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VIGYAN VARTA An International E-Magazine for Science Enthusiasts
www.vigyanvarta.com
E-Mail: [email protected]
Volume: 01 Issue:04 August 2020
Contents Volume: 01, Issue: 04 August 2020
Sl.
No. Title of the article Author’s Name Page
1 Integrated Nutriment Management for
Sustainable Agriculture
M. Jayalakshmi* and G.
PrasadBabu 1-3
2
Rejuvenating Family Farming-A
Magnetic Approach for Retaining
Youth and Women in Agriculture
K. Shireesha*, Srividhyarani N., B.
KranthiKumari and G. K.
Siddeswari 4-7
3 Price Indices- A Brief Note Ch. Ramya Sri*, K. Ashok, D.A.
and Rajini Devi 8-11
4 Ayurvedic Approach: A Natural Way
to Cure Diabetes (Madhumeha)
Priya Chaudhary, Aarti Kotnala,
Neetu Negi and Pracheta Janmeda* 12-15
5 Medicova: Nutritional and Medicinal
Value of Mushroom
Aarti Kotnala*, Priya Chaudhary,
Kiran Bisht and Neetu Negi 16-18
6 Significance of Antinutritional
Compounds in Vegetables Preetilagna Dhal 19-21
7 Milking Technique for Best Quality of
the Milk
Nripendra Pratap Singh*, Ninad
Bhatt and Pramod Chaudhary 22-25
8 DNA Diagnostics vs. Serodiagnostics:
A Comparison
Moon Moon Satpathy, Abhilash
Routray* and Sonam Sarita Bal 26-31
9
Brown Manuring, an Effective
Technique for Weed Management and
Sustainable Yield of Cereal Crops
Sumit Sow* and Shivani Ranjan 32-34
10
Zero Tillage as a Resource Conserving
Technology in Rice - Wheat Cropping
System
Shivani Ranjan* and Sumit Sow 35-37
11
Aerobic Rice Cultivation: An Eco-
Friendly and Water Saving
Technology
Mousumi Malo 38-41
12 Q-Fever: A Neglected Zoonosis Bhargavi Dadimi* and Maria Anto
Dani Nishanth 42-46
13 Opportunities and Challenges in
Digital Marketing K. Ashok* and B. Naresh 47-50
14 Antibiotics Use in Poultry in India Snehal Lonare 51-54
15 Consumer Behaviour in Online
Shopping
Meenakshi Tamta* and B. Naresh
Kumar 55-59
16 Quinoa: Need for Everyone and Food
for Everyone
LK Sanodiya*, Umesha C, Shivani
Kumari and M. R. Meshram 60-64
17
FMD Virus: Its Genome Organization,
Genetic and Antigenic Variations in
FMD Carrier State
Biswa Ranjan Jena* and Aishwarya
Dash 65-68
www.vigyanvarta.com © Vigyan Varta-2020
www.vigyanvarta.com Vol-1 Issue-4 Jayalakshmi and Prasadbabu (2020)
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Integrated Nutriment Management for Sustainable Agriculture
M. Jayalakshmi and G. PrasadBabu
KrishiVigyan Kendra Banavasi, Kurnool, AP, 518360
Acharya N.G Ranga Agriculture University, Guntur, A.P
Corresponding Author
M. Jayalakshmi
Email: [email protected]
Keywords
INM, soil fertility, soil productivity, crop rotation
How to cite this article:
Jayalakshmi, M. and Prasadbabu, G. 2020. Integrated nutriment management for sustainable
agriculture. Vigyan Varta 1(4): 1-3
INTRODUCTION
he basic concept underlying the
integrated nutrient management system
(INMS), nevertheless, remains the
maintenance and possible improvement of soil
fertility for sustained crop productivity on long
term-basis and to reduce inorganic (fertilizer)
input cost. The three main components of
INMS as defined by FAO, 1998 are:
1. Maintain or enhance soil productivity
through a balanced use of fertilizers
combined with organic and biological
sources of plant nutrients
2. Improve the stock of plant nutrients in the
soils
3. Improve the efficiency of plant nutrients
Components of Integrated Nutrient
Management
• Fertilizers
• Manures
• Bio fertilizers
• Compost
T
ABSTRACT
Integrated nutrient management plays a key role in maintaining sustainable Agriculture.
Combination of chemical fertilizer, manures, bio fertilizers, compost, green manures, and crop
rotation maintains soil fertility also helps in ecological balance. Nitrogen (N) losses and GHG
(greenhouse gas) emissions are reduced substantially under advanced INM practices. Lower
inputs of chemical fertilizer and therefore lower human and environmental costs (such as
intensity of land use, N use, reactive N losses and GHG emissions) were achieved under
advanced INM practices without compromising crop yields. Strong and convincing evidence
indicates that INM practice could be an innovative and environmentally friendly strategy for
sustainable agriculture worldwide
OPEN ACCESS
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• Green Manure
• Crop Rotation
Fertilizers
Among the sources available, chemical
fertilizers are favoured by many farmers as their
effects on crop production are visible and
spectacular. Before the commercial production
of fertilizers was started, farmers were
traditionally applying organic manures.
Chemical fertilizers have taken their dominant
position very quickly and therefore the use of
organic manures in crop production, at the
present is extremely much ignored or neglected.
Fertilizers contain the nutrients in higher
concentration with high consumption of energy
and since of this reason, they are costly.
Majority of the resource poor small and
marginal farmers can hardly afford to spend
more on such inputs. Besides, non-availability
of raw materials locally is forcing the country
to import several them from others to satisfy the
local demand. Further, continuous uses of
chemical fertilizers create ill effects to the soil.
Manures
Organic resources are biological in origin and
they have several nutrients in their composition,
which on decomposition are released into the
soil. The applied organic resources not only
increase soil fertility but also improve soil
physical conditions, which help in proper
growth of plants. Increasing water holding
capacity, aeration, permeability, soil
aggregation and nutrient holding capacity and
decreasing bulk density and soil crusting are
attributed to the continuous use of organic
manures. In this way productivity of soils is
improved and serves over a long period to
sustain the crop yields. Organic manures are of
different origin and hence, exhibit wide
variability in their nature and chemical
composition. Apart from higher quantities of N,
P and K, they also contain secondary and
micronutrients. All these nutrients are released
into soil system when organic manures are
applied to fields. The available estimates show
that about 875 million tonnes of organic wastes
are generated annually in our country. Out of
which only 60 percent is available for
agricultural purpose. Their usage for fuel
purposes, thus, does not permit the full potential
to be harnessed for crop production. Several
organic wastes are recycled through rural and
urban composting. Crop wastes and residues
are renewable and readily available but are
usually applied to the field since composting
can be done.
Vermicompost
Vermi-composting is gaining popularity during
recent years because it is environment friendly
and economic. Biogas plant spent slurry has 1.4
to 1.8%, N, 0.4-0.9% P and 0.6-1.0% K and it
can be used effectively for crop production.
Green Manures
Green manures are applied to the field without
composting. The legume crop grown in situ is
turned down into the soil when it is 40-60 days
old, while green leaf manuring through
application of lopping of trees and shrubs also
serve the same purpose. Benefits of Green
Manuring are
• Supplies organic matter, nitrogen, and
other nutrients to soil
• Enhances soil microbial activity
• Helps in weed suppression, soil and water
conservation and management of pests as
trap crops under some specific situations
Bio-fertilizers
The preparation containing specialized live
microorganisms for seed treatment or soil
application with objective of increasing the
number of such microorganisms and
accelerates the microbial process of converting
unavailable form of plant nutrients to available
form. Classification of Bio-fertilizers:
Nitrogen Fixer
• Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixer Ex: Rhizobium,
Azolla
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• Asymbiotic nitrogen fixer Ex:
Azotobacter, Blue Green Algae
• Associative nitrogen fixer Ex:
Azospirillum
Phosphorus mobilizers
• Phosphorus solubilizes Ex: Bacillus,
Pseudomonas, Aspergillus
• Phosphorus absorber Ex: VAM
Organic matter decomposer
• Arthrobacter, Cellulomonas, Trichoderma
Benefits of Bio-fertilizers
• Bio-fertilizers helps in eco-friendly use of
microorganisms and their sustenance
• Help in biological nitrogen fixation
• Can meet part of nitrogen demand needed
by the plants in certain cropping situations,
Increase the efficiency of
chemical/mineral fertilizers and bring the
nutrients to available form.
• Help in reducing environmental pollution
• Bio fertilizers suppress incidence of
pathogens in soil (biological control)
• Synthesize and release growth promoting
substances
• Increase crop yield
• Bio fertilizers are cheaper, eco-friendly,
renewable source of plant nutrient supply
system
• Bio fertilizers form an important
component of integrated nutrient
management
Cropping Systems
It is defined as the order in which the crops are
grown or cultivated on a piece of land over
fixed period.
Multiple Cropping Systems
• The Soils having low fertility and in
cropping systems having crops with high
nutrient uptake, the recommended dose of
fertilizers need to be applied to each crop.
• When residual effects of applied fertilizers
are not expected, the individual crops in
the system must receive optimum doses of
fertilizer nitrogen.
• When legumes are grown, proper
inoculation and application of phosphorus
fertilizers makes them require low N and
leave behind 20 to 50 kg N/ha for use by
succeeding crop.
• Organic manures should be applied during
wet season for easy decomposition and
release of nutrient elements contained in
them.
• The potassium loving crops grown in the
sequence must receive adequate potassium
dressing, while the legumes need adequate
phosphorus dressing too.
• In medium soil fertility conditions,
phosphorus to be applied in dry season,
while potassium application appears
profitable to wet season crops.
Intercropping systems
• When two or more crops are grown in the
system, balance application of fertilizers is
suggested. The intercrop does not need to
be fertilized when water use efficiency is
only aimed at.
• If a crop is grown for green manuring
purpose, small quantity of N may be
applied to it. If maximum production from
the crop is expected, all the crops must
receive optimum of fertilizers.
• In cereal- legume combination, N has to be
applied to cereal crop only, while
application of N to legume has to be 10-20
days in advance and earlier than the
beginning of symbiotic nitrogen fixation.
• Nitrogen application should be in higher
quantities to the cereals than for cereal-
legume combination.
REFERENCES
Brinkman, R., 1998. Guide to efficient plant
nutrient management. FAO, Rome
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Rejuvenating Family Farming-A Magnetic Approach for Retaining Youth and Women in Agriculture
K. Shireesha1, Srividhyarani N.2, B. KranthiKumari3 and G. K. Siddeswari4 1Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural Extension, Agricultural College, Aswarapet,
PJTSAU 2Scientist (Extension), KVK, Vonipenta, Dr. YSRHU
3Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural Extension, Agricultural College, Badvel 4Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural Extension, Sri KrishnaDevaraya College of
Agricultural Sciences, Ananthapuramu
Corresponding Author
K. Shireesha
Email: [email protected]
Keywords
Family farming, youth in agriculture, women in agriculture, future farming
How to cite this article:
Shireesha, K., Srividhyarani, N., Kranthikumari, B. and Siddeswari, G.K. 2020. Rejuvenating family
farming-a magnetic approach for retaining youth and women in agriculture. Vigyan Varta 1(4): 4-7
INTRODUCTION
n the ancient India every farm family in a
village was an individual unit of production
by cultivating staple food crops, managing
livestock and was self-sufficient with nutritious
foods required for family members and the
surplus was marketed in the local markets. The
joint family culture in those days helped them
to practice agriculture along with the cattle by
large section of the rural people. On the other
side the sheep and goat were reared by the
resource poor people in the villages. Diversified
practices viz., application of farm yard manure
and sheep and goat manure to the crops helped
in the enrichment of soil health; pest and
disease management by natural agents;
recycling the crop residues as feed to the cattle;
dairy products produced from their own cattle;
I
ABSTRACT
In the ancient India, every farm family in a village was represented an individual unit of
production of crops, milk, egg and meat. The byproducts from these were recycled and utilized
for farm and home utilities. In this way, the subsistence farming helped in maintaining
agroecology. In the modern world these have been disappearing leading to many abnormal
variations in farming and human life. Retaining youth in agriculture has become a global
problem now. To have better future in the farming there is immediate need to blend the
advanced technologies with the ancient Indian culture and norms so that there will be scope
to rejuvenate family farming among those who are interested in farming
OPEN ACCESS
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protein rich source products from backyard
poultry; vegetables and fruits from nutritional
gardening in the backyards led to the healthy
and long life span of people in the villages in
the olden days. This ambient atmosphere
helped to maintain the not only the agroecology
system but also the traditions and culture of the
gigantic nation.
Family farming is one of the most predominant
forms of agriculture world-wide, both in
developing and in developed countries. The
sector comprises a wide spectrum of farm sizes
and types, ranging from very large land
holdings in high-income economies that are
easily cultivated by one or two family members
with the use of labour-saving machinery and
hired labour to the small holdings of a few
hectares or less in low-income economies.
These small family farms, run by small
producers are by far, the most numerous:
globally, there are approximately 525 million
small family farms, 290 million of which are in
China and India alone (IFPRI, 2012). Thus,
although family farmers and small producers
are not identical groups, they share much
common ground and hence face a series of
similar issues.
India is an agricultural country. Agriculture is
“only” ~16 % of GDP but the largest sector for
employment. Officially farmers are only a few
hundred million, but adding family members
who help or occasionally farm, as also wage
labourers, the number of farm workers is likely
to be closer to half a billion people. But how
many people would India need farming if it
were as labor efficient as the US for growing
crops? I am not suggesting it is possible, or even
desirable (large, mechanized farms with
massive chemical and water inputs) but as a
thought exercise? Just four million people. The
US is extreme; with less than 2% of its
population growing food sufficient for almost 2
billion people, but much of it is fed to animals.
The US also focuses on many crops suitable for
mechanisation, but even using metrics from
many East Asian countries, with about 10% of
the population in agriculture - as opposed to
half the workforce for India - that is hundreds
of millions of people who could shift to
alternative options. Agriculture is dying, OK,
not as in the production of food but as a
desirable profession. The clearest indicator of
the problems of agriculture as a profession is
how there are actually shortfalls of labour in
some areas, with larger farms relying on
imported farm labourers, drawn not just from
the neighbouring states but from the far ends of
the country (especially the north-east) and even
Nepal. Younger generations do not want to
follow their parents’ footsteps, which pushes
urbanisation. Unfortunately, urban areas, while
offering more opportunities, also relegate many
to low-end jobs.
Source: https://www.theindiaforum.in/article/india-
s-biggest-challenge-future-farming
The urbanization, declining trend and input
intensive agricultural production, requirement
of higher education for employment
opportunities led to drastic changes in the
farming patterns in the villages and broken
down the joint family system into nuclear
families. This gave rise to split up of large land
holdings into small and marginal land holdings
which resulted in the greater number of small
and marginal farmers in the country. Due to
increased rate of pollution, uncertain climatic
conditions agriculture ecology has been
disturbed completely leading to the less profits
and poor income levels of farming community.
The resource poor farmers migrated from rural
areas to urban areas in search of employment
opportunities in the urban areas leaving the
villages abandoned. Geographic isolation, lack
of public transportation, poor infrastructure,
low educational attainment, low health literacy,
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poverty and unemployment, a smaller health
care workforce and a lack of specialty care,
cultural or social differences, stigma, and norms
are leading to disintegration of the family
farming system. If this situation is continued,
then there would be no human being in the
villages in the coming decades. As quoted by
Mahatma Gandhi “The future of the nation lies
in its villages”, in order to see the future of the
nation it is our responsibility to protect our
villages from disintegration which is possible
through mobilizing family farming as a
magnetic approach for retaining youth and
women in agriculture. The policy makers must
come forward to implement the innovative
strategies to regain the village structure and
agroecology prevailed in those days to suit to
the present day needs of the people. Different
capacity building activities must be taken up to
upgrade the stakeholders involved in the entire
farming system through a systematic approach.
The family institution at village level must
become the single window system for all the
food products required by the human beings of
all the ages. To rejuvenate the family farming
system primarily the infrastructure facilities at
the villages must be improved to a large extent.
Secondarily the linkages between the rural and
urban amenities must be enhanced and
interdependence of both rural and urban areas
must be designed sophisticatedly.
A responsive policy environment must include
the social and cultural factors that influence
farm economics and farm structure. There is a
need to develop farm transition policies and
technical assistance programs that are aligned
with the values and needs of different types of
farmers and their households.
In a blog can we feed the world the author
suggested solutions for making agriculture
more attractive to younger generations using
the following means viz., link social media to
agriculture, improve agriculture’s image,
strengthen higher education in agriculture,
greater use of Information and Communication
Technologies (ICT), empower young people to
speak up, facilitate access to land and credit, put
agriculture on the school curricula, greater
public investment in agriculture, make
agriculture more profitable.
CONCLUSION
The forward and backward linkages between
rural and urban areas must be streamlined so
that the people living in both areas get benefits.
If the people in the rural areas are bestowed
with the physiological needs, security needs
and social needs that are essential for them, then
they never try to migrate to the urban areas. The
local self-government personnel, department
officials must contribute to the development of
education facilities, occupational appraisals,
and health facilities available at present to the
satisfactory level of rural people. The digital
world can help to boost up the agroecology
system optimistically in the villages, to identify
the major constraints faced by the rural people
regarding farming, to suggest the innovative
and economically feasible strategies for
policymakers in order to fasten the rejuvenation
of family farming system.
Some Causes for Remarkable Variations in Farming
situation
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Rejuvenating family farming-a magnetic approach
for retaining youth and women in agriculture
REFERENCES
Inwood, S., 2013. Social forces and cultural
factors influencing farm transition.
Choices, 28(316-2016-7666)
Prem Baboo, Dangote Fertilizer Ltd, 2016.
Answers to the post on What is the role
of family farming in agricultural
development?,16-05-
2016,researchgate.net.
https://www.researchgate.net/post/What
_is_the_role_of_family_farming_in_agr
icultural_development
Professor Sir Gordon Conway, 9 ways to
engage youth in agriculture.
canwefeedtheworld April 25, 2014 by
https://canwefeedtheworld.wordpress.co
m/2014/04/25/9-ways-to-engage-youth-
in-agriculture/
Rahul Tongia, 2019. India’s Biggest
Challenge: The Future of Farming, The
India Forum, October 4, 2019.
https://www.theindiaforum.in/article/ind
ia-s-biggest-challenge-future-farming
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Price Indices- A Brief Note Ch. Ramya Sri1, K. Ashok2 and D.A. Rajini Devi3
1Ph.D Scholar, PJTSAU, Department of Agricultural Economics,
2Ph.D Scholar, NDRI, Department of Agricultural Extension,
3Scientist, Regional Agricultural Research Station, Jagtial, PJTSAU
Corresponding Author
Ch. Ramya Sri
Email: [email protected]
Keywords
Price index, Normalized average, Geographical locations
How to cite this article:
Sri, C. R., Ashok, K. and Devi, D. A. R. 2020. Price Indices- A Brief Note. Vigyan Varta 1(4): 8-11
INTRODUCTION
rice indexes were first developed to live
changes within the cost of living so as to
work out the wage increases necessary
to take care of a continuing standard of living.
They still be used extensively to estimate
changes in prices over time and also are wont to
measure differences in costs among different
areas or countries. Price indexes have several
potential uses, for particularly broad indices,
the index are often said to live the economy's
general price index or a price of living, more
narrow price indices can help producers with
business plans and pricing, sometimes, they can
be useful in helping to guide investment,
inflation is measured by constructing inflation
indices, inflation indices which help in
calculating inflation rates indicate what
proportion prices have changed over a period of
your time , the indices themselves are a
representation of the extent of costs at a specific
time. Not all prices are included in the index,
only a specified basket of goods and services,
the basket in the index is representative of the
items which are relevant to a market or group.
There are different price indices for the costs
faced by different groups. Consumer price
index, Producer price index, Export price index,
Import price index and GDP deflator.
There are different price indices for the prices
faced by different groups.
➢ Consumer price index
P
ABSTRACT
A price indices or price level may be a normalized average (typically a weighted average) of
price relatives for a given class of products or services during a given region, during a given
interval of time. It is a statistic designed to assist to match how these price relatives, taken as
an entire differ between time periods or geographical locations. Price index is a measure of
relative price changes, consists a series of numbers arranged in order that shows the
comparison between the values for any two period will show the average change in prices
between periods or the typical difference in prices between places
OPEN ACCESS
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➢ Producer price index
➢ Export price index
➢ Import price index
➢ GDP deflator
Consumer Price Index
A consumer price index (CPI) measures the
changes that appears in the price level of market
basket of consumer goods and services
purchased by households. It includes prices of
goods and services sold in the retail market, i.e.
the final prices which the top consumers need
to pay. It is hence also called the cost of living
index. It is also used for indexing dearness
allowance to employees for increase in prices.
Calculating the CPI for a single item
Current item price = Base Year Price X Current CPI
Base Year CPI
Calculating the CPI for multiple items
CPI = ∑ CPIi X Weighti
ni=1
∑ Weightini=1
Producer Price Index
It includes producer or output prices which are
prices of the first commercial transactions of
goods and services or the transactions at the
point of first sale. Most of the countries have
replaced their WPI with the PPI in the 1970s
and the 1980s, except India. A Producer Price
Index (PPI) is a price index that measures the
average changes in prices received by domestic
producers for their output. The Indian
Wholesale Price Index (WPI) was first
published in 1902 and was used by policy
makers until it was replaced by the Producer
Price Index (PPI) in 1978. The PPI usually
covers the industrial (manufacturing) sector as
well as public utilities. The WPI prices include
taxes and transportation charges, whereas the
producer prices do not.
Export Price Index
An export price index is an index calculated for
the price(s) of one or any specified group of
commodities entering international trade using,
ideally, f.o.b. export prices. An export price
index measures changes in the prices of exports
of merchandise from a country.
Import Price Index
The import price index in the development of
Cost, insurance, and freight prices of imported
goods. Foreign-currency import prices are
converted to euro using the mean rate for the
statistical reference month.
GDP Deflator
The Gross Domestic Product is the value of
total goods and services produced in an
economy in a year. Value means the entire
quantity of the products and services (total
output) multiplied by their respective prices.
From this we arrive at two concepts of GDP: the
nominal GDP and the real GDP. The nominal
GDP, when compared to the GDP of some
previous year reflects the change in the total
output produced by the economy as well as
change in their prices. So, to arrive at the true
picture of whether the economy has grown in
terms of the actual output produced, we have
the real GDP. The real GDP is calculated by
taking the output of the year under
consideration but multiplied by the prices of the
base year. Like the consumer price index (CPI),
the GDP deflator is a measure of price
inflation/deflation with respect to a specific
base year; the GDP deflator of the base year
itself is equal to 100.
GDP deflator = Nominal GDP
Real GDP X 100
Unlike the CPI, the GDP deflator is not based
on a fixed basket of goods and services; the
"basket" for the GDP deflator is allowed to
change from year to year with people's
consumption and investment patterns.
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Weighted Index Numbers
There are various methods by which weights
can be assigned and hence a large number of
formulae for constructing Index Numbers have
been devised. Some commonly used methods
suggested by different authorities are as
follows:
• Laspeyre’s Method
• Paasche’s Method
• Fisher’s Ideal Method
• Marshall Edge Worth Method
• Kelly’s Method
• Dorbish And Bowley’s Method
Laspeyre’s method
Laspeyre suggested that for the purposes of
calculating Price Indices, the quantities in the
base year should be taken as weights.
Hence, the formula for computing price Index
number would be
P01 = ∑ 𝑝1 𝑞0
∑ 𝑝0 𝑞0 X 100
where,
P01 refers to Price Index,
p refers to price of each commodity,
q refers to quantity of each commodity,
0 base year,
1 current year, and
∑ refers to the summation of items
Price index
P01 = ∑ 𝑝1 𝑞0∑ 𝑝0 𝑞0
X 100 = 202000/1700 = 118.82
Quantity Index
Q01 = ∑ 𝑝0 𝑞1∑ 𝑝0 𝑞0
X 100 = 188000/1700 = 110.588
Paasche’s method
Under this method of calculating Price Index,
the quantities of the current year are used as
weights as compared to base year quantities
used by Laspeyres.
The formula for calculating price index is
P01 = ∑ 𝑝1 𝑞1∑ 𝑝0 𝑞1
X 100
P01 = ∑ 𝑝1 𝑞1∑ 𝑝0 𝑞1
X 100 = 212000/1880 = 112.76
Quantity Index
Q01 = ∑ 𝑝1 𝑞1∑ 𝑝1 𝑞0
X 100 = 212000/2020 = 104.95
Fisher’s Ideal Index
Laspeyre’s has used base year quantities as
weights whereas Paasche’s has used current
year quantities as weights for the computation
of Index Number of prices.
The geometric mean of the Laspeyre’s and
Paasche’s must be calculated and that figure
should be the Index Number. Symbolically
F P01 = √𝐿 𝑃01 𝑥 𝑃𝑃01
Items Base
year
Current
year
q0 p0 q1 p1 p0q0 p1q0 p0q1 p1q1
A 24 20 30 24 480 576 600 720
B 30 14 40 10 420 300 560 400
C 48 10 40 18 480 864 400 720
D 10 32 10 28 320 280 320 280
∑
1700
∑
2020
∑
1880
∑
2120
Items Base
year
Current
year
q0 p0 q1 p1 p0q0 p1q0 p0q1 p1q1
A 24 20 30 24 480 576 600 720
B 30 14 40 10 420 300 560 400
C 48 10 40 18 480 864 400 720
D 10 32 10 28 320 280 320 280
∑
1700
∑
2020
∑
1880
∑
2120
Items Base year Current year
Quantity Price Quantity Price
A 24 20 30 24
B 30 14 40 10
C 48 10 40 18
D 10 32 10 28
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The geometric mean of the Index number of
quantities with base year prices as weights and
Index number of quantities with current year as
weights is found out.
F Q01 = √𝐿 𝑄01 𝑥 𝑃𝑄01
Dorbish and Bowley’s method
If we find out the arithmetic mean of Laspeyres
Index and Paasches Index, we get the index
suggested by Dorbish and Bowley.
This method considers both the base year as
well as current year weights. The formula is
DB P01 = 𝐿 𝑃01+𝑃 𝑃01
2
DB Q01 = 𝐿 𝑄01+𝑃 𝑄01
2
Marshall and Edgeworth’s method
In this method, the arithmetic mean of the
quantities in the base year and current year are
taken as weights i.e. w = (q0+q1)/2 for
calculating price index and the prices in the
base year and current year are taken as weights
i.e. w = (p0+p1)/2 for calculating quantity index.
The formula is
ME P01 = ∑ 𝑝1𝑞0+ ∑ 𝑝1𝑞1
∑ 𝑝0𝑞0+ ∑ 𝑝0𝑞1 X 100
ME Q01 = ∑ 𝑝0𝑞1+ ∑ 𝑝1𝑞1
∑ 𝑝0𝑞0+ ∑ 𝑝1𝑞0 X 100
Kelly’s method
According to this method, named after Truman
Kelly, the weights should be fixed for all
periods. This method is also known as
aggregative index with fixed weights. The
formula is
P01 = ∑ 𝑝1𝑞
∑ 𝑝0𝑞 X 100
REFERENCES
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer price
index
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Laspeyres-
index.
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Ayurvedic Approach: A Natural Way to Cure Diabetes
(Madhumeha) Priya Chaudhary1, Aarti Kotnala2, Neetu Negi2 and Pracheta Janmeda1
1Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Banasthali Vidyapith, Rajasthan-304022, India 2Azoth Biotech LLP, Gautam Buddha Nagar, Noida, Uttar Pradesh-201306, India
Corresponding Author
Pracheta Janmeda
Email: [email protected]
Keywords
Ayurveda, Diabetes (madhumeha), Free radicals, Medicinal plants, Treatment
How to cite this article:
Chaudhary, P., Kotnala, A., Negi, N. and Janmeda, P. 2020. Ayurvedic Approach: A Natural Way to Cure
Diabetes (Madhumeha). Vigyan Varta 1(4): 12-15
INTRODUCTION
yurveda (Science of life) is the
traditional approach with roots
originated in 100 BC as a spiritual and
religious medicine. It connects physiologic,
spiritual, and physical processes to maintain a
healthy association among the soul, body, and
mind. The major aim of Ayurveda is the
equilibrium maintenance between the five basic
elements of vacuum, air, fire, water, and earth
with the theory of the three life forces.
According to Ayurveda, equilibrium between
these forces denotes the healthy life whereas
imbalance may result in disease. The main
medicines prescribe in Ayurveda are procured
from medicinal plants. The application of
Ayurveda in diabetes, a chronic ailment has
resulted significant improvement in the
patient’s health. Diabetes includes lack of
insulin sensitivity and the subsequent
incapacity of the body to maintain glucose level
A
ABSTRACT
Ayurveda is a traditional medicinal practice that is emerging all over the world as an
alternative and complementary cure of chronic disorders. Diabetes (madhumeha) is a human
disorder that has long-term inferences for persons suffering from the illness, also the health-
maintenance system as a whole. One of the factors that is involve in the occurrence of diabetes
is the damaging effect of free radicals. Therefore, anti-diabetic bioactive constituents with
antioxidant activity should be utilized. Moderation in lifestyle, exercise, and diet are all crucial
factors for the effective treatment of diabetes. Medicines procured from medicinal plants are
being utilized by around 60% of the globe population. Though several approaches are utilized
to decrease the damaging effect of diabetes, but medicinal plants and the herbal formulations
are adopted due to their low cost and lesser aftereffects.
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in blood. Overtime greater glucose level in
blood has many complications i.e. damage to
digestive system, peripheral nerves, eyes,
kidneys, blood vessels, ability of wound
healing, sexual response, and heart. Because of
the cause and cure of diabetes are associated to
lifestyle and diet, Ayurvedic approach is a
promising practice to deal with type II diabetes.
Thus, the usage of Ayurveda in the treatment of
type II diabetes should benefits large number of
sufferers, suffering from diabetes all over the
globe.
What is Diabetes?
Diabetes (madhumeha) is a chronic illness of
protein, fat, and carbohydrate metabolism
determined by raising level of post prandial and
fasting blood sugar. It is a metabolic disorder
resulting from the dysfunction and
insufficiency of insulin. Diabetes may result in
severe complications in different organ system.
Types of Diabetes
Type I Diabetes: It resulted due to the
deficiency of insulin because of the absence of
beta cells. Person suffering from this type, is
dependent upon the external supply of insulin.
Type II Diabetes: It is independent of insulin.
Person suffering from this type is not able to
respond to insulin. It can be cured with
medication, exercise, and dietary changes.
Symptoms for diabetic condition
Certain symptoms observed in diabetes which
are as follows: high blood sugar level,
polydypsis, polyurea, polyphagia, weight loss,
vomiting, blurred vision, nausea, weakness, and
mood fluctuation.
Risk factors for diabetes
Risk factor for the diabetes are widely known
and include obesity, diabetic family history,
absence of physical activity, poor diet,
excessive intake of calories, low intake of
fibers, high intake of trans and saturated fat,
greater glycemic load, greater glycemic index,
smoking of cigarette, and consumption of
alcohol.
Medicinal plants
There are several herbal treatments are
available for the diabetes and its complications.
Medicinal plants listed in Table 1 form the
major components of these herbal formulations.
Table 1: Medicinal plants with anti-diabetic potential
Plant name Common name Antidiabetic effect
Withania somnifera Ashvagandha Hypoglycemic effect
Punica granatum Anar Anti-hyperglycemic effect
Emblica officinalis Amla Hypoglycemic effect
Ipomoea batatas Sakkargand Reduces insulin resistance
Murraya Koenigii Curry patta Hypoglycemic effect
Eugenia jambolana Jamun Anti-hyperglycemic effect
Aegle marmelos Bel Decrease blood sugar
Aloe vera Aloe Hypoglycemic effect
Azardirachta indica Neem Anti-diabetic activity
Momordica charantia Bitter gourd Anti-hyperglycemic agent
Ocimum sanctum Holy basil Blood sugar reduction
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Herbal formulations
Many herbal formulations as shown in Table 2
are available in the market that can be utilized
regularly for the treatment of diabetes on the
direction of physician.
Yoga practices
Many yoga practices as shown in Table 4 are
proved to be beneficial in the regulation of
diabetes; however, their practice is advised
after the complete assessment of the risk
factors, individual requirement, and overall
health of a patient. After considering the patient
as a whole, yoga practice of low or high
intensity is recommended.
Diet in diabetes
Diet is the main supplement in the treatment of
diabetes as shown in Table 3. Diet is
recommended based on season, body
constitution, age, and environmental
circumstances.
CONCLUSION
Diabetic patient may look for latest
complementary remedy available for the cure of
their illness. Awareness regarding the
Ayurvedic approaches is essential for the
successful patient counselling and care. The
advantage of offering broad array of remedy
option includes decrease in ill effects with
advised usage of herbs and herbal formulations
along with mind-body calmness approaches.
Table 2: Herbal formulations with anti-diabetic effect
Company Drug Ingredients Effect
Plethico
Laboratories
Syndrex Extract of germinated fenugreek seed Anti-diabetic drug
Ayurvedic herbal
health products
Diabeta Ginger, Giloy, Black babhul, Black
plum, Bitter gourd, Kino tree, Neem,
Turmeric, Periwinkle, and Gurmar
Anti-diabetic
effect
Nature beaute sante Diabecure Taraxacum, Millefolium, European
centary, Barberry, and English walnut
Anti-diabetic
effect
Garry & Sun Bitter gourd
powder
Bitter gourd Lower the sugar
level
Table 3: Diet recommended in diabetes
Diet type Name
Oils Mustard, Atasi, Ingudi, Nikumbha
Fruits Amlaki, Kapitha, Apple, Watermelon, Orange, Jamun, Pomegranate
Vegetables Bitter gourd, Methi-Fenugreek leaves, Green banana, Garlic, Bathuva, Drum
stick
Pulses Green gram, Horse gram, Red gram, Toor dal
Cereals Wheat, Barley, Rice, Kodrava
Flesh Pigeon, Rabbit, Harina
Alcoholic liquid Old wine
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Acknowledgements
We acknowledge the Bioinformatic Centre,
Banasthali Vidyapith supported by DBT and
DST for providing computation and networking
support through the FIST and CURIE programs
at the Department of Bioscience and
Biotechnology, Banasthali Vidyapith,
Rajasthan and authors are also thankful to
Azoth Biotech LLP, Noida for their support.
REFERENCES
Gordon, A., Buch, Z., Baute, V. and Coeytaux,
R. 2019. Use of Ayurveda in the
treatment of type 2 Diabetes mellitus.
Global Advances in Health and
Medicine. 8: 2164956119861094.
Modak, M., Dixit, P., Londhe, J., Ghaskabdi, S.
and Devasagayam, T.P.A. 2007. Indian
herbs and herbal drugs used for the
treatment of diabetes. Journal of Clinical
Biochemistry and Nutrition. 40(3): 163-
173.
Srinath, N., Haripriya, N., Singh, R., Manjula,
and Tewari, D. 2015. Diabetes mellitus
(Madhumeha) and ayurvedic
management: an evidence-based
approach. World Journal of Pharmacy
and Pharmaceutical Science. 4(8): 881-
892.
Raveendran, A.V., Deshpandae, A. and Joshi
S.R. 2018. Therapeutic role of yoga in
type 2 diabetes. Endocrinology and
Metabolism. 33(3): 307-317.
Table 4: Yoga practices for the diabetes management
Yoga practice Benefit
Surya namaskar Stimulates production of insulin via brain signalling
Yoga nidra Decrease of postprandial and fasting blood glucose level
Aum chanting Mind stabilization and negative thoughts removal
Meditation (Dhyan) Positive influence on the level of sugar
Kapalbhati Enhance the pancreatic β-cells efficiency
Prana mudra, surya mudra,
linga mudra
Decrease sugar levels, promote loss of weight, and boost metabolic
rate
Surya bhedan Sympathetic stimulating effect in diabetic people
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Medicova: Nutritional and Medicinal Value of Mushroom
Aarti Kotnala1, Priya Chaudhary2, Kiran Bisht3, Neetu Negi1
1Azoth Biotech LLP, Gautam Buddha Nagar, Noida, Uttar Pradesh-201306, India 2Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Banasthali Vidyapith, Rajasthan-304022, India
3J Mitra & Co. Pvt. Ltd., Okhla Industrial Area Phase-1, New Delhi-110020, India
Corresponding Author
Aarti Kotnala
Email: [email protected]
Keywords
Mushrooms, Diseases, Health, Nutritional component, Treatments
How to cite this article:
Kotnala, A., Chaudhary, P., Bisht, K. and Negi, N. 2020. Medicova: nutritional and medicinal value of
mushroom. Vigyan Varta 1(4): 16-18
INTRODUCTION
he word mushroom is utilized
throughout the world to express the
variable species of fungi belongs to the
order Ascomycetes or Basidomyecetes. These
Ascomycetes and Basidomycetes are found in
the soil rich in animal waste, moist wood,
humus, and organic matter after the sudden
alteration in temperature and rainfall but soon
they disappear and leave no sign except
mycelium. The people of rural areas eat more
mushrooms than the urban areas individual.
Older peoples give more values to mushrooms
than the younger generations. Mushrooms are
utilized as a therapeutic as they treat cancer,
atherosclerosis, hypercholesterolemia, and
hypertension due their active constituents.
Mushrooms play an important role in the
ecosystem of forest as they have unique ability
to break down organic matter, leaves, and wood
and recycle them back into the ecosystem.
T
ABSTRACT
Many of the mushrooms and fruiting bodies of fungi are edible in nature and act as a great
source of protein, whereas some other mushrooms reported to have narcotic effect and
utilized as a medicine. They are enriched in nutritional components such as trace elements,
fibers, minerals, vitamins, and proteins, and have low content of cholesterol. They are utilized
by the individual as an additional vegetable due to its great quality and have beneficial
influence on the human fitness and health. Mushrooms reported to have healing properties
and utilized for the treatment of various diseases. They are used as anticancer, antiviral, and
antibacterial agents due to the presence of active bio-constituents. Because of these
properties, mushrooms are utilized to promote the health of the individuals as a dietary
supplement all over the globe.
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Many species of mushrooms are broadly
cultivated throughout the Europe and Asia due
to their greater biological efficiency.
Mushrooms has higher concentration of fiber,
carbohydrates, fat, proteins, and water in it.
Higher content of microelements and proteins,
and low calorific content make it suitable for
the prevention of cardiovascular diseases.
Basically, a well-balanced diet is required for
the prevention of ailments and mainly the
oxidative stress in the body. So, in this respect,
mushrooms have a long back history to be
utilized as an oriental medicine to prevent
various diseases. In recent years, the extracts of
mushrooms have been commercialized due to
their anticancer and immunity enhancement
properties. Thus, through this article we
highlighted the nutritional and medicinal values
of mushrooms.
Fig 1: Different types of mushrooms
Nutritional value of Mushrooms
Mushrooms have a great flavor, taste, aroma
and a unique texture and type as shown in
figure-1 that differentiate mushrooms from the
other cultivated food crops. Different
nutritional components of the mushroom are
described below:
Carbohydrate content
The content of carbohydrate in mushrooms
determine the bulk of fruiting bodies which
accounts for 50 to 65% of carbohydrate,
majorly 80% of mannitol based on dry weight.
Fresh mushroom comprises of different
percentage of carbohydrate such as:
• 0.91% hemicellulose
• 0.59% glycogen
• 0.28% reducing sugar
• 0.9% mannitol
Protein content
• The content of protein in mushroom is
based on the substratum composition,
pileus size, harvesting time and
mushroom species
• Protein content in Agaricus bisporus
mycelium varied from 32 to 42% on dry
weight basis
• Mushrooms have greater content of
protein than the other wild plants and
vegetable crops, 15.20 to 18.87% and
14.71 to 17.37% protein in the fruiting
bodies of Lactarious sanguiffus and
Lactarious deliciosus, respectively
Fats
• The major fats present in the fruiting
bodies of mushroom are of unsaturated
fatty acids type
• The content of fat is varied from species
to species i.e. 2.32% in Agaricus
campestris, 3.66% in Suillus luteus, and
2.04% in Suillus granulatus
• Mushrooms are enriched in essential
amino acid i.e. linolenic acid
Vitamins
• Mushrooms are the well-known source
for the vitamins
• Wild mushrooms comprise greater
quantity of vitamin D2 in comparison to
dark cultivated Agaricus bisporus
• Mushrooms also have vitamin C and
vitamin B-complex in less quantity, but
they are poor in vitamin E, D, and A
Mineral constituents
• Mushrooms contains a large level of
mineral constituent that are crucial for
the health of a human being
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• The content of minerals in mushrooms
are depend upon the diameter of fruiting
bodies, age, and species
• It also depends on the substratum type
that is required during the cultivation of
mushrooms
Medicinal value of Mushrooms
Mushrooms not only have nutritional value but
also utilized as therapeutic food product. It is
found to be effective in the treatment of disease
like cancer, inflammation, hypertension, and
diabetes as shown in below.
Mushrooms Medicinal value
Agaricus blazei
Hyperlipidemia,
arteriosclerosis, diabetes,
chronic hepatitis, cancer
Ganoderma lucidum AIDS and HIV
Osmoporus odoratus
Antibacterial activity
against Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, Escherichia
coli, Bacillus subtilis,
Streptococcus pyrogenes
Ganoderma lucidum
Antimicrobial activity
against P. aeruginosa, S.
typhi, B. subtilis, K.
pneumoniae, S. aureus, E.
coli
Sclerotinia
sclerotiorum, Grifola
frondosa,
Schizophyllum
commune, Lentinus
edodes
Anti-tumor activity
Lentinus tuberregim Inhibition in the
proliferation of solid tumor
Morchella esculents Anti-inflammatory activity
Ganoderma. lucidum Inhibition of O2
- And OH-
radicals
Agaricus bisporus Prevent tumor cell
proliferation in cancer
Lentinula edodes Suppression of cell
proliferation in leukemia
Lentinus polychrous Dyspepsia
Pleurotus florida Decreased Inflammation
CONCLUSION
Mushrooms have a great association with the
mankind and provide extensive economic and
biological impact. From earlier times, man has
utilized wild mushrooms because of their
pleasant flavour and taste. The edible
mushrooms provide a great quality of vitamin
C, vitamin B-complex, minerals, fibers, and
protein and have low fatty acid content. But
starch is absent from mushrooms. They
comprise significant quantity of potassium,
sodium, phosphorous with low quantity of iron
and calcium. Mushrooms are reported to have
various medicinal uses for the treatment of
different diseases. Many proteins in
mushrooms also have anti-HIV and antiviral
properties.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We acknowledge the Bioinformatic Centre,
Banasthali Vidyapith supported by DBT and
DST for providing computation and networking
support through the FIST and CURIE programs
at the Department of Bioscience and
Biotechnology, Banasthali Vidyapith,
Rajasthan and authors are also thankful to
Azoth Biotech LLP, Noida and J Mitra & Co.
Pvt. Ltd. for their support.
REFERENCES
Valverde, M.E., Hernández-Pérez, T. and
Paredes-López, O., 2015. Edible
mushrooms: improving human health
and promoting quality life. International
Journal of Microbiology, 2015. pp 1.14
Waktola, G. and Temesgen, T., 2018.
Application of mushroom as food and
medicine. Advances in Biotechnology
and Microbiology, 113. pp.1-4.
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Significance of Antinutritional Compounds in Vegetables
Preetilagna Dhal
PhD Scholar,
Department of Vegetable Science, College of Agriculture,
Odisha University of Agriculture & Technology, Bhubaneswar-751003
Corresponding Author
Preetilagna Dhal
Email: [email protected]
Keywords
Antinutritional factor, oxalates, saponin, haemagluttin, cynogens
How to cite this article:
Dhal, P. 2020. Significance of antinutritional compounds in vegetables. Vigyan Varta 1(4): 19-21
ABSTRACT
Antinutritional factor is known to interfere with metabolic processes such that growth and
bioavailability of nutrients are negatively influenced. Anti-nutrients are natural compounds
that interfere with the absorption of nutrients, hence are known to reduce nutrients
availability to animals and humans. Vegetables is an important source of protective food and
a part of healthy diet. However, plants generally contain toxic secondary metabolites or anti-
nutritional factors and they have been shown to be highly biologically active. Antinutritional
factor is known to interfere with metabolic processes such that growth and bioavailability of
nutrients are negatively influenced. They include saponins, alkaloids, protease inhibitors,
oxalates, haemaggluttinins (lectin), cyanogens, lethogens, and goitrogen. Some of these plant
chemicals have been shown to be deleterious to health or evidently advantageous to human
health, if consumed in appropriate amounts. However, some antinutrients may exert beneficial
health effects at low concentrations like phytic acid, lectins, tannins, saponins, amylase
inhibitors and protease inhibitors have been shown to reduce the availability of nutrients and
cause growth inhibition. However, when used at low levels, phytate, lectins, tannins, amylase
inhibitors and saponins have also been shown to reduce the blood glucose and insulin
responses to starchy foods and/or the plasma cholesterol and triglycerides. In addition,
phytates, tannins, saponins, protease inhibitors, goitrogens and oxalates have been related to
reduce cancer risks. This implies that anti-nutrients might not always harmful even though lack
of nutritive value.
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INTRODUCTION
nti-nutritional factors are those
substances or chemical compounds
found in fruits and food substances in
general which are poisonous to humans. They
reduce the ability of nutrients such as minerals,
vitamins and even proteins within the plant
material. This, in turn, affects the nutritional
value of these plants. Anti-nutrients comprise
of amino acids to proteins, simple amines to
alkaloids, glycosides and phenolic compounds.
Anti-nutritional factors are naturally occurring
compounds, present in different vegetables in
varying amounts depending on the kind of food,
mode of its propagation, chemicals used in
growing the crop as well as those chemicals
used in storage and preservation of the food
substances (Panhwar, 2005). These anti-
nutritional factors are also known as “secondary
metabolites” in plants and they have been
shown to be highly biologically active. These
secondary metabolites are secondary
compound produced as side products of
processes leading to the synthesis of primary
metabolites. Antinutrients are chemicals which
have been evolved by plants for their own
defense, they are produced by plants to defend
themselves against fungi, insects and predators,
and offer a protective mechanism for the plant
Tomatine
Found in leaves and stem of tomato plants and
has fungicidal, antimicrobial & insecticidal
property. Chemically pure tomatine is a white
crystalline solid at standard temperature and
pressure, used as reagent, precipitating
cholesterol act as antidote to mercury.
Solanine and Chaconine
Green potatoes have elevated level of solanine
(30-80% close to skin) which act as defence
mechanism to late blight disease and increase
level of glycoalkaloid which is bitter in taste.
Cyanogens
Cassava and some legumes like kidney bean
contain cyanogenic glycosides from which
hydrogencyanide (HCN) may be released by
hydrolysis (Akande et al., 2010). The
compounds which release HCN on hydrolysis
are called as “cyanogens”. HCN so released
block the respiration. Their general function in
plants is dependent on activation by β-
glucosidases to release toxic volatile HCN as
well as a ketones or aldehydes to fend off
herbivore and pathogen attack.
Oxalate
A salt formed from oxalic acid is known as an
Oxalate: for example, Calcium oxalate, widely
distributed in plant kingdom. Strong bonds are
formed between oxalic acid, and various other
minerals, such as Calcium, Magnesium,
Sodium, and Potassium which, results in the
formation of oxalate salts. Sodium and
potassium oxalate salts are soluble, but calcium
oxalate salts are basically insoluble. As calcium
oxalate is insoluble, has the tendency to
precipitate (or solidify) in the Kidneys or in the
Urinary tract, when the levels are high enough,
thus forming sharp-edged calcium oxalate
crystals. These crystals play a role to the
formation of kidney stones in the urinary tract
when the acid is excreted in the urine (Nachbar,
2000).
Nitrate (NO3-) and Nitrite (NO2
-)
The high level of these anions is harmful as
these compounds convert haemoglobin to
metaemoglobin (a function less protein) that is
unable to carry out the oxygen transport
function of the former. The NO3 level more than
75 ppm is toxic while NO2 results in toxicity
beyond 200 ppm. An excessive nitrogen
fertilization can lead to their accumulation in
vegetables. Both environmental and
agricultural factors can influence the nitrate
concentrations in vegetables. The former
includes soil moisture, light intensity and
A
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temperature and the later fertilizers, variety and
crop protection strategies.
Saponins
Saponin found in soybeans, sugar beets,
peanuts, spinach, asparagus, broccoli, potatoes,
eggplants (Price et al., 1987). Saponin is bitter
in taste and can haemolyse red blood cells. It
occurs in all parts of plant, although the
concentration is affected by variety and stage of
growth. Saponin, disrupt red blood cells causes
diarrhoea and vomiting in humans. Also, have
anti-spermal effect on human spermatozoa:
significantly inhibit acrosine activity of human
sperms and the spermicidal effect is attributed
to strong damage of the spermal plasma
membrane (Su and Guo, 1986; Pant et al.,
1989). Saponin present in garlic useful in
lowering cholesterol levels, helps in reduce the
risk of heart disease (Esenwah and
Ikenebomeh, 2008). Saponin have immense
industrial importance due to its insecticidal,
antibiotic, and fungicidal properties. It exerts
antifungal activity due to its capacity to
associate with steroids of fungal membranes,
causing damage to its integrity and pore
formation (Loewus, 2002).
Tannins
Tannin is a yellowish or brownish bitter-testing
organic substance present in bark and other
plant tissue that either binds or precipitates
proteins and various other organic compounds
including amino acids and alkaloids (Gemede
and Ratta, 2014).
CONCLUSION
Antinutritional content although reduce
nutrient intake, digestion, absorption,
utilization & may cause depressions in growth
performance and animal health due to a variety
of mechanisms including, reducing protein
digestibility, binding to various nutrients
,damaging the intestinal wall ,lowering
digestive efficiency, causes nutritional
deficiencies, interferes with the functioning and
utilization of nutrients, antinutritive can
interfere with food components before intake,
during digestion in the gastrointestinal tract,
and after absorption in the body but it has some
positive effects like promoting the growth of
beneficial bacteria. The lectins present in
legumes assessed to act as a mucosal adjuvant,
beneficial outcome in hypercholesterolemia
after intake of heat-treated chickpea in rats have
been observed.
REFERENCES
Akande, M. A., Khan, S. H., Anjum, A. and
Makhdoomi, M. I. 2010. Antinutritional
factors in vegetables. Rashtriya Krishi,
6(1). pp-9-11
Esenwah, C. N. and Ikenebomeh, M. J., 2008.
Processing effects on the nutritional and
anti-nutritional contents of African
locust bean (Parkia biglobosa Benth.)
seed. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 7(2),
pp.214-217.
Gemede, H. F. and Ratta, N., 2014.
Antinutritional factors in plant foods:
Potential health benefits and adverse
effects. International Journal of
Nutrition and Food Sciences, 3(4),
pp.284-289.
Loewus, F., 2002. Biosynthesis of phytate in
food grains and seeds. Food Phytates,
pp.53-61.
Nachbar, M. S., Oppenheim, J. D. and Thomas,
J. O., 1980. Lectins in the US Diet.
Isolation and characterization of a lectin
from the tomato (Lycopersicon
esculentum). Journal of Biological
Chemistry, 255(5), pp.2056-2061.
Panhwar, F., 2005. Anti-nutritional factors in
oil seeds as aflatoxin in ground nut.
Digitalverlag GmbH, pp.1-8.
Price, K. R., Johnson, I. T., Fenwick, G. R. and
Malinow, M. R., 1987. The chemistry
and biological significance of saponins in
foods and feedingstuffs. Critical Reviews
in Food Science & Nutrition, 26(1),
pp.27-135.
Su, H. and Guo, R., 1986. Inhibition of acrosine
activity of human spermatozoa by
saponins of Bulbostermma paniculatum
Xtian Yike Daxue Xuebae 7, 225. In
Chem. Abstr (Vol. 1008, p. 49459).
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Milking Technique for Best Quality of the Milk
Nripendra Pratap Singh1, Ninad Bhatt1 and Pramod Chaudhary2
1PhD Scholar, Livestock Production Management Section, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal,
Haryana 2PhD Scholar, Division of Animal Nutrition, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar,
Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh
Corresponding Author
Nripendra Pratap Singh
Email: [email protected]
Keywords
Clean Milk, Milking Process, Pre-dipping, Post-dipping
How to cite this article:
Singh, N. P., Bhatt, N. and Chaudhary, P. 2020. Milking technique for best quality of the milk. Vigyan
Varta 1(4): 22-25
INTRODUCTION
ndia is world’s largest milk producer with
milk production of 187.7 MT in year 2018-
19. But quality milk production has always
been an issue in India which is always been
neglected. But now being the leader in milk
production in world we are now focused on
quality milk production. Clean milk production
has always been the biggest concern for both
producers and consumers. With regards to
limiting mastitis and bringing down substantial
somatic cell counts, the region where we have
the most control is our milking systems. This is
a basic advance to keeping up most extreme
milk quality. Milking process should be done at
regular intervals and time of milking should
also be fixed at the same time every day.
The basic goal of the milking process is to
• Produce large quantities of a high-quality
end-product for consumers
• Limit mastitis infections
• Milking clean dry teats
• Reduce stress inside the parlour, on both
cows and staff
To achieve clean milk production, the first step
is to understand the how’s and whys of the
I
ABSTRACT
Getting good quality milk is an important issue in India. Getting clean and best quality milk is
dependent on the milking operations. Clean and quality milk fetch more prices to producers in
market. For getting best quality milk we need to follow some steps during milking procedure,
these steps are minimizing stress, wearing gloves, cleaning cows, fore-stripping, pre-dipping,
drying teats, attaching milking units, removing milking units and post-dipping. Following these
steps would help us achieve clean and best quality milk to consumers.
OPEN ACCESS
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milking process. Then only we can determine
what procedures best fit your individual dairy
operation. Lastly write these procedures down
and post them where everyone involved in the
milking process can see them. Working
strategies ought to be conveyed to workers and
intermittently assessed.
These are the recommended best practices to
consider for quality milk production
1. Minimize stress
The operation of milking immediately starts
when cows reach the milking parlor. Bring
them into the parlour calmly and gently. Hitting
or yelling will cause them to become excited
and stressed. Time in the holding pen ought to
be limited to less than total two hours per day.
If cows are stressed a steroid hormone
adrenaline is released into the bloodstream
which interferes with oxytocin secretion from
the brain of the cow. Oxytocin is a hormone that
is naturally released in the Cow's body to signal
for milk letdown. Without regular timely
letdown of milk, the quantity of milk you
produce may be lowered. Additionally, cows
that are stressed or more likely to slip fall or
defecate while entering the parlour.
2. Wear gloves
Contagious mastitis causing bacteria, like staph
aureus may live on your hands and can be
transmitted between cows during milking.
Before milking, at least hand should be cleaned
in complete with water and soap. Ideally
because bacteria are less likely to adhere to
gloves than rough callous skin. Latex or nitrile
gloves must be worn. Gloves minimize the
spread of contagious mastitis between cows and
help protect the milker’s skin. They are also
easier to disinfect than bare hands.
3. Clean Cows
Keep Cows as tidy as possible until they reach
the milking area. Clean cows are not only
exposed to fewer environmental mastitis
pathogens, but they are also easier to clean prior
to milking. If you want to wash a high level of
your dairy animals, you might need to
reevaluate how your fields or horse shelters are
overseen. To improve dairy animals’
cleanliness, dirt manure or debris can
frequently be expelled by hand or with a towel
without the utilization of water. At the point
when dairy animals are unnecessarily filthy
some utilization of water might be important to
clean the teats. In any case, this practice ought
to be the special case and not the standard. If
water is used, be sure to only wet the teats and
not the entire udder because it is nearly
impossible to dry the udder and this water ends
up being drawn into the inflations. In addition,
the usage of water in the parlour contributes to
higher rates of mastitis and bacteria in milk
(Pantoja et al., 2011).
4. Forestrip
Once the cow is in position in the milker’s
prepared the first step in the actual process is
generally fore-stripping. This involves
manually removing a few streams or strips of
milk from each teat. This process allows you to
examine the milk for any signs of mastitis,
including clotty stringy or watery milk. Also,
fore-stripping helps to stimulate the teats and
udder and encourage milk letdown. Effective
stimulation helps increase milk flow rate and
reduce milking unit time. Ideally fore-stripping
is accomplished using a strip cup. Milk may
also be stripped onto to the floor and hosed off
immediately. Milk ought not to be stripped into
the hand or towel since this would lead to
spread of mastitis among teats and between
dairy animals. Fore-stripping can be
accomplished before or after pre dipping but
absolutely must occur before drying. Often fore
stripping and pre dipping are accomplished in
the same task within a routine to save time. This
activity will take around 10 to 20 seconds per
cow to enable adequate stimulation (Tangorra
et al., 2017).
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5. Pre-dip
Teat should be pre-dipped with a sanitizing
solution. This eliminates bacteria on teat ends
prior to milking and helps to control mastitis,
caused by environmental mastitis pathogens. At
least three-quarters of the teat will be filled with
a target of covering the whole teat while pre
dipping. A non-return teat dip cup should be
used to prevent contamination. The pre-dip
must stay on the teats before drying for at least
30 seconds.
6. Dry teats
The teats ought to be altogether dried with a
solitary assistance retentive fabric or paper
towel. Never utilize a similar towel on two
dairy animals. All debris manure and pre plunge
buildup on the teats ought to be expelled while
drying utilizing a delicate turning movement.
During the drying procedure specific
accentuation ought to be set on getting the teat
ends spotless and dry. If not, adequately dried
water containing mastitis causing bacteria may
end up in the teacups and expose the open teat
ends to these bacteria. In the end improperly
dried teats contribute to increased occurrence of
mastitis. When using cloth towels, research has
demonstrated that at least two of the following
must occur during laundering, firstly washing
with detergent and sanitizer, second using hot
water above 140℉ and number three using a
heated drying cycle.
7. Attach milking units
Timely attaching the milking units. After
stimulation, oxytocin which triggers milk
letdown reaches peak rates 60 seconds. Milkers
will then be connected within 1 to 1.5 minutes
of stimulation of the teat (Jessell et al., 1977).
The goal here is to coordinate milker
attachment with milk letdown when milk flow
is highest. Attaching too soon or too late can
result in excessive milking time or reduced
yield. Attach the milker without allowing
excessive air into the milking system. Adjust
the milking unit to hang squarely beneath the
cow's udder and arrange it and the hoses to
avoid any twisting. The milking units should be
checked and adjusted to prevent liner slips
throughout the process. When units are not
aligned properly too much milk will remain in
the udder after milking and teatcups may slip or
squawk. When the teatcup liners slips small
droplets of milk may be forced back toward the
end of the teat. When these droplets of milk
contain organism-inducing mastitis, they can
infiltrate the udder and result in a new infection.
8. Remove milking units
Milking units may be removed manually or
with automatic takeoffs or detachers. With
either process avoid over milking which can
increase the incidence of liner slips and lead to
teat end damage. Adjust automatic takeoffs to
ensure they do not stay on too long.
Additionally, milkers should resist the
temptation to override the automatic
detachment by putting the milker back on.
When teatcups are removed manually be sure to
shut the vacuum off before removal. Removing
teacups while under vacuum can lead to
increased infections and tissue damage. The
process of machine stripping or holding down
on individual teacups or milking clusters should
be avoided. Properly stimulated cows milked
with correctly functioning and attached units
should not have excessive residual milk left in
the udder.
9. Post-dip
The teats will be soaked with a post-dip for as
long as possible after the milking devices are
withdrawn. Documented to be an efficient
germicide, through independent studies. The
target would be to cover at least three-quarters
of the teat as with pre-dipping. An effective
post dip kills organism on teats, prevents
organisms from colonizing in the teat canal and
reduces the rate of new infections from
contagious mastitis pathogens. Teat dip cups
should be kept clean a non-return teat dip cups
should be used to prevent teat dip
contamination. Some dairy farmers prefer to
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spray the teats instead of dipping. While teats
may be properly protected with a spray bottle.
Total coverage is always low. Wrapping a paper
towel across the teat immediately after dipping
is a safe way to check the efficacy of post
dipping. The purpose is to see on the paper
towel a continuous line of teat dip showing the
whole teat was protected. You can also notice
split traces of teat dip from spraying since the
teat's opposite side is not exposed.
CONCLUSION
Farmers must face major losses when the
quality milk is not supplied to consumers. So,
to avoid this type of situation farmer must check
the milking procedure that he is following at his
farms. Farmers should follow the strict
procedure recommended during the milking
operation. Any type of casual attitude during
milking would lead the loss in quality of milk.
The practice of proper pre and post dipping the
teat has certainly led to the decrease in cases of
mastitis, which are important steps during
milking procedure. So, following the steps in
proper and critical way will help the farmer get
quality milk from animals and will certainly to
more income generation.
REFERENCES
Pantoja, J. C. F., Reinemann, D. J. and Ruegg,
P. L., 2011. Factors associated with
coliform count in unpasteurized bulk
milk. Journal of Dairy Science, 94(6),
pp.2680-2691.
Jessell, T. and Iversen, L. L., 1977. Opiate
analgesics inhibit substance P release
from rat trigeminal nucleus. Nature,
268(5620), pp.549-551.
Tangorra, F.M., Leonardi, S., Bronzo, V., Rota,
N. and Moroni, P., 2017. Pre-milking
mechanical teat stimulation and milking
performance of dairy buffaloes in early
lactation. Journal of Agricultural
Engineering, 48(1), pp.53-55.
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Popular Article
DNA Diagnostics vs. Serodiagnostics: A Comparison
Moon Moon Satpathy1, Abhilash Routray2 and Sonam Sarita Bal3
1PG Scholar, Department of Veterinary Microbiology, GADVASU, Ludhiana, Punjab 2PhD. Scholar, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology, LUVAS, Hisar, Haryana
3PG Scholar, Department of Veterinary Pathology, GADVASU, Ludhiana, Punjab
Corresponding Author
Dr. Abhilash Routray
Email: [email protected]
Keywords
DNA based diagnostic, Serology, Serodiagnostics, Animal health
How to cite this article:
Satpathy, M. M., Routray, A. and Bal, S. S. 2020. DNA diagnostics vs. Serodiagnostics: a comparison.
Vigyan Varta 1(4): 26-31
INTRODUCTION
Diagnostic test is an indispensable
tool for accurate diagnosis,
monitoring, screening and predicting
the prognosis of a disease in the field of
Veterinary and Human Medicine. It helps the
practitioner to diagnose the specific ailment or
disease of a patient and hence plays a very
crucial role in prescribing the most appropriate
treatment for it. For some diseases like that in A
ABSTRACT
A diagnostic test plays an important role in the present era not only for accurately diagnosing
a disease condition but also has a key role in monitoring, screening and predicting its
prognosis. Hence it is of immense significance the field of Veterinary and Human Medicine. We
have two approaches in diagnostics; one is serology based which includes agglutination based
tests, precipitation based tests , Enzyme linked Immuno sorbent assay, western blotting,
complement fixation test, Viral neutralization test etc., other one is DNA based including
Polymerase Chain Reaction, Reverse Transcriptase PCR, Real-time PCR etc. Serology based
tests are fast, require less manpower and pen-side tests with reasonable sensitivity and
specificity whereas DNA based tests are highly sensitive and specific with enormous scope of
use including identifying unknown bacteria by targeting its 16s rRNA, but these also have
certain limitations like these may not be always convenient in every situation, even fail to
detect current infection and past exposure. These also detect the presence of dead
microorganism which can also mislead the present disease status. Hence choosing an
appropriate diagnostic test well suited to our purpose is necessary as it not only saves time but
also saves manpower and resources.
OPEN ACCESS
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case of cancer, it is not only important to know
the disease but it is equally important to
understand the degree of development, whether
it is stable or in regression, hence the chosen
diagnostic test helps the health care providers to
access whether the given treatment is effective
in controlling the disease. Infectious diseases
pose a greater threat to the world today than
years back possibly due to a myriad of
emerging and re-emerging diseases, new
bacteria, viruses and parasites, increasing
population density, changing food habits of
people and easy travel facilities. Rampant use
of antibiotics without proper testing has paved
the way for emergence of resistant bacteria,
thus an appropriate diagnostic test also checks
development of AMR. Diagnostic tests are also
important for confirming the health status of
animal and identifying pathogens. It plays a
crucial role early detection, management and
control of animal diseases including zoonotic
diseases. As per WHO, about 60% of the
emerging infectious diseases reported globally
are zoonotic, hence they help to safeguard the
public health. Tests help to monitor the disease
status and immune response to a vaccination
program in a herd. It also helps in herd health
screening for various diseases like Bovine Viral
Diarrhoea (BVD), Brucellosis etc. Apart from
this, accurate diagnosis of infectious diseases
helps to prevent huge economic losses due to
mortality, morbidity and reduction on
productivity in livestock and poultry
populations and also facilitate safe trade in
animals and animal products.
Properties of an Ideal Diagnostic test
For selecting an ideal diagnostic test, the
ASSURED criteria can be used as a benchmark,
where ASSURED denotes Affordable,
Sensitive, Specific, User-friendly, Rapid and
robust, Equipment free and Deliverable to end
users. Tests should be easy to perform, reliable
and require less machinery. Pen-side
Diagnostic tests that can be performed near the
animal are preferred. Other factors like it should
not be much influenced by temperature, should
also withstand the test in different countries
should be reproducible and validated, should be
reliable i.e. it should produce same result both
in lab and in field condition.
However not all tests perfectly fit into these
criteria especially those requiring infrastructure
and necessary equipment, but they can be
perfectly accurate in identifying a disease-
causing pathogen.
Serodiagnostics
The scientific study or diagnostic examination
of blood serum/other body fluids, especially
regarding the response of immune system to
pathogens or introduced substances is called
serology. In other words, the measurement of
antigen-antibody interactions for diagnostic
purpose is referred to as serology.
Serodiagnostics are based on the principle of
detecting ‘antigen’ or ‘antibody’ in serum,
where antigen being the organism itself or any
toxin produced by it and antibodies are
immunoglobulins secreted in response to the
antigen by the specialized lymphocytes called
plasma cells. Both antigen and antibody can be
detected by various methods. It is done by
separating the serum from blood and using it to
detect antigen or antibody. These tests also
serve as a primary laboratory diagnostic test for
the organisms that are difficult to culture in
laboratory
Serological testing for infectious diseases has
been available since early and middle part of the
past century. In due course of time, their
sensitivity and specificity has been increased
using better reagents and methods thus making
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them more convenient to use as compared to the
traditional tests.
Types of Serological Techniques
Diagnostic serological tests fall into three broad
categories i.e. primary binding tests, secondary
binding tests and tertiary binding tests.
Primary binding tests directly measures the
binding of antigen to antibody. Under this
category comes RIA, ELISA, FAT,
Immunoperoxidase test, Western Blotting etc.
RIA stands for Radio Immuno Assay. It is one
of the most sensitive techniques for detecting
antigen or antibody developed in 1960s by S. A.
Berson and Rosalyn Yalow to determine the
levels of insulin-anti insulin complexes in
diabetics. Immunofluorescence Assays
comprises of the Fluorescent Antibody Tests
(direct, indirect and sandwich). These tests
make use of fluorescent dyes like FITC
(Fluorescein isothiocyanate), Rhodamine
isothiocyanate etc. Enzyme Immune Assays
(EIAS) are commonly called as ELISA. It has
similar principle as RIA, but it depends on
enzyme rather than radioactive label for test.
Immunoperoxidase test is used to detect antigen
in tissue sections. Its principle is similar to
Immunofluorescence test or direct/indirect
ELISA. Here enzymes labelled with
immunoglobulin are used and DAB is used as
chromogenic substrate. Western blotting
technique is used to identify a specific protein
in a complex protein mixture.
In secondary binding test, the reaction between
antigen and antibody forms a stable complex
which is followed by which can be visualized.
It measures the antigen- antibody reaction
invitro. The secondary binding tests include
precipitation test, agglutination test and
Complement Fixation Test (CFT).
Agglutination reaction is characterized by the
formation of visible clump when particulate
antigen interacts with antibodies. Precipitation
tests involve reaction of soluble antigen
(precipitinogen) with an antibody (precipitins).
CFT is used to measure the serum levels of
specific antibody against antigens. These tests
are less sensitive but easier to perform.
Tertiary binding tests are also called assays in
living system in which the actual protective
action of antibodies in an animal is measured. It
is the most complex of all tests. Under this
comes neutralization test and protection test.
DNA Diagnostics
It is based on the principle of detecting the
presence of an organism by detecting its nucleic
ELISA plate
Rose Bengal
Plate test
AGID
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acid (DNA or RNA). This is done by detecting
a particular gene which is specific to that
organism.
Microbial DNA (either from virus or bacteria)
can be subjected to PCR (Polymerase Chain
Reactions) by using specific DNA sequences
for unique portions of microbial DNA called as
primers in order to allow its specific
amplification, followed by detection on agarose
gel. Quantification of the DNA can be done
PCR or branched chain DNA assay. The RNA
from RNA viruses can be detected by reverse-
transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) and its
quantification can be done by using real-time
PCR or branched chain DNA assay. In real-time
PCR or q-PCR DNA concentration is indicated
by the release of fluorescent molecules during
amplification. Branched chain DNA assay is
based on the technique of signal amplification
for detecting nucleic acids.
Which is Better?
To compare which is a better technique, the
following queries must be considered i.e. what
to use? How to use? When to use? Where to
use?
Sensitivity
Sensitivity of a screening test is denoted by its
ability to correctly identify a true positive case.
DNA diagnostics can detect even if there one
DNA or RNA strand in the sample whereas for
a serological test, there is a minimum limit of
detection below which it may not detect the
antigen.
Specificity
Specificity of a test measures the ability of the
test to correctly identify the true negatives.
DNA based tests are more specific as the gene
of interest or the particular gene targeted is not
found elsewhere rather than in the organism
itself. Whereas Serological tests can show a
wide range of cross reactivity, hence they are
relatively less specific too.
Ease of Use
For performing a serology-based test, we just
must use a standard kit which is much easier
than performing a DNA based test which
requires trained personnel and sophisticated
equipment. Serodiagnostics can be used as pen-
side test. Thus, it can be performed near the
patient whereas a DNA based test can never be
performed as a pen-side test.
Duration of test
Duration depends on the type of test used. Some
serological tests are very fast like slide
agglutination, lateral flow etc., whereas some
are very lengthy taking more than a day like in
case of ELISA(if pre-coated antigenic plates are
not available and we have to do it manually then
it may require overnight incubation ).DNA
based tests take roughly more than a day. Real
time PCR (q-PCR) also saves time.
Scope of Use
DNA based tests are not only used for diagnosis
purpose, but they have enormous other uses.
These tests can be used paternity testing,
cloning and expression studies, genetic
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evolution, mutation, oncology, disease risk
management, genetic abnormality detection, in
forensic science, identifying criminals etc. But
serology-based tests can only be used to detect
antigen or antibody for a particular pathogen
and quantify them. It can also be used for typing
bacteria (Streptococcus), standardize toxin.
Some specific applications of serology apart
from the field of microbiology are ABO typing
(blood typing) and diagnosis of autoimmune
diseases like autoimmune haemolytic anaemia
(coombs test).
Sophistication
PCR tests are more sophisticated as it uses some
expensive machinery whereas serology-based
tests need less sophisticated machines (ELISA
reader).
Flexibility
DNA is present in every cells of the body, so
the biological samples for DNA based tests can
be any kind of cells or tissue like blood, hair,
bones, horns, hooves apart from samples like
blood, faeces, urine, sputum etc from which the
organism of interest can be directly isolated.
DNA based tests are particularly important in
the field of forensic science. DNA isolated from
archeological findings from different samples
like bones, hooves etc has paved the way for
studying the evolutionary history of humans
and animal. Serological tests lag behind the
DNA based tests in this aspect as they are
neither technically so advanced for serving
multipurpose use, nor do they operate using any
kind of biological sample as in case of DNA
based tests. Serological tests use only blood
serum or interstitial fluid.
Cost
Cost is a significant factor for choosing any
kind of diagnostic tool. So far as cost factor is
concerned, initial cost of DNA based tests is
high but recurrent cost is less whereas in case
of serology-based tests, cost remains constant
every time. Some tests are cheap whereas some
are expensive.
Some Specific Limitations
As serological testing is based on the
individual’s ability to mount an effective
humoral immune response to a pathogen which
may take time to develop ranging from few
weeks to even months, the diagnosis may get
delayed accordingly or may be even be
unreliable sometimes.
It also fails to differentiate between a current
infection and a past exposure. IgM is the
earliest antibody response to infection which
later converts to an IgG response as the
infection progress. IgM –specific assays are not
assays are not available for most bacterial
diseases and where available (Mycoplasma
pneumoniae or Toxoplasma gondii), solid
conclusions can’t be drawn from the tests due
to the fact that specific IgM may be present long
after an acute infection. The criteria for
serologically confirming an infection is based
on 4-fold rise in antibody titer between acute
and convalescent specimens, but in real world
of clinical laboratory testing, paired specimens
are extremely rare.
Serological testing can quantify the amount of
protective antibody against a vaccine whereas
PCR bases tests cannot. DNA based tests can
detect lineage and mutation of a pathogen
whereas serology-based tests cannot. Gene
expression studies can be done using PCR
based tests. Unknown bacteria can also be
identified by targeting its 16s rRNA can also be
done using PCR based tests.
Molecular tests are advantageous over
serological tests as detect microbes rather than
serological history of infection and thus can
detect the microbe much earlier than serological
tests. The empirical sensitivity of most
molecular tests especially nucleic acid
amplification assays tends to decrease over time
from time of infection to a positive assay. False
positive amplifications can also occur
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sometimes. As the pathogen is often cleared by
host’s innate immune response, so previous
exposure cannot be estimated by these tests.
Serological tests can be unreliable in case of
persistent infection as in case of Bovine Viral
Diarrhoea in which the persistently infected
calves are seronegative throughout their life.
Serology also has limited applications in
immunocompromised individuals.
CONCLUSION
The conclusion about which test is better
depends on our use. If we need a test which
should be extremely sensitive, specific,
flexible, and not very lengthy, then DNA based
test wins. If we want to perform mutation and
genetic lineage studies, DNA based tests are
preferred.
On the other hand, if we want a pen-side test
with reasonable sensitivity and specificity, less
sophisticated and faster, then serology-based
tests solve the purpose well. Hence it can be
concluded, the best test for our need depends on
the type of need itself.
REFERENCES
Alexander, T. S., 2006. Serology or Molecular
Infectious Disease Testing-Which,
When, and Why? Infectious Diseases in
Clinical Practice, 14(6), pp.373-376.
Nir-Paz, R., Michael-Gayego, A., Ron, M. and
Block, C., 2006. Evaluation of eight
commercial tests for Mycoplasma
pneumoniae antibodies in the absence of
acute infection. Clinical Microbiology
and Infection, 12(7), pp.685-688.
Gorgievski-Hrisoho, M., Germann, D. and
Matter, L., 1996. Diagnostic implications
of kinetics of immunoglobulin M and A
antibody responses to Toxoplasma
gondii. Journal of Clinical
Microbiology, 34(6), pp.1506-1511.
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Brown Manuring, an Effective Technique for Weed Management and
Sustainable Yield of Cereal Crops
Sumit Sow and Shivani Ranjan
PG Scholar, Department of Agronomy, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, 813210
Corresponding Author
Sumit Sow
Email: [email protected]
Keywords
Brown manuring, Green manuring, Soil fertility
How to cite this article:
Sow, S. and Ranjan, S. 2020. Brown Manuring, an effective technique for weed management and
sustainable yield of cereal crops. Vigyan Varta 1(4): 32-34
INTRODUCTION
ereals specially rice has biggest
commitment to support independence
in food grain production to take care of
consistently expanding population of the
nation. Maize considered as the queen of
cereals, is one of the most significant yields
close to rice and wheat in global agriculture.
Although maize is under development in India,
production and productivity are less over
temperate countries. The factor which causes
decrease in development, advancement and
yield of maize is weed which causes 40-70%
yield reduction under uncontrolled weed
development condition in maize. Fertilizers
have contributed significantly to the astounding
increment in crop production. However, use of
inorganic fertilizers alone in huge amount for a
long time brings about irregularity in the supply
C
ABSTRACT
As the population is increasing day by day and per capita land availability is decreasing leading
to poor soil fertility. So, efficient nutrient management is essential to main the soil fertility and
to gain sustainable yield of crops. Application of organic manure can play a vital role in this
direction. But these manures are generally bulky in nature and low in nutrient content. So,
farmers use inorganic fertilizer in huge amount. Therefore, substitution is highly required and
green manure can be a possible option to provide nutrient from sources. In green manuring,
the main limitation is as it is mainly practiced in rice crop which requires a duration of 45-60
days from seedling to decomposition with proper temperature and moisture after
incorporation. So, brown manuring is a viable option. Brown manure improves available
nutrients, porosity, organic carbon, CEC, aggregation of soil and improve soil properties. It will
suppress the weed population as well as increase the yield of the crops.
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and availability of other nutrients. The
combined use of organic manure and inorganic
fertilizers help in sustaining the yield of crops.
India has sufficient amount of organic waste
which can be converted into organic compost
and manure. But the huge quantity of organic
waste is not properly used and scientific
conversation into compost is not done and lost
in various ways. On the other hand, carrying
costs of low value bulky organic manure is too
expensive. So the option like green manuring
comes which add nutrient to the soil, but it
requires a period of time for decomposition
after incorporation into the soil. Moreover, the
decomposition process in green manuring
needs specific temperature and sufficient
moisture content in the soil which may not be
available throughout the year. In this context,
brown manuring is a viable option which is not
only free from these limitations but also
increase the yield sustainably of cereal crops.
Brown Manuring
Basically "no-till" version of green manuring,
using an herbicide to desiccate the crop plant
before flowering is brown manuring. In brown
manuring, green manure crops like Sesbania
are grown in standing cereal crops and selective
herbicide like 2,4-D or bispyribac sodium is
applied and after 4-5 days of spraying, green
manure crops start dying due to knock down
effect in the same piece of land. The plant
residues are left as such in that field along with
the main crop without incorporation or
ploughing until it's decomposition in the soil.
As a result of loss of chlorophyll due to
application of post emergence herbicide on the
green manure plant leaves showing brown in
colour referred to as brown manuring (Tanwar
et al., 2010). Brown manuring not only adds
organic matter to soil but also improves
biological and physico-chemical properties of
the soil. There are lots of benefits of brown
manuring specially maximizing the yield of
cereals and controlling weeds.
Effect on weeds
Brown manuring can be able to smother the
weeds by about 40-50% through raising green
manure crops like sunhemp, Sesbania etc. as
intercrop. Brown manuring can suppress 50%
of total weed population by shading effect of
the plant till 45 DAS up to which critical period
of crop weed competition continues in cereals
generally. Maity and Mukherjee (2007)
reported that combination of butachlor 1.5
kg/ha + brown manuring + 2,4-D 0.50 kg/ha
application at 40 DAS recorded lowest weed
index value of 4.5 and maximum weed control
efficiency of 88.15% at 60 DAS in Direct
Seeded Rice (DSR) in kharif. Application of
Wheat residue mulch at 4 t/ha along with
Sesbania intercropping for are equally effective
in controlling weeds in dry seeded rice (Singh
et al., 2007). Ramachandran et al., 2012
reported that Pre emergence alachlor 1.0 kg/ ha
+ brown manuring had higher weed control
efficiency of 92.15% at 40 DAS in irrigated
maize. Yadav et al. (2014) found that brown
manuring with cowpea and Sesbania had
positive effect in lowering weed population and
fostering the yield in DSR.
Effect on crop yield
Aslam et al, 2008 reported that yield of paddy
direct seeding and brown manuring (4.23 t/ha)
has higher yield than direct seeding without
manuring (3.36 t/ha). Prabhakaran and
chinnuswamy, 2006 found that drum seeding
with dhaincha brown manure reduced weeds as
well as increased yield of rice. In rabi maize,
pre emergence alachlor + brown manuring
increased the yield attributes such as cob length,
no of rows) cob, no of grains/ row and test
weight which in turn reflected in higher grain
(7.227 kg/ha), stover yield (11,563 kg/ha) and
increase economic return (Ramachandran et al.,
2012). The highest grain (3.88 t/ha) and straw
(5.96 t/ha) was recorded with butachlor +
brown manuring + 2,4-D application in direct
seeded kharif rice (Maity and Mukherjee,
2007). Yield of DSR with brown manuring and
conventional transplanting of rice is mostly
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same but brown manuring with DSR saves the
water over transplanting by moisture
conservation.
Effect on soil health and nutrient use
efficiency
The sustainability of rice-wheat cropping
system is in risk by increasing labour, water and
crisis of energy. In an experiment Nawaz et al.
(2017) Sesbania brown manuring in DSR
decreased the dry biomass 62-75%. By
replacing 25% of nitrogenous fertilizer by
brown manuring in DSR increased organic
carbon content 13.04% indicating better soil
health without affecting the economical
attributes. Sharma et al. noted that brown
manuring with basmati rice cultivated under the
method system of rice intensification boost up
the actinomycetes present in the soil. Brown
manure decreases bulk density of soil and
acting as buffer or lowering the transmission of
compaction to subsoil. Nutrient use efficiency
is positively influenced by weed. Skipping of
basal dose of nitrogen in the field has
considerable effect on nutrient use efficiency.
Nutrient use efficiency of N (50.00 and 64.67kg
grain yield/kg nutrient applied), P (229.36 and
296.64kg grain yield/kg nutrient applied) and K
(90.36 and 116.87 kg grain yield/kg nutrient
applied) was highest under butachlor 1.5 kg/ha
and brown manuring with 2,4-D 0.5kg/ha
during both the years in which nitrogen was
applied in four splits (Maiti and Mukherjee,
2007). Brown manure improves soil structure
and providing a protective cover for the soil
surface thus increases water infiltration and
retention, reduces wind and water erosion risk
as well as reduces the impact of extreme
temperatures. It also helps in maintaining the
earthworm population which indirectly
improve the soil fertility.
CONCLUSION
To satisfy the food demand of a worldwide
population expected to arrive at 9.1 billion in
2050 and more than 10 billion by century's end
will require significant changes in agricultural
production systems. As the nutrient status of the
soil is depleting day by day due to overuse of
chemical fertilizers, brown manuring is viable
option to cereal crops to enhance productivity
and maintaining sustainability through
restoration of soil health. It is not only a
resource conservation technology but also
controls the weed population. Due to erratic
monsoon farmers are unwilling to take to risk
of green manuring, for them brown manuring is
a reasonable solution which is economically
viable and environmentally sustainable.
REFERENCES
Maitra, S. & Zaman, A. 2017. Brown manuring,
an effective technique for yield
sustainability and weed management of
cereal crops: A review. International
Journal of Bioresource Science. 4(1),
pp.1-5.
Maity, S. K. and Mukherjee, P. K. 2011. Effect
of Brown Manuring on Grain Yield and
Nutrient Use Efficiency in Dry Direct
Seeded Kharif Rice (Oryza sativa L.).
Indian Journal of Weed Science, 43(1-2):
pp: 61-66.
Nawaz, A., Farooq, M., Lal, R., Rehman, A.,
Hussain, T. and Nadeem, A. 2017.
Influence of Sesbania Brown Manuring
and Rice Residue Mulch on Soil Health,
Weeds and System Productivity of
conservation Rice–Wheat Systems. Land
Degradation and Development, 28: pp:
1078-1090.
Ramachandran, A. Veeramani, A. and Prema,
P. 2012. Effect of brown manuring on
weed growth, yield and economics of
irrigated maize. Indian Journal of Weed
Science, 44(3), pp: 204–206.
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Zero Tillage as a Resource Conserving Technology in Rice - Wheat Cropping
System
Shivani Ranjan and Sumit Sow
PG Scholar, Department of Agronomy, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, 813210
Corresponding Author
Shivani Ranjan
Email: [email protected]
Keywords
Climate change, Conventional tillage, Greenhouse gases, Zero tillage
How to cite this article:
Ranjan, S. and Sow, S. 2020. Zero tillage as a resource conserving technology in rice - wheat cropping
system. Vigyan Varta 1(4): 35-37
INTRODUCTION
illage is used to remove weeds, prepare
rows for sowing of crops but more
tillage is leading to soil compaction,
degradation of land, soil erosion etc. Extremely
low input use efficiency has led to improper use
of inputs and depletion of natural resources
besides environmental degradation (Hobbs et
al., 1997). Zero tillage can be a potential
solution to all these problems which involves
minimum disturbance of the soil. In zero tillage,
zero till seed cum fertilizer drill machine place
the seeds and fertilizers in a narrow slit created
by furrow opener in the soil with minimal soil
disturbance. The shape of the furrow is inverted
T. Adoption of zero tillage also increases the
amount of water infiltered into the soil,
T
ABSTRACT
The two most important cereal crops of India rice and wheat occupying an area of 43.86 million
hectare and 29.8 million hectares, respectively. Rice-wheat cropping system is practiced on a
large scale in Indo-Gangetic plains. There are issues or problems in rice-wheat cropping system
arising due to climate change and variability, emission of greenhouse gases, delayed sowing
of wheat, insect pest and diseases, lack of improved production technology, less water use
efficiency, less fertilizer use efficiency. These problems can be overcome by adopting zero
tillage in rice wheat cropping system. Zero tillage is a type of conservation tillage in which
primary tillage is completely avoided and secondary tillage is restricted to seed bed
preparation in the row zone only. In rice wheat cropping system, it can be also called as direct
sowing of wheat in rice field. Zero tillage in rice field system has reduced the fuel as well as
labour requirement and an overall reduction in cultivation cost. Yield is also more in zero tillage
as compared to the conventional tillage.
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increases soil organic carbon content, reduces
erosion. It also helps in maintaining the
population of beneficial microbes in the soil.
The idea of zero tillage was given by Faulkner
in an early 1940s. G. B. Triplett is considered
as father of zero tillage.
Objectives of zero tillage
• To reduce the cultivation cost
• To improve the organic matter content in
the soil
• Reduction in soil erosion
• Increase in water use efficiency
• Reducing soil compaction
• Less fuel is required leading to less
environmental pollution
• Weed problem is minimized. This may be
due to the reason that weed seeds remained
in deeper layer under zero tillage system in
comparison to conventional system
(Verma and Srivastava, 1989)
Practices for management of zero tillage
Growing of cover crops
They are known for their shading effect by
which they do not allow the weeds to grow so
that the succeeding crop may get required
resource for growth.
Crop rotation
As residue is kept on the surface of soil and zero
tillage this can result in an outbreak of insect
pest. To avoid this problem crop rotation must
be followed to stop the life cycle of the plant
pathogen.
Implements
Heavy tillage equipments are not used for zero
tillage as it can cause compaction of the soil.
Implements used for zero tillage are zero seed
cum fertilizer drill, rotary weeder, metal cutting
blade mould board plough.
Surveys reveal that 60 percent of zero-tillage
adopters did not own a zero-tillage drill
machine (Erenstein, Malik, and Singh, 2007).
Management of crop residue
Loose crop residue must be handled properly to
avoid burning.
Important consideration for adoption of zero
tillage
• The standings stubble should not be longer
than 15cm.
• The zero till seed drill machine should be
calibrated properly.
• The depth of sowing should be kept 5cm.
• Granular fertilizer should be used to avoid
choking of zero till seed cum fertilizer drill
machine.
• Irrigation should be applied 15 to 20 days
after sowing.
• Cultivar of crops suitable for zero tillage
should be sown.
Need of zero tillage in rice-wheat cropping
system
Traditional the field is prepared for wheat
sowing by ploughing 5 to 6 times causing a
delay in sowing of wheat leading to reduction
in number of plants, low yield and an increase
in cost of cultivation. There is also reduction in
yield if sown after 10 December. In traditional
sowing, cost of cultivation is more. Zero tillage
saves 15 to 20 days sowing time and reduces
cost of cultivation of wheat. The depth of seed
sowing is kept 3 to 5 cm in sowing and a soil
layer is formed above the soil leading to good
germination. In zero tillage seed rate is also less
than conventional methods for wheat that is 150
kg per hectare whereas in conventional tillage it
is 160-170 kg per hectare. Sowing time of
wheat is in zero tillage is 15 November to 10
December that is early than in conventional
method that is 10 to 30 December. Fertilizer
requirement is less for wheat in zero tillage.
Labour as well as fuel requirement is also less.
So, zero tillage if followed in rice-wheat
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cropping system will use the resources
efficiently as well as will give more yield.
Problems associated with zero tillage in rice
wheat cropping system
Topography: Undulating topography causes
more erosion resulting in decline in soil nutrient
value and does not allow easy drawing of zero
till drill machine.
Soil texture: Soil texture also affects zero
tillage. Clay textured soil have high moisture
retention capacity so is better for zero tillage.
CONCLUSION
In this present situation, where population is
increasing at an alarming rate and the world is
facing problems like climate change,
agriculture sector has pressure on it to ensure
food security. A system is needed for
successful management of resources to increase
food production as well as to maintain
environmental sustainability. These things can
be done by adopting the technology of zero
tillage. Zero tillage not only gives increased
productivity per unit area, but it also reduces
labour, fuel requirement and reduces cost of
cultivation and give more yield than
conventional method. It is also necessary to
consider possible strategies leading to increased
water productivity (producing more crop per
drop) leading to efficient management of the
scarce water resources (Akhtar, 2006).
REFERENCES
Akhtar, M. R., 2006. Impact of resource
conservation technologies for
sustainability of irrigated agriculture in
Punjab-Pakistan. Journal of Agricultural
Research (Pakistan), 44 (3): 239-255
Erenstein, O., Malik, R. K. and Singh, S., 2007.
Adoption and impacts of zero-tillage in
the rice-wheat zone of irrigated Haryana,
India. Research report. New Delhi:
International Maize and Wheat
Improvement Center and Rice-Wheat
Consortium.
Hobbs, P. R., Sayre, K. D. and Ortiz-
Monasterio, I., 1998. Increasing wheat
yields sustainability through agronomic
means. CIMMYT.
Verma, U. N. and Srivastava, V. C., 1989.
Weed management in wheat under zero
and optimum tillage conditions. Indian
Journal of Agronomy, 34(2), pp:176-
179.
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Aerobic Rice Cultivation: An Eco-Friendly and Water Saving
Technology
Mousumi Malo
Assistant Director of Agriculture, Model Farm, Jayrambati - 722161, West Bengal
Corresponding Author
Mousumi Malo
Email: [email protected]
Keywords
Aerobic rice, aerated soil, alternate wetting and drying, non-puddled, water saving
How to cite this article:
Malo, M. 2020. Aerobic rice cultivation: An eco-friendly and water saving technology. Vigyan Varta
1(4): 38-41
INTRODUCTION
ood and water are two of the most
essential requirements for survival, but
with an escalating demand for food and
forthcoming water catastrophe, a scarcity of
both the components may be on the horizon
unless newfangled technologies are developed.
The accelerating dearth of water resources has
prompted to the evolution and adoption of
aerobic rice cultivation technology that saves
water and enhances water productivity and
water use efficiency by abating the utilization
of water during land preparation and limiting
seepage, percolation and evaporation losses and
also it reduces labour requirement as well as
greenhouse gas emissions especially methane
from rice field. Rice consumes more than 50%
of the water used for irrigation in Asia as
reported by Barker et al. (1999) and it was also
documented that about 4000-5000 litres of
water is consumed for production of one kg rice
F
ABSTRACT
Scarcity of water is becoming austere in many rice cultivating regions in the world,
encouraging the introduction of water saving aerobic rice technology, which is direct seeded
in non-puddled, non-flooded as well as non-saturated well aerated soil without ponded water
with the use of external inputs such as supplementary irrigation, fertilizers & aiming at high
yields that can reduce water usage in rice production by as much as 50%. Main driving force
behind aerobic rice cultivation is economic water use and it is a better remedy for future
climate change under drought condition with lesser greenhouse gas (GHG) emission.
Notwithstanding the mechanism of growing rice with alternate wetting and drying method
needs to be further refined or developed and a broader acceptance of this system is anticipated
to safeguard rice production in water starved areas.
OPEN ACCESS
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as rice cultivation is a water intensive
enterprise. Per capita water availability has
dwindled from 5300 m3 year-1 in 1953 to 2500
m3 year-1 in 1990 and is expected to further
shrink to 1500 m3 year-1 by 2025 signifying
considerable reduction in water availability.
Researchers throughout the globe are now-a-
days taking on the challenging task of
developing rice production systems that can
cope up with the water inadequacy as over 17
million ha of Asia’s irrigated rice may
experience “physical water scarcity” and 22
million ha may encounter “economic water
scarcity” by the end of 2025 (Tuong and
Bouman, 2003).
What is Aerobic Rice?
Aerobic rice is a newly emerging, input
responsive and sustainable method of
cultivation for contiguous future to address
water deficiency and environmental safety
arising due to global warming where the high
yielding rice varieties are established by direct
seeding (dry or water soaked seed) in well
drained, well aerated, non-puddled and non-
saturated soils with 70% to 100% of water
holding capacity throughout growing season
that can be adopted in target areas such as tank
irrigated area, deep bore well/well irrigated area
and the places presumed to receive delayed
channel/river water i.e. in delta region during
kharif (June – July) and summer (February)
seasons. It is specifically well developed rice,
combining drought tolerant characteristics of
upland rice and yield potential of lowland rice
implying that aerobic rice is designated as
"improved upland rice" in terms of yield
potential, and "improved lowland rice" in terms
of drought tolerance. Aerobic rice varieties
have the ability to maintain rapid growth in
soils with moisture content at or below field
capacity in addition to the use of external inputs
such as supplementary irrigation along with
moderate application of fertilizers aiming to
produce yields of 4-6 t ha-1 (Parthasarathi et al.,
2012) and can save as much as 50% of
irrigation water in comparison with lowland
rice (Huaqi et al., 2003). The ecology for this
type of rice is intermediate between upland and
favourable shallow lowlands.
Basic principles of the system
Aerobic rice cultivation system involves a set
of practices for seed treatment, plant, soil, water
and weed management which are as follows:
• Direct seeding of treated seed in non-
puddled and non-flooded field
• It can be rainfed or fully irrigated or
supplementary irrigated
• Maintain water at just soil saturation level
(aerobic i.e. with oxygen)
• Effective and timely weed control is
crucial for success of this system
• Row to row spacing should be adopted at
20 or 25 cm with continuous sowing
• Use of best nutrient management practices
with FYM/compost/vermicompost etc.
Significance of aerobic rice cultivation
• Saves labour and water
• Direct seeding
• Saves seeds
• Cost effective
• Eco-friendly
• No need of puddling operation in field
• Aerobic condition in soil
• Nitrogen use efficiency is high
• Cost of cultivation is significantly low
• Efficient utilization of rainwater
• Soil structure is maintained
• Improves soil health
Advantages of aerobic rice over conventional
irrigated rice cultivation
• Direct seeding is recommended, so,
nursery preparation, puddling and
transplanting costs can be avoided.
• Rational use of water for field preparation
and irrigation helps in 35-45% of water
saving. Also, the reduction in number of
irrigations will help in cost cutting and
savings in power consumption.
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• In conventional lowland irrigated rice,
greenhouse gas like methane emission is
elevated but researchers proved that it is
reduced in case of aerobic rice.
• Maintenance of soil structure is beneficial
to non-rice crops in rotation and timely
sowing of succeeding crop after rice is
possible under aerobic rice cultivation
technology.
Management
• The usual establishment method is dry
direct seeding, but it also allows
conservation agriculture as used in upland
crops, such as mulching and minimum
tillage.
• Aerobic rice can be rainfed or irrigated.
Irrigation can be applied through flash-
flooding, furrow irrigation (or raised
beds), or sprinklers. Unlike flooded rice,
irrigation, when applied is not used to
flood the soil but to just bring the soil water
content in the root zone up to field
capacity.
• Site-specific nutrient management
(SSNM) can be used to determine the
optimal management of fertilizers. In the
absence of knowledge on SSNM, 70−90
kg N/ha could be a useful starting point to
obtain a yield of 4−6 t/ha. The first split
can best be given at 10−12 days after
emergence, the second at active tillering,
and the third at panicle initiation. The
application of phosphorus fertilizer can be
more critical to aerobic rice than to flooded
rice.
• Rice fields that are not permanently
flooded tend to experience high growth
and more species of weed. Appropriate
herbicide uses and additional manual or
mechanical weeding in the early phase of
crop growth, are therefore needed to
control weeds.
• Soil-borne pests and diseases such as
nematodes, root aphids, and fungi are
known to occur more in aerobic rice than
in flooded rice, especially in the tropics. It
is recommended to grow aerobic rice in
rotation with upland crops suitable in the
area.
Recommended rice varieties for aerobic rice
cultivation
Four varieties viz. CR Dhan 200/Piyari
(Odisha), CR Dhan 201 (Chhattisgarh and
Bihar), CR Dhan 202 (Jharkhand and Odisha),
CR Dhan 204 (Jharkhand and Tamil Nadu), are
suitable for aerobic rice cultivation, released
from Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack.
Similarly, University of Agricultural Sciences,
Bangalore has released ARB 6, MAS 26 and
MAS 946-1 for Karnataka state.
CONCLUSION
The concept of aerobic rice methodology holds
a promising situation and better remedy for
future climate change under drought condition
with lesser greenhouse gas emission for farmers
in water scarce environments where water
availability at the farm level is too low or where
water is too expensive to grow flooded lowland
rice. However, more varieties need to be
evaluated and their nitrogen requirement should
be assessed. It is unambiguous that aerobic rice
cultivation has been identified as a potential
new technology which can reduce water use
and recognized as an economically attractive
crop. But, the major hurdle of mounting weed
pressure must be removed to make its
cultivation more effective in terms of net
returns from farmer’s investments and
utilization of precious water resources.
REFERENCES
Barker, R., Dawe, D., Tuong, T. P., Bhuiyan, S.
I. and Guerra, L. C., 1999. The outlook
for water resources in the year 2020:
challenges for research on water
management in rice production.
Southeast Asia, 1, pp.1-5.
Tuong, T. P. and Bouman, B. A. M., 2003. Rice
production in water-scarce
environments. Water Productivity in
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Agriculture: Limits and Opportunities
for Improvement, 1, pp.13-42.
Huaqi, W., Bouman, B. A. M., Zhao, D.,
Changgui, W. and Moya, P. F., 2002.
Aerobic rice in northern China:
opportunities and challenges. Water-wise
rice production. Los Baños
(Philippines): International Rice
Research Institute. p, pp.143-154.
Parthasarathi, T., Vanitha, K.,
Lakshamanakumar, P. and Kalaiyarasi,
D., 2012. Aerobic rice-mitigating water
stress for the future climate change.
International Journal of Agronomy and
Plant Production, 3(7), pp.241-254.
www.vigyanvarta.com Vol-1 Issue-4 Dadimi and Nishanth (2020)
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Popular Article
Q-Fever: A Neglected Zoonosis
Bhargavi Dadimi and Maria Anto Dani Nishanth
M.V.Sc Scholar, Division of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology
Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh
Corresponding Author
Dr. Bhargavi Dadimi
Email: [email protected]
Keywords
Coxiella burnetii, ticks, zoonosis, pasteurization
How to cite this article:
Dadimi, B. and Nishanth, M. A. D. 2020. Q-Fever: a neglected zoonosis. Vigyan Varta 1(4): 42-46
INTRODUCTION
oxiella burnetii is an obligate
intracellular gram-negative pathogen.
It had been previously identified as a
rickettsial agent but has been recently
reclassified as Proteobacteria. It replicates in
host monocytes and macrophages. It has
enormous stability and can achieve high animal
concentrations. It is highly immune to
environmental conditions and other
disinfectants, as it forms unusual spore-like
structures. Coxiella burnetii occurs in two
antigenic phases which are critical for Q fever
diagnosis. Phase I is pathogenic and is present
in infected animals, or in nature. Phase II is less
pathogenic and is recovered in eggs or cell
cultures only after several lab passages.
Increased antibodies to the phase II antigens
indicate acute infection while chronic infection
is indicated by an increase in phase I.
History
Q "Querry" fever was first reported in 1935 by
Derrick in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia,
who identified febrile disease outbreaks in
workers at abattoirs. Burnet and his associate
Freeman successfully isolated the organism and
studied the disease's epidemiology. In 1938
C
ABSTRACT
Coxiella burnetii is an obligate intracellular pathogen that causes worldwide
zoonosis, Q-fever. Infection in animals is mostly persistent. Infection in humans is often
asymptomatic but can be manifested as acute or chronic infection. C. burnetii infection in
pregnant women may result in abortions, premature deliveries and still births. Infection in
nature is maintained and transmitted by ticks as the principal vector and reservoir. Cattle,
sheep and goat are the important source of infection to humans. Humans contract infection
mostly by aerosol in contact with contaminated environments and wind playing an important
role spreading the infection. Organism exists in two antigenic phases. Host factors such as
under-lying disease and cell-mediated immunity play a decisive role in the clinical expression
of Coxiella burnetii infection.
OPEN ACCESS
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Coxiella burnetii was named for the organism
in honor of Cox and Burnet.
Transmission
Aerosolization is the primary mode of
transmission in humans, and the most common
cause of infection in domestic ruminants.
Organisms are commonly found in airborne
droplets or dust contaminated with placental
tissues, birth fluids or infected animal excreta.
Shedding of the organisms into the atmosphere
occurs mainly during parturition; At delivery
approximately 109 bacteria per gram of the
placenta are released. Aerosol or direct
transmission can occur while processing
infected animals for feed, during necropsies, or
while assisting with parturition.
Owing to the persistence of the organism in the
atmosphere, dried infectious material can
contaminate water, dust, and soil; Fomites (i.e.,
newborn animals, fur, bedding, and clothing)
can also be contaminated and may serve as
infectious source. Infected mammary glands
may shed the organisms in milk, but this
organism is destroyed by pasteurization.
C. Burnetii has been isolated from several
arthropods naturally and experimentally
(mainly ticks, but also cockroaches,
mosquitoes, flies, fleas, lice, mites). About 40
species of ticks are infected with C. Burnetii
and transovarial transmission (mother to
offspring) and transstadial transmission
(between developmental stages) were recorded.
Infected arthropod feces may serve as a source
of infection with C. burnetii and can remain
infective for at least 19 months.
Usually animals develop Q fever through
exposure to other infected animals, either by
direct contact with polluted material or by
exposure to aerosols. Transmission from person
to person is extremely rare. Transplacental
transmission can result in congenital infection.
There were also records of transmission from
blood transfusions, bone marrow transplants,
and intradermal inoculations. Transmission via
sexual intercourse has been hypothesized.
Sexual transmission of Coxiella burnetii has
been documented in mice and guinea pigs and
hypothesized for a rare number of human cases.
Epidemiology
Q fever is a zoonosis which is distributed
worldwide. It has been recorded on all
continents except New Zealand, and it is
common in areas where animals’ reservoirs are
found. The reservoir of animals is large and
includes many wild and domestic mammals,
birds, and arthropods. The main reservoirs,
however, are called cattle, pigs, goats, and ticks.
Wildlife species recorded as reservoirs include
snowshoe hares, moose and white-tailed deer in
Nova Scotia, Alaskan wild Dall sheep and
Idaho and California black bears. Q fever poses
an occupational hazard for people in contact
with domestic animals, such as cattle, sheep and
goats. People at risk include farmers, livestock
producers, veterinarians, slaughterhouse
workers and people in contact with dairy
products, and culture and diagnostic laboratory
staff. Reports of intermittent cases have been
growing in people living in urban areas
following occasional contact with farm animals
or after interaction with infected pets, such as
dogs and cats.
Disease in Humans
In humans the time of incubation ranges from 2
to 40 days (mean around 20 days). Only as few
as one organism can cause illness. Human
beings are considered dead end hosts, and they
are the only species known to routinely develop
disease because of infection. Most Q fever
cases are asymptomatic; Only around 50 per
cent of all infected individuals exhibit clinical
signs of illness. The two clinical forms of
illness are acute (duration less than 6 months)
and chronic (duration longer than 6 months).
Acute disease symptoms can differ in severity
and duration; A febrile or flu-like illness often
occurs which is self-limiting. Signs include
fatigue, chills, "sweats," headache retro bulbar,
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tiredness, anorexia, malaise, myalgia, and chest
pain. Illness usually lasts from 1-3 weeks.
Pneumonia can occur in 30 to 50 per cent of
patients with symptomatic disease. In more
serious cases, pneumonitis with nonproductive
cough may be seen. Radiographs of pneumonic
patients mimic those of patients with etiologies
of viral pneumonia. Multiple rounded opacities
on x-ray of both lungs can be observed, and
pleural effusion can also be seen. In addition,
many patients who are clinically ill will have
irregular liver enzymes and some will develop
hepatitis, jaundice which is rare. Exanthema
(rash) occurs in about 10% of cases. Acute
infection can rarely cause meningoencephalitis
or pericarditis. Around 2% of acute infections
need hospitalization and mortality results in a
similar percentage. Chronic Q fever (duration
of infection beyond six months) occurs in 1 to
5 percent of those infected and is relatively rare.
It usually occurs in individuals with preexisting
heart valve disease. Immunocompromised
individuals and pregnant women are also at
significant risk for the chronic form.
Endocarditis is the main clinical presentation
and constitutes 60 to 70 per cent of all cases of
chronic Q fever. Infection may also affect the
liver which causes hepatitis or cirrhosis in
granulomatous form. Kupffer cells are
considered to be target cells for Coxiella. There
were also records of involvement in bone and
arteries. The chronic type can also develop in
patients who have had acute Q fever as early as
1 year or as long as 20 years after initial
infection.
Risk to Pregnant Women
Pregnant women who are diagnosed with C.
burnetii appear to be asymptomatic. The
organism may be transmitted transplacentally.
There may be neonatal death, premature birth,
low birth weight, or placentitis, depending on
the timing of the infection abortion. The
greatest risk is that of the first trimester.
Pregnant women also have an increased chance
of developing chronic infection with Q-fever.
Pregnant women with Q fever may pose a
degree of risk to medical staff.
Prognosis
Q fever is typically a self-limiting illness and
most cases resolve within two days to two
weeks. Approximately 50 to 60 per cent of
cases are considered asymptomatic, and
complications from the acute disease type are
rare. About 2 percent of Coxiella burnetii-
infected people experience serious disease and
need hospitalisation. Overall, if treated, the
mortality rate is 1 per cent or less. Chronic
Infectious Disease is usually fatal if untreated.
In patients with endocarditis, the fatality rate
can range from 45 to 65%; additionally, 50 to
60% need valve replacement surgery. Because
severe disease is rare the overall case-fatality
rate for Q fever ranges from <1 to 2.4%.
Diagnosis
In humans, Q fever is usually diagnosed with
serology (increase in the amount of antibody
titer) that can be achieved as early as the second
week of illness. Q-fever serological tests
include IFA (immunofluorescence assay), CF
(complement fixation), ELISA (enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay), and microagglutination.
The most accurate and commonly used
approach is Indirect IFA. C. burnetii may also
be identified in infected tissue by IHC
(immunohistochemistry) and DNA detection
methods (PCR-polymerase chain reaction).
Isolation of the organism is rarely done due to
the risk C. burnetii poses for laboratory
personnel. Clinical signs and patient history can
also aid in diagnosis.
Treatment
Doxycycycline is the antibiotic medication of
choice. Treatment with antibiotics is most
successful if started within the first three days
of illness. For chronic disease, treatment may
be necessary for 2 to 3 years. Doxycycline and
quinolones are contraindicated in pregnant
women but in some cases, long-term co-
trimoxazole treatment (the combination of
trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole) has prevented
fetal death. People recovering from Q fever are
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thought to develop long-term (maybe lifelong)
immunity.
Animal Disease
The most common reservoirs of Q fever are
sheep, cattle, and goats. For animals, the
incubation time is variable. The infected
animals may be asymptomatic; reproductive
failure is typically the only symptom seen when
clinical illness occurs. This can include
abortions, stillbirths, retention of placentas,
infertility, frail newborns and milk cattle
mastitis. Lambs that are born after abortions by
Coxiella may be carried to term. However,
ewes can remain infected chronically, and tend
to shed organisms. After parturition, organisms
can be shed several days in milk and feces. The
dogs, cats, horses, pigs, and most species of
mammals and fowls may carry Coxiella
burnetii. Animals can get infected with tick
bite, placenta or milk consumption from
infected ruminants, or by the aerosol route.
Most infections are asymptomatic; however,
the most symptoms are related to reproductive
failure. Still births and weak offspring are
commonly reported
PM Lesions
Placentitis is the most characteristic lesion in
ruminants. The placenta is typically leathery
and thickened. It may contain large amounts of
creamy, white-yellow exudates at the edges of
cotyledons and in the intercotyledonary area.
Lesions are usually non-specific in aborted
fetuses.
Diagnosis and Treatment
C. burnetii can be detected in Vaginal
secretions, placenta or its fluids, aborted
fetuses, milk, urine, and feces Identification of
the organism can be achieved with Modified
Ziehl-Neelson or Gimenez stains but is not
normally detected by Gram stain. IHC can also
confirm bacterial identity. PCR techniques are
also available in some laboratories. Several
serological tests are also available (i.e.,
immunofluorescence (IFA), enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assays (ELISA) and
complement fixation (CF). The complement
fixation test is done most. Although organism
isolation can be achieved in a variety of
methods, it is hazardous for laboratory staff,
and must be performed in a Laboratory at
Biosafety level 3. So, it is seldom used.
Little is known about the effectiveness of
antibiotic treatment in animals. In the weeks
preceding parturition in enzootic herds
tetracycline was administered in water. This is
thought to help minimize shedding in birthing
materials. Antimicrobial therapy may not
eradicate carrier state of infection with C.
burnetii but can suppress abortion numbers.
Prevention and Control
Effective husbandry plays a large part in
preventing and managing this disease. Tick
avoidance should be used to help prevent the
disease from spreading. Animals about to give
birth should be separated from the rest of the
herd. Fetal membranes and the aborted fetuses
should be disposed of either by burying or
burning immediately. New or sick animals
should be isolated from the rest of the herd until
it can be determined that the animals are not
contagious or do not pose risk of infection.
Vaccinations for humans and animals have
been developed for this disease. However, they
are not currently licensed for use in the United
States.
Pasteurization of milk from cows, sheep, and
goats is important in stopping the spread of Q
fever by contaminated milk sources. The
amount of C. burnetii in the environment can be
greatly reduced by thorough cleaning. A 10%
bleach solution should be used to disinfect areas
after cleaning where animals give birth.
Eradication is impossible because of
environmental stability, infectivity for wild
animals, asymptomatic and carrier state in
animals and people, and arthropods.
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REFERENCES
Marrie, T. J. and Raoult, D., 2000. Coxiella
burnetii (Q fever). Mandell, Douglas and
Bennett's, Principles and Practice of
Infectious Diseases, pp:2043-50.
Kazar, J., 2005. Coxiella burnetii infection.
Annals of the New York Academy of
Sciences, 1063(1), pp:105-114.
Angelakis, E. and Raoult, D., 2010. Q fever.
Veterinary Microbiology, 140(3-4),
pp:297-309.
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Opportunities and Challenges in Digital Marketing
K. Ashok1 and B. Naresh2
1Ph.D Scholar, Department of Agricultural Extension, NDRI, Karnal 2Ph.D Scholar, Department of Agricultural Extension, PAU, Ludhiana
Corresponding Author
K. Ashok
Email: [email protected]
Keywords
Digital marketing, National Agriculture Market (e-NAM), Agricultural commodities
How to cite this article:
Ashok, K. and Naresh, B. 2020. Opportunities and challenges in digital marketing. Vigyan Varta 1(4):
47-50
INTRODUCTION
igital marketing pertains to the
application of marketing principles
and techniques via electronic media
and more specifically internet. It includes
mobile phones, display advertising, and any
other digital medium. Digital marketing is
growing with a rapid pace not only in India but
throughout the planet also. While all other D
ABSTRACT
One of the problems facing by the farmers in India is how to market their products beyond
their locality. Digital marketing can be the best possible solution where in the past few years,
the internet and digital marketing activities have become one of the fastest growing
technologies that plays a key role in the day-to-day activities of human being. The tele density
of the rural areas increased nearly 60% and of the total households using the services of the
internet and mobile phones which, poses serious challenge and opportunity to look forward
for digital marketing. It has many opportunities like global reach, direct communication, lower
cost, measurable results, 24-hour marketing and highly personalized content. Since, it is at the
beginning stage of its adoption, there are certain challenges like poor infrastructure, farmer’s
unwillingness towards new technology, illiteracy, internet connectivity and the conventional
approach of extension services, need to overcome by the farmers, extension agents and other
stakeholders. National Agriculture Market (e-NAM) could also be a pan-India electronic
trading portal which networks the prevailing APMC mandis to form a unified national
marketplace for agricultural commodities. Its main vision is to plug uniformity in agriculture
marketing by streamlining of procedures across the integrated markets, removing information
asymmetry between buyers and sellers and promoting real time price discovery supported
actual demand and supply.
OPEN ACCESS
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Industry are battling a rate of growth of 5-10%,
Digital marketing industry is booming high and
already achieved rate of growth of 30% last
year and estimated growth for year 2016 is 40%
and the most important part is that growth rate
is not going to be stagnant in coming years
(Suguna and Selladurai, 2017). It is about using
all possible digital media, tools, technologies
and methods to market valuable offerings to the
customers by conversing internet, digital
technology options, distributed customer
intelligence, creativity, talent and needs with
the companies’ capabilities and resources so
that long term sustainable competencies can be
generated. Therefore, digital marketing is one
of the most emerging technologies in IT and E-
Commerce sector. Many businesses are
producing great results with digital marketing
and its flexible and cost-effective nature makes
it particularly suitable for small businesses
(Suguna and Selladurai, 2017).
Opportunities of Digital Marketing:
1. Global Reach:
An internet site can reach anyone within the
world who has internet access. This allows
finding new markets and competing globally
for less than a little investment.
2. Direct communication:
Farmers will be able to contact the dealers or
wholesalers on their own thus eliminating the
need of middlemen which will result in benefits
such as standard commodity prices and profits
for the farmers, timely availability of crops and
reduction in scarcity.
3. Lower Cost:
A thoughtfully planned, and effectively
targeted e-marketing campaign can reach the
proper customers at a way lower cost than
traditional marketing methods.
4. Traceable, Measurable Results:
Marketing by email or banner advertising
makes it easier to establish how effective your
campaign has been. You can obtain detailed
information about customers ‘responses to your
advertising.
5. 24-Hour Marketing:
With a website the customers can find out about
their company’s products even if the office is
closed.
6. Personalization:
If the customer database is linked to the
website, then whenever someone visits the site,
one can greet them with targeted offers. The
more they buy from you, the more you will
refine your customer profile and market
effectively to them.
7. Greater engagement:
With digital marketing you'll encourage your
prospects, clients and followers to need action,
visit your website, examine your products and
services, rate them, buy them and supply
feedback which is visible to your market.
Digital Approach: E- Transition Way:
With the developments in information,
communication, and technology the planet is
witnessing sustainable development in
agriculture and even agribusiness because it
provides cost effective way of responding to the
needs of agriculture community (Nayak and
Bankapur, 2014). Immense use of modern
technology in information dissemination in the
farming community and providing business
opportunities in rural areas as resulted a
transition in the form of developing agro-
portals, information kiosk, e-procurements etc.
Some of the initiatives related to agricultural
marketing are mentioned below:
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www.kisan.com
This is a fanatical site for marketing the
agricultural produce is to market real time
interaction among interdependent sectors of
agri market. One can purchase and buy various
farm products using this site.
www.krishiworld.com It considers itself
because the first agri multilingual portal. It has
information on various aspects of agriculture,
chat feature and market trends within the state
of Maharashtra.
www.Ikisan.com
Ikisan is being developed as a comprehensive
agri portal to deal with the knowledge and
business requirements of varied players within
the agri arena viz., farmers, trade channel
partners and agri input/output companies.
Leveraging information technology and
extensive field presence, ikisan is being
positioned as an information/knowledge
exchange and an e-marketplace.
e-Choupal
The e-choupal is multilingual, web-based e-
procurement solution providing comprehensive
information targeted at the farmer. It is a part of
ITC ltd, a techno-business pioneer’s rural
developmental initiative.
e-NAM National Agriculture Market
(eNAM)
Could also be a pan-India electronic trading
portal which networks the prevailing APMC
mandis to form a unified national marketplace
for agricultural commodities.
Vision
To promote uniformity in agriculture marketing
by streamlining of procedures across the
integrated markets, removing information
asymmetry between buyers and sellers and
promoting real time price discovery supported
actual demand and supply.
Mission
Integration of APMCs across the country
through a typical online market platform to
facilitate pan-India trade agriculture
commodities, providing better price discovery
through transparent auction process supported
quality of produce along with timely online
payment.
Challenges of Digital Marketing
• When it comes to the infrastructure for the
agribusiness, we can safely say that it is
below par when compared to other
economies.
• Connectivity is the biggest issue and one
of the many hindrances which crop up
when trying to establish digital modes in
farming.
• Illiteracy and unwillingness of the farmers
to opt for new methods is another
challenge which needs to be cleared.
• Nearly 72 percent of farmers do not have
any source of information which can help
them adopt the latest technologies for
better production and marketing.
• It is imperative that farmers cannot market
themselves and hence must reach out to
agencies.
CONCLUSION
Indian context is full of technology gaps
between marketer and customers. In some
places, customers are not ready for the advance
technology-based business transformation, so
marketer must move quite slowly. This includes
most of the rural part of Indian states. In some
part of India customers are so demanding to use
technologically advanced products and services
that marketers are under pressure to innovate.
Reasons for these gaps may attribute to
educational or literacy gap, poor infrastructural
expansion, uneven regional economic
development, linguistic variability, unevenly
scattered population (problem of reach),
exposure gaps etc. These gaps can be tackled by
creating proper infrastructure and awareness
about the digital platforms and conducting
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trainings, demonstrations on how to use them
efficiently.
REFERENCES
Nayak, S. N. and Bankapur, V. M., E-
Transition Challenges in Agricultural
Marketing: Key Initiatives in Rural
Development.
Suguna, M., and Selladurai, V. 2017.
Challenges and opportunities of digital
marketing in India.
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Antibiotics Use in Poultry in India
Snehal Lonare
PhD Scholar, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, GADVASU, Ludhiana, Punjab, India
Corresponding Author
Snehal Lonare
Email: [email protected]
Keywords
Antibiotic, Antibiotic resistance, Livestock, Poultry, India
How to cite this article:
Lonare, S. 2020. Antibiotics use in Poultry in India. Vigyan Varta 1(4): 51-54
INTRODUCTION
ntibiotics are widely used in poultry
for treatment of diseases and also as
growth promoters (Castanon, 2007;
Mathew et al., 2009; Sivagami et al., 2020).
Use of antibiotics as growth promoters dates
back to 1910s, when the scientists had come up
with an alternative to fulfil the needs of meat
products of the increasing population (Dibner
and Richards, 2005).Such use of antibiotics in
poultry production was found favourable to
farmers and the economy as well, because it
was improving poultry performance effectively
and economically (Agyare et al., 2018).
Farmers had therefore started opting for
inexpensive antibiotics compared to expensive
animal proteins, from here antibiotics were
found to be routinely used in poultry
production.
Poultry is the most widespread food industries
in the world. Chicken being one of the most
farmed species, with about 90 billion tons of
chicken meat produced per year (Agyare et al.,
2018). India stands 4th in chicken production
and 3rd in egg production. Chicken is the most
consumed meat in India as it is cheaper and has
no religious taboos. In many developing
countries like India use of antibiotics in food
animals remain unregulated (Usui et al., 2014).
Such large scale and inadvertent use of
antibiotics has led to the development of
A
ABSTRACT
Poultry is one of the largest food industries in the world. Antibiotics are widely used in poultry
for treatment of diseases and as well as growth promoters. Such large scale and inadvertent
use of antibiotics has led to the development of antibiotic resistance. Antibiotic resistance had
led to treatment failure, economic losses, and dissemination of antibiotic resistance in the
environment which has further led to antibiotic resistance transmission to humans via the food
chain leading to serious consequences on public health. India is a global hotspot of antibiotic
resistance. To prevent rise of antibiotic resistance, guidelines and regulations are been set-up
by government of India, but they are not stringently followed. Therefore, strict monitoring and
surveillance of antibiotic use in Poultry is the need of the hour.
OPEN ACCESS
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“antibiotic resistance” in the pathogenic as well
as commensal bacteria.
Antibiotic Resistance
Antibiotic resistance can be defined as, capacity
of the micro-organism to resist the killing
effects of antibiotic to which it was earlier
susceptible (Mahalmani et al., 2019).
Antibiotic resistance had led to treatment
failure, economic losses, and dissemination of
antibiotic resistance in the environment has led
to further transmission to humans via the food
chain leading to serious consequences on public
health (Dahouda et al., 2009). There are also
concerns regarding presence of antibiotic
residues in meat and eggs (Aalipour et al.,
2013; Darwish et al., 2013).
Rampant use of antibiotics has led India to
emerge as global hotspot for antibiotic
resistance. In a study it was said that, use of
antibiotics would increase by 82% in India by
2030, particularly in chickens it is expected to
triple by 2030. Most widely used antibiotics
globally are penicillin, tetracycline, and
quinolones. These are the drugs widely used in
humans. To prevent cross-resistance, World
health organization (WHO) has categorised
them as critically important drugs and has
restricted use of such antibiotics in Veterinary
medicine. These also include ampicillin,
vamoxycillin, cefadroxil, chlortetracycline,
doxycycline, erythromycin, flumequine
gentamycin, vancomycin, oxytetracycline,
spiramycin, sulfadiazine, sulfadimethoxine.
(Van Boeckel et al., 2015).
To prevent rising antimicrobial resistance,
many countries have banned use of antibiotics
as growth promoters, which are essential in
human medicine (Hansard,1969). Keeping this
in mind, in India FSSAI had also fixed
tolerance limits and withdrawal periods for
antibiotic use in animal food such as meat, eggs,
seafood and milk (Mahalmani et al., 2019).
There are also regulations governing the use of
anti-microbial in livestock, but there is no
stringent implementation of these protocols,
with most wide-spread use of antibiotics non-
therapeutically in poultry. Organisation for
Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD) estimates that the number of
antimicrobials used in food animals will
escalate globally from 63,151 tons in 2010 to
105,596 tons by 2030 - an increase of 67%.
Study by (Agyare et al., 2018) reported that
multidrug resistant bacteria have been found in
poultry, poultry products, carcasses, litter and
faecal matter of birds and these pose a risk to
both handlers, consumers and a threat to global
and public health.
Two classes of antibiotics that FDA deems
critically important to human medicine,
especially for treating foodborne illness in
humans: fluoroquinolones and cephalosporin,
have already been phased-out of chicken
production for several years. The industry also
supports FDA’s proposed Veterinary Feed
Directive (VFD) that ensures that all antibiotics
administered to food producing animals are
only done so under the supervision and
prescription of licensed veterinarians.
Antibiotics Withdrawal period
Amoxicillin Laying hens: 9 days
(Khattab et al., 2010)
Ampicillin Meat: 1 day (AMPICILLIN
50% WSP – Kepro)
Colistin
7 days (Colistin-Article-35-
Referral-Annexes-i-Ii-
Iii_en.Pdf)
Chlortetracycline 24 hours prior to slaughter
(Zoetis)
Ciprofloxacin 23 days (Khan et al.,)
Doxycycline Meat: 5 days
(Anx_104648_en.Pdf)
Enrofloxacin
1-3 days (Baytril-10-Oral-
Solution-Associated-Names-
Annex-i-Ii-Iii-Iv_en.Pdf)
Erythromycin
For meat: 3 days, For eggs:
6 days [ERYTHROMYCIN
(Water Soluble Powder)]
Gentamycin 7 days (Gentamicin 4-
10%.Pdf)
Oxytetracycline 11-13 days (Khatun et al.,
2018)
Sulfonamide 5 days (Khatun et al., 2018)
Tylosin For eggs: 0 day
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Prevention
To prevent this, various steps should be adopted
like,
• Educating farmers regarding antibiotic
usage through awareness campaign
• Promoting the use of alternatives such as
probiotics, prebiotics and ionophores
instead of antibiotics
• Active surveillance
• Monitoring procurement and use of
antibiotics
• Bringing all the essential antibiotics under
Schedule H
• Following the policies strictly
• Following withdrawal periods strictly
• Promoting hygiene and sanitary measures
at farm level
• Effective and prompt Veterinary care
CONCLUSION
As poultry food demand is escalating, so is
antibiotic usage. It is important to supply safe
and wholesome protein rich diet to the growing
population. Therefore, effective monitoring of
antibiotic usage and keeping it under control
(only for treatment) to prevent rise of antibiotic
resistance in the poultry industry is vital. We
further need awareness campaigns to be
organised for farmers and extension workers to
get laboratory research to the field levels for
farmers for adoption of better alternatives to
antibiotics. Surveillance data for antibiotic use
may also be warranted.
REFERENCES
Aalipour, F., Mirlohi, M. and Jalali, M., 2013.
Prevalence of antibiotic residues in
commercial milk and its variation by
season and thermal processing methods.
International Journal of Environmental
Health Engineering, 2(1), p:41.
Agyare, C., Boamah, V. E., Zumbi, C. N. and
Osei, F.B., 2018. Antibiotic use in
poultry production and its effects on
bacterial resistance. In Antimicrobial
Resistance-A Global Threat.
IntechOpen.
Castanon, J. I. R., 2007. History of the use of
antibiotic as growth promoters in
European poultry feeds. Poultry Science,
86(11), pp:2466-2471.
Darwish, W. S., Eldaly, E. A., El-Abbasy, M.
T., Ikenaka, Y., Nakayama, S. and
Ishizuka, M., 2013. Antibiotic residues
in food: the African scenario. Japanese
Journal of Veterinary Research,
61(Supplement), pp: S13-S22.
Dibner, J. J. and Richards, J. D., 2005.
Antibiotic growth promoters in
agriculture: history and mode of action.
Poultry Science, 84(4), pp:634-643.
Khan, D. G. J., Khan, D. R. A., Majeed, D. I.,
Siddiqui, D. F. A., & Khan, D. S. The
frequent use in poultry and its
consequences on human health. 5.
Khattab, W. O., Elderea, H. B., Salem, E. G.
and Gomaa, N. F., 2010. Transmission of
administered amoxicillin drug residues
from laying chicken to their commercial
eggs. Journal of the Egyptian Public
Health Association, 85(5-6), pp:297-316.
Khatun, R., Howlader, A. J., Ahmed, S., Islam,
N., Alam, K., Haider, S., Mahmud, M. S.
and Hasan, M. A., 2018. Validation of
the declared withdrawal periods of
antibiotics. Universal Journal of Public
Health, 6, pp:14-22.
Mahalmani, V. M., Sarma, P., Prakash, A. and
Medhi, B., 2019. Positive list of
antibiotics and food products: Current
perspective in India and across the globe.
Indian Journal of Pharmacology, 51(4),
p.231.
Mathew, A. G., Liamthong, S., Lin, J. and
Hong, Y., 2009. Evidence of class 1
integron transfer between Escherichia
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Disease, 6(8), pp:959-964.
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Sivagami, K., Vignesh, V. J., Srinivasan, R.,
Divyapriya, G. and Nambi, I. M., 2020.
Antibiotic usage, residues and resistance
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Obata, Y., Uemae, T., Ngoc, P. T.,
Heriyanto, A., Chalemchaikit, T.,
Makita, K. and Muramatsu, Y., 2014.
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bacteria isolated from chickens in
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Indonesia and Thailand). Journal of
Veterinary Medical Science, pp:13-0423.
Van Boeckel, T. P., Brower, C., Gilbert, M.,
Grenfell, B. T., Levin, S. A., Robinson,
T. P., Teillant, A. and Laxminarayan, R.,
2015. Global trends in antimicrobial use
in food animals. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences, 112(18),
pp:5649-5654.
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Consumer Behaviour in Online Shopping
Meenakshi Tamta1 and B. Naresh Kumar2
1Ph.D Scholar, Department of Apparel and Textile Science, PAU, Ludhiana, Punjab 2Ph.D Scholar, Department of Agriculture Extension, PAU, Ludhiana, Punjab
Corresponding Author
Meenakshi Tamta
Email: [email protected]
Keywords
Consumer Behaviour, Online shopping, Preference, Awareness, Product
How to cite this article:
Tamta, M. and Kumar, B. N. 2020. Consumer behaviour in online shopping. Vigyan Varta 1(4): 55-59
INTRODUCTION
nline shopping is becoming
increasingly popular around the world.
It has been developed with new ideas
and has brought about many opportunities for
both consumers and online retailers. Consumer
behaviour is the study of individuals, groups,
process and organizations they use to secure,
select, and arrange products, services,
experiences, or ideas to satisfy the consumer
and society (Kuester and Sabine, 2012). The
rise of online consumers is due to the growth in
the adoption of wideband technology
amalgamated with a change in consumer
behaviour. All along the past decade, the
internet is the fast-developing media and online
shopping is the most rapid developing e-
commerce area. Millions of e-commerce
websites and Apps are being created around the
world to sell products and services to
consumers online. Online shopping has been
offering more satisfaction to today’s consumers
looking for convenience. Consumer attitudes
toward online shopping usually been
determined by two factors; one is trust, and
another is perceived benefits (Hoque, Ali, &
Mahfuz, 2015). Therefore, trust and perceived
benefits seem to be the critical conjectures of
O
ABSTRACT
Online shopping has obtained very important position in the 21st century as most of the people
are busy, loaded with hectic schedule. In such a situation online shopping became the easiest
and most suitable mode for their shopping. Consumer Behaviours a complex and challenging
field to analyze by the marketer as preferences vary over a period of time. The traditional
method of purchase is replaced with online mode facilitating the consumer anytime purchase
providing all the benefits under a single roof. Consumer Behaviour towards Online Shopping
with due considerations with the product related dimensions. Demographic profiles of the
respondents, awareness to online shopping, influence of product dimensions on online
shopping behaviour.
OPEN ACCESS
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consumer behavior toward online shopping
(Al-Debei, Akroush, & Ashouri, 2015).
Traditional Marketing vs E-Marketing
Internet Marketing is More Measureable
Branding is important and traditional marketing
does have benefits when it comes to branding.
However, marketers today are smarter and
more sophisticated. They see the value of
measuring results and brand awareness is more
difficult to measure then real visitors to website
and real conversions. Marketers want to make
sure every penny is spent wisely. Internet
marketing allows to see exactly what you are
paying for. Traditional marketing takes a little
more trust that the impact of your efforts is
helping your bottom line. With Internet
marketing you can see real facts and every
detail that leads to reaching your goals.
Internet Marketing Makes Strategic
Decisions Based on Facts
Internet marketing can make decisions based on
detailed analytics. It is the smartest and most
talented traditional agency with great ideas and
plenty of experience, but they will have a
difficult time showing real data that leads to
achieving your goals. The best way to really
know how effective your marketing approach is
to see exactly what the audience is responding
positively too. Internet marketing allows you to
study every detail about your audience in real
time. You can study data from every phase in
your conversion funnel that includes how
people found your website; what they do once
they are on your site; and what led to your
conversations. You can adjust your campaign at
any point to increase the effectiveness of your
campaign.
Internet Marketing Is Better at Reaching
Your Target Audience
Traditional marketing is known for its reach to
a mass audience. There are ways that traditional
marketing can target certain demographics
depending on a television channel or show,
radio station genre or industry magazine.
However, traditional marketing will never be
able to target as precisely as Internet marketing.
With Internet marketing you can target even the
smallest audience based on a variety of things.
Internet Marketing is a Constant Source
When we hear or see a television or radio ad it
is there one minute and then it is gone. If you
catch an ad in passing and you missed some
information you cannot go back and review it.
Print is a little better for this, but newspapers
and magazines do get thrown out after a week
or month. Internet marketing provides you a
permanent address online that people can visit
anytime they want. Even if someone does not
know about your company, they can do
searches based on what you offer and find you
in the search engines.
Internet Marketing Provides Better Word-
of-Mouth
Word-of-mouth is still the most effective
marketing for producing conversions. Social
Media is an aspect of Internet marketing that
allows people to build a community and let
others spread positive feedback about the
product or service. People will normally trust
word-of-mouth much more than traditional ads
that tries to convince them about the benefits of
a product or service.
Internet Marketing Can Increase
Conversions More
No matter what your goal, Internet marketing
can increase your conversions month after
month. The reason Internet marketing is more
effective at delivering conversions is that you
can study every detail of what is working and
what might not be working. It takes the
guessing game out of it. You can continue to
place more emphasis on the tactics that are
working and eliminate anything that is not
effective. Internet marketing also provides an
environment where you can safely test new
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ideas so that you are always pushing to improve
your campaign's performance. Traditional
marketing develops a campaign and then hopes
that it will work. This makes it difficult for
traditional agencies to test new ideas or even
investigate all of the details to determine the
effectiveness of a campaign.
Consumer Behaviour in Online Market:
Indian Context
Time Convenience
People feel that time convenience is an
important ingredient which motivates them to
buy online. It can be indicated that most people
consider time convenience as a major reason for
buying online. The next reason was place
convenience as people could shop online from
the convenience of their home or office.
Ease of Price Comparison
Most of the people feel that the online shopping
offers place convenience. On ease of price
comparison as people can compare the price
across retail formats and certainly across all
online retailers.
Variety
Selection of variety of material is also
remarkable feature of online shopping. One can
get several brands and product from different
seller at one place. Latest international trends
without spending money of airfare are easily
available in online store.
Problems Faced by Customers While
Shopping Online
1. Product Quality
This is the most common problem faced by
customers who shop online regularly. The
quality of the product is often not up to the mark
with what is presented in the pictures. The
checks on registration are poor and selling
poor-quality in the name of brands is becoming
increasingly common.
Possible Solution: The possible solution for
this, make your products undergo a usability
test where they are evaluated for their
usefulness and effectiveness.
2. Delivery Time is Not Clear
So many times, the delivery time is not clearly
stated in the order process. Often, consumers do
not know when the product will be delivered.
Consumers buy a product and the e-Commerce
businesses do not even state the time of
delivery. Many a times, these orders take more
time than expected to be delivered. Customers
often complain that the delivery boys do not
even call them before arriving to deliver the
product. The best thing is to check with the
website about the estimated time of arrival of a
certain product before you place the order.
Possible Solution: A message should be sent to
the customer when the order is shipped and then
when it is expected to be delivered so that the
customer is prepared to receive it.
3. Payment Preferences are Limited
This is another common problem. A lot of
times, consumers do not know how to make the
payment if the debit cards they use are not
available as an option. More so, customers are
often stuck with the payment options when
Cash on Delivery is not available. With online
frauds picking up steam, most customers prefer
paying cash on delivery as they are sharing their
card details. This is a common complaint by
many customers these days.
Possible Solution: An e-security seal like
TRUSTe on the website can help earn the trust
of the consumer opting for e-payments on the
website. Further, use of e-payments offers
convenience to the buyers and hence leads to
increase in sales.
4. Payment Confirmation Missing
Another challenge is to find a payment gateway
that is smooth. Sometimes when the customers
are directed to the payment page, their money
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is deducted and suddenly, the page shuts off
without any notice to the consumer. Then
chasing the company for a refund is a different
challenge altogether. Also, sometimes the
website asks too many secret questions or too
much info before the customer can make the
payment. This too can increase the perceived
inconvenience during the purchase and leads to
an abandoned cart.
Possible Solution: A quick fix is to email
payment confirmation to the customer. If a
customer gets an email confirming the order,
they are not worried about the outcome. They
know they are paying for an order that has been
placed successfully. Also, keep the payment
process simple and easy to execute without
including too many stages.
5. The trouble with Hidden costs
This is another common issue customer face
even with leading e-commerce development
companies. Online marketplaces do not tell
customers the hidden costs on so many things.
For instance, the customer is lured into buying
something that says is cost at a certain price.
Within minutes, they are paying a lot more to
get the product delivered, tax charges,
additional shipping, etc. This eventually leads
the customer to pay a lot more than he or she
had expected.
Possible Solution: A simple solution is to keep
the charges so apparent that the customers do
not feel cheated and buy the products of their
interest for sure.
6. Unclear Website Policies
Many shopping websites do not even have clear
and concise website policies for return and
refund. Consumers get confused due to vague
stipulations about a refund and return. When the
policies section is not defined properly, sellers
reject a consumer’s claim to return or get a
refund. This is among the biggest challenges
that many customers face online. A lot of these
websites have no clear outline on the warranty
and guarantee of products.
Possible Solution: The website policies and
other information should be available in
different languages for people to understand
them better and clearly.
7. Problem of Plenty
The online world provides too many options
and it can be overwhelming for the customer to
make a choice. The absence of support that
most customers are used to in the in-store
experience is missing and this can influence
purchase decision.
Possible Solution: Give proper product
specification in the same format for all products
so it is easy to compare them. Instead of
overloading the customer with information,
give minimal but useful information. A
shopping comparison tool can help buyers
simplify their purchases decisions. Also, a live
chat option to offer queries always is
comforting for buyers to make that final click.
Futuristic Innovations That Can Boost the
‘Online Shopping’
• Currently in India no web portal provides an
option to deliver a product within 24 Hours
of ordering it, even by levying a little extra
charge for Fast Delivery Service. (Minimum
Time taken by any company is 48 hours).
• Furthermore, the sites can put a ‘voice
search’ option so that customers who cannot
spell correctly in English can search the
products by voice.
• Even ‘Image Search’ is one of the futuristic
innovations in the cases when customers do
have a digital image but do not know the
name of the product exactly.
• Soon with technological advancements
these portals can put 360° 3D body scan
which will exactly show the fitting of the
apparels and the customer need not worry
about the fitting of the apparel.
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CONCLUSION
The online shopping is becoming more popular
day by day with the increase in the usage of
internet. Understanding customers’ needs and
desires for online buying, the selling has
become challenging task for marketers.
Specially understanding the consumers
attitudes towards online shopping, making
improvement in the factors that influence
consumers to shop online and working on those
factors will help marketers to gain the
competitive advantage over the others. Online
shopping is the best way to purchase any item
but be careful because there may be some fake
products on different sites. New innovations in
online shopping system can boost the online
shopping business in India.
REFERENCES
Kuester, S., 2012. MKT 301: Strategic
marketing & marketing in specific
industry contexts. University of
Mannheim, 110, pp:393-404.
Al-Debei, M. M., Akroush, M. N. and Ashouri,
M. I., 2015. Consumer attitudes towards
online shopping. Internet Research. 25(5), pp:707–733.
Hoque, M. R., Ali, M. A. and Mahfuz, M. A.,
2015. An Empirical Investigation on the
adoption of e-Commerce in Bangladesh.
Asia Pacific Journal of Information
Systems, 25(1), pp:1-24.
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Quinoa: Need for Everyone and Food for Everyone
LK Sanodiya1, Umesha C2, Shivani Kumari3 and M. R. Meshram4
1,4Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agronomy, Naini Agricultural Institute, SHUATS, Prayagraj (U.P.) 2Assistant Professor, Department of Agronomy, Naini Agricultural Institute, SHUATS, Prayagraj (U.P.) 3Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agronomy, School of Agricultural Sciences and Rural Development
(SASRD), Nagaland University, Medziphema (Nagaland)
Corresponding Author
L K Sanodiya
Email: [email protected]
Keywords
Quinoa food, nutritional security, cultivation practices, food sustainability
How to cite this article:
Sanodiya, L. K., Umesha, C., Kumari, S. and Meshram, M. R. 2020. Quinoa: need for everyone and food
for everyone. Vigyan Varta 1(4): 60-64
INTRODUCTION
uinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), an
underutilized Andean crop, has gained
worldwide attention because of its
ability to grow in various stress conditions, such
as soil salinity, acidity, drought and frost,
exhibiting a high level of resistance to these
environmental stress factors. Environmental
stresses, such as water stress, temperature stress
and salt stress, also happen to be among the
major productivity constraints in the Indian
subcontinent often causing extensive crop
losses. The situation is compounded by the fact
that agriculture is the mainstay of the economy
in most of the countries in the region. Quinoa is
an important food source for human
consumption in the Andean region and has
immense industrial value. The crop grows in
different ecological zones, from sea level to
2000–4000m above sea level (Bhargava
2007a).
Q
ABSTRACT
Quinoa is considered as strategic crop with higher potential in contributing to food and
nutritional security due to higher nutritional quality, genetic variability, adaptability to adverse
climate and soil conditions and economically low production cost or cultural adaptability to
Indian farming system. Great potential of the crop is not yet fully exploited under Indian
condition mainly because of lack of research on biotic and non-biotic stresses. As the people
are conscious about their health, quinoa is gaining the increased demands in domestic and
international market. Introduction of quinoa in the cropping systems adds to additional
income to the farmer as the B:C ratio is improved. The cultivation of quinoa provides an
alternative for countries with limited food production which are therefore forced to import or
receive food aid.
OPEN ACCESS
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Quinoa is a pseudo-cereal crop sometimes a
pseudo oilseed because of its high fat content.
It is member of Chenopodiaceae family which
has been cultivated from thousands of years for
its nutritious grain and leaves (Pearsall, 1992).
Quinoa is an herbaceous annual broad-leaved
plant adaptable to the marginal lands. It is 1-2-
meter-tall plant with deep penetrating root
system. Quinoa seeds comes in several colors
including black, red, white and yellow, are rich
in protein and essential amino acids particularly
methionine, threonine and lysine which are
limiting amino acids in most cereal grains
(Bhargava et al., 2007b). The organization of
the United Nations for Food and Agriculture
(FAO) has declared the year 2013 as the
‘International year of Quinoa’ (FAO, 2013).
Quinoa is mainly used for cooking, baking, and
various products for people allergic from
gluten; animal feed, green fodder, and pellets
(Jacobson, 2003). Quinoa is an underutilized
crop which is gaining attention due to its well
adaptability to environmental stress factors like
drought, soil salinity and frost. Various
cultivars of quinoa are known for its
adaptability to agro-ecological zones ranging
from sea level to an altitude to over 4000 m and
relative humidity from 40% to 88% in
temperature from 8 to 38°C. Commercial
potential of quinoa remains untapped despite its
nutritional superiority, wider adaptability and
rusticity. Quinoa has been introduced to
Europe, North America, Asia, and Africa.
Seeds are coated with saponin which offers
some protection against pest such as birds or
insects and diseases (Bhargava et al., 2007a).
Improved cultivation practices and tie up with
other sectors would help in the development
and commercialization of quinoa at large scale.
Nutritional Value of Quinoa
Quinoa is considered as a healthy food crop
because it is good source of many nutrients. In
addition, quinoa is a good source of quality
protein, dietary fibre, polyunsaturated fats and
minerals. While quinoa is a nutritious food, it is
important to consume it as a part of a balanced
diet to obtain good overall nutrition. It is
comparable in energy to similar foods such as
maize, rice and wheat. Comparative nutritional
composition of quinoa with that of Maize, Rice
and Wheat is depicted in Table below.
Nutritional
Value Quinoa Maize Rice Wheat
Energy
(kcal/100g) 399 408 372 392
Protein
(g/100g) 16.5 10.2 7.6 14.3
Fat (g/100g) 6.3 4.7 2.2 2.3
Total
Carbohydrate
(g/100g)
69.0 81.1 80.4 78.4
Iron
(mg/100g) 13.2 2.1 0.7 3.8
Zinc
(mg/100g) 4.4 2.9 0.6 4.7
Calcium 148.7 17.1 6.9 50.3
Iron 13.2 2.1 0.7 3.8
Magnesium 249.6 137.1 73.5 169.4
Thiamine 0.2-0.4 0.42 0.06 0.45-
0.49
Riboflavin 0.2-0.3 0.1 0.06 0.17
Folic acid 0.0781 0.026 0.020 0.078
Phosphorus 383.7 292.6 137.8 467.7
Potassium 926.7 377.1 118.3 578.3
Niacin 0.5-0.7 1.8 1.9 5.5
Source: Koziol (1992)
Medicinal Use: Quinoa leaves, stems and
grains have been used traditionally by the
indigenous peoples of the Andes for medicinal
purposes i.e. healing wounds, reducing
swelling, soothing pain (toothache) and
disinfecting the urinary tract. They are also used
in bone setting, internal bleeding and as insect
repellents.
The taxonomic classification of Quinoa
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Caryophyllales
Family: Amaranthaceae
Subfamily: Chenopodioideae
Genus: Chenopodium
Species: Chenopodium quinoa
willd
Chromosome
number: 2n=36
Quinoa Chenopodium quinoa
willd
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Nutraceutical Use: A quinoa protein
concentrate which is food or pharmaceutical
grade has the potential use as an ingredient in
human or animal nutrition supplements.
Pharmaceutical Use: Saponins extracted from
the bitter quinoa variety has properties that can
induce changes in intestinal permeability and
assist in the absorption of particular
medications.
Industrial Use: Quinoa starch has excellent
stability in freeze thaw conditions and could
provide an alternative to chemically modified
starches. The starch has special potential for
industrial use because of the small size of the
starch grain, for example in aerosol production,
pulps, self-copy paper, dessert foods, excipients
in the plastics industry, talcs and anti-off-set
powders. In addition to the industrial use of the
quinoa grain, the saponins from the pericarp of
the bitter quinoa variety can be used in different
beneficial forms. They can be also extracted
from the pericarp of bitter quinoa form a foam
in aqueous solutions, leading to possible
applications in detergents, toothpaste,
shampoos or soaps. The use of saponin as a bio-
pesticide was also shown to have potential in a
successful demonstration.
Ideal cropping requisites for Quinoa
Soil: It suits well in loamy soil having good
drainage and high organic matter content, with
moderate slopes and average nutrient content. It
prefers neutral soils although it is usually grown
in alkaline (up to pH 9) and acid soils (up to pH
4.5).
Seed rate: For commercial planting, 8 to 12
kg/ha of seeds are used since most of the
planting is made manually. A desirable
population of quinoa plants result from this
quantity of seed would be between 100,000 and
160,000 plants/ha. Through seedbeds and
transplanting it is possible to reduce seeds to 1-
2 kg/ha.
Varieties of quinoa: It has been selected by
farmers themselves or by native or indigenous
communities which can be grouped into:
• small white grain quinoas
• sweet quinoas, low in saponin
• bitter quinoas, high in saponin
Climate: It prefers desert, warm and dry, cold
and dry, temperate and rainy, temperate with
high relative humidity, and Puna grassland and
high mountain areas. There are certain varieties
or ecotypes adapted to each climate.
Water: It is an efficient water user despite
being a C3 plant, as it has physiological
mechanisms which enable it to avoid moisture
and to tolerate and resist a lack of soil moisture.
Temperature: The ideal average temperature
ranges around 15-20°C, although it can
withstand extreme temperature ranging from
38°C to -8°C.
Radiation: It withstands intense solar radiation
enabling it to gain the hours of heat needed to
complete its growth and productive period.
Photoperiod: There are certain varieties or
ecotypes that are short day, long-day or
insensitive to photoperiod.
Altitude: It grows from sea level up to about
4,000 meters.
Sowing and Seed: Sowing is one of the most
important activities because the emergence of
seedlings which impacts plant density and final
yields depends on this stage. Quinoa seeds are
sown at different times, depending on the place
to be sown, the variety’s traits and soil
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moisture. Seed rates vary between 6 to 8 kg / ha
according to sowing method and spacing.
Intercultural Operation in Quinoa Farming
When quinoa crop is grown in wide row
spacing, plants branch easily and their growth
is hastened as well as the growth of weeds,
therefore inter-row cultivation should be
carried out. Usually, mechanical weeding is
done in quinoa cultivation. When the plant
attains a height of 20 to 25 cm, first weeding is
done. Thinning is also recommended if the
seedlings are clustered together or need to be
moved to spaces with a greater availability of
water.
Important pests and diseases of quinoa
As a crop, quinoa is a newcomer to the world
scenario, and there are lesser studies on specific
pests and diseases. Principle quinoa pests and
diseases deals with two of the most significant
pest complexes, the “noctuid complex” and the
“moth complex”. Major disease affecting
quinoa on a global scale is downy mildew.
Pest
Helicoverpa quinoa: It is one of the most
common and widespread quinoa pests which is
responsible for sizeable yield losses up to 20%.
It is also reasonable to assume that reports of
quinoa infestations of H. gelotopoeon in other
countries involve H. quinoa.
Copitarsia incommode: Copitarsia incommoda
is one of the principal quinoa’s pests, especially
in the area around Lake which cause economic
losses of around 30%. The polyphagous
behaviour of this insect, i.e. that it feeds on
various plant species, and the fact that it is
present in many areas around the world, make
it a potentially highly destructive pest anywhere
quinoa cultivation is introduced and developed.
Disease
Downy mildew: The disease primarily affects
foliage (leaves), although symptoms may also
appear on the stems, branches, inflorescence
and grains. Initial symptoms appear on the
leaves as small, irregular spots that may be
chlorotic, yellow, pink, red, orange or grey,
depending on the plant colour.
Control
• The selection of varieties for traits of
resistance, early maturity and large grains
is feasible through breeding.
• Farming practices
• Eco-friendly fungicides
Integrated management and control strategies
are practised because every situation is unique
and requires different measures for effective
control.
Control measures
a) Crop rotation: Crop rotation is a practice
that aims to avoid soil fertility exhaustion and
break the pest life cycle because moths
overwinter in the pupal stage. Crop rotation
requires that soil be ploughed before planting a
new crop in order that the pupae be exposed to
birds and other predators.
b) Light traps: Light traps are devices which
attract adult moths to capture and kill them. The
basic design is a bright light source and a
capture mechanism containing water and a
small amount of detergent to reduce the surface
tension and prevent the insects from escaping.
c) Using pheromone traps: In recent years,
pest management strategies include the use of
pheromone traps to attract male moths.
d) Use of bio-insecticides and eco-friendly
pesticides: Bio insecticides and eco-friendly
pesticides are generally used in organic
farming. They are biodegradable and do not
harm the environment.
Yield
Generally, on an average yield of 500 Kg to
1500 Kg of grains can be expected. However,
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with proper farm management practices,
fertilization and improved varieties, yield of up
to 5 tonnes per hectare of quinoa grain can be
achieved and green manure or fodder of 5 to 10
tonnes per hectare can be obtained.
CONCLUSION
Quinoa ‘magic crop’ is an amazing wheat-free
substitute to starchy grains which has potential
to improve and enhance the food and nutritional
security in India. The grain is used to make
flour, soup, breakfast, cereal and alcohol, while
the flour is utilized in making biscuits, bread
and processed food. Quinoa starch having small
grains and high viscosity, can be exploited for
various industrial applications. Less awareness,
seed unavailability and high prices are major
constraints in quinoa cultivation. So, if
government would focus on promotion and
cultivation of quinoa, the cost of quinoa can be
hugely reduced, making it available for the
common people. It would help in increasing
self-sufficiency and nutritional improvement to
fight against one of the major challenges in
India ‘hunger’.
REFERENCES
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Popular Article
FMD Virus: Its Genome Organization, Genetic and Antigenic Variations in
FMD Carrier State
Biswa Ranjan Jena1 and Aishwarya Dash2
1Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine, C. V. Sc & A.H., OUAT, Bhubaneswar 2Department of Animal Genetics and Breeding, National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI), Karnal,
Haryana
Corresponding Author
Biswa Ranjan Jena
Email: [email protected]
Keywords
FMD virus, FMD carrier state, Genetic variation in FMD, Antigenic variation in FMD
How to cite this article:
Jena, B. R., and Dash, A. 2020. FMD Virus: its genome organization, genetic and antigenic variations in
FMD carrier state. Vigyan Varta 1(4): 65-68
ABSTRACT
Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus (FMDV) is the causative organism of the infectious disease i.e.
Foot-and-mouth Disease (FMD), which is a highly contagious disease of transboundary
importance. FMDV belongs to the Aphthovirus under the family Picornaviridae and consists of
seven immunologically distinct serotypes named as Serotype O, A, Asia-1, and SAT-1, -2 and -
3. FMDV consists of a ss RNA which is about 8.4 kb in length and consists of single Open
reading Frame (ORF) and 2 Untranslated regions (UTRs) at 5’ & 3’ ends of the genome. The
ORF is translated into various structural and non-structural proteins, which are responsible for
the formation of outer skeleton of the virus and other cellular events involved in the life cycle
of the virus. The clinical symptoms exhibited due to FMDV infection are vesicle formation in
the tongue, feet, teat and snout etc., drop in milk yield, inappetence etc. These clinical
symptoms usually disappear within 2 weeks post-infection due to appearance of neutralizing
antibody. However, in a substantial proportion of affected animals, the virus continues to
multiply locally (virus persistence) at the dorsal soft palate and nasopharyngeal region and
these animals are known as FMD carrier animals. Although, some studies on genetic and
antigenic variation of FMDV have correlated with some possible phenomenon responsible for
virus persistence, the exact mechanism is still a debatable topic. The antigenic variation is
responsible for the failure of cross-protection between different serotypes and also between
strains under one serotype, which may lead to virus persistence after acute infection. However,
the ongoing innovations in next generation sequencing and advanced bioinformatics tools may
clarify the phenomena in future.
OPEN ACCESS
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INTRODUCTION
Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) is an acute,
highly contagious viral disease of various
domestic and wild cloven-hooved animals,
which has a severe impact on economic status
limiting the trade of animals and animal
products throughout the world. FMD is caused
by Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus (FMDV).
The disease is clinically characterized by fever,
drop in milk production, lameness and vesicles
on the mouth, feet, snout and teats of infected
animals (Alexanderson et al., 2003). High
mortality is sometimes seen in young animals
as it affects the myocardium of heart, but in
adult animals’ mortality is exceptionally low.
However, morbidity is extremely high causing
weight loss, decreased draught power and
decreased milk production resulting severe
economic losses.
Taxonomy of FMDV
Family: Picornaviridae
Genus: Aphthovirus
Serotypes: 7 immunologically distinct
serotypes viz. O, A, C, Asia-1, Southern
African Territories (SAT)- 1, 2 & 3.
Genome Organization of FMDV
FMDV is a positive sense ssRNA virus. The
RNA is about 8.4 kb in length and consists of
single Open reading Frame (ORF) and 2
Untranslated regions (UTRs) at 5’ & 3’ ends of
the genome (Jamal and Belsham, 2013) with a
small viral protein of 25 amino acids length
called “VPg” covalently linked to 5’ end of the
RNA molecule. The 5’ UTR contains a highly
structured ‘S’ fragment that forms a large
hairpin structure and prevents the digestion of
viral genome by host cell exonuclease and this
S segment is followed by an internal Poly-
ribocytidylate (Poly C) tract of variable length.
ORF is the major portion of the viral genome.
It is divided into 4 regions viz. L, P1, P2 & P3
encoding for a single polyprotein, which is
cleaved by viral protease to yield various
structural and non-structural proteins (NSP).
The L region encodes for 2 overlapping L-
proteins, Lab & Lb. The P1 region encodes for
4 structural proteins (VP1, VP2, VP3 and VP4)
which forms the outer skeleton of the virus. The
P2 region encodes for 3 NSPs (2A, 2B and 2C)
and P3 region encodes for NSPs 3A, 3B1-3,
3Cpro and 3Dpol. These NSPs are associated
with virus life cycle inside the infected cells.
The 3’ UTR contains 2 stem loop structures
(SLI & SLII) and a genetically encoded Poly A
tract. This UTR at 3’ end is responsible for viral
infectivity as it binds several viral and host
proteins and required for negative stranded
RNA synthesis.
Carrier State
FMDV is mainly transmitted from affected to
naïve animals through aerosol inoculation
except in pigs where oral transmission occurs
predominantly. Early viral replication occurs in
nasopharyngeal region which is followed by
Genome Organization of FMD Virus
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viremia resulting widespread distribution of
virus to various tissues particularly the
cornified stratified squamous epithelium of oral
cavity and skin including the feet, teats and
snout where vesicles are formed and other
clinical symptoms are exhibited. However,
FMDV elicits a rapid humoral immune
response where virus neutralizing antibodies
appear in the serum and viremia is cleared
shortly after the appearance of these antibodies.
But in substantial proportion of affected
animals the virus persists for a prolonged period
and multiply locally at the epithelium of upper
respiratory tract mainly at the oro-pharyngeal
region: a condition referred to as ‘FMDV
persistence’ or ‘Carrier State’. This carrier state
has major economic drawbacks in international
trades and it also jeopardizes the declaration of
FMD free status in a country or a zone.
Genetic & antigenic variations in FMD
carriers
Antigenic variation acts as a major obstacle for
FMD control because it leads to the failure of
cross-protection between the serotypes and
sometimes between the strains within the
serotypes. There are many evidences of genetic
and antigenic variations in the FMDV isolated
from carrier animals. However, many studies
have reported that no specific mutations in the
viral genome were constantly associated with
persistent infection. Alterations to the FMDV
genome affecting its antigenicity, occurs
continuously during persistent infection but
such changes leading to evolution of novel viral
lineages are unknown. The significant genomic
variation of FMDV is due to low fidelity of the
RNA replication machinery along with a lack
of constraints on certain regions and potential
selection mechanism on other regions.
Recombination between different FMDV
genomes replicating within the same cell is also
a contributing factor for genetic variation but its
role in generating in vivo variants has very
limited evidence. One example of this type of
recombinant is O1 Burgwedel strain reported in
1987, due to recombination between O1
Kaufbeuren (vaccine strain) and a C1 type. Two
investigations have identified two different
amino acid substitutions viz. VP1 Q172R and
VP2 Y80H consistently in the viruses recovered
from oro-pharyngeal fluid (OPF) of carrier
animals. An important driver of viral evolution
is selection pressure, which may differ in
different host species or through different
phases of infection viz. acute clinical infection
and persistent infection within the same host.
Many studies described FMDV as a quasi-
species, defined as a swarm of viruses driven by
various selection pressures. One study reported
that the dynamic appearance and disappearance
of virus populations coupled with substitution
at the major antigenic site suggested the
existence of an antigenic selection process
during persistent infection. Biswal et al. (2019)
isolated genome sequences of FMDV from
carrier cattle and buffalo and performed
phylogenetic and parsimony analysis. He
demonstrated separate clustering of cattle
derived isolates from buffalo derived isolates
suggesting the host defined, species specific
selection pressure upon FMDV evolution.
Another result from this study was buffalo
derived isolates descended in a single lineage
from the outbreak virus whereas cattle derived
isolates descended in five separate lineages
from the outbreak virus, which suggested
differential selection pressures between the host
species. Although many studies have
investigated about the genetic and antigenic
variation of FMDV during the carrier state but
the contribution of viral genomic changes on
the establishments and maintenance of
persistent infection are still unclear. However,
the ongoing innovations in next generation
sequencing and advanced bioinformatics tools
may clarify the phenomena in future.
CONCLUSION
FMD is highly contagious disease affecting
ruminants which cause a great loss to economy
of a nation. FMDV carrier state promotes
international trade barriers and prevents the
declaration of FMD free status. Alterations to
the FMDV genome affects its antigenicity
which may leads to persistence of virus and
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establishment of carrier state. However, this
genetic and antigenic variations in carrier
animals need a detailed study with the advanced
bioinformatics tools.
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