniero- Estate agent agente inmobiliario- Farmer granjero- Film director director de cine- Fire-eater tragafuegos- Firefighter bombero- Fisherman/woman pescador
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- Fishmonger pescadero- Football/tennis/... player futbolista, tenista...- Fortune-teller adivino- Gardener jardinero- Graphic designer diseñador gráfico- Hairdresser peluquero- Headmaster / headmistress director/a de colegio- Housewife ama de casa- Journalist periodista- Lawyer abogado- Librarian bibliotecario- Lion tamer domador de leones- Magician mago- Make-up artist maquillador- Mechanic mecánico- Minister ministro- Model modelo- MP (member of parliament) diputado- Musician músico- News reader/presenter presentador del telediario- Nun monja- Nurse enfermera- Opera singer cantante de ópera- Orchestra conductor director de orquesta- Painter pintor- Personal assistant (PA) ayudante personal- Pharmacist / chemist farmacéutico- Photographer fotógrafo- Physiotherapist fisioterapeuta- Piano player pianista- Pilot piloto- Plastic surgeon cirujano plástico- Plumber fontanero- Poet poeta- Police officer policía- Politician político- Postman /postwoman cartero/a- Preacher predicador- President of the Government presidente del gobierno- Priest cura- Private detective detective privado- Professor catedrático de universidad- Proof reader corrector de pruebas- Psychiatrist psiquiatra- Psychologist psicólogo- Receptionist recepcionista- Sailor marinero- Salesperson vendedor- School teacher profesor de escuela, maestro- Secretary secretaria- Security guard guarda de seguridad- Shop assistant / sales assistant dependiente- Soldier soldado
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- Solicitor abogado, procurador (no acude a juicios)- Stock broker corredor de bolsa- Stripper bailarín/a de streep-tease- Stunt person especialista de cine, doble- Tailor sastre- Telephonist telefonista- Tourist guide guía turístico- Translator traductor- TV presenter presentador de televisión- Vet veterinario- Waiter / waitress camarero/a- Window cleaner limpia ventanas- Writer escritor
* The city
* The house
The house (La casa)
Rooms and parts of the house
Sitting room Cuarto de estarLiving room SalónKitchen CocinaStudio Estudio / despachoBedroom DormitorioUtility room Cuarto útil Bathroom Cuarto de bañoCorridor PasilloBasement SótanoGarden JardínGarage GarajeHall EntradaFront door Puerta delanteraBack door Puerta traseraRoof TejadoChimney ChimeneaBalcony Balcón, terrazaWall ParedCeiling Techo
- fireplace Chimenea- carpet Alfombra grande- bookcase Librería- video recorder Grabador de vídeo- hi-fi Cadena de música- remote control Mando a distancia- speaker Altavoz- radio Radio- cd placer Reproductor de cd- headphones auriculares
- candle vela- candle holder candelabro- cd rack Estantería para cds- lamp Lámpara- lamp shade Pantalla de lámpara- telephone Teléfono- radiator Radiador- drawer Cajón- letter box Buzón- dust bin Cubo de la basura- washing line Cuerda para tender la ropa- (coat)hanger Percha- lawn mower Corta césped- socket Enchufe (pared)- plug Enchufe (en aparato)- heating Calefacción- air conditioning Aire acondicionado
* Languages- Afrikaans afrikaans- Arabic árabe- Armenian armenio- Basque vasco, euskera- Bulgarian búlgaro- Catalan catalán- Chinese / Mandarin / Cantonese chino, mandarín, cantonés- Czech checo- Dutch holandes- English inglés- Flemish flamenco- French francés- Galician gallego- German alemán
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- Greek griego- Hebrew hebreo- Hindi hindú- Hungarian húngaro- Italian italiano- Japanese japonés- Korean coreano- Latin latín- Polish polaco- Portuguese portugués- Rumanian rumano- Russian ruso- Serbo-Croat serbocroata- Spanish español- Swahili swahili- Swedish sueco- Swiss-German suizo-alemán- Thai tailandés- Turkish turco- Ukrainian ucraniano
* Money
- accountant contable- accounting contabilidad- ATM cajero automático- Balance saldo- bank account cuenta bancaria- bill factura- buck dólar (coloquial)- capital capital- cash machine cajero automático- cashpoint cajero automático- cent céntimo- change cambio; dinero suelto- cheque check- coin moneda- cost coste- cost-effective económico- credit card tarjeta de crédito- currency moneda (de un país)- current account cuenta corriente- debtor deudor, moroso- deduction deducción, descuento- denomination valor de un billete- depreciation depreciación- discount descuento- dollar dólar- down payment entrada; pago al contado- economic económico- economical económico (barato)- economics economía (ciencia)- economy economía- expenses gastos
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- fee tasa, cuota, honorario- foreign currency divisa extranjera- free of charge sin coste, gratis- funds fondos- income ingresos- interest interés- investment inversión- investor inversor- invoice factura- loan préstamo- loss pérdida- mortgage hipoteca- negotiation negociación- offer (to make an ---) oferta; hacer una oferta- special offer oferta especial- payment pago- pocket money dinero de bolsillo- price tag etiqueta con el precio- profit (to make a ----) beneficio; obtener beneficio- profitable rentable- purse monedero- receipt ticket- revenue ingresos por ventas- safe caja fuerte- salary sueldo mensual- sales ventas; rebajas- savings ahorros- savings account cuenta de ahorros- sterling (pound) libra esterlina- to amount to ... ascender a ...- to bargain regatear, negociar- to borrow tomar prestado- to cash a cheque cobrar un cheque- to charge sb for sth cobrar a alguien por algo- to do business hacer negocios- to finance financiar- to invest in invertir en- to lend prestar- to make money hacer dinero- to negotiate negociar- to owe money deber dinero- to pay by cheque pagar con un cheque- to pay by credit card pagar con tarjeta de crédito- to pay in cash pagar en efectivo- to pay in instalments pagar a plazos- to refund devolver, reembolsar- to save ahorrar- to settle an invoice pagar/liquidar una factura- to spend on gastar en- to waste money derrochar dinero- wallet cartera
* Sport
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- American football fútbol americano- angling pesca con caña- archery tiro con arco- athletics atletismo- badminton badminton- baseball beisbol- basketball baloncesto- boxing boxeo- cricket cricket- croquet croquet- cycling ciclismo- fencing esgrima- fishing pesca- football / soccer fútbol- golf golf- gymnastics gimnasia- handball balonmano- high jump salto de altura- hiking senderismo- hockey hockey- horse racing hípica- ice hockey hockey sobre hielo- ice skating patinaje sobre hielo- judo judo- karate karate- long jump salto de longitud- marathon maratón- motorcycling motociclismo- pole vault salto con pértiga- roller skating patinaje sobre ruedas- rowing remo- rugby rugby- sailing vela- scuba diving buceo- shot put lanzamiento de peso- ski esquí- squash squash- surfing surf- swimming natación- synchronised swimming natación sincronizada- table tennis/ping pong ping pong- taekwondo taekwondo- taichi taichi- tennis tenis- throw of discus lanzamiento de disco- volleyball voleibol- waterpolo waterpolo- weight lifting halterofilia- wrestling lucha libre- yoga yoga
* Sationery (art. Papeleria)
- address book agenda de direcciones
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- ballpoint pen bolígrafo- blank paper papel en blanco- bookmark marcapáginas- briefcase cartera, maletín- business card tarjeta de visita- calendar calendario- coloured pencil pintura/lápiz de color- crayon pintura de cera- desk escritorio- diary agenda- drawer cajón- envelope sobre- eraser borrador- felt-tip pen rotulador de punta fina- file archivo- filing cabinet armario para archivos- folder carpeta- fountain pen pluma- glue pegamento- headed paper papel con membrete- highlighter rotulador fluorescente- ink tinta- ink cartridge cartucho de tinta- letter-opener abrecartas- manila folder carpeta de papel marrón- marker rotulador de punta gruesa- notebook cuaderno- notepad libreta- paper bin papelera- paper clip clip- paper cutter cuchilla para papel- paperweight pisapapeles- pen bolígrafo, pluma- pencil lápiz- pencil case estuche- pencil holder portalápices- phone book agenda telefónica- propelling pencil portaminas- punch taladradora para papel- rubber borrador- ruler regla- scissors tijeras- sellotape celo- sharpener sacapuntas- stamp sello (de carta y de tinta)- staple grapa- stapler grapadora- sticker pegatina- tippex tippex
* Television
- aerial antena- audience audiencia, público
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- cable tv televisión por cable- cartoons dibujos animados- channel canal- children´s programme programa infantil- comedy comedia- commercial / ad anuncio- dish parabólica- documentary documental- film película- journalist periodista- music programme programa musical- news (programme) noticias- news reader presentador de las noticias- pay per view pago por ver ciertos programas- picture imagen (en la pantalla)- presenter presentador- quiz concurso de preguntas y respuestas- reality show reality show- remote control mando a distancia- satellite tv televisión por satélite- screen pantalla- series (sing.) serie- show / programme programa- soap (opera) culebrón, serie con muchos capítulos- sports programme programa deportivo- talk show programa de testimonios- to change channels / to turn it over cambiar de canal- tv set aparato de televisión- viewer espectador
* Travel and accomodation
- abroad en el extranjero- accomodation alojamiento- air hostess azafata de vuelo- all-inclusive todo incluido- arrival llegada- backpacker mochilero- baggage claim recogida de equipajes- bed and breakfast (B&B) casa con desayuno- bellboy botones- board and lodging alojamiento y comida- boarding card tarjeta de embarque- boot maletero- bureau de change cambio de moneda- bus conductor revisor de autobús- business trip viaje de negocios- cab taxi- cabin camarote (barco)- camping site camping- car rental alquiler de coches- chambermaid camarera de habitaciones- charter flight vuelo charter- check-in counter mostrador (aeropuerto)
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- chef/cook cocinero- coach autocar- crew tripulación (barco o avión)- cruise crucero- culture shock choque cultural- customs aduanas- day tripper excursionista- deck cubierta (barco)- delayed flight vuelo retrasado- departure salida- direct flight vuelo directo- dormitory dormitorio- double room habitación doble- duty free shops tiendas sin impuestos- ecotourism ecoturismo- emergency landing aterrizaje de emergencia- ensuite room habitación con baño- exchange rate índice cambio de moneda- excursion excursión- expatriate expatriado, emigrado- fare tarifa- ferry ferry- flight attendant auxiliar de vuelo- flight cabin / cockpit cabina del piloto (avión)- flight indicator panel indicador de vuelos- full board pensión completa- gate puerta (de embarque)- guest-house casa de huéspedes- guide guía- guide book guía (libro)- guided visit visita guiada- half board media pensión- hand luggage equipaje de mano- holiday brochure folleto de vacaciones- honeymoon luna de miel- hostel / youth hostel hostal, albergue juvenil- immigrant inmigrante- immigration inmigración- independent traveller viajero independiente- journey viaje- last minute offer oferta de última hora- left-luggage machines consigna de equipajes- life jacket chaleco salvavidas- lifeboat lancha de socorro- locomotive locomotora- long/short distance larga / corta distancia- low fare airline / flight líneas aéreas económicas- luggage / baggage equipaje (Br./Am.)- luggage rack rejilla portaequipajes- motorway / highway autopista (Br./Am.)- on board (to get on --) a bordo- overbooking sobre vendido- package holiday/trip/tour vacaciones/viaje/tour- passenger pasajero
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- passenger coach vagón de pasajeros- passport pasaporte- passport control control de pasaportes- platform andén- prow / stern proa/popa- receptionist (hotel ---) recepcionista- residence permit permiso de residencia- return/one way ticket billete de ida y vuelta- route ruta- runway pista de aterrizaje- seat belt cinturón de seguridad- sights lugares de interés turístico- single room habitación sencilla- stay estancia- stop parada- stopover escala- suitcase maleta- tent tienda de campaña- terminal terminal (aeropuerto)- ticket inspector/collector revisor de billetes- timetable horario- tip propina- to book / to reserve reservar- to change trains/buses... hacer transbordo- to check out abandonar un hotel- to connect flights cambiar de avión- to disembark desembarcar- to get dizzy/sick marearse- to land aterrizar- to load cargar- to make a reservation hacer una reserva- to migrate emigrar- to sightsee ver los lugares turísticos- to stop over in ... hacer escala en ...- to take off despegar- to tour / go on tour hacer un tour- to unload descargar- tourism turismo- tourist turista- tourist office información turística- tram / streetcar tranvía- travel agency / travel agents´ agencia de viajes- travel card bono de varios viajes- travel insurance seguro de viajes- travellers´ cheques cheques de viaje- trip viaje corto, excursión- trolley carrito portaequipajes- vacancy habitación libre, plaza- waiter/waitress camarero/a- work permit permiso de trabajo
* Work
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- ability habilidad- agreement / deal acuerdo- annual income ingresos anuales- applicant solicitante- application form formulario de solicitud- apprentice aprendiz- apprenticeship aprendizaje- bank holiday día festivo- benefits subsidios- boss jefe- candidate candidato- civil servant funcionario- contract contrato- covering letter carta de presentación- department departamento- duty deber- employed empleado (adj.)- employee empleado (sustantivo)- employer empresario- employment empleo (incontable)- factory fábrica- flexible hours horario flexible- full time job completa- function función- gross income / net income ingresos brutos / netos- headhunter caza talentos- headquarters sede, oficina central- health insurance seguro sanitario- holidays vacaciones- Human Resources (HH.RR.) Recursos Humanos- incentive incentivo- interviewee entrevistado (sustantivo)- interviewer entrevistador- job empleo- job interview entrevista de trabajo- job offer oferta de trabajo- job office oficina de empleo- jobhunter buscador de empleo- labour mano de obra- management directiva- manager directivo- managing director director general- manufacturing industries industrias de fabricación- maternity leave baja por maternidad- meeting reunión- office oficina- part time job media jornada- pay rise aumento de sueldo- pay slip nómina (documento)- pension pensión- permanent / temporary job trabajo fijo / temporal- position / post puesto- qualifications titulación formación académica
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- recruitment selección de personal- recruitment agency agencia de empleo- references referencias- report informe- salary salario (mensual)- self-employed autónomo- semiskilled semi cualificado- shortlist preseleccionados- sick leave baja por enfermedad- sick pay subsidio de enfermedad- skill habilidad, conocimiento- social security seguridad social- steady job / unsteady job estable /inestable- stress estrés- stressful estresante- summer holidays vacaciones de verano- supervisor supervisor- task tarea- tax return devolución de impuesto- temporary Yorker trabajador eventual- to apply for solicitar- to ask for a pay rise pedir un aumento- to be entitled to tener derecho a...- to be on duty estar de servicio- to be on the payroll estar en nómina- to book your holidays solicitar vacaciones- to contract contratar- to dismiss despedir- to do overtime trabajar horas extras- to earn ganar- to employ emplear- to fire despedir (coloquial)- to hire contratar- to look for a job buscar un empleo- to promote someone ascender a alguien- to recruit contratar- to report to someone estar bajo el mando- to sack / to give someone the sack despedir (coloquial)- to take a day off tomarse un día libre- to take over sustituir, reemplazar- to train formar- trainee trabajador en formación- training formación- unemployed desempleado- unemployment benefits subsidio de desempleo- uniform uniforme- unskilled no cualificado- wages salario (semanal)- work permit permiso de trabajo- working hours horario de trabajo- pensioner pensionista- to retire jubilarse
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17. LECTURAS
* How to be a hypocrite
If you want to be really and truly British, you must become a hypocrite.Now: how to be a hypocrite? As some people say that an example explains things better than the best theory, let me try this way. I had a drink with an English friend of mine in a pub. We were sitting on the high chairs in front of the counter when a flying bomb exploded about a hundred yards away. I was truly and honestly frightened, and when a few seconds later I looked around, I could not see my friend anywhere. At last I noticed that he was lying on the floor, flat as a pancake. When he realized that nothing particular had happened in the pub he got up a little embarrassed, flicked the dust off his suit, and turned to me with a superior and sarcastic smile. “Good Heavens! Were you so frightened that you couldn´t move?”How to be an Alien, George Mikes
1. Say if these sentences are True or False.
1. A bomb exploded at the door of the pub.2. The author lay on the floor when he heard the noise.3. The author´s friend didn´t admit that he was scared too.2. Find in the text the right words for these definitions.
1. A person who affects virtues or qualities he does not have. ..............2. A flat cake made of thin batter and cooked on both sides ..............3. Fine particles, a fine powder. ..............4. To be aware of ... ..............5. A level surface (as a table or board) over which transactionsare conducted or food is served or on which goods are displayed. ..............
3. Write these sentences in the passive.1. I could not see my friend anywhere....................................................................................................................2. He flicked the dust off his suit...................................................................................................................Answers
Exercise 1:1. F2. F3. T
Exercise 2:1. hypocrite2. pancake3. dust4. to realize5. counter
Exercise 3:
1. My friend could not be seen anywhere.The dust was flicked off his suit.
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* How to be rude
It is easy to be rude on the Continent. You just shout and call people names of a zoological character. On a slightly higher lever you may invent a few stories against your opponents.However, in England rudeness has quite a different technique. If somebody tells you an obviously untrue story, on the Continent you would remark: “You are a liar, Sir, and a rather dirty one at that.”
In England you just say: “Oh, is that so? or “That´s rather an unusual story, isn´t it?” When some years ago, knowing ten words of English and using them all wrong, I applied for atranslator´s job, my would-be employer (or would-not-be-employer) softly remarked: “I´m afraid that your English is somewhat unorthodox”.
This translated into any continental language would mean: EMPLOYER (to the commissionaire): “Jean, kick this gentleman down the steps!” In the last century, when a wicked and unworthy subject annoyed the Sultan of Turkey or the Czar of Russia, he had his head cut off without much ceremony; but when the same happened in England, the monarch declared: “We are not amused”; and the whole British nation even now, a century later, is immensely proud of how rude their Queen was.
Terribly rude expressions (if pronounced grimly) are: “I´m afraid that...” “unless...” “nevertheless...” “How queer...” and “I´m sorry, but...”It is true that quiet often you can hear remarks like: “You´d better see that you get out of here!” or “Shut your big mouth!” or “Dirty pig!”, etc.
These remarks are very un-English and are the results of foreign influence. (Dating back, however, to the era of the Danish invasion.)
How to be an Alien, George Mikes (abridged)
1. Say if the following sentences are True or False.1. Insults in Britain are much more direct than in other countries.2. It is obvious that most rude expressions in English have come recently from otherlanguages.
3. The author´s potential employer was much more polite than he had expected.2. Find synonyms of these words in the text.1. False ..........2. To make up ..........3. Evil ..........4. King / queen ..........5. Rival ..........3. Write this sentence in reported/indirect speech.My would-be employer softly remarked: “I´m afraid that your English is somewhat unorthodox”..................................................................................................................................4. Write this sentence in the passive.You may invent a few stories against your opponents..................................................................................................................................
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Answers
Exercise 1:1. F2. F3. T
Exercise 2:1. untrue2. to invent3. wicked4. monarch5. opponent
Exercise 3:My would-be employer softly remarked that he was afraid that my English was somewhatunorthodox.
Exercise 4:A few stories against your opponents may be invented.A few stories may be invented against your opponents.
Irish symbols
Every country has its own symbols, things by which it´s known all over the world. And Ireland is no exception. These are the most popular ones:
The shamrock: a member of the clover family, it´s the national .......... of Ireland and is worn proudly by Irish people all over the world on St. Patricks Day, 17th of March.
Leprechauns: the name ”leprechaun” is .......... from the old Irish word “luchorpan” which means “little body”. A leprechaun is a fairy taking the appearance of a miniature old man. Leprechauns are solitary creatures and ......... their time making shoes and brogues. If you hearthe sound of his hammer when he is at work you know you have found him. If caught, he can be forced to reveal the .......... of his treasure, but the .......... must keep their eyes on him everysecond. If the captor´s eyes leave the leprechaun just for a moment, he will ..........
The Blarney Stone: it is a stone set in the wall of the Blarney castle tower in the Irish village of Blarney. Kissing the stone is supposed to bring the kisser the ......... of persuasive eloquence (blarney). The origins of the Blarney Stone´s magical properties aren´t clear, but one ..........says that an old woman cast a .......... on the stone to reward a king who had saved her from.......... . Kissing the stone while under the spell gave the king the .......... to speak sweetly andconvincingly.Irish Green: most people think the Irish wear green on St. Patrick´s Day because Ireland is called the .......... Isle for its green landscape. Hundreds of years ago in Ireland the people .......... green leaves and boughs in the spring. Then they would spread the ......... over the fields, believing this would make the land richer.
1. solitary2. persuasive3. vanish4. little5. reveal6. ability7. popular8. isle9. country
The national
Queueing is the national passion of an otherwise dispassionate race. The English are rathershy about it, and deny that they adore it.
On the Continent, if people are waiting at a bus-stop they loiter around in a seemingly vaguefashion. When the bus arrives they make a dash for it; most of them leave by the bus and alucky minority is taken away by an elegant black ambulance car. An Englishman, even if he isalone, forms an orderly queue of one.
At weekends an Englishman queues up at the bus-stop, travels out to Richmond, queues upfor a boat, then queues up for ice cream, then joins a few more queues just for the sake of the fun of it, then queues up at the bus-stop and has the time of his life.Many English families spend lovely evenings at home just by queueing up for a few hours, andthe parents are very sad when the children leave them and queue up for going to bed,How to be an Alien, George Mikes (abridged)
1. Find the appropriate words for these definitions.
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1. To hang around idly. ............2. To line up or wait in a queue. ............3. Timid. ............4. Apparently on superficial view. ............5. A strong liking. ............6. To refuse to acknowledge. ............
2. Say if the following sentences are True or False.1. English people love queueing.2. People don´t usually queue at the bus-stop in Britain.3. In the rest of Europe people queue all the time too.4. Some British families even queue at home.
3. Find opposites of these words in the text.1. to hate ............2. to leave ............3. happy ............4. affirm, state ............5. boredom ............
4. Explain the underlined part of this sentence using your own words.When the bus arrives they make a dash for it.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Answers
Exercise 1:
1. to loiter2. to queue3. shy4. seemingly5. passion6. to deny
Exercise 2:
1. T2. F3. F4. T
Exercise 3
1. to adore2. to arrive3. sad4. to deny5. fun
Exercise 4:
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When the bus arrives people rush / run to get on.
The weather
This is the most important topic in the land. Do not be misled by memories of your youth when, on the Continent, wanting to describe someone as exceptionally dull, you remarked: “He is the type who would discuss the weather with you”. In England this is an ever-interesting, even thrilling topic, and you must be good at discussing the weather.
Examples for conversation:
For good weather
- Lovely day, isn´t it?- Isn´t it beautiful?- The sun ...- Isn´t it gorgeous?- Wonderful, isn´t it?- It´s so nice and hot...- Personally, I think it´s so nice when it´s hot – isn´t it?- I adore it - don´t you?
For bad weather
- Nasty day, isn´t it?- Isn´t it dreadful?- The rain... I hate rain...- I don´t like it at all. Do you?- Fancy such a day in July. Rain in the morning, then a bit of sunshine, and then rain, rain, rain, all day long.- I remember exactly the same July day in 1936.- Yes, I remember too.- Or was it in 1928?- Yes, it was.
Learn the above conversation by heart. If you are a bit slow in picking things up, learn at least one conversation, it would do wonderfully for any occasion. If you do not say anything else for the rest of your life, just repeat this conversation, you still have a fair chance of passing as a remarkably witty man of sharp intellect, keen observation and extremely pleasant manners.
How to be an Alien, George Mikes (abridged)
1. Find synonyms in the text for these words.
1. subject .......... 5. extraordinarily ..........2. boring .......... 6. to comment ..........3. exciting .......... 7. recollections ..........4. to imagine ........ 8. to learn ..........
2. Say if the following sentences are True or False according to the text.
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1. Most people in continental Europe find talking about the weather rather fun.2. Regarding weather conversations, you can´t apply your ideas from the continent to England.3. Nobody really needs to learn to talk about the weather.4. In England, even if you can only talk about the weather you may be considered quite clever.
Answers
Exercise 1:
1. topic2. boring3. thrilling4. to fancy5. exceptionally, remarkably6. to remark7. memories8. to pick up
Exercise 2:1. F2. T3. F4. T
18. INGLES COMERCIAL
* Business English vocabulary
* Formal letters (general structure)
This is the general layout for formal letters.addressee = person who receives the lettersender = person who sends the letter
Sender´s address (1)Addressee´s name / title DateAddressDear Sir / Madam / Mr Kenny / Mrs Bradford,I am writing to apply (2).....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
I look forward to hearing from you. (3)Yours faithfully / Yours sincerely, (4)SignatureName and surname in clear writing
(1) You mustn´t write your name, only the full address.
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(2) Begin the letter by explaining the reason why you are writing (job application,complaint, etc.)
(3) This sentence is optional. It expresses our wish to receive news from the addressee.
(4) Yours faithfully: we use it when we don´t know the addressee´s name and, therefore, we have started the letter with “Dear Sir/Dear Madam”.Yours sincerely: used when we know the addressee´s name.
Note that these expressions are followed by comma.
Notice that in formal letters we never use contractions: I am (not I´m)
* Letter of application for a job
9 A LeinsterStreetDublin 20Books and More magazine 2nd April 200512 Cambridge Rd.LondonPN5 3RE
Dear Mr Krain,
I am interested in applying for the full-time position of journalist for Books and More magazine advertised yesterday on your web site. My reason for applying is that I have always been very keen on literary journalism and have experience in this area, since I worked for one year in a similar Irish magazine on contemporary literature. I enclose my CV. Although at the moment I am living in Dublin, I will be in London from 10th to 16th of this month and will be available to attend an interview any of those days.
I look forward to hearing from you.
Yours sincerely,
M. O´BrianMARGARET P. O´BRIAN
Other useful expressions for this type of letters:
- I would be able to attend an interview at any time which is convenient to you.- I hope you will be able to make use of my services.- As you will see from my enclosed CV, I have experience in.....
* Letter of enquiry (pedir información)
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C/ San Miguel, 8Madrid28010SpainEnglish Around the World 9th May 200512, Pembroke RdCambridgeCL5 2RXUnited Kingdom
Dear Sir/Madam,
I am very interested in your courses of English for Foreigners in Cambridgeadvertised in the “Evening Standard” and I would be very grateful if you could sendme further information on the courses taking place in July.I am particularty interested in knowing the prices of the courses as well as thedifferent possibilities of accommodation.I look forward to hearing from you.Yours faithfully,
A. PedreraANA MARÍA PEDRERA SANZ
Other useful expressions for this type of letters:
- I am writing to enquire about.....- I would appreciate receiving ..........- I was interested in your...... and I would like to have further information / fulldetails on......
* Phone conversations
• Conversation 1:
DTC Security, good morning.
- Good morning. Could I speak to Mrs Grant, please? I´m afraid Mrs Grant isn´t in the office at the moment. Can I take a message?
- Yes, please. Tell her to call me on my mobile as soon as she can. She´s got mynumber. My name is Tom Hugues, from PTG.
Could you spell your name for me, please?
- Of course. It´s H-U-G-H-E-S.Thank you. I´ll pass the message. Goodbye!- Bye.
Conversation 2:
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Rye Cars. Good afternoon.
- Hi. I´m a customer of Mr Kelly. Can I talk to him, please? Can I ask who´s calling?
- Yes, I´m Pat Kenny.One moment, I´ll put you through to him.
• Conversation 3:
Jake´s House Appliances. Good morning.
- Good morning. I´ve got an enquiry about an invoice you sent me for the fridge I boughtlast week. I think there´s a mistake.
Ok, could you tell me your name and the invoice number, please?.
- Yes, my name is Mary O´Donnell and the invoice number is... Let me see... yes, it´s 32514.Right. I have to check the file, so I´ll put you on hold for a moment.
• Other useful expressions
- to hang up = put the receiver down when the conversatin is finished. (colgar)- to pick up the phone = answer the phone.- to be on hold = to be let waiting on the phone by the other person.- to give a call / ring / bell = to phone.- to call / ring / phone back = to phone later on.- to put someone through to someone else = to transfer a call to someone else.- the line is busy / engaged = the phone number we are calling is being used.
