viewThis chapter presents a comprehensive overview of the literature pertaining to previous outcomes...

Chapter One

REVIEW

OF THE

RELATED

LITERATURE

Chapter Review of the Related Literature One

Chapter One: Review of the Related Literature

1.1 Introduction

This chapter presents a comprehensive overview of the literature pertaining to

previous outcomes in the field of teaching the speaking skill for Business English (BE)

language learners. Emphasis is put on doing some defining, some theorizing, and also

some explaining. The rationale behind this is to sustain a need to learn about concepts,

arguments and theories covered by specialists in the teaching of the speaking skill for BE

learners so that to build an adequate base from which to move through the rest of the

research.

Discussing aspects of Business English language teaching will hopefully be

relevant to the flow of discussion on investigating speaking performance deficiency

among Algerians Learners of Business English at the master level.

1.2 Surveying the Terrain of English for Specific Purposes (ESP)

1.2 .1 Introduction

To begin looking at Business English Language Teaching, one must look first at

the umbrella which envelops all English specific-based language teaching activities. In the

field of EFL, specific teaching activities are undertaken through a recently emerging type

of language teaching namely English for specific purposes (ESP).

Research on English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has been attracting a great deal of

attention in English language education over the past two decades. From the early 1960’s1,

English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has grown to become one of the most prominent

areas of language education today. Its development is reflected in the increasing number

1 Since 1960s, English for Specific Purpose (ESP) has been progressively growing and has eventually come to play a major part in English Language Teaching (ELT) This is clearly reflected in Worldwide academic settings where some universities started to offer MAs in ESP (e.g. University of Birmingham, and Aston University in the UK) (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987).


of students interested in undertaking research in ESP and in the number of ESP courses

offered for international students in English and non English -speaking countries

(Harding, 2007; Hyland, 2006; Orr, 2008).

The growth of ESP can also be observed from the publication of international

journals (e.g., English for Specific Purposes and The Asian ESP Journal) which are

dedicated to identifying aspects of ESP and encouraging and expanding the practice of

ESP worldwide2.

In Algeria, the growth of ESP in the past five years (specifically after 20043) has

been rapid and definite especially after its inclusion in most LMD programs taught in all

the English departments of Algerian Universities. The shift of the instructional focus from

English for General Purposes4 (EGP) to ESP aims to increase students’ motivation for

specific English learning and help students prepare for the demands of English in their

future careers.

1.2 .2 What is ESP?

With the growing demand for English courses tailored to specific needs, new ideas

began to emerge in the study of language. Traditionally speaking, research on the English

language focused on describing the rules of English usage. Yet, emerging studies shifted

attention away from defining the features of language usage to discovering the different

ways in which language is actually manifested in real communication contexts5. This

phenomenon, along with the new developments in educational psychology, contributed to

the rise of ESP.

2 In particular, Dudley-Evans and St. John’s (1998) theories on the “absolute characteristics” of ESP can help provide a rationale for the rapid growth of ESP worldwide. The “absolute characteristics” illustrate that an ESP approach concerns not only learners’ language issues, but also the design of the methodology and activities related to students’ disciplines. Most importantly, ESP views students’ needs as the first priority.3 2004: Implementation of the LMD system of Algeria.4 The question that is discussed permanently, among the scholarly community, reflects on the difference between EGP and ESP. On the issues [to what extent EGP is different from ESP], Hutchinson & Waters argues (1987:18-19): “In theory, nothing, in practice, a great deal”.5 See Widdowson (1978).


English for Specific Purposes or English for Special Purposes (ESP) has developed

gradually and gained terrain among those interested in the activities of the discipline. In

the following section, we will highlight a number of definitions as to what is ESP and how

ESP is different from EGP.

Tracing the historical background of ESP, Hutchinson & Waters (1987) identifies

three main movements contributing to the emergence of all ESP:

Figure 1.1: ESP Historical Movements (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987)

Wright (1992:03) defines the concept of English for Specific Purposes as follows:

“ESP is, basically, language learning which has its focus on

all aspects of language pertaining to a particular field of

human activity, while taking into account the time constraints

imposed by learners”.

Orr (1998) goes further on clarifying the line of demarcation between ESP and

EGP stating that:

“English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is research and

instruction that builds on EGP and is designed to prepare

students or working adults for the English used in specific

(1) the demands of a “brave new world,”(2) a revolution in linguistics, and (3) an increased focus on the learner.


disciplines, vocations, or professions to accomplish specific

purposes”

It has been argued that ESP is associated with mature learners by and large,

because it has a strong relationship with specialization in different fields of concern.

Dudley – Evans, (1998), coeditor of the ESP Journal, proposes a comprehensive definition

of ESP in terms of ‘absolute’ and ‘variable’ characteristics, here is Dudley – Evans’s

definition summarized in the following table:

Absolute Characteristics

ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners

ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves

ESP is centered on the language appropriate to these activities in terms of grammar, lexis, register, study skills, discourse and genre.

Variable Characteristics

ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines

ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of General English

ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a professional work situation. It could, however, be for learners at secondary school level

. ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students

Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language systems

Table 1.1: ESP in terms of ‘Absolute’ and ‘Variable’ Characteristics (Evans, 1998)

Hutchinson & Waters, (1987) defines also ESP in terms of a methodology which

has widely spread after World War II at the time when English language has globally


spread and became the primary means of international communications in science,

business, education, and medicine. It is thanks to this new methodology that English has

become a global channel for communication and is now the main language of most print:

specialised and non-specialised publications6.

Although ESP is a controversial issue7, there is much misinterpretation concerning

the exact definition of ESP. In fact, there is a hot debate whether or not English for

Academic Purposes (EAP) could be considered part of ESP in general. Some scholars

described ESP as simply being the teaching of English for any purpose that could be

specified.

Mackay & Mountford (1978: 2) view ESP an oriented domain towards the learners

needs8. They define ESP as the teaching of English for a “clearly utilitarian purpose”. The

purpose they refer to is defined by the needs of the learners, which could be academic,

occupational, or scientific. These needs in turn determine the content of the ESP

curriculum to be taught and learnt.

Mackay & Mountford also defined ESP and the “special language” that takes

place in specific settings by certain participants. They claimed that those participants are

usually matures. They focused on adults because adults are usually “highly conscious” of

the reasons to achieve English proficiency in the very field of their specialization.

Inevitably, adults make use of the specialized language in authentic situations, because the

activities of their specialization compelled to use the appropriate ESP.

1.3 Business English

1.3.1 Introduction6 More than two-thirds of the world's professionals and scientists read in English; about eighty per cent of online information is in English; and about eighty per cent of the approximately 40 million of internet users communicate in English (Crystal, 1995; Graddol, 1997).7 Defining ESP has proven to be so problematic. For those researchers who are producing a simple and straightforward definition of ESP, the task is not that easy (Strevens, 1987: 109)8 In terms of ESP's main characteristics, there is, however, general consensus among ESP researchers that the learners' needs in ESP is paramount and it has been the driving force in any ESP course design since the emergence of ESP courses in the 1960s. (See ,for example, Strevens, 1988 ; Evans and St John,1998 )


Business English is a widely used term among practioners than theorists or

language researchers. Many would use the term to refer to courses offered by universities,

colleges, institutions and schools to students interested in proficiency and mastery in

business English.

Yet, despite the enormous interest, little has been produced on the subject matter.

Picket (1986: 12) wrote that “there is no point in…in pretending that Business English can

neatly be categorized. It will always consist of what thousands of teachers are actually

teaching”. In the coming part, we will shed the light on business English as a core

component of this research’s perspectives.

1.3.2 ESP Divisions

Context is central in ESP. In fact, ESP activities have to be presented by

considering real or authentic context parameters. According to Hutchinson & Waters

(1987) there exists a crucial point which has to be taken into consideration in teaching

ESP is to use authentic materials which will induce learners to acquire and develop

relevant information and strategies for their jobs.

It is because of the relevance of context in an ESP teaching learning situation, ESP

researchers9 opted for a division of the field as exemplified in the following figure:

Figure 1.2: ESP Divisions (Munby, 1978)

9 See, for example, Flanegin & Rudd, 2000; Goffman, 1979; Pakir, 1999, Puvenesvary, 2003…etc.

ESP


English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is divided into English for Occupational

Purposes (EOP) and English for Academic Purposes (EAP)10. Objectives for both ESP

divisions are to equip the learners with relevant tools and strategies to be able to

communicate, read, and write better so they can perform in their ESP Worlds,

appropriately and successfully.

EAP, on the one hand, is a kind of courses designed to help the learners to cope

with their intended courses so as to be more effective in their everyday lives. Orr (1998)

sates that:

“English for General Purposes (EGP) is essentially the English

language education in junior and senior high schools. Students

are introduced to the sounds and symbols of English, as well as

to the lexical/grammatical/rhetorical elements that compose

spoken and written discourse … University instruction that

introduces students to common features of academic discourse

in the sciences or humanities, frequently called English for

Academic Purposes (EAP), is equally ESP.”

EOP, on the other hand, is “…where the participant needs English to perform all

or part of his occupational duties”11. We may identify different types of EOP including

vocational English (e.g. English for tourism, aviation, and nursing), professional English

(e.g. English for doctors, lawyers), and business English which is at the heart of this study.

1.3.3 Business English and ESP

10 Called also English for General Purpses (EGP) by Orr (1998).11 Munby (1978:55)


Business English is one of the specific areas of EOP12 which represents one of the

major divisions of ESP. BE must be seen in the overall context of ESP as it shares many

of its specificities in terms of needs analysis, syllabus design, course design, and materials

selection and development. However, Ellis and Johnson (2002) state:

‘Business English differs from other varieties of ESP in that it is

often a mix of specific content (relating to a particular job area

or industry), and general content (relating to general ability to

communicate more effectively, especially in the business

situations’

At present, BE is highly recognized among the scholarly community as one of the

most distinct and popular disciplines. Statistics shows that more than 900 universities

worldwide offer ESP and BE.

Therefore, in line with the growing popularity of BE, it is of great significance to

study on how to promote BE teaching and learning in Algeria and elsewhere.

1.3.4 Business English: A Definition

Business English remains a little researched and ill-defined area of ESP. For us, to

chose one definition for BE is a tough mission because of the diversity of views. Some

consider it as a register; others define it as a linguistic need to meet the challenges of

business communication. Yet, Most if not all, share the point that the general

understanding of Business English is based on a number of characteristics. The Following

could be summarized as the fundamental features of BE:

12 Several studies (Flanegin and Rudd, 2000; Goffman, 1979; Pakir, 1999, Puvenesvary, 2003) have been conducted on the importance of English in the occupational fields. Flanegin and Rudd (2000) discuss the need and importance of English skills in all professions. In addition, they emphasize on the importance of communication skills in the business and management fields by suggesting some solutions to enable students to be good communicators in business majors. Goffman (1979) indicates that business negotiations are carried out and letters are usually written in English. This sometimes discomforts those whose first language is not English.


Figure 1.3: Business English Fundamental Features13

• Purposefulness14 : : interactions in a business setting have a sense of purpose that

is the context of all business communication;

• Economy & Clarity: Business communication requires language to be clear,

economical and well-organized because long and ambiguous messages involve

greater costs;

• Specific Content: Each BE content is specific and tailored to meet the learners’

business English language needs and objectives;

• General Content15: Based on the learners’ specific BE needs, BE syllabus

designers include general or basic English content as part of the reinforcement

activities administered to sustain a need for proper everyday communication skills

among BE learners ;

13 See Ellis & Johnson, 1994; Donna, 2000; Edwards, 2000; Hemais, 2001; Charteris-Black & Ennis, 2001; Fuertes-Olivera & PizarroSánchez, 2002; Fuertes-Olivera & Gómez Martínez, 2004.14 Widdowson (1983:25-26) states: “Purpose in ESP means practical use to which the language will be put in achieving occupational and academic aims”.15 Ellis and Johnson (2002: 10) state: “Business English differs from other varieties of ESP in that it is often a mix of specific content (relating to a particular job area or industry), and general content (relating to general ability to communicate more effectively, especially in the business situations”

BE


• Social Dimensions: in the business world, communication is always influenced by

the social context in which it takes place. Social skills of business people are

needed to develop contacts with people for business objectives.

It may be argued that BE characteristics should be incorporated in any course or

syllabus design to achieve competency. Business English should also be acknowledged as

a major actor in the process of promoting foreign investments especially in countries

where English is not the first language.

In the next section, we will try to shed the light on Business English language

teaching worldwide and in Algeria.

1.4. Business English and the Teaching/ Learning Paradigms

1.4.1Teaching Business English

With the accelerating rate of globalization, business exchanges are carried out

across the borders, as a result there is a growing demand for talented professionals both in

English and in Business English. We can see that, at present, BE courses are offered by

many language schools and Universities in the aim of meeting the need for the

professional market.

Research delineating differences between Business English teaching and General

English teaching demonstrates that Business English is different from General English at

least in such aspects as in the role of the teacher, in course design, in teaching models,

etc., thus different teaching methods should be applied in order to realize expected

teaching goals of business courses.

There have been many developments in the ways in which teachers and course

designers look at Business English. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, special vocabulary

was considered as what distinguishes Business English (BE) from General English (GE).

A second approach placed a greater emphasis on training “the skills of communication in

English speaking, writing, listening and reading within a business context”. In the mid-


1970s and 1980s, following the trends in GE, BE teaching began to focus more and more

on functional areas-formulaic language for recommending, giving opinions, showing

agreement, and so on. During the 1980s the development of company training programs

began to provide employees with opportunities to attend courses in presentation

techniques, negotiating, and effective meetings skills, which led to the publication of

books and materials on business skills.

Therefore, in line with the growing popularity of BE, it is of great significance to

question learners’ difficulties so that to join both the teachers’ potential to the learners’

expectations in an attempt to idealize a BE teaching learning situation.

1.4.2 Difficulties with Learning Business English?

Some research has been considering the difficulties and problems learners face in

the course of their learning of Business English, as well as about the sources of such

constraints and the ensuing detrimental effects on their communicative competence.

Many would agree that difficulties in learning Business English, in a country where

English is taught as a foreign language like Algeria, are to some extent ascribed, partially

or completely, to problems in learning English tout court rather than the English of a

particular specialty (Business English in this case).

In Difficulties for learners- an online article - the writer explains that difficulties

learners encounter while learning English as a foreign language or making use of it for

communicative purposes emanate from the extent to which their native language differs

from English. This implies that such difficulties may be more serious for certain learners,

but may be less for others. For instance, an Algerian learner may face many more

difficulties than a German learner. Generally speaking, this is due to the fact that Arabic is

much more different from English than German in many aspects.

In this Literature Review Chapter, we chose to focus on only one area that is

speaking deficiency performance among learners of Business English which is at the heart

of the present work’s research question.



1.5 The Speaking Skill in a Language Learning/Teaching context

1.5.1 Introduction

As a starting point, we will present some literature relevant to discuss principles and

aspects of the speaking skill in an EFL and BE contexts but emphasis will be put

particularly on and the BE context. The aim is to gain an overall understanding of what is

meant by “SPEAK”, and how to learn and develop this skill.

Speaking has been neglected in teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL) for

many years and remained, for most of its history, a minor occupation. This is in part

because almost all human beings grow up speaking their First Language (L1) and

sometimes their second language (L2), therefore, speaking their foreign language (FL) has

to be learned.

In this respect, to learn how to speak correctly and to be an effective speaker in a

foreign language is one of the most important objectives for both teachers and learners of

foreign languages, especially at university level. Students’ poor performances in speaking

have become the core problem which needs an urgent remedy.

1.5.2 What is Speaking?

Hedge (2000:261) defines speaking as: “A skill by which they (people) are judged

while first impressions are being formed”. In its simplest form, speaking may be defined

as just reproducing sounds’ combinations which have been already heard or read.

Speaking can be an individual, a personnel, and social endeavor as reported by Miller

(2001)16.

Speaking becomes more complicated when it involves producing meaningful

segments to carry a message in a particular language. Widdowson (2001: 62) defines

speaking as “the production of sentences as instances of usages”.

16 Cited in Richards & Renanya (2003:25).


Many would agree that speaking can be viewed as a result of complex processes and

the final product is the result of various operations and strategies. Speaking cannot be

achieved if there is no coherence between the words or the sentences which are arranged

and uttered in a particular order and linked together in certain ways that hold a meaning.

As mentioned earlier, speaking is referred to as a language skill. Language skills are

classified into two main categories: the productive skills (speaking and writing) and the

receptive skills (reading and listening). Listening and speaking are naturally acquired,

while reading and writing must be learned at school and university17. Moreover, even if

writing and speaking are belonging to the same category, they are sharply different as

Harmer (2007a: 246) explains: “The productive skills of writing and speaking are different

in many ways”. In what follows a brief discussion on the difference between speaking and

writing.

1.5.3 Differences between Speaking and Writing

There certainly are many differences between speech and writing as two forms of

human communication. Relying on Raimes (1983), we state below a number of these

differences.

Speech is universal. Everybody can speak, but not everybody can write. For

example, illiterate people can communicate orally, but they cannot do so in

writing. Yet, it is worthy of note, in this context, that not all languages have a

written form.

Speakers use their voices, intonation, tone, pauses, body movements, and facial

expressions to communicate ideas, whereas writers rely on the scripted words on a

page or screen, and use punctuation marks for the same purpose.

Speaking can be spontaneous and unplanned. Most writing, however, is planned. It

takes time that is why we can go back to what we have written, and make various

changes if we need to.

17 This is called literacy, i.e., the ability to read and write.


Speech is usually characterized by informality and redundancy. When we speak to

someone and want them to understand better, we often use expressions like this

means, by this I‟d like to say, etc. Writing, however, is normally marked by

formality and compactness.

A speaker talks to a listener who is present while the speech is taking place, and

who usually makes prompt responses, but a writer addresses a reader who is not

around, and may not be known to him or her, and whose reaction either takes place

at a later time or will not occur at all.

Speakers often use simple sentences overlinked by and and but, and probably

including er and eh repeated many times. But, writers usually employ long

complex sentences connected with pro-forms, such as who, which, so, there, and

other linkers, such as nevertheless, moreover, etc.

Harris (1993), on his turn, distinguishes between a speaker and a writer as follows:

Speakers Writers

1. Can refer to people, objects, and so on in the shared environment by pointing with gestures or by using pointing words.2. Can check whether they are being understood by looking at the speaker's expression, by asking, or by being directly prompted.3. In conversations (including telephone conversations) speakers are encouraged by listener's markers, such as "mm" and in live conversations and gestures.4. Can backtrack and fill in information that may have been omitted precise sequence is not a prerequisite effective communication.

1. Do not share an immediate environment with their readers and have to make explicit references to people and objects.2. Have no means of knowing once the text is finished whether the readers will understand the message they need to anticipate potential misunderstandings and appropriate levels of shared knowledge.3. Have to find ways of motivating themselves to continue creating a text.4. Have to plan in order to achieve both a sequence and a selection that will lead to effective communication.

Table 1.2: Differences between Speech and Writing (Harris, 1993: 4)


Finegan (1994:120) had his own ways at looking to the differences between speech

and writing, he suggests that:

“There are four main differences between writing and speaking:

1- Speaking has such channels as intonation, voice pitch, and

gestures to convey information, whereas writing has only words

and syntax.2- Writing requires more time than speaking in

terms of planning.3- Speakers and addresses are often face-to-

face while writers and readers are not. 4- Speaking tends to

rely on the context of the interaction more than writing.”

Finegan (1994) own vision about the difference between speaking and writing is

developed in terms of their forms and the processes that writers and speakers go through

to produce language. Accordingly, speech forms and processes should be developed in all

instances of oral language production by speakers of L1, L2 and more particularly FL.

All these differences lead us to make an obvious deduction that may be reckoned

as the principal difference between writing and speaking, especially in the field of

language learning: writing either in one‘s mother tongue or in a foreign language is

learned only through formal teaching, whereas spoken language can be acquired outside

the academic realm.

1.5.4 The Speaking Skill in Language Teaching/Learning

In fact, speaking has often been underestimated18 in language teaching, and in

foreign language teaching particularly. In terms of complexity and difficulty, many

surveys proved that language production is difficult. Harmer (2007b, p. 251) points out

that “there are a number of reasons why students find language production difficult”.

The process of learning how to produce an utterance is, in itself, an act of

discovery. Students must master the sound system of language, its grammatical structure,

and select the appropriate vocabulary (mechanisms of speaking) related to the subject

18 The skill of speaking has just been recently considered by many methodologists a priority in language teaching. Of all the four skills, Ur (1997: 120) concludes, speaking seems intuitively the most important.


matter. Yet, some learners spend their time memorizing hundreds of words and many

grammar rules, but they still cannot speak properly. Many of them would fail because

speaking is a complex and ever changing process.

Brown (1994) argues that, inside language teaching classrooms, speaking and

listening are the most often used skills. In natural environments, the roles of speakers and

listeners are interchanged; information gaps between them are created and then closed

with the effort from both sides. However, in organized classrooms’ oral practices, teachers

should create as much information gap as possible and teachers’ vital duty is to encourage

communication which yields information gaps. Teachers should also bear in mind the

differences between real-life oral communication and classroom oral communication.

As for Pattison (1987), classroom oral practices have five characteristics: (1) the

content or topic is predictable and decided by teachers, books, tapes, etc; (2) learners’

aims in speaking are to practice speaking, to follow teachers’ instructions and to get good

marks; (3) learners’ extrinsic motivation is satisfied; (4) participants are often a large

group; (5) language from teachers or tapes is closely adapted to learners’ level.

Nunan (1989), on the other hand, suggests a list of relevant characteristics typical

to a well organised real-life oral communication. He suggests: (1) comprehensible

pronunciation of the target language; (2) good use of stress, rhythm, intonation patterns;

(3) fluency; (4) good transactional and interpersonal skills; (5) skills in taking short and

long speaking in turns; (6) skills in the management of interactions; (7) skills in

negotiating meaning; (8) conversational listening skills; (9) skills in knowing about and

negotiating purposes for the conversation; (10) using appropriate conversational

formulae and filters.

Most language learners are primarily interested in learning to speak. Nunan (1989)

asserts that the ability to operate in a second language can be actually equated to the

ability to speak that language. Hedge (2000: 261) chooses to formulate the reasons for

learning to speak as follows:


“Learners may need the skill to establish and maintain

relationships, to negotiate, to influence people. Speaking is the

skill by which learners are assessed when the first impression is

formed”

As it was stated in the last section, speaking has often been underestimated. Less

importance is presumably seen in research on the speaking skill because of the position

ascribed to this skill in different teaching approaches. We can significantly notice that

there is a striking contrast between the recent views on speaking and the ancient views

held mainly by advocates of the grammar-translation or the audio-lingual method. Mackey

(2002: 5) argues:

“Oral expression involves not only [….] the use of the right

sounds in the right patterns of rhythm and intonation, but also

the choice of words and inflections in the right order to convey

the right meaning”

In the ancient approaches- as illustrated by Mackey’s words- the skill of speaking

was rarely emphasized in connection to its purpose, i.e. the ability to use a language in

real-life situations. Rather, emphasis is put on the formal part, i.e. the correct sounds, the

correct choice of words and inflections etc., led to the accuracy oriented practice. Types of

activities such as oral drills, model dialogue practice and pattern practice (“The Audio-

lingual method”) were widely used in teaching speaking. The result was that, although

learners knew the patterns and memorized the rules, they were not able to use their

knowledge in practice. They were not capable of exploiting the rules and patterns in real

interaction.

1.5.5 The Speaking Skill in an EFL Teaching/ Learning Context

Nunan (1999: 71) considers that:

“Language is arguably the defining characteristic of the human

species and knowledge of language in general, as well as ability


to use one’s first and, at least one other language, should be one

of the defining characteristics of the educated individual”

It is not surprising to say that the ability to speak at least one foreign language is a

necessity especially in a globalised world. Communication among people has expanded

way beyond their local speech communities (Ellis, 1997).

Today, learning how to speak the Lingua Franca has become a means of keeping up

with the pace of the rapidly changing world. Nowadays, Speaking English forms a

permanent part of all types of curriculum-from primary schools to universities- and

employment instances’ conditions for recruitment19 including companies and multinational

organisations where a person, in most cases, can hardly integrate these communities of

practice without this ability. The demands of the contemporary society together with the

position of English as an international language may present a reason for learning this

language in particular. Objectively, the increasing demand for learning a foreign language,

especially English in non-English speaking countries is an evident tendency in the global

integration along with non-English speaking countries’ policy of innovation,

industrialization and modernization.

However, most English language teachers and learners cannot deny that to learn

speaking English has nothing to do with learning writing, reading or listening. It involves,

not only, learning how to produce the English speech sounds and sound patterns, how to

use word and sentence stress, intonation patterns and the rhythm of the language, how to

select appropriate utterances according to the proper social setting, audience and subject

matter, how to organize ideas in a meaningful and logical sequence, how to use language

as a means of expressing values and judgments, and how to use it quickly and confidently

with few unnatural pauses to achieve fluency, but also to be able use social and pragmatic

rules to perform appropriate structures of the English language20.

19 Oral communication skills are central for undergraduate Business students if they are not to be disadvantaged in the workplace (Crossling & Ward, 2002).20 Bygate, (1987:5) argues : “Speaking involves two types of skills – basic, lower level motor-perceptive skills of producing right sounds and using accurate grammatical structures, and communicative strategies such as what and how to get the meaning across” . See Lazarton (2001) and Martinez-Flor, Uso-Juan & Alcon-Soler (2006).



1.5.6 Difficulties with Teaching/Learning Speaking BE

Students of Business English as well as EFL learners need to develop the following skills:

“Producing connected speech, the ability to interact, talking round gaps in their knowledge, speaking in a range of contexts, and balancing accuracy and fluency“

(Knight and Lindsay, 2006: 60).

Like any other students interested in speaking English properly, Learners of Business English need to learn how to engage in conversations with other speakers, respond appropriately and use vocabulary and phrases of everyday/Business English for situations. They should know, for example, how to greet properly, what language to use in job interviews, what phrases are needed to answer phone calls and requests in a job dinner. According to Knight & Lindsay (2006), speakers of BE needs to cover a wide range of general21 and specific contexts22 : They need to practice with strangers, at work, in a restaurant, in a grocery…etc.

It seems that for a non-native speaker who desire to learn speaking English

(whether Business English or English as a Foreign Language) and knows that in his/her

environment English is not practiced the task is problematic in the sense that many

BE/EFL learners transfer their speaking abilities and strategies, whether good or deficient,

from their L1 to their FL. Yet, just as the rules for driving differ from one country to

another, the conventions for speaking may change from one language to another23.

21 Here we refer to General and every day English.22 Here we refer to Business English.23 Harmer (2001:246) states: “Speaking is a productive skill aiming at communication. For communication in a foreign language to be successful, a speaker needs to be familiar with linguistic and cultural backgrounds that are shared by native speakers and has to obey certain rules and conventions that are not written down anywhere, nor are easy to define”.


In any ways, not everyone is a naturally gifted speaker. Speaking is a skill that can

be learned, practiced, and mastered. The nature of speaking, in a foreign speaking

environment, can be linked to the nature of speakers themselves such as students or

people in general.

Because research on BE teaching/learning speaking problems is limited, we choose

to focus our attention on EFL teaching/learning speaking problems to approximate some

truth about the research in question.

1.5.6.1 Learners-Centered Difficulties

There exist many student-related problems in teaching the speaking skill in EFL

classes. Many studies into speaking EFL report on frequent cases of Reticence24 and

anxiety in EFL learning. Learners demonstrate unwillingness to speak and unpreparation

to get into the process. It has been found that many EFL learners’ especially non-native

learners of the target language, are passive in oral language classrooms and choose not to

use the target language especially when responding to teachers25 . Their reluctance and

reticence in English oral classes challenge any teacher and any teaching situation.

In fact, reticence research in foreign language learning has captured the attention of

language theorists and many educators in the last years (Burns & Joyce, 1997; MacIntyre

& Charos, 1996; MacIntyre et al., 2001; Tsui, 1996).

Burns & Joyce (1997) questioned reasons for EFL learners’ reticence. They

enumerated three groups of variables that encompass the following:

24 Horwitz et al., (1986); MacIntyre & Gadner, (1989); Burns & Joyce, (1997); MacIntyre & Charos, (1996); MacIntyre et al., (2001) and Tsui, (1996) assume that reticence is when people speak in a second or foreign language, they become more apprehensive and tense and thus more unwilling to participate in conversation.25 See Cortazzi & Jin, 1996; Jackson, 1999, 2001, 2002; Li, 1998; Sato, 1990; Tsui, 1996; Zou, 2004.


Figure 1.4: Reasons for EFL Learners’ Reticence

Burns & Joyce (1997)

Cultural Factors: Burns & Joyce (1997) explain that cultural factors follow from

students’ prior learning experiences and consequently from the expectations that

are formed on their basis.

Linguistic Factors: Burns & Joyce (1997) consider that linguistic factors refer to

low English proficiency. Limiting speaking for EFL learners could be difficulties

in the phonetics and phonology of the target language, poor knowledge of

grammatical patterns or low awareness of cultural background and social

conventions that are necessary for processing meaning in the target language.

Affective Factors: Burns & Joyce (1997) refer to personal traits (i.e., reservedness,

shyness, introvertedness), low motivation level, individual differences (i.e., self-

esteem and/or self-perception) timidity or anxiety in class, negative social

experiences, and culture shock as affective factors.

RETICENCE


Ur (1997) has also shown interest in speaking problems among learners of EFL.

She was preoccupied with difficulties she has encountered in getting her learners to speak

in the class. Her variables correspond to the following:

Figure 1.5: Variables for EFL Learners’ Reticence

Ur (1997)

All these findings about reticence and many others26 reveal that reticence is a

widely-observed phenomenon in EFL classrooms and that various factors contribute to

student reluctance. In fact, problems in the speaking classroom should be viewed from

different angles. It is high time to consider research on teachers and context-centered

variables that participate to bad achievement among EFL learners of the speaking skill.

1.5.6.2 Teachers-Centered Difficulties

Any learning context is bound tightly to the teaching one27. The teaching plans and

objectives of any EFL Oral classroom are successfully achieved if the teacher demonstrates

appropriate pedagogical practices.

To implement the various teaching plans and to attain the different teaching goals

appropriately, researchers discussed to what extent the relationship between teacher talk

and EFL Oral language learning environment affect students ‘oral performance.

26 See MacIntyre & Charos, (1996); MacIntyre et al., (2001) and Tsui, (1996).27 There is no learning without teaching.

Mother TongueInhibitionNo Ideas to ShareProblems of Participation


Figure 1.6: Teachers-Centered Difficulties

(Brown, 2002; Harmer, 2000; Ur, 2000; Cook, 2000; Zhao Xiaohong, 1998;

Tsui, 1996; Nunan, 1991; Hakansson, 1986)

Nunan (1991: 07) points out:

“Teacher talk is of crucial importance, not only for the

organization of the classroom but also for the processes of

acquisition. It is important for the organization and

management of the classroom because it is through language that

teachers either succeed or fail in implementing their teaching

plans. In terms of acquisition, teacher talk is important because

it is probably the major source of comprehensible target

language input the learner is likely to receive”.

Hakansson (1986), on the same line of thought, joins Nunan’s vision relating the

teacher talk to success at both organisation and acquisition levels. Additionally, He

regards the amount and type of teacher talk as a predominant factor of success or failure in

an EFL oral teaching learning situation.

TeacherTalk Amount& Time of TalkEvaluation & CorrectionTeacher -- Learnerrelationship


This can be better understood in an EFL oral classroom situation where both teachers

and learners participate actively in language classes activities. The teachers’ mission is, not

only, to provide enough English language input but also to offer opportunities for learners to

practice the target language. So the management of teacher talk time is an important issue to

be questioned: whether or not the amount of teacher talk influences learners’ foreign language

learning28. Cook (2000) and Zhao Xiaohong (1998), for example, stipulate that teachers tend to

do most of the classroom talk. Teacher talk makes up over 70 percent of the total talk. Harmer

(2000) points out that the best lessons are ones where student talk is maximized i.e. where

students are given multiple opportunities to use the language they are learning.

Getting students to talk is a challenging task for any teacher. A big amount of student

talk induces, on the part of the student, the production of many mistakes. Inevitably, students

would make a lot of mistakes in the process of learning and speaking a foreign language.

Brown (2002: 205) argues:

“A learner’s errors... are significant in (that) they provide to the

researcher evidence of how language is learned or acquired, what

strategies or procedures the learner is employing in the discovery

of the language”

In brown’s words, mistakes are good means a teacher can use to identify What,

How and When to correct students. Evaluation and correction helps students to better their

understanding and performance. Yet, it is very crucial to consider how teachers correct and

evaluate students’ oral performance. Ur (2000) points out the relevance of questioning

how teacher correction is expressed: gently or assertively supportively or as a

condemnation, tactfully or rudely.

One of the striking teacher-centred difficulties experienced in an oral EFL

environment would be the relationship between the teacher and the learner. A principal

prerequisite variable for creating and maintaining a motivating learning atmosphere in

class is to setting a good relationship between the teacher and the learner.

28 A great number of researchers have testified this: Legarreta, 1977; Hakansson, 1986; Chaudron, 1988; Nunan, 1991; Zhao Xiaohong, 1998; Harmer, 2000; Cook, 2000.


Tsui (1996), Horwitz et al. (1991), Koch & Terrell (1991), Horwitz (1988),

investigated anxieties related to teacher-learner interactions and relationships. Most of

them, proposed some possible ways for an enjoyable oral learning environment, they

talked about possibilities for: (a) talking with students about their feelings and helping

them rationalize their anxiety about speaking; (b) talking to students outside the classroom

because some students may feel inhibited about discussing their feelings in front of their

classmates.

What has been advanced in the last section describes teacher-centered difficulties

which can be considered in an oral classroom. Yet, research on this question is not

exhausted; on the contrary, it needs to be developed further.

1.6 Chapter Summary

The purpose of this chapter is to give a theoretical background to this study. We

have tried to survey and review some major existing studies which are relevant to the

various themes of this work’s research questions. In sum, we can say that the factors

behind students’ poor performances are endless, but we have limited ourselves to the

major ones.

In the next Chapter (Chapter Two), we will provide an account of the research

questions, the motivation and also the significance of the research. This is done to help the

reader follow the different steps of the research with ease and be able to relate to the

rationale that lies behind each step. We will also outline methods of data collection and

analysis destined to best investigate key issues of the research questions.

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