VISION MISSION - gat.ac.inSubject code: 17CVL37 Subject: BUILDING MATERIALS TESTING LAB COs COURSE...

GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY

Dept of Civil Engineering 1 Building Material Testing laboratory 17CVL37

VISION

Become a premier institution imparting quality education in engineering and

management to meet the changing needs of society

MISSION

M1. Create environment conducive for continuous learning through quality

teaching and learning processes supported by modern infrastructure

M2. Promote Research and Innovation through collaboration with industries

M3. Inculcate ethical values and environmental consciousness through holistic

education programs



DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

VISION

To become a leading department oriented to serve the basic wants of human

being related to food, air, shelter and transportation, by providing quality

education.

MISSION

1. Create a favorable environment for learning, teaching & continuous

improvement for implementation of various civil engineering facilities.

2. Promote professionalism, innovation and research through collaboration

with industries to realize cost & resource effective, stable, quality structures.

3. Inculcate environmental consciousness and ethical values through

interconnected training programs to ensure sustainability and client

satisfaction.



PROPROGRAM EDUCATION OBJECTIVES (PEO’S)

The program educational objectives of Civil Engineering are, to enable students for

PEO-1: Developing careers in government and private civil engineering organizations and

other professionally related domains

PEO-2: Pursuing higher studies, and research to develop innovative solutions and

technologies in civil engineering and other multi disciplinary areas

PEO-3: Improving professional and personal traits aligned to professional ethics and

environmental compulsions

PEO-4: Professional leadership and Successful entrepreneurship

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES-PSO’s

Engineering Graduates will be able to:

PSO-1: Comprehend, analyze and design alternatives for execution of civil engineering

facilities

PSO-2: Apply Standard Codes of Practices and schedule of rates for planning, design,

quality control, estimating & costing of civil engineering projects.

PSO-3: Evaluate the buildings for resource conservation.

PROGRAM OUTCOMES (PO’s)

Engineering Graduates will be able to:

PO1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering

problems.

PO2.Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze

complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of

mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.

PO3.Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering

problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with



appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and

environmental considerations.

PO4.Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and

research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and

synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.

PO5.Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and

modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering

activities with an understanding of the limitations.

PO6.The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to

assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities

relevant to the professional engineering practice.

PO7.Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional

engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the

knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.

PO8.Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities

and norms of the engineering practice.

PO9.Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or

leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

PO10.Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with

the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend

and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and

give and receive clear instructions.

PO11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of

the engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a

member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.

PO12.Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to

engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological

change.



Regulations Governing

THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

ATTENDANCE REQUIREMENT

Each semester is considered as a unit and the candidate has to put in a minimum

attendance of 85% in each subject with a provision of condo nation of 10% of the

attendance by the Vice-Chancellor on the specific recommendation of the Principal

of the college where the candidate is studying, showing some reasonable cause such

as medical grounds, participation in University level sports, cultural activities,

seminars, workshops and paper presentation, etc.

The basis for the calculation of the attendance shall be the period prescribed by the

University by its calendar of events. For the first semester students, the same is

reckoned from the date of admission to the course as per CET allotment.

The students shall be informed about their attendance position periodically by the

colleges so that the students shall be cautioned to make up the shortage.

A Candidate having shortage of attendance in one or more subjects shall have to

repeat the whole semester and such candidates shall not be permitted to take

admission to next higher semester. Such students shall take readmission to the same

semester in the subsequent academic year.

INTERNAL ASSESSMENT MARKS

There shall be a maximum of 40 Internal Assessment Marks in each practical papers, the IA

marks shall be based on the laboratory journals/reports and one practical test.

A candidate failing to secure a minimum of 50% of the IA marks (20/40) in Practical, 50%

of marks in project work, shall not be eligible for the practical / project in the University

examination. For a pass in a Practical/Project/Viva-voce examination, a candidate shall

secure a minimum of 40% of the maximum marks prescribed for the University

Examination in the relevant Practical/ Project/ Viva-voce.



PREFACE

Welcome to the strength of materials laboratory (17CVL37). Included in this laboratory

manual are the instructions for experiments to be performed in conjunction with the course.

The description for each experiment includes its objective, an equipment list, background

material, and a recommended procedure. Data sheets and calculation sheets have also been

prepared.

When loads are applied to a deformable body they produce stresses. The stresses represent

the force intensity and are computed by dividing the force by the area over which it acts. A

normal stress is produced when the force is perpendicular to the surface under

consideration.

A tensile stress occurs when the force is directed along the outer normal to the exposed

surface. A compressive stress results when the force is directed toward the surface. Shear

stress results when the force is tangent to the surface. The stresses produce changes in

shape (deformations) characterized by a quantity called strain. Normal stresses produce

normal strains defined as the change in length of a line segment divided by the original

length of the segment. Shear stresses produce shear strains defined as the change in angle

between two line segments that were originally perpendicular to one another.

Bending produces a Uniaxial stress condition in which normal stresses occur parallel to the

longitudinal axis of the member. For a prismatic member possessing a plane of symmetry,

subjected at its ends to equal and opposite couples acting in a plane of symmetry, the stress

distribution is linear through the thickness; compressive stresses occur on one side of the

neutral axis and tensile stress occur on the other side. The stress is computed using the

flexure formula.

Torsion produces shear stresses. In a prismatic member of circular cross section subjected

to couples (torques) the shear stress acts in the direction of the applied torque.

The stress is related to the strain through constitutive equations (Hooke’s Laws) that depend

upon material properties.

Hardness is the property of a material that enables it to resist plastic deformation,

penetration, indentation, and scratching. Therefore, hardness is important from an



engineering standpoint because resistance to wear by either friction or erosion by steam, oil,

and water generally increases with hardness.

The behavior and properties of structural materials, e.g. concrete, asphalt and steel can be

better understood by detailed, well-designed, firsthand experience with these materials. The

students will become familiar with the nature and properties of these materials by

conducting laboratory tests. These tests have been selected to illustrate the basic properties

and methods of testing of Bricks, Aggregates, and Tiles. Test procedures are outlined by the

Bureau of Indian Standards.



Course Details

Course Name : Building Materials Testing Lab

Course Code : 17CVL37

Course prerequisite : Elements of Civil Engineering and

Engineering Mechanics, Building Materials,

Strength of Materials.

Course Objectives

Upon completion of this course, students are expected to:

1. Ability to apply knowledge of mathematics and engineering in calculating the

mechanical properties of structural materials.

2. Ability to function on multi-disciplinary teams in the area of materials testing.

3. Ability to use the techniques, skills and modern engineering tools necessary for

engineering.

4. Understanding of professional and ethical responsibility in the areas of material testing.

5. Ability to communicate effectively the mechanical properties of materials.

Course Outcome

Upon successful completion of this course, students should be able to:

Subject code: 17CVL37 Subject: BUILDING MATERIALS TESTING LAB

COs COURSE OUTCOMES KL No. of

sessions

CO1

Reproduce the basic knowledge of mathematics and engineering in

finding the strength in tension, compression, shear and torsion. Apply 3

CO2

Identify, formulate and solve engineering problems of structural

elements subjected to flexure Apply 3

CO3

Evaluate the impact of engineering solutions on the society and also

will be aware of contemporary issues regarding failure of structures

due to undesirable materials.

Apply 3



SYLLABUS

BUILDING MATERIALS TESTING LABORATORY

(As per Choice Based Credit System CBCS Scheme)

Subject Code : 17CVL37 IA Marks : 10

No. of Practical Hrs / Week : 03 Exam Hours : 03

Total No. of Practical Hrs. : 42 Exam Marks : 60

MODULES

1. Tension test on Mild Steel and HYSD bars.

2. Compression test on mild steel, Cast iron and wood.

3. Torsion test on mild steel circular sections.

4. Bending test on Wood Under two point loading.

5. Shear test on Mild steel.

6. Impact test on Mild Steel (Charpy &Izod).

7. Hardness tests on ferrous and non-ferrous metals– Brinell’s, Rockwell and

Vicker’s.

8. Test on Bricks and Tiles.

9. Tests on Fine aggregates

a. Moisture content

b. Specific gravity.

c. Bulk density.

d. Sieve analysis.

e. Bulking.

10. Tests on Coarse aggregates

a. Moisture content.

b. Specific gravity and Water absorption.

c. Bulk density.

d. Sieve analysis.

11. Demonstration of Strain gauges and Strain indicators.

NOTE: All tests to be carried out as per relevant BIS Codes.

Reference Books:

1. Testing of Engineering Materials, Davis, Troxell and Hawk, International

Student Edition – McGraw Hill Book Co. New Delhi.

2. Mechanical Testing of Materials”, Fenner, George Newnes Ltd. London.



3. “Experimental Strength of Materials”, Holes K A, English Universities Press Ltd.

London.

4. “Testing of Metallic Materials”, Suryanarayana A K, Prentice Hall of India Pvt.

Ltd. New Delhi.

5. Relevant IS Codes

6. “Material Testing Laboratory Manual”, Kukreja C B- Kishore K. Ravi Chawla

Standard Publishers & Distributors 1996.



VTU Lab Evaluation Process

WEEK WISE VALUATION OF EACH PROGRAM SL.NO ACTIVITY Marks

1 Write up 5

2 Record / Manual 10

TOTAL 15

INTERNAL ASSESSMENT EVALUATION (End of Semester)

SL.NO ACTIVITY Marks

1 Write-Up 9

2 Conduction 42

3 Viva Voce 9

TOTAL 60

FINAL INTERNAL ASSESSMENT CALCULATION

SL.NO ACTIVITY Marks

1 Average of Weekly Entries 30

2 Internal Assessment Reduced To 10

TOTAL 40



Experiment 1

TENSION TEST on Mild Steel and HYSD Bars Aim:

To determine the tensile properties of given specimen and observe its behavior

under tension. (as per IS1608-2005)

Apparatus:

Universal Testing machine (UTM), extensometer, micrometer caliper, scale etc.

Theory:

The term static tension refers to a test in which a prepared specimen is subjected to a

gradually increasing (i.e. static) Uniaxial load until failure occurs. In simple tension test, the

operation is accomplished by gripping opposite ends of the piece of material and pulling it

apart. In tension test of metals, the properties usually determined are yield strength, tensile

strength, ductility and type of fracture. In brittle materials, only the tensile strength and the

character of fracture are commonly determined.

At the beginning of the test, the material extends elastically; this signifies that if the

load is released, the sample will return to its original length. The material is said to have

passed its elastic limit when the load is sufficient to initiate plastic or non-recoverable

deformation. In other words, it will no longer return to its original length if the load is

released.

Important terms and definitions:

1. Gauge length: It is the distance between two references point on the prescribed part

of the test piece on which deformations are measured during the test.

2. Yield Stress: Stress at which considerable elongation occurs in the test piece

without increase in load. Yield stress is yield load per unit area of cross section.

Yield load is the load at which the load permits of U.T.M stops moving for a while.

At this stage increase in extension takes place at constant load. Yield strength is the

practical and most commonly used measure of elastic strength.

3. Tensile Strength: The maximum load reached in the test dived by the original cross

section area. This is also termed as maximum tensile stress for the material of the

specimen.

4. Breaking stress: Load at the time of braking divided by the original cross sectional



area is called nominal breaking stress. Load at the time of breaking divided by final

cross sectional area is called true breaking stress.

5. Elastic Limit: A material is said to be elastic when it undergoes a deformation on

the application of a loading such that the deformation disappears on the removal of

loading.

6. Modulus of elasticity: The ratio of axial stress to axial strain within the elastic limit.

7. Percentage elongation: The permanent elongation of the gauge length after breaking

expressed as the percentage of the original gauge length.

Percentage elongation= [(L2-L1)/L1]*100

8. Percentage reduction in area: The charge of cross sectional area which has occurred

during the test at neck, expressed as a percentage of the original cross sectional area.

Percentage reduction in area = [(A1-A2)/A1]*100

9. Proof Resilience: It is defined as the particle strain energy stored per unit volume of

the specimen from zero up to elastic point. Graphically it is the area bounded below

the graph form zero up to elastic point.

10. Modulus of toughness: The total strain energy stored per unit volume of the specimen

from zero up to the fracture point of the specimen. Graphically it is the area bounded

below the graph from the point of zero up to the point of fracture.

11. 0.2% proof stress: It is defined as the stress at which when material is unloaded, there

will be 0.2 percentage of strain permanently left in it.

Procedure:

• Measure of the initial diameter (d1) and mark the initial gauge length Lo on the

specimen.

• The end of the specimen are gripped in the cross heads (upper cross head and

adjustable cross head) of the U.T.M using gripping jaws.

• Attach the extensometer to the specimen to record the extension during loading.

• Mount the dial gauge on the lower cross head. Bring the indicators of dial gauge,

elongation scale and load dial to zero readings.

• Fix the given specimen in the shackles of the UTM and gradually apply the tensile

load on the specimen at the rate of 0.5 kg/ cm2/sec.

• Switch on the U.T.M the load values are noted and corresponding elongations are



noted from the dial gauge.

• Increase the load in steps and in each step record corresponding extension of

specimen gauge length.

• As the yield point approaches, the load needle remains stationary and the dial gauge

indicator Rushes rapidly. Remove the dial gauge further extension are noted from the

elongation scale.

• Necking starts note down the maximum load. Load needle of U.T.M again moves

forward up to a maximum point, leaving the dummy needle at the maximum load

value and it moves backward

• Finally the specimen fails at a lower load than the maximum load. Note down the

breaking load when the specimen breaks.

• Remove the fractured specimen, keep the two pieces together and measure the final

gauge length Lf & also measure the final diameter at the neck (d2).

• Plot the graphs of load Vs extension and stress Vs strain & tabulate the results.

• The above procedure is applicable for the normal UTM whereas the procedure will be

different for the higher end machine ( shown in figure below)



Tabular Column:

Tension Test on Mild Steel

Sl.No Load (P)

N Extension in mm

Stress

(P/A0)

N/mm2

Strain

(dL/L0)



Specimen Calculations:

Material:

Original Gauge Length L0 = mm

Final Gauge Length Lf = mm

Initial Diameter d0 = mm

Final Diameter df = mm

Maximum Load Pmax= N

Fracture Load Pf = N

Original Cross Sectional Area A0 =

Final Cross Sectional Area Af = πdf2 / 4

Fracture Test f = Pf / A0

Tensile Strength = Pmax / A0

Yield stress = Yield Load /Original cross sectional area =

Working stress or permissible stress = Yield stress/Factor of safety =

Ultimate stress = Maximum Load/Original cross sectional area =

Breaking stress = Breaking Load/Original cross sectional area =

Modulus of elasticity = Stress/Strain =

Within elastic limit from graph we obtain

Proof Resilience =

Modulus of toughness=

Result:

1. Young’s Modulus E =

2. Percentage Reduction in Area =

3. Percentage increase in Length =

4. Modulus of Elasticity =



5. Yield stress =

6. 0.2 % Proof stress =

7. Permissible stress =

8. Ultimate stress =

9. Breaking stress =

10. Proof Resilience =

11. Modulus of toughness =

Fig- Stress strain Curve – Mild Steel

Fig- Standard Specimen



Fig: Standard Mild steel Specimen of Circular Cross Section

For HYSD bars, the tension test is conducted as per the procedure adopted in IS 1786:2008



Experiment 2

Compression test on mild steel, Cast iron and wood.

Aim:

To study the behavior of the given material under compressive loading and to

determine its compressive properties

Apparatus:

Universal Testing Machine, compressometer, micrometer caliper, scales etc.

Theory:

The term compression test usually refers to test in which a prepared specimen is

subjected to a gradually increasing (i.e. static) uniaxial load until failure occurs. In simple

compression test, the operation is accomplished by subjecting a piece of material to end

loading, which produces crushing action. In this test, the piece shortens. The ratio of

length to diameter of compression specimen appears to be more or less of compromise

among several undesirable conditions. As the length of the specimen increases, there is an

increasing tendency of specimen towards bending with a consequent non-uniform

distribution of stress over the cross section. Specimen height to diameter (or least lateral

dimension) ratio of 10 is suggested as a practical upper limit.

Type h/d ratio (all dimensions in mm)

Short specimen 0.9 (Dia = 30, Ht = 27)

Medium Specimen 3.0 (Dia = 13, Ht = 39-90)

Long Specimen 10.0 (Dia = 20-30, Ht = 160-320)

Procedure:

• Measure the diameter d0 and length L0 of the given specimen using slide caliper

and scale.

• Fix the specimen in the lower and upper compression plates above the bottom

cross head & intermediate cross head.

• Keep the specimen at the centre of bottom plate and bring the top of specimen in

contact with the top plate by moving the intermediate cross head downwards.

• Fix the dial gauge (Compressometer) to the bottom platform of the UTM to

measure the contraction.

• Mount the dial gauge on the lower cross head and bring the indicator on the load &



dial gauge to zero.

• Apply the load on the specimen and note down the dial gauge reading at every

increment and tabulate the results until specimen fails.

• Measure the final length Lf and diameter df of the specimen We observe that, L0>

Lf and df < d0

• Plot the graph of stress v/s strain for mild steel specimen subjected to compression.

• Take 0.1 percentage strain and draw a line parallel to the initial straight line to cut

the curve at a point palled yield point and the corresponding stress is called as

yield stress.

Fig- Universal Testing Machine used for compression test




Material:

Original Length L0 = mm

Final Length Lf =

Initial Diameter d0 =

Final Diameter df =

Maximum Load Pmax =

Fracture Load Pf =

Original Cross Sectional Area A0 =

Final Cross Sectional Area Af

Fracture Stress f

Compressive Strength = Pmax / A0

Elastic Modulus E = Slope of stress-strain curve (Initial straight portion) =

Observations and Calculations:

Compression Test on Mild Steel

Sl.No Load (P)

N

Deformation in

mm

Stress

(P/A0)

N/mm2

Strain

(dL/L0)



Result:

Young’s Modulus E =

Percentage Increase in Area =

Percentage Reduction in Length =

Significance:

Brittle materials, such as cast iron and concrete, are often weak in tension because of the

presence of submicroscopic cracks and faults. However, these materials can prove to be

quite strong in compression, due to the fact that the compression test tends to increase the

cross sectional areas of specimens, preventing necking to occur. In general, the average

compressive strength to tensile strength ratio of brittle materials is around 8/1. Wood is a

commonly used engineering material showing different mechanical behavior under tensile

and compressive loadings. However, contrary to Gray Cast Iron or Concrete, it does not

show brittle characteristics under tensile loading and surprisingly, it’s considerably stronger

in tension than compression. The fact that the cell structures in the material are stronger in

the longitudinal than transverse direction is the major factor leading to this unusual

mechanical behavior of wood.

For HYSD bars, the compression test is conducted as per the procedure adopted in IS 1786:2008



Experiment 3

Torsion test on mild steel circular sections.

Aim: To find the polar modulus and torsional rigidity (stiffness) of a given specimen

Apparatus:

Torsional testing machine, scale screw gauge etc. Theory:

A member is said to be in torsion when subjected to moment about its axis. The

effect of torsional moment on the member is to twist it and hence a torsional moment is also

called as twisting moment or torque.

In engineering problems, many numbers are subjected to torsion. Shafts transmitting

power from an engine to the rear axle of an automobile, from a motor to machine tool and

from a turbine to electric motors are common examples.

The torsion equation is given as:

Where,

T = Torsional Moment

J = Polar Moment of Inertia

q = Shear stress in the element

R = Radius of the specimen

G =Modulus of rigidity

θ =Angle of twist

L = Length of shaft

Procedure: • Using screw gauge, measure the diameter (all along the specimen) of the specimen

and note the average reading. Take the length of the specimen using a scale and note

down the reading

• Adjust the torsion machine to read zero and then insert the specimen into the two

heads. See that each end is centered inside each head. Then fix the specimen firmly

into the head.

• Apply load at a slow speed. Take reading of torque and twist simultaneously

without stopping the machine. Note the readings of twist and load till the specimen



fails.

• Plot the diagram from the origin, showing the relation between torque in (kN-m)

and angle of twist in radians.

• Using the formula, calculate polar modulus and Torsional rigidity or stiffness of

the shaft.

Formulae:

Observations:

Torque

(kN-m)

Radians

Radians

Radians

Result:

1. Polar Modulus of the shaft (J) = mm4

2. Torsional Rigidity or stiffness of the shaft (G) = kg/mm2

Fig- Specimen after torsion test



Fig-Conduction of torsion test

Significance:

To study the shear stress v/s shear strain behavior of the material together with the study of

failure pattern of these materials in torsion and to determine the mechanical properties, e.g,

Modulus of elasticity, Modulus of rigidity, Shear strength, shear strain and ductility in

torsion.



Experiment 4

Bending test on Wood under Point loading.

Aim: To find the modulus of elasticity of the given specimen subjected to bending and

calculate the bending stress

Apparatus:

Scale, universal testing machine (UTM) and dial gauge

Theory:

If forces act on a piece of material in such a way that they tend to induce

compressive stresses over one part of a cross section of the piece and tensile tresses over

the remaining part, the piece is said to be in bending. The common illustration of bending

action is a beam acted on by transverse loads; bending can also caused by moments or

couples such as from eccentric load parallel to the longitudinal axis of a piece.

In structures and machines in service, bending may be accompanied by direct

stresses, transverse shear or Torsional shear. For convenience, however, bending stresses

may be considered separately and in test to determine the behavior of material in bending,

attention is usually confined to beams.

The basic bending equation is

M/I = fb / Y = E/ R

Where, M= maximum bending moment in the beam

For central point load, M= (WL/4)

I = moment of Inertia = BD3 / 12 for rectangular c/s with B as width and D as depth

Where, Y = D/2 = depth of neutral axis

E = modulus of elasticity

R = radius of curvature

The maximum deflection (occurring at the centre) for a simply supported beam with a

central point load is given by



W/y is obtained from graph

Procedure:

Measure the length L, breadth B and depth D of the given specimen.

Place the specimen on the UTM platform in simply supported position, measure the

effective length L.

Bring the top platform of the UTM such that the load is applied at the center of the

specimen.

Before the application of the load fix the dial gauge to measure the deflection.

Apply the load at regular increments and note down the deflection in the dial gauge

until the specimen fails.

Plot the graph of load v/s deflection and obtain Load/Deflection at initial straight

line portion of the curve.

S. No. Load W ( kN) Deflection y (mm)

Result:

1. Modulus of Elasticity = MPa ( N/mm2)

2. Bending Stress = MPa ( N/mm2)



Fig-Wooden specimen at failure under Bending

Significance:

Bending produces a Uniaxial stress condition in which normal stresses occur parallel to the

longitudinal axis of the member. For a prismatic member possessing a plane of symmetry,

subjected at its ends to equal and opposite couples acting in a plane of symmetry, the stress

distribution is linear through the thickness; compressive stresses occur on one side of the

neutral axis and tensile stress occur on the other side. The stress is computed using the

flexure formula.



Experiment 5

Shear test on Mild steel.

Aim: To determine the ultimate shear stress of the given specimen in single and double

shear. (As per IS-5242-2006)

Apparatus:

Universal testing machine, Micrometer, Caliper, Shear test attachment.

Theory:

The shear stress acts parallel to a plane where as tensile and compressive stresses

act normal to a plane. There are two main types of shear stress used in laboratory, one is

called direct or transverse shear stress and it corresponds to the type of stress encountered

in rivets, bolts and beams. The other type of shear stress is called pure or Torsional shear

and it represents the kind of shear stress encountered in a shaft subject to pure torsion.

Direct shear tests are usually conducted to obtain a measure of shear strength and the

torsion tests are usually employed to evaluate the basic shear properties of a material.

For direct shear test of metal, a bar is usually sheared in some device that clamps a

portion of the specimen while remaining portion is subjected to a load by means of suitable

dies; one method of applying shear load is shown in fig 1 (a). A cylindrical specimen A is

placed in the center hole of the fixed block B and load is applied to the block C where by

producing single shear. If the specimen A is extended to D and the gap between the two

fixed blocks is bridged as shown in fig 1(b), the specimen will fail in double shear. Since,

two surfaces resists the load, it should be noted that, the unit single shear strength of steel is

usually greater than unit double shear strength.

Ultimate shear strength, τ = P/A for (single shear)

τ = P/2A for (double shear)

Where P = the fracture load

A = the cross sectional area

In this experiment, the failure of the material is not due to entirely by shear, but partially by

bending and crushing as well

Procedure:

• Measure the average diameter d of the specimen with a micrometer caliper.

• Place the specimen in the shear shackle with one end supported for single shear

test and two ends supported for double shear test.



• Place the shackle on the lower cross head of the UTM. The adjustable cross head

is then moved down till it makes contact with the top of the center plate.

• The machine is switched on and load is applied gradually.

• Note down the failure load (Pw).

For single shear test, fix the specimen and apply the load slowly at right angles to the axis

of the piece through the central block & Note down the fracture load. Repeat the above

procedure by fixing the specimen for double shear.

Fig- 1 (a) Double Shear Test Set up

Fig- 1 (b) Single Shear Test Set up


Material Type of Shear Diameter d

(mm)

Fracture Load P

(N)

Area

(mm2)

Ultimate Shear

Strength

(N/mm2)



Result: 1. Single Ultimate Shear Stress =

2. Double Ultimate Shear Stress =

Significance:

Shear stress exists when two parts of a material tend to slide across each other in any

typical plane of shear upon application of force parallel to that plane. In actual practice

when a beam is loaded the shear force at a section always comes to play along with bending

moment. The effect of shearing stresses is quite negligible compared to bending stress. But

sometimes, the shearing stress at any section is to be given much importance in design

calculations. Shear test is performed by using universal testing machine.



Experiment 6

Impact test on Mild Steel (Charpy&Izod).

Aim: To assess the impact strength of the given notched specimen

Apparatus:

Pendulum type of impact testing machine

Theory:

Impact test used to measure the material ability to withstand shock loading .notched

bar impact test used to determine the tendency of a material to behave in a brittle manner.

This type of test will detect difference between materials, which are not observable in the

tension test. The impact test is carried out on pendulum type machine. The principle

features of pendulum type impact machines are:

1. A moving mass whose kinetic energy is greater enough to cause rupture of the test

specimen placed in its path

2. An anvil and support on which the specimen is placed to receive the blow and

3. A mean for measuring the residual energy of the moving mass after the specimen

has broken

The specimen is placed on its anvil and the pendulum of the weight W is raised to a height

‘a’ as shown in figure. It can seen from the figure that, energy of pendulum before release

(point A) is ‘Wa’; after release, the pendulum’s potential energy decreases and kinetic

energy increases until just before impact (point ‘B’) the former is zero and the later is

maximum. At ‘B’ the amount of energy necessary to fracture the specimen is dissipated, as

the pendulum continues to swing, the remaining kinetic energy is again converted to

potential energy, the process being completed when the pendulum reaches the point C,

where the potential energy is ‘Wb’. Neglecting friction in bearing and air resistance of the

pendulum, the fracture energy U is equal to W (a-b). the energy value is sometimes called

impact toughness. This is the value indicated by the testing machine, if the scale is

graduated in degrees, then U = Wr (cos β – cos α), where α and β are the angles of fall and

rise respectively and ‘r’ is the length of pendulum.

Impact velocity V = √ 2gr(1-cos α) since, the initial angle through which the

pendulum raised is constant, the upward swing after fracturing the specimen can be used to

measure energy dissipated in breaking the specimen. This upward swing of the pendulum



after fracturing the specimen moves a pointer over a circular scale to read the fracture

energy.

Procedure:

• With no specimen in the anvil, swing the pendulum to ensure freedom of movement

and check the scale.

• Note the weight W of the pendulum and the radius ‘r’ of its center of mass, lift the

pendulum to its upper position, and adjust the friction pointer to make contact with

pendulum.

• Note the initial reading on the scale. Measure the lateral dimension of the specimen

at the notch, using the positioning gauge place the specimen on the anvil.

• For Charpy test, the specimen is arranged horizontally with the notch on the away

from the striking edge of the pendulum and directly in line with it as shown in fig(a).

• An Izod specimen is arranged vertically with the notch towards the striking edge as

shown in fig (b).

• Release the pendulum to rupture the specimen. Record the angle of raise of

pendulum β0or the energy to rupture from the scale.

• Stop the pendulum to swing by means of the band brake lever.

• Repeat the above procedure with other specimen.

Fig (a)-Impact Testing Machine Impact Testing Machine-Pendulum Movement




IZOD TEST:

Length of specimen L = mm

Area of specimen at notch A = mm

2

Weight of pendulum W = N

Length of pendulum r = mm

Angle of fall α0 = degrees

Impact velocity V = √2gr(1-cosα) = m/sec

Fracture energy U = Wr (cosβ – cosα)= J(N-m)

CHARPY TEST:

Length of specimen L = mm

Area of specimen at notch A = mm

2

Weight of pendulum W = N

Length of pendulum r = mm

Angle of fall α0 = degrees

Impact velocity V = √2gr(1-cosα) = m/sec

Fracture energy U = Wr (cosβ – cosα)= J(N-m)

Material Angle of rise β Fracture energy U

J (N-m)

Impact Strength

K = U/ (AL)

J/mm3



Material Angle of rise β Fracture energy U

J (N-m)

Impact Strength

K = U/ (AL)

J/mm3

Result:

1. Angle of raise =

2. Impact strength of given material =

Significance:

Impact is a very important phenomenon in governing the life of a structure. For example, in

the case of an aircraft, impact can take place by a bird hitting a plane while it is cruising, or

during takeoff and landing the aircraft may be struck by debris that is present on the

runway, and as well as other causes. It must also be calculated for roads if speed breakers

are present, in bridge construction where vehicles punch an impact load, etc.

Impact tests are used in studying the toughness of material. Brittle materials have low

toughness as a result of the small amount of plastic deformation that they can endure. The

impact value of a material can also change with temperature. Generally, at lower

temperatures, the impact energy of a material is decreased. The size of the specimen may

also affect the value of the Izod impact test because it may allow a different number of

imperfections in the material, which can act as stress risers and lower the impact energy.



EXPERIMENT No.7

Hardness tests on ferrous and non-ferrous metals– Brinell’s, Rockwell and Vicker’s.

Aim: To conduct Brinell’s hardness Test on the given metal. as per IS-1500-2005.

Apparatus:

Brinell’s hardness testing machine, microscope to measure the diameter of ball

indentation/impression

Theory:

Brinell’s hardness test consists of a penetrating metal surface by hard steel ball (indenter) at

a pre-determined load. After removal of the load, the surface area of indentation is

measured. Brinell’s hardness is obtained by dividing the applied load by surface area of

indentation. Though Brinell’s hardness has the same unit as of pressure or stress, it is

expressed as a number without assigning any unit. Therefore the term Brinnel’s hardness

number (BHN) is commonly used, mathematically BHN is expressed as

D = diameter of the ball in mm.

d = diameter of the ball indentation (mm)

t = depth of indentation in mm

The ball diameter and applied load are constant and are selected from the table to

suit the composition of metal and its hardness. It is found that, Brinell’s number varies

with the diameter of the ball and load employed. For strictly comparable results fixed

values must be used for D and P



Thickness Ball Dia

Relation Time of

of the Load ‘P’

Material BHN ‘D’ b/w P and Load

specimen Kgf

mm D application

mm

Steel, cast

Over 6

6 to 3

less than 3

10

5

2.5

3000

750

187.5

P = 30D2

Up to 450 10 to 30

Iron

Cu and its 31.8 to Over 6

6 to 3

less than 3

10

5

2.5

1000

250

2.5

P = 10D2 30

alloys

Mg alloys

130

Aluminum

Over 6 10 250

P = 2.5D2 60

8 to 35 6 to 3 5 62.5

less than 3 2.5 15.6

Specimen must be chosen with care in order to obtain good results. Brinell’s test is not

suitable for extremely hard materials because ball itself would deform too much.

The load F and the diameter of ball D must be selected in accordance with the

expected hardness of the material from table and these are noted.

Place the specimen on the anvil so that’s its surface will be normal to the

application of load.

Raise the anvil by means of hand wheel until the specimen just makes contact with

the ball. This is the minor load which is equal to 250 kg.

Apply the major load by means of hand lever & maintain the full load for the

prescribed time.

Release the load and then remove the specimen from the anvil.

Measure the diameter d of the impression left by the steel ball indenter by means

of micrometer microscope.

Determine three independent hardness indentation diameters on each specimen.



Fig-Conduction of Hardness test

Fig-Brinnel’s Hardness Testing Specimen

Observation:

Material:

Diameter of steel ball indenter D = mm

Trial No. Load ‘P’

Kgf

Indentation Dia ‘d’

mm Curved surface

area mm2

BHN Kgf / mm

2



Result:

Significance:

Most commonly it is used to test materials that have a structure that is too coarse or that

have a surface that is too rough to be tested using another test method, e.g., castings and

forgings. Brinell testing often use a very high test load (3000 kgf) and a 10mm wide

indenter so that the resulting indentation averages out most surface and sub-surface

inconsistencies.



Experiment 7a

ROCKWELL’S HARSNESS TEST

Aim: To determine the hardness of the given material using Rockwell’s hardness testing. As

per IS-1586-2000.

Apparatus:

Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine

Theory:

In Rockwell hardness test, the depth of penetration is used as the parameter for arriving

at the hardness value. It works on the principle that, the depth of penetration varies with the

hardness of material. The higher the hardness, the smaller will be the depth of penetration

and vice versa. In this test, the hardness value can be read directly on the dial gauge

calibrated with respect to the depth of penetration. Thus, no calibration is required. The

indenter of penetrator in Rockwell test may be either a conical shaped diamond called a

brale with 1200 apex angle or a hardened steel ball 1/16 or 1/8 inch in diameter. The brale

is used foe testing material with high hardness and steel ball for soft materials. The brale or

the ball indented by two consecutive loads, a minor load P1 (equal to 10 Kgf) which does

not deform the metal and is used to seat the indenter and an additional major load P2 that is

equal to 90 Kgf (total 100 Kgf) for the ball (scale B) and 140 Kgf (total 150 Kgf) for brale

(scale C) is applied for indentation. The depth of penetration effected by the additional load

is measure of Rockwell Hardness. The Rockwell Hardness is read directly on the dial og

the instrument that is graduated in the hardness units. The dial has two sets of figures, one

red (scale B) and other black (scale C) which differ by 30 hardness number (i.e B- 30 is at

C – 0)

Procedure:

• Place the specimen on the anvil so that its surface will be normal to the direction of

the applied load. Note the size and type of indenter.

• Raise the anvil and test the specimen by means of elevating screw. The small

pointer in the dial starts to move, once the specimen touches the indenter.

• Continue to raise the assembly slowly until the small pointer comes to the red dot.

This indicates that the minor load of 10 Kgf is acting upon the indenter.

• Turn the dial until the mark B – 30 (i.e. C – 0), which is also designated by the red



arrow and the word SET is directly behind the pointer.

• Release the operating handle so as to apply the major load. The indenter starts to go

down in to the specimen, this can be seen from the dial. The pointer starts to move

during period of loading immediately after the major load has been fully applied,

gently bring back the operating handle to its latched position.

• Read the position of the pointer on the selected scale, which gives the Rockwell

hardness number.

• Make three independent hardness determinations on each specimen.

Fig - Rockwell’s Hardness Test



Observations and Tabulations:

S.No Material Indenter Minor Major Total Scale Hardness value

1

2 3

4

Load Load Load used

Result: RHN is

Significance:

The Rockwell test is generally easier to perform, and more accurate than other types of

hardness testing methods. The Rockwell test method is used on all metals, except in

condition where the test metal structure or surface conditions would introduce too much

variations; where the indentations would be too large for the application; or where the

sample size or sample shape prohibits its use.

The Rockwell method measures the permanent depth of indentation produced by a

force/load on an indenter.



Experiment 7b

VICKER’S HARDNESS TEST

Aim: To determine the hardness number of the given specimens. As per IS-1501-2002.

Apparatus:

Vickers hardness test apparatus

Theory:

Vicker’s hardness test is used for determining the hardness of specimens of small

cross-sections or of their external layers on case hardened, nitrated, carburized specimens

having a high hardness owing to the fineness and the small size of the indentation obtained,

the specimen needs a glassy surface finish for testing.

In Vickers hardness test, the hardness of material is determined by the indentation

of a square based diamond pyramid (with an angle of 1300 between the opposite faces).

Vickers hardness test is more versatile than Brinell hardness test because, instead of

changing the indenters as well as the load depending upon the nature of the material tested,

only load is changed. The load may be varied from 1 Kgf to 129 Kgf. The load is selected

in accordance with the size and hardness of the specimen. The size of indentation obtained

in this test is very small.

The specimen is placed over the anvil and the load is slowly applied to the indenter

and then released by means of lever. After the anvil is lowered, a microscope is swung over

the specimen and the diagonal of the square indentation is measured. In some type of

machines, the indentation can be focused on to a graduated ground glass screen and

measured; the hardness number is given by equation

VHN = 2PSin(α/2) / d2 = 1.854P/d

2Kgf/mm

2

Where P is the load in Kgf, α = the angle between opposite faces of the pyramid which is

1360, d is the average length of two diagonals of the impressions measured in the plane of

surface of the metal in mm. both Vickers and Brinnel’s hardness are expressed in Kgf/mm2.

the load P must be selected in accordance with the expected hardness of the material.

Procedure:

• Place the specimen on the anvil so that its surface will be normal to the direction of

applied load



• Raise the anvil by means of a hand wheel until the specimen just makes contact with

the indenter

• Apply the load by means of hand lever. Maintain the full load for the prescribed

time

• Release the load and focus the indentation d1 and d2 of the indentation by means of

the vernier mechanism provided in the screen.

• Make the three independent hardness determinations on each specimen.

Observations and Tabulation:

Fig: Vickers Hardness Mould with Specimen

Result: VHN is

Significance:

Also referred to as a microhardness test method, is mostly used for small pSince the test

indentation is very small in a Vickers test, it is useful for a variety of applications: testing

very thin materials like foils or measuring the surface of a part, small parts or small areas,

measuring individual microstructures, or measuring the depth of case hardening by

sectioning a part and making a series of indentations to describe a profile of the change in

Material

Load ‘P’ Diagonal length of indentation (mm) VHN

Kgf d1 d2 d3 Kg/mm2



hardness. The Vickers method is more commonly used.arts, thin sections, or case depth

work. The Vickers method is based on an optical measurement system



Experiment 8

TEST ON BRICKS

Aim:

To determine the compressive strength of given brick. As per IS-3495 Part I.

Apparatus:

Compressive Testing Machine, Steel Scale and Brick.

Procedure:

Before keeping the brick on the testing machine, note down the length L, breadth B

& Depth D of the brick.

Place the specimen with flat surfaces horizontal.

Apply load axially at a uniform rate of 14 N/mm2 per minute in CTM till failure

occurs and note the maximum load at failure.

Usual crushing strength of the common molded and well burnt brick is 50-100

Kg/mm2.

Observation and Calculation:

Length of Brick L =

Breadth of Brick B =

Depth of brick D =

Si

no

Area of bed surface Load in N Crushing strength

N/mm2

Result: Compressive strength of the given brick sample =



Fig-Failure of brick under compression

Fig-Compression testing machine



Water Absorption:

Dry the specimen in oven at a temperature of 105-115 degrees till it attains

substantially constant mass.

Cool the specimen to room temperature and obtain its weight (W1).

Immerse completely dried specimen in clean water at a room temperature of 27 ± 2

degrees for 24hrs.

Remove the specimen and wipe out any traces of water with a damp cloth.

Take the weight of the specimen (W2).


Length of brick, L=

Breadth of brick, B =

Depth of brick, D =

Weight of dry brick, W1 =

Weight of brick after immersion in water, W2=

Maximum load at which specimen fail, P =

Area of Brick, A= L * B * D

Crushing Strength = Maximum Load at failure / Bearing Area =

Water absorption = (W2 – W1 / W1) * 100

Result:

Compressive Strength of Brick =

Water absorption of brick =



Experiment 8a

TEST ON TILES

Aim:

To determine the flexural strength of a given tile. As per IS-3495 Part II.

Apparatus:

Tile testing machine, steel scale and tiles.

Procedure:

Before keeping the tile on the testing machine, note down the length L,

breadth B & thickness of the tile.

Tile whose compressive strength is to be determined is to be taken and kept

on the Apparatus in between the two iron circular bars and the valve is

closed until the lever arm becomes horizontal.

Measure the empty weight of the bucket let that be W1 gms.

Remove the lid of lead container & keep applying the load until the

specimen fails.

Weigh the bucket again which contains lead let that be W2 gms.

Difference of W1& W2 will give the quantity of lead (load) required to

break the specimen.

Now the specimen is removed by loosening the valves.

The Bending stress of given sample of the tile is given by

f = 3PL / 2bt2 (MPa)

Where P = quantity of lead required to break the specimen (W2 - W1)

L = effective span between the supports = 200cm

b = breadth of the tile in cm, t = thickness of the tile in cm


Length of the Tile = cm

Breadth of the tile = cm

Thickness of the tile = cm

Result: Bending stress of the given tile sample = (MPa)



Fig-Conduction of Flexure test of tile



Experiment 9a

MOISTURE CONTENT OF FINE AGGREGATE

Aim: To determine the moisture content in the fine aggregate by drying method as per IS-

2386 part II

Apparatus:

Weighing Balance (capacity 2 Kg or more and sensitive to 0.5 gm), metal tray and

oven

Theory:

Moisture content means the total water content which includes the absorbed water

plus the free water on the surface of the aggregate. Determination of moisture content of

aggregates is necessary in order to determine net water cement ratio for a batch of concrete.

The high moisture content will increase effective water cement ratio to an appreciable

extent and may even make the concrete weak unless a suitable allowance is made.

Procedure:

• Weigh 1000 gms of fine aggregate in a metal tray.

• Heat the aggregate with tray for about 20 min at about 200°C in an oven.

• Remove the dried aggregates with tray from the oven and weigh it.

• Express the loss in mass as a percentage of the dried sample to give the moisture

content.


Mass of tray and sample W1 gm =

Mass of tray and dry sample W2 gm =

Mass of empty tray W3 gm =

Moisture Wm gm = (W1 - W2) gm

Mass of dry aggregates Wd gm = (W2 – W3) gm

Moisture Content = (Wm / Wd) x 100

Result: Moisture content in the given sample of fine aggregates = %



Experiment 9b

Specific gravity of fine aggregate.

Aim: To determine the specific gravity of the given sample of fine aggregates as per IS-

2720 part I

Apparatus:

Balance (capacity not more than 3 Kg), Pycnometer, distilled water and oven

Theory:

Specific gravity of an aggregate is defined as the ratio of the mass of a given

volume of sample to the mass of equal volume of water at the same temperature. Specific

gravity of fine aggregate is generally required for calculations in connection with concrete

mix design.

It is used in the calculation of volume yield concrete, moisture content and it gives

information on the properties of aggregate

It also indicate the change in the shape and grading of aggregates used in mix design

Absorption influences the behavior of aggregates in concrete in several aspects, for

example a highly absorptive aggregate if used in dry condition will reduce effective water

cement ratio which in turn results in unworkable concrete mix.

Procedure:

Specific Gravity: Take the empty weight of the Pycnometer, W1

• Take the sample of fine aggregates for which specific gravity has to be found out

(sample must be saturated and free from surface moisture) and fill upto 1/3rd

of

Pycnometer and then it is weighed, W2

• The Pycnometer with sample is filled with water up to the tip of the Pycnometer

and its weight is taken. W3

• Then the Pycnometer is emptied and thoroughly washed. After washing, the

Pycnometer is filled with water up to the tip and its weight is taken.(The

Pycnometer should be completely dry on the outer face) W4

• Calculate the specific gravity of the fine aggregate sample by formula

• Specific Gravity = Dry weight of aggregates/weight of equal volume of water

= (W2 – W1) / [(W4 – W1) - (W3 – W2)]



Fig-Coarse and Fine Aggregate Fig.- Pycnometer

Fig-Pycnometer Accessories

Observation and Calculations: Trial1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average

Specific

Gravity

Mass of empty Pycnometer W1 gm

Mass of Pycnometer + fine aggregates

W2 gm

Mass of Pycnometer + fine

aggregates + water, W3 gm

Mass of Pycnometer + water, W4 gm

Result: Specific Gravity of given fine aggregate sample =



Experiment 9c

BULK DENSITY OF FINE AGGREGATES

Aim:

To determine the bulk density of fine aggregates as per IS-269

Apparatus:

Balance (capacity not less than 10 Kg), Cylindrical container, tamping rod

Theory:

Bulk density clearly depends on how densely the aggregates are packed. For a

material of a given specific gravity the bulk density depends on the size distribution and

shape of particles. It is well known that in the metric system, the density of the material is

numerically equal to its specific gravity, although, of course, the latter is a ratio while

density is expressed in kg per liter. However, in concrete practice, to express the density in

kg per cubic meter is more common. When aggregate is to be actually batched by volume,

it is necessary to know the weight of the aggregate that would fill a container of unit

volume. This is known as bulk density of aggregate and this density is used to convert the

quantities by weight to quantities by volume.

Procedure:

• Compact state: Depending on the size of testing aggregates, size of the container is

taken. The container is calibrated (i.e. empty weight and volume of container is

measured). Let weight be W1 and volume be V.

• Then dried aggregates are filled in three layers into the container and each layer is

compacted uniformly using tamping rod of 10 mm diameter with 25 blows to each

layer.

• After the aggregate is completely filled in container, weight of the aggregate with

container is measured, say W2.

• Loose State: The container is filled to overflowing by means of a shovel or scoop,

the aggregates being discharged from a height of not exceeding 5cm above the top

of the container. The surface is then levelled using a straight edge. The net weight of

aggregate is noted down. W3

Bulk density = weight of aggregates (Kg) / volume of container m3

= Kg/ m3




Specific gravity of fine aggregate, Gs. =

Diameter of cylinder, d =

Height of the cylinder, h =

Volume of container, V= d2h/4 = m3

Empty weight of the container, W1 = kg

For Compact State:

(Weight of cylindrical metal measure + aggregate in compact state), W2= kg.

Weight of aggregate in compact state, Wc = W2-W1 = kg.

Bulk density (Bc) = Wc /V kg/lit =

Percentage of voids = [(Gs - Bc) / Gs]*100 =

For loose state:

Weight of cylindrical metal measure + aggregate in loose state W3= kg.

Weight of fine aggregate in loose state, WL = W3 - W1= kg.

Bulk density (BL) = WL/V kg/lit =

Percentage voids = [(Gs -BL) / Gs]*100=

Result:

Compact Bulk density of given fine aggregate sample = Kg/ m3

Loose Bulk density of given fine aggregate sample = Kg/ m3

Fig-Filling of fine aggregates into the container



Significance:

It is the characteristics generally used for calculation of the volume occupied by the

aggregate in various mixtures containing aggregate on an absolute volume basis. Bulk

specific gravity is also used in the computation of voids in aggregate in AASHTO T 19 and

the determination of moisture in aggregate by displacement in water. Bulk specific gravity

determined on the saturated surface-dry basis is used if the aggregate is wet, that is, if its

absorption has been satisfied. Conversely, the bulk specific gravity determined on the oven-

dry basis is used for computations when the aggregate is dry or assumed to be dry.



Experiment 9d

SIEVE ANALYSIS OF FINE AGGREGATES Aim:

To conduct sieve analysis of fine aggregate and grade the aggregates as per IS-

269.

Apparatus:

Balance (capacity not less than 3 Kg), IS Sieve set and sieve shaker

Theory:

Sieve analysis is simple test consisting of sieving a measured quantity of material

through successively smaller sieves. The weight retained on each sieve is expressed as a

percentage of the total sample. The sedimentation principle has been used for finding the

grain size distribution of fine soil fraction. Two methods commonly used are Pipette

method and hydrometer method of distribution of soil particles. Most of the methods for

soil identification and classifications are based on certain physical properties of the

aggregate. The commonly used properties for soil classification are the grain size

distribution. Grain size analysis also known as mechanical analysis. It determines the

percentage of the individual grain size present in the sample. The result of the test of great

value in soil classification. In mechanical stabilization of soil and for designing soil

aggregate mixture, the results of gradation test are used. Conclusions have been made

between the grain size distributions of soil and the general soil behaviors as a sub grade

material and the performance such as susceptibility to frost action. Sand is fine aggregate

used in mortar. Coarse aggregate that is broken stone or gravel and the mixed aggregate

are used in concrete. Coarse aggregate, unless mixed with fine aggregate does not produce

good quality concrete for construction works

Fineness modulus:

Fineness modulus is only a numerical index of fineness giving some idea of the

mean size of particles in the entire body of the aggregate.

Type of aggregate Max size of aggregate

(mm)

Fineness Modulus

Min

Max

Fine aggregate 4.75 2.00 3.50



Procedure:

• Take 1 kg of fine aggregates sample ]

• Arrange the sieves in the order of I.S. Sieve size 4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 1.18 mm, 600

microns, 300 microns, 150 microns by keeping the 4.75 mm size sieve at top and

150 micron at the bottom.

• Fix them in the sieve shaking machine with the pan at the bottom and cover at the

top

• Keep the sample in the top sieve, Carry out the sieving in the set of sieves as

arranged before for not less than 5 minutes.

• Weigh the mass retained on each sieve

• The grain size of size less than 4.75 mm is determined by sieving set sieves of

decreasing order; sieve placed one below the other and separating out the different

size ranges. Two methods of sieve analysis are as follows-

1. wet sieving applicable to all soil and

2. Dry sieving applicable only to soil which has negligible proportion of clay

and silt.

Fineness Modulus = Cumulative percentage weight retained in sieves / 100 =

Fig-Pouring aggregates into the seive set Fig-Sieves




Weight of fine aggregate for sieving =

Weight

Percentage Cumulative Cumulative

Sieve Size Weight Percentage Percentage

Retained

Retained weight retained weight passing

4.75 mm

2.36 mm

1.18 mm

600 microns

300 microns

150 microns

75 microns

Pan

∑C =

Result:

Fineness modulus of fine aggregates = Sum of Cumulative weight retained /100 =∑C /100

Graph:

Semi log graph is used and percentage passing is taken in the ordinary scale (Y-axis) and

IS sieve sizes on the logarithm scale (X-axis)

Significance:

The sieve analysis, commonly known as the gradation test, is a basic essential test for all

aggregate technicians. The sieve analysis determines the gradation (the distribution of

aggregate particles, by size, within a given sample) in order to determine compliance with

design, production control requirements, and verification specifications. The gradation data

may be used to calculate relationships between various aggregate or aggregate blends, to

check compliance with such blends, and to predict trends during production by plotting

gradation curves graphically, to name just a few uses.



Experiment 9e

BULKING OF FINE AGGREGATES Aim:

To determine bulking of fine aggregates and to draw curve between water content

and Bulking. As per IS 269.

Apparatus:

Balance, cylindrical container, graduated cylinder, beaker, metal tray, steel rule and

oven

Theory:

In concrete mix design, the quantity of fine aggregates used in each batch should be

related to the known volume of cement. The difficulty with the measurement of fine

aggregate by volume is the tendency of sand to vary in bulk according to moisture content.

The extent of this variation is given by this test. If sand is measured by volume and no

allowance is made for bulking, the mix will be richer than that specified because for given

mass, moist sand occupies a considerably large volume than the same mass of dry sand, as

the particles are less closely packed when the sand is moist. If, as usual sand is measured by

loose volume, it is necessary in such a case to increase the measured volume of the sand, in

order that the amount of sand put into concrete may be the amount intended for the normal

mix used (based on the dry sand). It will be necessary to increase the volume of sand by

percentage bulking. The correction to be made is only a rough method at the best, but a

correction of the right order can easily be determined and should be applied in order to keep

the concrete uniform.

Procedure:

o Volumetric analysis:

Take 500 gms of oven dry sand

Add two percent by weight of water into the sand after emptying it into a clean

tray and thoroughly mix it by hand.

Put the wet sand loosely into the measuring jar and level the surface and note

down the volume. Let it be V.

Repeat the above procedure by adding 2 percent of water everytime till the

volume increases to a maximum and then drops

Normally for sand obtained from river beds the percentage of bulking ranges

from 3 to 30% depending up on the moisture content & particle size.



Observations & calculations:

o Volumetric analysis:

Tabular column:

Mass of Sand

Volume of added water

Vol of Sand %Bulking=[(V1

-

V)*100]/V

Percentage of

water V1 ml

Calculation:

Weight of dry sand, W= gm.

For 2% water

Volume of water= (W*2)/100= ml.

%Bulking of sand= [(V1-V)*100]/V =

Result:

Bulking of Fine aggregate = percentage The percentage of bulking of given sand sample is

Graph:

A graph is plotted between percentage of water content on x-axis and % bulking on

the y-axis.

Significance:

Bulk density is the characteristics generally used for calculation of the volume

occupied by the aggregate in various mixtures containing aggregate on an absolute volume

basis. Bulk density determined on the saturated surface-dry basis is used if the aggregate is

wet, that is, if its absorption has been satisfied. Conversely, the bulk density determined on

the oven-dry basis is used for computations when the aggregate is dry or assumed to be dry.

Weight of oven dry aggregate, W= gm

Volume of oven dry sand ,V= ml



Experiment 10a.

MOISTURE CONTENT OF COARSE AGGREGATE

Aim:

To determine the moisture content (surface moisture) in coarse aggregate by drying

method. As per IS 269.

Apparatus:

Weighing Balance (capacity 2 kg or more and sensitive to 0.5 gm), metal tray and

oven

Theory:

Moisture content means the total water content which includes the absorbed water

plus the free water on the surface of the aggregate. Determination of moisture content of an

aggregate is necessary in order to determine net water- cement ratio for a batch of concrete.

High moisture content will increase effective water-cement ratio to an appreciable extent

and even make the concrete weak unless a suitable allowance is made

Procedure:

• Weigh approximately 1000 gm of aggregate from the material to be tested by the

method of quartering in a metal tray.

• Heat the aggregate in the tray for about 20 minutes

• Remove the fried aggregates from a tray thoroughly and weigh it.

• Express the loss in mass as a percentage of the dried sample to give the moisture

content.


Mass of tray and sample = W1 gm =

Mass of tray and dry sample = W2 gm =

Mass of empty tray = W3 gm =

Moisture = Wm gm = (W1- W2) gm

Weight of dry aggregates = Wd gm = (W2- W3) gm

Percentage moisture content = ( Wm / Wd) x 100

Result:

Moisture content in the given sample of coarse aggregate = percentage



Experiment 10b.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WATER ABSORPTION OF COARSE AGGREGATE

Aim:

To determine the specific gravity and water absorption of given coarse aggregate.

As per IS-269.

Apparatus:

Weighing Balance (capacity about 3 kg), wire basket (not more than 6.3 mm mesh),

containers, air tight container (capacity similar to that of basket, oven, shallow tray and

two dry absorbent clothes (each not less than 75 x 45 mm), Aggregate size in between to

4.75 and 10mm

Theory:

Specific gravity of an aggregate is defined as the ratio of mass of a given sample to

the mass of equal volume of water at the same temperature. Specific gravity of fine

aggregate is generally required for calculation with concrete mix design.

It is used in the calculation of volume yield of concrete, moisture content and it gives

information of the properties of aggregates. It also indicates the changes in shape and

grading of aggregates used in mix design

Specific gravity of an aggregate is considered to be a measure of strength or quality

of the material. Stones having low specific gravity are generally weakest than those with

higher specific gravity value.

Water absorption gives an idea of strength of rock. Stones having more water

absorption are more porous in nature and generally considered unsuitable unless they are

found to be acceptable based on strength, impact and hardness test

Absorption influences the behavior of aggregates in concrete in several aspects. For

example, a highly soluble aggregate, if used in dry condition will reduce effective water

cement ratio which in turn results in unworkable concrete mix

Procedure:

Specific Gravity:

• About 2 kg of the aggregate sample is washed thoroughly to remove fines

• Thoroughly washed aggregate sample is placed in a wire basket and immersed in

water at a temperature between 220 C to 32

0 C (a minimum of 5 cm of water has to

be maintained above top of the basket)

• Immediately after immersion, in order to remove the entrapped air from the basket,



it is jolted 25 times at a rate of 1 jolt/second within the water level.

• The basket and the aggregate should remain completely immersed in water for a

period of 24 ± ½ hours

• The basket and the sample are weighed while suspended in water and the weight is

taken as W1 grams.

• Then the aggregates are transferred to one of the dry absorbent cloth.

• The empty basket is suspended in water and the weight is taken as W2 grams.

• Aggregates placed on the absorbent cloth are completely surface dried (aggregates

should not be exposed to direct sun light or any other source of heat while surface

drying. A gentle current of unheated air may be used during the first 10 minutes to

accelerate the drying of aggregate surface).

• The surface dried aggregates are weighed and the weight and the weight is taken as

W3 grams

• Then the aggregate is removed from the oven and cooled to atmospheric

temperature and the weight of the aggregate is taken as W4 grams.

Bulk specific Gravity = Dry weight of aggregates / weight of equal volume of water

= W4 / (W3 – (W1 – W2))

=

Apparent Specific Gravity = Dry weight of aggregates / (Weight of equal volume of water

excluding air voids in aggregates)

= W4 / (W4 – (W1 – W2))

=

Absorption Test:

Take the sample of the coarse aggregate and soak it in water and keep it for about

24±1/2 hours. Temperature should be 27±50C

• Weigh the sample of saturated surface dry (it should be saturated and free from

surface moisture), let this weight be W1

• Dry the sample in oven at 1000C to 110

0C for the period of 24 hours. Take the

weight of the dry sample and let the weight be W2

• Calculate the absorption of the coarse aggregate by the

formulae = (W1 – W2) / W2 x 100



Fig-Specific gravity test of coarse aggregates Fig-Specific gravity bucket


Trial1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average

Specific Mass of empty bucket W1 gm

Gravity

Mass of bucket + coarse aggregates

W2

Gm

Mass of bucket + coarse aggregates

+

water, W3 gm

Mass of bucket + water, W4 gm

Water

Mass of saturated aggregate W1

gm

Absorption

Mass of oven dried aggregates W2

gm

Result:

Specific gravity of given coarse aggregate = percentage



Water absorption of given coarse aggregate = percentage

Significance:

Apparent specific gravity pertains to the relative density of the solid material making up

the constituent particles not including the pore space within the particles that is accessible

to water. This value is not widely used in construction aggregate technology .



Experiment 10c.

BULK DENSITY OF COARSE AGGREGATES

Aim: To determine the bulk density of given coarse aggregates. As per IS-269.

Apparatus:

Weighing Balance (capacity not less than 10 kg), cylindrical container, tamping rod

and oven

Theory:

Bulk density clearly depends on how densely the aggregates are packed. For a

material of given specific gravity the bulk density depends on the size distribution and

shape of particles. It is well known that in the metric system, the density of material is

numerically equal to its specific gravity, although of course, the latter is the ratio while

density is expressed in kg per liter. However in concrete practice, to express the density in

kg per cubic meter is more common. When aggregates are to be actually balanced by

volume, it is necessary to know the weight of the aggregates that would fill a continuum of

unit volume. This is known as bulk density of aggregates and this density is used to convert

quantities by weight to quantities by volume. Loose bulk density (uncompressed) and

compacted bulk density is among two types of bulk densities.

Procedure:

Compact state: Depending on the size of the testing aggregate, the size of the

container is taken. The container is calibrated (i.e. empty weight and volume of

container is measured).

Let weight be W1 and volume be V. Then dried aggregate is filled in three layers

into the container and each layer is compacted uniformly using tamping rod of 10

mm diameter with round nosed (25 blows are given to each layer).

After the aggregate is completely filled in container, weight of the container and

aggregate is measured, say W2

• Loose State: The measure is filled to overflowing by means of a shovel or scoop,

the aggregates being discharged from a height of not exceeding 5cm above the top

of measure. The surface in then leveled using a straight edge. The net weight of

aggregate is noted down.

Bulk density = weight of aggregates (Kg) / volume of container m3

= Kg/ m3




Specific gravity of fine aggregate, Gs. =

Weight of cylindrical measure, W1= kg.

Weight of cylindrical measure + water, W2 = kg

Weight of water, W2-W1= kg.

Volume of container, V= liter. Fig-Density Cylinder

For Compact State:

(Weight of cylindrical metal measure + aggregate in compact state), W3= kg.

Weight of aggregate in compact state, Wc = W3-W1 = kg.

Bulk density (Bc) = Wc /V kg/lit

=

Percentage of voids = [(Gs - Bc) / Gs]*100

=

For loose state:

Weight of cylindrical metal measure + aggregate in loose state W4= kg.

Weight of fine aggregate in loose state, WL = W4 - W1= kg.

Bulk density (BL) = WL/V kg/lit

=

Percentage voids = [(Gs -BL) / Gs]*100=

Result: Compact Bulk density of given fine aggregate sample = Kg/ m

3

Loose Bulk density of given fine aggregate sample = Kg/ m

3

Fig-Bulk density buckets and tamping rod



Significance:

Bulk density is the characteristics generally used for calculation of the volume occupied by

the aggregate in various mixtures containing aggregate on an absolute volume basis. Bulk

density is also used in the computation of voids in aggregate in AASHTO T 19 and the

determination of moisture in aggregate by displacement in water. Bulk density determined

on the saturated surface-dry basis is used if the aggregate is wet, that is, if its absorption has

been satisfied. Conversely, the bulk density determined on the oven-dry basis is used for

computations when the aggregate is dry or assumed to be dry.



Experiment 10d.

SIEVE ANALYSIS OF COARSE AGGREGATE

Aim: To conduct sieve analysis of coarse aggregate and grade the aggregate. As per IS-

269.

Apparatus:

Weighing Balance (capacity not less than 3 kg), I.S. Sieve set and sieve shaker

Theory:

Sieve analysis is a simple test consisting of sieving a measured quantity of material

through successively smaller sieves. The weight retained on each sieve is expressed as a

percentage of the total sample. The sedimentation principle has been used for finding the

grain size distribution of fine soil fraction. Two methods commonly used are pipette

method and hydrometer method of distribution of soil particles. Most of the methods for

soil identification and classification are based on the certain physical properties of

aggregate. The commonly used properties for the classification are the grain size

distribution. Grain size analysis is also known as mechanical analysis. It determines the

percentage of the individual grain size present in the sample. The result of the test is of

great value in soil classification. In mechanical stabilization of soil and for designing soil

aggregate mixture, the result of gradation test is used. Conclusions have also been made

between the grain size distribution of soil and the general soil behaviors as a sub grade

material and the performance such as susceptibility to frost action. Sand is fine aggregate

used in mortar. Coarse aggregate is that broken stone or gravel and the mixed aggregate

which is the combination of coarse aggregate and fine aggregate are used in concrete.

Coarse aggregate, unless mixed with the fine aggregate does not produce good quality

concrete for construction works

Fineness Modulus:

Fineness modulus is only a numerical index of fineness giving some idea of mean

size of particles in the entire body of the aggregate. The object of finding the fineness

modulus is to grade the aggregate for obtaining most economical and workable mix



Type of

aggregate

Max. size of

aggregate Fineness Modulus

(mm) Min Max

Coarse Aggregate

20 6.00 6.90

40 6.90 7.50

75 7.50 8.00

Table 1.limits of fineness modulus of coarse aggregates

Procedure:

• Take 1 kg of coarse aggregates sample.

• Arrange the sieves in the order of I.S. Sieve size 80 mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 4.75mm &

pan by keeping the 80 mm size sieve at top and 4.75 micron at the bottom.

• Fix them in the sieve shaking machine with the pan at the bottom and cover at the

top.

• Keep the sample in the top sieve. Carry out the sieving in the set of sieves as

arranged before for not less than 5 minutes.

• Weigh the mass retained on each sieve.

Fineness Modulus = Cumulative percentage weight retained in sieves / 100 =


Weight of fine aggregate for sieving =

Weight

Retained

Percentage

Weight

Retained

Cumulative

Percentage

weight

retained

Cumulative

Percentage

weight passing

Sieve Size

80 mm

40 mm

20mm

4.75mm

pan

∑C =



Result:

Fineness modulus of coarse aggregates = Sum of Cumulative weight retained /100 = ∑C

/100

Graph:

Semi log graph is used and percentage passing is taken in the ordinary scale (Y-axis) and

IS sieve sizes on the logarithm scale (X-axis).

Fig-Sieve analysis of coarse aggregates

Significance:

The sieve analysis, commonly known as the gradation test, is a basic essential test for all

aggregate technicians. The sieve analysis determines the gradation (the distribution of

aggregate particles, by size, within a given sample) in order to determine compliance with

design, production control requirements, and verification specifications. The gradation data

may be used to calculate relationships between various aggregate or aggregate blends, to



check compliance with such blends, and to predict trends during production by plotting

gradation curves graphically, to name just a few uses.



Experiment 11.

Demonstration of Strain gauges and Strain indicators.

Fig – Strain Gauge Test Apparatus

Aim: To study various types of strain gauges.

Theory: A strain gauge may be defined as an instrument or device that is employed to

measure the linear deformation over a given gauge length, occurring in the material of a

structure during the loading of structures. Depending upon the magnification system the

strain gauges

1) Mechanical

a) Wedge and screw

b) Lever- simple and compound

c) Rock and pinion

d) Combination of lever and rack and pinion

e) Dial Indicators

2) Electrical

a) Inductance

b) Capacitance

c) Piezoelectric and piezoresiotue

Accuracy & repeatability: - Sensitive does not ensure accuracy. Usually the very

sensitive instruments are quite prone to error unless they are employed with utmost care.

Before selecting a particular type of gauge following factors must also be carefully

evaluated.



1. Readalutity

2. Ease of Mounting

3. Required operator skill

4. Weight

5. Frequency Response

6. Cost

Mechanical Strain Gauges:-

a) Wedge and Screw orignification:-

The wedge gauge is simply a triangular plate with its longer sides related at 1:10

slope when inserted between two shoulders dipped to the test specimen, extension

could be detected nearest 0.05mm. A single screw extensometer which is one of

the pioneer instruments used for measurement of strain. The magnification in this

instrument is accomplished solely by a screw micrometer a measures the relative

motion of two coaxial tubes.

1. Magnetic 2.Acoustical 3.Pnuematic 4.Scratch Type 5. Photo stress gauge

Characteristics of a strain gauge:-

A strain gauge has the following four basic characteristics

Gauge length: The gauge size for a mechanical strain gauge is characterized by the

distance between two knife edges in contact with the specimen and by width of a movable

knife edges non linear strum which should be as small as possible

2. Sensitivity: It is the smallest value of strain which can be read on the scale

associated with strain gauge. Sensitivity can be defined in two way:

Strain Sensitivity = (Deformation sensitivity / Base length)

Deformation sensitivity = (Smallest reading of scale / multiplication factor)

Range: This represents the maximum can be recorded without resetting or replacing the

strain gauge. The range and sensitivity are

Simple Mechanical lever magnification:- The simple lever strain gauge gains its

magnification factors by a suitable positioning of fulcrum cap’s multiplying divider is an

important extensiomeus of this category. The magnification of this type of gauge is

unlimited. The gauge length of cap’s divider is 5cm and strain magnified 10:1 on graduated

scale.

a) Compound Magnification system: - Two commercially available gauges



which utilize the compound magnification are illustrated by Barry gauge and

tinusis oisen strain gauge. The Barry strain gauge consists of a frame a with

two conically painted contact points. One point b is rigidly fixed to frame

while other c is provided from a frame and is internal with a lever armed

which alone magnifies the strain about 5.5/ A screw micrometer or dial

indicator is used to measure the motion of arm, thus permitting measurements

of strain to nearest 0.005 m with a 0.025mm micrometer.

b) Compound lever Magnification:- Two gauges of this category are

Huggenberger strain gauge and parter lipp strain gauge. In these instruments

the magnification system is composed of two or more simple levers in serus.

They have relatively small size and high magnification factor.

c) Mechanical by rack and pinion:- The rack and pinion principle alone with

various types of gear strain is employed in gauge in which the magnification

system is incorporated in an indicating dial. In general a dial indicator consists

of an encased in grain train actuated by a rack cut in spindle which follows the

motion to be measured. A spring imposes sufficient spindle force to maintain

a reasonably uniform and positive contact with the moving part. The gear train

terminates with a light weight pointer which indicator spindle travel on a

graduating dial. Lost motion in gear trauma is minimized by positive force of

a small coil spring the dial gauge extensometer is the most popular gauge of

this type used in a material testing laboratory. Dial gauge indicator are

frequently attached permanently to a structure to indicate the deflection on

deformation obtained under working condition.

Acoustical strain gauge: - The vibrating wire or acoustical gauge consists essentially of

a steel wire tensioned between two supports a predetermined distance apart. Vibration of

the distance alerts the natural frequency of vibration of the wire and thus change in

frequency may be correlated with the change in strain causing. An electromagnet

adjacent to the wire may be used to set the wire in vibration and this wire movement will

generate on oscillating electrical signal. The signal may be compared with the pitch

adjustable standard wire, the degree of adjustment necessary to match of two signal

frequencies being provided by a tensioning screw on the slandered wove calibration of

this screw allows direct determination of change of length of a measuring gauge to be

made once the standard gauge has been tuned to match the frequency of measuring wire.



The visual display produced is a cko renders adjustment easier. Tuning is now

more usually accomplished by feeding the two signals in to two pours of plated of an

oscillogram and making use of the luscious figure formation to balance the frequencies.

Matching of tones is simplified and made more accurate by tuning out the beats with

results when the vibration frequencies of two are nearly the same.

1 p p elA

The fundamental frequency of a stretch wire f =

2L m 2l L



Viva Questions:

1. Define Hooke’s Law.

2. Define Strength of materials

3. Define stress and strain.

4. Define deformation.

5. How is deformation calculated?

6. Explain Rigid Body.

7. Explain deformable solids.

8. Differentiate simple and compound stress.

9. What is stiffness?

11. Explain the various types of stresses.

12. Explain the various types of strains.

13. What is volumetric strain?

14. Differentiate Tensile Strain and Tensile stress.

15. Differentiate Compressive Strain and Compressive stress.

16. Differentiate Shear Strain and Shear stress.

17. What is factor of safety?

18. What is Ultimate strength?

19. What is working stress?

20. What is Yield Strength?

21. Define Stiffness of a helical spring.

22. Differentiate between closed and open coil helical spring.

23. Principle of Superposition in bars of varying cross section.

24. Types of Load.

25. Explain torque.

26. What is Torsional force?

27. What is torsional rigidity?

28. Define Centripetal force.

29. Define Centrifugal force.

30. Explain Radius of gyration.

31. What is calibration?

32. Explain about Moment of inertia.



33. Differentiate Inertia and Polar moment of inertia.

34. Explain Traction.

35. Explain about Principal plane and Principal axis.

36. Draw Shear force diagram for a cantilever beam with UDL and point load.

37. Draw Shear force diagram for a SSB with UDL and point load.

38. What are SSB, Fixed Beams, and Hinged Beams?

39. Explain the equilibrium condition for a body.

40. Differentiate between Bar and column

41. Define beams.

42. What is Shear centre?

43. Explain elastic constants.

44. What is Poisson’s ratio?

45. Differentiate Longitudinal and Lateral Strain.

46. Relation between Bulk Modulus and Young’s modulus.

47. Explain about modulus of rigidity.

48. What is Strain energy?

49. What is Resilience?

50. Define proof of resilience.

51. Define modulus of resilience.

52. How is potential energy related to strain energy?

53. Explain Castigliano’s Theorem.

54. What is slenderness ratio?

55. When do we call the failure to be fatigue?

56. Explain sudden impact.

57. Explain about buckling in a beam.

58. Why is it necessary to check hardness?

59. Enumerate the advantages of Rockwell Hardness test over Brinell’s hardness test.

60. Differentiate between pneumatic and hydraulic pumps.

61. Write the Unit of force, deflection, stress, strain, E, K, and G.

62. Mention the principle Purpose of UTM.

63. Define a Hydraulic jack.

64. What is torsional bending?

65. What is axial load?



66. Say something on ageing factor.

67. Define Section modulus.

68. What is a composite beam?

69. Explain Vickers Number.

70. Define compressive strength of Brick.

71. Differentiate malleable, ductile and fragile material.

72. Define Specific gravity, Bulk density, Bulk Modulus, Shear Modulus.

73. Explain the stress strain curve of Malleable and ductile material.

74. Define tangent modulus and secant modulus.

75. Explain fracture point and yield point.

76. Define proof stress and Hoop’s stress.

77. Explain lateral stress and lateral strain.

78. Write the expression for volumetric strain.

79. Define viscosity, ductility and malleability.

80. Explain Newton’s law of viscosity.

81. Write the expression for shear strain for a fragile material.

82. Define Young’s Modulus, Bulk Modulus and Rigidity modulus of a ductile material.

83. Differentiate shear strain and plain strain.

84. Explain proportional limit.

85. Write the bending stress equation and torsion stress equation.

86. Explain Mohr’s method of determining principal stresses and principal strains.



References:

• Gilliam. E, Materials Under Stress, Butterworth, London

• Davis, Troxell and Hawk, Testing of Engineering Materials “International

Student Edition McGraw Hill Book Co”, New Delhi

• Test Methods for Compression Members, ASTM

• Elements of Strength of Materials, Timoshenko and Young, Affiliated East West

Press

• Strength of Materials, S. S. Bhavikatti, Vikas Publications House Pvt. Ltd

• Shear and Torsion Testing, ASTM Philadelphia

• Lysaght, V. E. and A. Debellis, Hardness testing handbook, American Chain and

cable Co.

• Building Construction, Sushilkumar, Standard Publishers Distributors, Delhi

• Engineering Materials, Rangwala, Chartor Publishers

• Concrete properties, A. M. Neville, the English Language Society and Pitman

Publishing

• Concrete Manual, M. L. Gambhir, DhanpatRai and Sons

• Concrete Technology, M. S. Shetty, S and Company New Delhi

• Concrete Technology, K. T. Krishnaswamy, A. kamasundaraRao, A. A. Khandekar,

DhanpatRai and Sons

*******************************************************

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