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Vision
Eyes, Optic Nerves, Ganglion Cells, Occipital Lobe… Its got it all!
What We See Hue
Visual experience specified by colour names and related to the wavelength of light.
Brightness Lightness and luminance; the visual experience
related to the amount of light emitted from or reflected by an object.
Saturation Vividness or purity of colour; the visual experience
related to the complexity of light waves.
What We See
Hue Brightness Saturation
Physical Characteristics of Light and Sound Waves
Wavelength refers to the distance in one cycle of a wave, from one crest to the next With respect to vision, human can
see wavelengths of about 400 to 700 nanometers
Amplitude is the amount of energy in a wave, its intensity, which is the height of the wave at its crest For light waves, amplitude
determines its brightness
Brightness Explained How much light reaches the retina?
Controlled by the PUPILDilated Pupil=DARKContracted Pupil=LIGHT
Pupil Dilates in the Dark to expose more light waves to the photoreceptors
Many drugs can interfere with this by acting as agonists (replicating the neurotransmitters) involved in determining Pupil dilation and Contraction! (Primarily Dopamine and Endorphin)
A Typical Waveform and its Characteristics
How the Eye Works The cornea covers the eye and is the clear covering
through which light rays pass The light rays are further filtered by the pupil through the
lens before being passed to the retina at the back of the eye
The lens accommodates the light waves from objects of different distances directly on the retina For nearsighted people, light rays from distant objects are
focused in front of the retina, whereas for farsighted people, light rays from close objects are focused behind the retina
How the Eye Works The retina is the light-sensitive layer of the eye and
has three layers of cells: The ganglion cells are the first layer through which
light rays pass After which light rays pass through the bipolar cells And are finally processed in the receptor cells, which
contain the visual receptor cells rods and cones The approximately 120 million rods are responsible for
seeing in dim light and for peripheral vision The approximately 5 million cones, located in the center
of the retina, called the fovea, are responsible for seeing in bright light and in color
How the Eye Works After being processed in the retina, patterns of neural
impulses describing the visual image are carried through the bipolar cells to the ganglion cells, which bundle together to form the optic nerve Where the optic nerve leaves the eye, there are no receptor
cells, and thus we have a blind spot The optic nerve runs through the thalamus, which acts as a
“relay station” to transmit sensory information to the correct part of the cerebral cortex
Visual information is directed to the occipital lobe, where it is processed
Feature detector cells recognize basic features of the stimulus, which are then coordinated to give it meaning (i.e., to perceive it)
Visual Transduction Begins when light waves enter the eye Photoreceptors (rods and cones) on the retina
interpret the waves Rods work in the dark and are found all over the retina
(nearly 18X more rods than cones) Cones measure color and are found only on the fovea
(area of most focus on the retina) Bipolar cells take info from rods and cones to the
GANGLION CELLS (sense/afferent neurons) GC AXONS ARE the Optic Nerve. So… TRANSDUCTION occurs in the retina.!
How the Eye Works
The Structures of the Retina
AnatomyKey Elements: Pupil, Lens, Retina, Fovea,
Photoreceptors- Rods Cones, Optic Nerve, & Occipital Lobe
An Eye on the World Cornea
Protects eye and bends light toward lens.
Lens Focuses on objects by
changing shape. Iris
Controls amount of light that gets into eye.
Pupil Widens or dilates to let
in more light.
An Eye on the World Retina
Neural tissue lining the back of the eyeball’s interior, which contains the receptors for vision.
Rods Visual receptors that respond to dim light.
Cones Visual receptors involved in colour vision. Most
humans have 3 types of cones.
Why the Visual System is not a Camera
Much visual processing is done in the brain. Some cortical cells respond to lines in
specific orientations (e.g. horizontal). Other cells in the cortex respond to other
shapes (e.g., bulls-eyes, spirals, faces). Feature-detectors
Cells in the visual cortex that are sensitive to specific features of the environment.
Hubel & Wiesel’s Experiment
How We See Colours Trichromatic theory Opponent process theory
How does the Visual System Create Color?
Color does not exist in the world, only in the mind---WHOA! color is a sensation created when light waves
are transduced (I have no idea if this is the correct past tense of transduction) and then processed in our visual cortex
Only CONES (visual receptor cells) can detect color. These are only found in the FOVEA
The Nature of Light Electromagnetic spectrum- range of
electromagnetic energy Visible spectrum- part of the electromagnetic
field that our brain can interpret in colorTo interpret energy outside of the visible
spectrum, we employ devices- radio’s, TVs, etcLong waves- redMedium waves- yellows/greensShort waves- blues
Electromagnetic Spectrum
How We See Color The Trichromatic theory contends that there are three
types of cones, each activated by a certain wavelength, which corresponds approximately to blue, green, and red
The Opponent-Process theory assumes that there are three types of cell systems that help us see color, and these systems are located at the post-receptor level of processing
The three types of cell systems are red-green and blue-yellow, as well as black-white (to detect brightness)
If one color in a pair is stimulated, the other is inhibited
How We See Color Both theories have validity,
each at different levels of visual information processing The Trichromatic theory is
correct in its account of how color information is processed by the cones
The Opponent-Process theory is correct in its account of how color information is processed after it leaves the retina (and is processed by the bipolar, ganglion, and thalamic cells)
Color Blindness Color weakness- shades and pale colors
are difficult to distinguish Color blindness- cannot see specific
colors Most red/green Rarely blue/yellow Only 500 ever have reported complete
color blindness
Subtractive and Additive Mixtures
Demonstration of Complementary Afterimage
Demonstration of Complementary Afterimage
Test of Colour Deficiency
Depth Perception Involves judging the distance
of objects from us Binocular depth cues
require the use of both eyes Monocular depth cues require only one eye
Linear perspective refers to the fact that as parallel lines recede away from us, they appear to converge
Interposition refers to the fact that if one object blocks our view of another, we perceive the blocking object as closer
Depth and Distance Perception Binocular Cues:
Visual cues to depth or distance that require the use of both eyes.
Convergence: Turning inward of the eyes, which occurs when they focus on a nearby object.
Retinal Disparity: The slight difference in lateral separation between two objects as seen by the left eye and the right eye; refers to the fact that as the disparity between the two retinal images decreases, the distance from us increases (and vice versa)
The Ames Room A specially-built room
that makes people seem to change size as they move around in it
The room is not a rectangle, as viewers assume it is
A single peephole prevents using binocular depth cues
Visual Constancies The accurate perception of objects as stable
or unchanged despite changes in the sensory patterns they produce. Shape constancy Location constancy Size constancy Brightness constancy Colour constancy
Shape Constancy Even though these images cast shadows of
different shapes, we still see the quarter as round
Visual Illusions
Illusions are valuable in understanding perception because they are systematic errors. Illusions provide hints about perceptual strategies.
In the Muller-Lyer illusion (above) we tend to perceive the line on the right as slightly longer than the one on the left.
The Ponzo Illusion Linear perspective
provides context Side lines seem to
converge Top line seems
farther away But the retinal
images of the red lines are equal!
Fooling the Eye
The cats in (a) are the same size The diagonal lines in (b) are parallel You can create a “floating fingertip frankfurter” by
holding hands as shown, 5-10” in front of face.