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COASTAL AREAMANAGEMENTIN MALTA


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Note

This document was prepared by the PriorityActions Programme Regional Activity Centre(PAP/RAC) of the Mediterranean Action Plan(MAP-UNEP). The authors of the document areLouis Vella, Christine M. Tanti and Avertano Rol.

Zeljka Skaricic contributed to its general revisionand finalisation, and Viktor Popovic designed andprepared the document for printing.

The designations employed and the presentationof the material in this document do not imply theexpression of any opinion whatsoever on the partof the United Nations Environment Programmeor the Mediterranean Action Plan concerning thelegal status of any state, territory, city or area, ortheir authorities, or concerning the delimitation ofits frontiers or boundaries. The views expressedin this document do not necessarily representthe views of the United Nations EnvironmentProgramme.

2005 Priority Actions Programme RegionalActivity Centre, SplitISBN 953-6429-56-X

This publication may be reproduced in whole orin part in any form of educational and non-profitpurposes without special permission from thecopyright holder, provided acknowledgementof the source is made. PAP would appreciate

receiving a copy of any publication that uses thismaterial as source.

No use of this publication may be made for resaleor any other commercial purposes whatsoeverwithout prior permission in writing from thecopyright holder.

For bibliographic purposes this document may be

cited as:PAP/RAC: Coastal Area Management in theMaltese Islands, Priority Actions ProgrammeRegional Activity Centre, Split, 2005.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of PlatesList of FiguresList of TablesList of BoxesList of Acronyms

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSPREFACEEXECUTIVE SUMMARY

CHAPTER I / Introduction1. PURPOSE OF THE REPORT

1.1 TRADITION OF ICAM IN MALTA

CHAPTER II / The Maltese Coastal Environment2. THE COASTAL ZONE

2.1 GEOLOGY2.2 CLIMATE2.3 COASTAL HABITATS

2.3.1 Coastal wetlands2.3.2 Sand dunes2.3.3 Rupestral communities2.3.4 Low-lying maritime rock communities2.3.5 Marine benthic zones2.3.6 Unique microhabitats

2.4 NATURAL COASTAL RESOURCES2.4.1 Freshwater2.4.2 Fisheries2.4.3 Fisheries Conservation zone2.4.4 Agricultural land2.4.5 Soils

2.4.6 Salinisation of lioral agricultural fields2.5 LANDSCAPE AND NATURAL VALUES

2.5.1 Faults2.5.2 Shore platforms2.5.3 Other features2.5.4 Terracing

2.6 BIODIVERSITY AND PROTECTED AREAS

CHAPTER III / Social, cultural and archaeological features of the coastal area3.1 SOCIO-CULTURAL FEATURES3.2 MALTA / GOZO GEOGRAPHICAL INDUCED DISTRIBUTIONS3.3 NORTH / SOUTH CULTURAL INDUCED DISTRIBUTIONS

3.4 COASTAL / INLAND INDUCED DISTRIBUTIONS3.5 AGRARIAN / INDUSTRIAL DISTRIBUTIONS3.6 LAND / SEA AS RECREATIONAL SPACES3.7 RELIGION3.8 TRANSPORTATION3.9 TRADITIONAL BELIEFS3.10 COASTAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL, CULTURAL AND HISTORIC SITES

3.10.1 Marine archaeology

CHAPTER IV / Development pressures4.1 POPULATION OF COASTAL AREAS4.2 ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS4.3 SOCIAL ISSUES

4.4 URBAN DEVELOPMENT4.5 AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY AND FISHERIES4.6 INDUSTRY AND MINING4.7 INFRASTRUCTURE

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4.8 TOURISM4.9 ENERGY

CHAPTER V / Environmental and Spatial Impacts5.1 MARINE POLLUTION5.2 AIR POLLUTION5.3 SOIL CONTAMINATION

5.4 POLLUTION OF GROUND WATER5.5 LANDSCAPE DEGRADATION5.6 BIODIVERSITY LOSSES5.7 DAMAGE TO NATURAL AND CULTURAL RESOURCES5.8 WASTES MANAGEMENT5.9 NOISE

CHAPTER VI / Policy responses and practices6.1 INTRODUCTION6.2 CURRENT PRACTICES IN COASTAL MANAGEMENT6.3 POLICY FRAMEWORK6.4 INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK

6.4.1 Coastal legislation6.4.2 Existing strategies and policies for ICAM6.4.3 Existing institutions and responsibilities

6.5 COASTAL MANAGEMENT IN PRACTICE6.5.1 Introduction6.5.2 Data collection and management6.5.3 General conclusions

6.6 INTRODUCTION OF NEW TOOLS AND METHODOLOGIES6.8 PUBLIC PARTICIPATION6.9 DISSEMINATION AND EXCHANGE OF EXPERIENCES AND INFORMATION

CHAPTER VII / General Issues relating to ICAM7.1 GENERAL ISSUES

7.2 MAJOR LEGITIMATE EXPECTATIONS7.3 CULTURAL RESOURCES7.4 TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN COASTAL AREAS

7.4.1 Sporting activities7.5 MARITIME ACTIVITIES7.6 FISH FARMING7.7 SECURITY ISSUES7.8 DESIGN AND PLANNING

7.8.1 Siting of Buildings and Infrastructure7.8.2 Wind Energy Farms7.8.3 Land reclamation7.8.4 Beach Nourishment and Marina Development

7.8.5 Quarrying7.8.6 Salt Pans7.8.7 Roads7.8.8 Promenades7.8.9 Landscaping7.8.10 Pipelines and cables7.8.11 Oil Exploration

7.9 SOLID WASTE COLLECTION AND TREATMENT PROGRAMMES7.9.1 Lier

7.10 SEWAGE7.11 EDUCATION7.12 RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES

7.12.1 Changes in recreational paerns

7.13 HEALTH AND SAFETY ISSUES7.14 BEACH MANAGEMENT PLANS

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CHAPTER VIII / The Future of ICAM in Malta8 INTRODUCTION

8.1 LEGAL PROVISIONS8.2 INSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS8.3 PROPOSED FUNCTIONS OF CRAB8.4 WORKING METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER IX / Examples of Coastal Management in practice9.1 MAP CAMP - THE MALTA PROJECT9.2 GHAJN TUFFIEHA/RAMLA L-HAMRA9.3 REGIONAL PROJECT FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF MARINE AND COASTAL

PROTECTED AREAS IN THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION (MEDMPA)

Bibliography

Annex I / List of flora and fauna recorded from the Maltese IslandsAnnex II

1 Coastal Zone Management (Structure Plan Policies CZM 1- 3; TOU 15)Annex III / Structure Plan policies affecting the coastal zone

1 General Conservation: Policies RCO 10, RCO 11, RCO 19, RCO 20, RCO 21, RCO 242 Beaches: Policies: RCO 16, RCO 17, RCO 18, RCO 23, RCO 223 Specific Areas: Policies: RCO 34, RCO 36, RCO 37, RCO4 Marine Conservation Areas: Policies: MCO 1-13

Annex IV / Indicators for coastal issuesAnnex V

Coastal declaration for MaltaCoastal Zone DeclarationPrinciples for an Integrated Coastal Area Management Plan

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List of PlatesPlate 1 Cart ruts in the town of San GwannPlate 2 Temple complex at Mnajdra 3600 BCPlate 3 Vallea, planning on a grid paernPlate 4 Coat of arms - Grand Master Jean Parisot

de la Valee

Plate 5 Qala Point Baery guarding the NorthComino ChannelPlate 6 Ramla Bay in winter GozoPlate 7 Azure Window in GozoPlate 8 Posidonia banqueesPlate 9 Traditional fishing cra berthed at

MarsaxlokkPlate 10 Fishing community turned touristic

araction in the sunken doline of Dwejrain Gozo

Plate 11 Terracing in Xlendi GozoPlate 12 Citrus Orchards on terraced coastal

slopes. San Blas GozoPlate 13 Simar Bird SanctuaryPlate 14 Ghadira Bird SanctuaryPlate 15 Dense conurbation around the portsPlate 16 Inter Island transport is a key element

in the development of tourism andindustrial activity

Plate 17 Erosion and degradation caused byoffroad activities

Plate 18 St Pauls Islands: Nature reserve andcultural site

Plate 19 Coastal fortifications around ValleaPlate 20 Large scale coastal development

Plate 21 Hard-stone quarryingPlate 22 Sostone quarryingPlate 23 DeRedin Tower at Pembroke besieged by

hotel developmentPlate 24 DeRedin Tower at Ghajn Tuffieha in

pristine isolationPlate 25 Incorporation the old with the new:

Tinge Development projectPlate 26 Ghajn TuffiehaPlate 27 The public expects equitable access to

coastal areasPlate 28 Collecting salt from pans in Gozo

Plate 29 Elevated road across valley which allowsmovement of wildlife and sedimentsacross

List of FiguresFigure 1 Geological strata in MaltaFigure 2 Average mean monthly temperature at

Luqa 1920 - 2004Figure 3 Malta yearly total rainfall 1840 2000Figure 4 24 hour maximum rainfall at Luqa 1923

- 1998Figure 5 National Fisheries Conservation ZoneFigure 6 Population growth for Maltese Islands

for last 6 yearsFigure 7 Selement paerns in MaltaFigure 8 Urban growth in St. Pauls Bay and

ZurrieqFigure 9 Existing quarriesFigure 10 Total water production for the years 1991

- 2003Figure 11 Water catchment safeguarding areasFigure 12 Nitrate map of the Mean Sea Level

AquiferFigure.13 Data aggregation to develop indicatorsFigure 14 Operations of CRAB


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List of Tables

Table 1 Responsibilities and stakeholder interestsof some main institutions

Table 2 Indicators for coastal issues

List of Boxes

Box 1 EU Coastal Zone InitiativesBox 2 Trends in offshore aquaculture in MaltaBox 3 Erosion risk areas in Northwest of MaltaBox 4 Ornithology in coastal areas of the Maltese

Islands

Box 5. The shipwreck of St. PaulBox 6 Legends and mythsBox 7 Coastal cultural resources their fate


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List Of Acronyms

AFM Armed Forces of MaltaALE Administrative Law Enforcement

(a unit of the police department)BP Blue PlanCAMP Coastal Area Management Programme

CoS Central Office of StatisticsCPD Civil Protection DepartmentCRAB Coastal Resources Advisory BoardDAD Diagnostic Analyses DocumentEEA European Environment AgencyEC European CommissionEPD Environment Protection DirectorateEU European UnionFAO The Food and Agriculture Organisation

of the United NationsFIPD Final Integrated Project DocumentGIS Geographic Information SystemsICAM Integrated Coastal and Marine Area

ManagementIPCC International Panel on Climate ChangeITS Institute for Tourism StudiesMAP Mediterranean Action PlanMCAST Malta College for Arts Science and TechnologyMCSD Mediterranean Commission for Sustainable

DevelopmentMEPA Malta Environment and Planning AuthorityMHRA Malta Hotels and Restaurants AssociationMMA Malta Maritime AuthorityMRA Malta Resource AuthorityMRI Ministry for Resources and Infrastructure

MTA Malta Tourism AuthorityNGOs Non-Governmental OrganisationsNSO National Statistics OfficeNW Northwest (of Malta)PA Planning Authority (now Planning Directorate)PAP Priority Actions ProgrammeODZ Outside Development ZoneOPM Office of the Prime Minister

(Government of Malta)RAC Regional Activity CentreRO Reverse OsmosisSEA Strategic Environment Assessment

SI(s) Sustainability Indicator(s)SoE State of the EnvironmentSPA Specially Protected Areas (RAC)SPSA Systemic and Prospective Sustainability

AnalysisSD Sustainable DevelopmentToRs Terms of ReferenceUN United NationsUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat

DesertificationUNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention

on Climate Change

UoM University of MaltaWSC Water Services CorporationWHO World Health Organisation


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The authors wish to thank Mr. Ivica Trumbic,Director, and Mr. Marko Prem, Deputy Director,respectively of PAP/RAC for providing theopportunity to write this document.

A special thanks goes to Stanley Ga for providingnecessary information on bird species in theMaltese Islands.

The authors are also grateful to Savior Formosafrom MEPA who has provided the maps.

Appreciation is also expressed to Stephen C.Spiteri, Superintendent for Fortifications for theinformation freely given on coastal fortifications.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS


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The sea and the coast represent an exceptionalfortune. In the Mediterranean, the greatestcivilisations flourished in the coastal areas,considered since ancient times as idealenvironment for living, activities anddevelopment, as a space that enables the man tofulfil most of his needs. Throughout the history,these areas were managed, exploited, disputed bythe populations that inhabited them.

Faced by the advantages brought by economicdevelopment over the past centuries, the humanwisdom and consciousness have too oen andtoo easily been set aside, leaving the man to abusethe natural resources of this fragile environment.Fortunately, with the passing of time, he hasrealised that it was imperative to harness thenegative impacts of his activities, reverse theprocesses leading to degradation of coastal areas,and act with moderation and good sense in order

to save this heritage for the generations to come.

One of the forums created with this objective is theMediterranean Action Plan (MAP) which bringstogether the coastal states in the effort to protectand improve the Mediterranean environment,both marine and coastal. One of the principalconcerns of MAP, and particularly its PriorityActions Programme Regional Activity Centre(PAP/RAC), is integrated coastal area management(ICAM) which has, over the past decades, becomeone of the pillars of environmental action in the

Mediterranean region.

Which results have been achieved by the effortsmade by MAP and PAP/RAC to introduce intothe Mediterranean region the principles ofsuch management leading to the integrationof environment and development? What arethe effects of the documents adopted at theconferences in Barcelona, Genoa, Rio, Tunis,Johannesburg? How have the states benefitedfrom the methodological, institutional, juridical...innovations offered to them by competentorganisations to improve the state of their coastal

areas? These are the questions to which we shallbe able to answer owing to a series of reportsmade by the coastal states on the recent practiceand developments in the field of planning and

management of this unique and precious part oftheir national territories.

The present report, prepared for Malta, hasthe objective of presenting the characteristicsof its coastal areas, the pressures to which theyare exposed, the activities that the country isundertaking in order to combat the impactsresulting from those pressures, and, finally, thepossibilities of an efficient ICAM.

PREFACE


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This document describes the present status ofcoastal management in Malta and how coastalissues and conflicts are being addressed. Someexamples of past experiences with ICAM are alsopresented as well as an overview of the currentlegislative structures which concern coastal issueswithin the Maltese Islands.

Most problems of land use in the Maltese Islandsare focused along the coast. The small size of theMaltese Islands, their high population density,residential and tourist development, as well ascoastal-oriented industries are all importantfactors which produce a continuous and ever-increasing demand for coastal resources and landuse. This concentration of activities along the coastresults in problems of acute competition betweenstakeholders.

Coastal issues need to be perceived in the

appropriate context. Despite their small size, theMaltese Islands possess a richness of geologicalfeatures and natural habitats. These are discussedin terms of the current status of their utilisationby the local and tourist population. Othercoastal resources refer to social, cultural, andarchaeological features. These include the current,as well as historical development of perceptionsof the coast and special cultural aachments to thearea. Such aachments lead to a particular sense ofplace which further conditions development alongthe coast.

The area can be perceived as a location ofopportunity as well as a potential sourceof conflict. Shoreline residences, shipping,mariculture, oil bunkering, desalination,sewage treatment and disposal, fishing, watersports, yachting, scuba diving, and bathingare all examples of activities which requireexacting standards in the quality of the marineenvironment. At the same time, they producechanges within that same marine environmentwhich have to be tolerated by other activities.Under such circumstances, it is not surprising to

observe that activities which have less economicsignificance, and the consequent political clout,have to suffer a diminishing level of accessibilityto coastal resources. This is a problem which is

characteristic of all commonly shared naturalresources.

Tourism conditioned much of the more recentdevelopment within the Northern part of theisland where the few beaches of the islands maybe found. This is largely due to the fact that thesedimentary rock strata of the Maltese Islands diptowards the northeast. The coastal geomorphologyof the northeast, therefore, presents a gentleslope right up to the shoreline thus permiingconstruction right up to the waterfront.

Harbours are major foci of human activity andreveal much about aitudes towards the coast.The two harbours surrounding Vallea presenta striking divide. The western port (MarsamxeHarbour) is largely occupied with tourist-orientedactivity and includes shipping and berthing placesfor the numerous sight-seeing ships that leave the

port on a daily basis. Located on the eastern sideof the Vallea peninsula, Grand Harbour is farmore industrial in character. This harbour has longbeen dominated by the ship-building and ship-repair yards located within the sheltered creeks ofthe Three Cities. Shipping activity also includescontainer transport, grain silage, and petroleumtanking and bunkering services. Other intensiveindustrial activity is carried out within thevicinity of the Marsa Power Station and the Marsaindustrial estate.

The measures put in place under the currentlegislative provisions have proved partiallyeffective in protecting the environment butthreats are still present, and new ones willcontinue to arise, from a variety of coastalactivities. Problems of marine and air pollutionare common to most Mediterranean islandswhile groundwater contamination, landscapedegradation, and habitat loss are particularlysensitive problems within the Maltese context. Alack of awareness of the heritage of the MalteseIslands, coupled with uncoordinated policiesbetween the different governmental entities, are

major factors influencing the current situation.Furthermore, a lack of financial resources directedtowards enforcement undermines many protectionmeasures already carried out.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY


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Spatial development and many activities inthe Maltese coastal area have had a long butsectoral regulation. Many administrative andeconomic entities have striven to control this veryimportant area due to its economic importance.More recently, with the seing up of MEPA,environmental and planning considerations have

acquired more (and deserved) importance andcoherence. However the holistic and integratedmanagement of the coastal area has still to becomea reality.

A Policy framework for integrated sustainablemanagement of the coastal area has been outlinedin the CAMP Malta report. This framework isreproduced in this publication and discussed interms of current practices in coastal management.This is facilitated by a series of tables thatoutline the administrative, legal, and economic,responsibilities of various stakeholders in differentsectors of coastal activities. Such stakeholders needto subscribe to a vision for the Maltese coast whichshould translate into achievable ICAM practicesin the near future. The document concludes withsome practical examples aimed at achieving thisgoal.


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1. PURPOSE OF THE REPORT

The small size of the Maltese Islands and their highpopulation density, have resulted in a continuousand ever increasing demand for uses of the coastalarea. In fact, most of the current industrial andcommercial activities are concentrated aroundthe main harbour-city conurbation and along thecoastline. Urbanisation has expanded around thecoast and the demand for coastal recreation andtourism development continues to increase.

Such concentration of demand and activities alongthe coast results in these activities competing amongsteach other, as well as in conflicts with the legitimateand increasing demands for environmental,landscape and cultural heritage conservation.

This document aims to describe the present statusof integrated coastal area management in Malta and

how the issues and conflicts are being addressed.An overview of the current legislative structures isalso given. Some examples of past experiences inICAM are also presented.

1.1 TRADITION OF ICAM IN MALTA

It is debatable when this archipelago of smallislands, situated in the middle of this landlockedsea called the Mediterranean1, received the firstcolonizers onto its shores.

It is plausible that they arrived from MainlandEurope, some 5200BC, by embarking on primitivecra from Sicily. Indeed these two Mediterraneanislands are easily visible from each other on a clearday.

These colonizers thrived and erected manyconstructions such as standing stones (Menhir) andCapped stones (Dolmen), later also shrines, tombsand other elaborate monuments around the island,preferring coastal locations. Some of these arethe oldest known constructions in the world and

are included in the list of UNESCO list of WorldHeritage Sites.

Although detected in other Mediterranean sites,the Maltese landscape also contains impressiveremains of the enigmatic cart-ruts. These paralleltracks cut into the rock surface are generallythought to result from an as yet unknown humanactivity, possibly of a past transportation network.

Lile is known about life at that time. In one of theearliest records2, Homer describes how Calypso,the daughter of Atlas, entertained Ulysses forseven years in a cave on the shores of GOZO.

Around AD 503, the Roman Emperor Justiniandeclared the air, running water, the sea, andconsequently the shores of the sea as common toall mankind, a declaration which was rekindledin more recent times by Malta during the processwhich lead eventually to the UN Convention onthe Law of the Sea, and later in connection with

Climate and (not by Malta) in Biodiversity,even though these two laer instruments are not

CHAPTER IIntroduction

Plate 1

Cart ruts in the town of San Gwann (Vella, 2004)

1 Medi-terra-nean 2 The Odyssey


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as strongly or clearly worded as the former, in thisrespect.

The concept of commonness can also be foundin initiatives taken by many other countries, alldirected at regaining the coastal strip3 for theenjoyment by the public. Important models nowexist in France since 1975, implemented by theConservatoire du Lioral, and even earlier (1895)in the UK by the National Trust. In Malta, thisconcept of commonness and the freedom ofaccessibility to the coast (and its conservation andreinstatement where lost) is one of the policies setout in the Structure Plan for the Maltese Islands

(PA, 1992).

In early times, the main coastal activities consistedof a flourishing corsairing which was based aroundthe natural ports of the country. A corollary tothis activity was the defence efforts to counteracthostile interest from others. This gave origin to ahost of fortified towns and cities. Although manywere originally located inshore to afford beerdefence possibilities, the later flourishing of thesecorsair activities, resulted in the establishment ofimportant coastal fortified selements.

This shi from walled and strongly defendedinland cities to coastal cities resulted in profound

psychological changes. Introspective and defensiveviewpoints which considered the coast as a sourceof danger, exemplified by the city of Mdina werereplaced by the more extrovert and open onesaround Birgu and the three cities, where the coastis seen as a source of opportunity in trade andcultural enrichment. Coastal uses in Malta receivednew impetus following the arrival of the KnightsHospitaller {the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem}in Malta, which became their new homeland in1530, given in tenure by Emperor Charles V, for theannual rent of one falcon. This transition reached a

peak in the elegant planning adopted for the newcity of Vallea.

The Knights quickly improved trade and commerceon the islands, built new hospitals and, mostimportantly, erected new strong coastal fortifications.

Aer their victory against the Oomans, theKnights turned enthusiastically to the furtherdevelopment of Malta and Gozo. A golden era inculture, architecture and the arts followed. Severalof Maltas most aractive buildings many of whichare located on the coast, were built during this

period. Vallea, the fortress city, was built andnamed in honor of the Grand Master Jean Parisotde la Valee under whose rule the Knights andthe Maltese had defied the Ooman onslaught.

Plate 2

Temple complex at Mnajdra 3600 BC (anon)

3 This is generally of around 3 meter width, and dates back to

the time of the Roman Empire.


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Vallea is one of the earliest examples of a plannedcity built on the grid system. with a systematicdistribution and division of streets and piazzas,using the open space between the buildings

and the fortifications for troops to assemble. SirWalter Sco described Vallea as the city builtby gentlemen for gentlemen. Later served as aplanning model for other cities such as NewYork.

Today it is declared a World Heritage site byUNESCO.

On June 12th 1798, Napoleon having landed atRamla Bay in Gozo (the same beach where Ulysseshad spent his stay) entered Vallea bringing to anend 268 years of rule by the Knights of St. John.

The British (who were invited to replaced theFrench) military presence in Malta, did not seemto share such an enthusiastic appreciation of thecoast. Rather, they viewed it with considerableconcern, especially the northern coasts of Malta,with their sandy beaches, as well as the wholeof Gozo, as being too difficult to defend. Theyentrenched (literally) themselves to the south ofthe main island behind a series of fortificationscalled the Victoria Lines, leaving the defenseof the landing beaches to the north, to state of the

art fortifications on the coast, as exemplified bythe Selmun Fort built on a peninsula, and whichdefends the beaches of Mellieha to the north, andthat of St Pauls Bay to the south.

The British rule eventually came to a peaceful andceremonial end on the coast of Birgu, on the 13thof December of 1979.

To replace the previous dependence on defenserelated income, Malta encouraged Industrializationand Tourism. The laer activity started as thetraditional sun, sea and sand touristic offer, and

resulted in a large uptake of coastal areas for theconstruction of the required facilities. A boomingeconomy, largely based on the constructionindustry resulted in considerable areas of

Plate 3

Vallea, planning on a grid paern (anon)

Plate 4

Coat of arms - Grand Master Jean Parisot de la Valee

Plate 5

Qala Point Baery guarding the North Comino

Channel (anon)


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Malta, many along the coast (Bugibba, Mellieha,Marsalforn and Xlendi) being built up.

An evident need to restrain land uptakeand to control rampant (and at times illegal)development, at the same time introducingtransparency in the process by removing previousMinisterial ruling, resulted in the creation in 1992,of the (then) Planning Authority and the approvalof a Structure Plan for Malta.

The importance of the coast, and of coastalissues has molded the cultural, economic and theenvironmental scene throughout our history. Tothe present day it continues to exert a determining

effect in everyday life. Indeed many of the mostrecent political events, including those whichhave brought Malta to become a EuropeanUnion Member state can also be linked to issuesoriginating in coastal management.

As a member state, Malta is required to formulateits own Integrated Coastal Zone ManagementPlan. The outputs of CAMP Malta, together withthis document form a sound bases upon which thisrequirement can be finalised.

The importance of coastal issues, and thethreats and pressures from their unsustainablemanagement led major institutions in Malta toseek a new approach in coastal management, inpartnership with PAP RAC, to provide technicaland other know-how, to embark on a study ofcoastal issues, in a detailed but integrated manner.This study now known as CAMP Malta, wasconcluded in 2002 and resulted in, amongst otheroutputs, a Coastal Declaration4.

Plate 6

Ramla Bay in winter Gozo (Vella, 2004)

4 Annex II


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BOX 1

EU Coastal Zone Initiatives

The EU has recognised that coastal issues need tobe given higher importance through a commonapproach.

The EU adopts a definition of a coastal zone whichis very similar to that used in CAMP Malta. Thecoastal zone is defined as a strip of land and seaof varying width depending on the nature of theenvironment and management needs. It seldomcorresponds to existing administrative or planningunits. The natural coastal systems and the areas inwhich human activities involve the use of coastalresources may therefore extend well beyond thelimit of territorial waters, and many kilometresinland.

The EU also recognizes underlying problemsrelated to a lack of knowledge, inappropriateand uncoordinated laws, a failure to involvestakeholders, and a lack of coordination betweenthe relevant administrative bodies, and that giventhe diversity of physical, economic, cultural andinstitutional conditions, the response must bea flexible strategy focused on addressing thereal problems on the ground. It also needs to

be integrated, and participative, so as to ensurethat the management of Europes coastal zones isenvironmentally and economically sustainable, aswell as socially equitable and cohesive.

Following a demonstration programme running

from 1996 to 1999, the commission has prepared acommunication addressed to the Council and theEuropean Parliament on Integrated Coastal ZoneManagement: A Strategy for Europe (COM/00/547of 17 Sept. 2000), and a proposal for a EuropeanParliament and Council Recommendationconcerning the implementation of IntegratedCoastal Zone Management in Europe (COM/00/545 of 8 Sept. 2000). This Recommendation wasadopted by Council and Parliament on 30 May2002.

The Strategy aims to promote a collaborativeapproach to planning and management of thecoastal zone, within a philosophy of governance bypartnership with civil society. The Strategy definesthe EUs role as one of providing leadership andguidance to support the implementation of ICZMby the Member States, at local, regional andnational levels.


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Plate 7

Azure Window in Gozo (Vella, 2002)


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2. THE COASTAL ZONE

By standard definitions of the coastal zone,the entire islands, with characteristics pertainingto medium sized Mediterranean islands, areconsidered to have the aributes of a coastalzone. Nevertheless, the immediate coastal strip,rich in its resources and variety, presents specificcharacteristics, due to the immediate impacts andinteractions with the adjacent marine environment.

During the compilation of the Final IntegratedProject Document for CAMP Malta, a clearunambiguous legal text of the definition of thecoastal area was found to be lacking. Although itis generally intuitively understood what is meantby the coastal area, it is difficult to place preciseboundaries around it, either landward or seaward(Vella et al., 2003).

The definition for the coastal zone boundary, as hasbeen approved by MEPA in the Coastal StrategyPaper (Planning Authority, 2002) is the coastalboundary identified on the bases of ecological,physical and administrative criteria. Consequentlythere are variations in the coastal widths betweenone area and another. The coastal zone boundaryis significantly close to the coastline within coastalselements and towns and is limited to the firstroad aligning the coast. In rural areas howeverthe boundary is predominantly characterised byecological systems and extends further inland.

This definition is therefore adopted in thisdocument.

Despite their small size, the Maltese Islands arerich in geological features and natural habitats. Thefollowing chapter gives a brief description of themain features and their importance vis--vis thecoastal area.

2.1 GEOLOGY

The Maltese Islands are a group of small islands

located in the central Mediterranean. Thearchipelago consists of three inhabited islands- Malta, Gozo and Comino, and a number of smalluninhabited islets and rocks.

The Islands are composed almost entirely ofmarine sedimentary rocks, mainly limestone ofOligo-Miocene age, capped by minor Quaternarydeposits of terrestrial origin. The Islands havean undulating tilt towards the northeast thusproducing two types of coastline, a gently slopingrocky coast on the north eastern side and a steepcliff dominated coastline on the southwest andwest side of the Islands.

The low-lying coast on the northeast side is moreaccessible than the cliffs on the northwest/southernside. This type of formation has influenced thegeneral location and distribution of the varioususes on the coastline. In fact, activities areconcentrated on the more accessible low-lyingshores, whereas agriculture dominates the cliffareas on the southern shores.

The Maltese Islands have been aptly described

as a country of spectacular coastline whichcomprises steep, vertical cliffs within whichare some of the most fantastic arches, caves,tunnels and other spectacular rock formations(Middleton, 1997). The paern of the landscapeof the Maltese Islands is mostly influenced bythe resistance each rock layer has to erosion, theamount of vertical displacement of faults andfinally the gentle tilt seawards to the northeast.

The five main rock types of the Islands are: LowerCoralline Limestone, Globigerina Limestone,

subdivided into three units Lower, Middleand Upper Globigerina Limestones, Blue Clay,Greensand and Upper Coralline Limestone. In situ,the Globigerina limestone, the Coralline limestonesand Blue Clay strata are important in terms ofthe Islands natural water resources. Rainwaterpercolates through the porous limestone rockand accumulates in natural underground waterreservoirs, the aquifers, which are the only naturalfreshwater source of the country. The perchedaquifers are situated in the northwest area of Maltawhilst the mean sea level aquifer covers almost onethird of the Island.

Differential rates of erosion acting upon horizontalrock strata exhibiting varying degrees of resistancecreate Maltas characteristic topography. The

CHAPTER IIThe Maltese coastal environment


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Lower and Upper Coralline Limestone formrelatively dense, crystalline strata which are moreresistant to erosion and produce characteristicsteep slopes as well as the sheer cliffs found along

the southwest coast of the Islands.

Maltese geomorphology is dominated bykarst processes operating within a semi-arid Mediterranean climatic regime. Suchlandscapes contain solution features producedby groundwater flow, like spring lines caves andsubsidence structures. In some case, spectacularlandscapes are created through the collapse oflarge coastal caves enlarged through marineerosion processes. Such geological formations canalso extend underwater and provide a rich source

of underwater scenery.

The paucity of rainfall creates characteristic V-shaped valleys where initial vertical joints or faultlines develop as down cuing proceeds at a muchfaster rate than lateral erosion. Such steep sidedvalleys are normally along the south westernshores where intermient streams cut through thelower Coralline Limestone stratum. Other valleyscan be found cuing through higher soer rockstrata where drainage flow tends towards thenortheast. The stratum gradient in these valleys ismuch less than the south western valleys and the

resultant landscape is a series of relatively widevalleys with residential hills capped with UpperCoralline Limestone.

Weathered Globigerina Limestone, cuing backinto gentle slopes forms features in the rock thathas been traditionally exploited as salt pans. Mostof these pans are still in use today and are the main

producers of table salt for the Maltese Islands.

Several underwater caves were formed when theseafloor collapsed. Such structures are only knownin Dwejra and Qawra, both in Gozo and form themost spectacular sea-scapes of the Islands. Thepopular and famous Azure Window in Gozo isa sea cave which has enlargened by continuouswave action into a natural arch.

2.2 CLIMATE

The climate of the Maltese Islands is characterisedby the extreme seasonality of its precipitationregimen, with four to five months of droughtcoinciding with the hoest time of the year. Theaverage annual rainfall is around 524mm andthe temperature varies between 7C and 15C inJanuary to between 25C and 35C in August.

Situated as they are, in the center of theMediterranean, which is a transitional climaticregion between the western temperate and thesouthern subtropical climate types, the temperature

and precipitation paerns are particularly prone toclimate change induced fluctuations. This seasonalpaern is modulated by the increasingly evidentchanges induced by global warming, and an

Figure 1

Geological strata in Malta


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increase in extreme weather events. The plates belowshow increasing monthly average temperatures,decreasing annual rainfall and probabilities for short

duration intense rainfall episodes.

Flora and fauna are thus generally adapted tovariable temperatures, wind and precipitation.

Figure 2

Average mean monthly temperature at Luqa 1920 - 2004

Figure 3

Malta yearly total rainfall (mm) 1840 - 2000


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2.3 COASTAL HABITATS

With a total land area of approximately 315.4 km2,the Maltese archipelago has a shoreline of about190km. The Islands coastal areas are generallycharacterised by cliffs, clay slopes and boulder

rocks. About 57% of the coast is inaccessible, eitherdue to its physical features or due to development.

Despite the continuous threat from anthropogenicinfluences, the Maltese coastline supports severalimportant habitats and species. The overviewof such habitats and their associated species isnot meant to be totally comprehensive but moreillustrative in nature, of the existing issues andhighlighting the need for conservation.

2.3.1 Coastal wetlands

Saline marshlands are locally very scarce andvulnerable and are characterised by a muddysubstratum on which a pool of brackish watercollects in the wet season. They are maintainedby seasonal fluctuations in precipitation, run-off,evaporation and seepage rather than by coastaltidal fluctuation. During the dry season the waterbecomes progressively more brackish until itbecomes hyper saline and finally disappearscompletely, leaving the marsh dry until thefollowing wet season.

The species found thriving in such areas areadapted to tolerate extreme flactuations in salinity.One such example is the endemic KillifishAphianusfasciatus (Maltese Buzaqq) which is naturally foundin only three locations in the Islands. The Sea rushJuncus maritimus (Maltese Simar) is also restricted

to such brackish waters. Salt marshes also havea high ornithological value, since they are oenresting places for wintering birds and waders ontheir migratory route across the Mediterranean(Box 4).

2.3.2 Sand dunes

Sandy beaches only make up two percent of theentire coastline of the Maltese Islands and thussand dunes are extremely rare. The best example of

dunes in the Maltese Islands is that found at Ramlal-Hamra, in Gozo, which supports several endemicand ecologically important species such as the Seadaffodil Pancratium maritimum (Maltese Pankrazju).

Due to their restricted distribution, these are highlythreatened through intense human recreationalactivity, including camping, offroading, tramplingand hunting.

2.3.3 Rupestral communities

Rdum (sheer cliffs) and screes are typical of thesouthern and western coasts of Malta and Gozoin particular. Due to their relative inaccessibility,such coastline provides refuge for many species

Figure 4

24 hour maximum rainfall at Luqa 1923 - 19985

5 Referenced in Maltas First National Communication to the

UNFCCC


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2.4. NATURAL COASTAL RESOURCES

2.4.1. Freshwater

Natural freshwater resources in the MalteseIslands are scarce and depend entirely on rainfall,which is unpredictable and always insufficient.The aquifers are the Islands primary source ofnatural water, mainly used for agriculture. Thereare no perennial surface water streams.

The quality of water in the aquifers affectsthe quality of potable water and agricultureproduce; the soil structure and the productivity

of agricultural land. An increasing demand forfresh water, mostly for agricultural purposeshas led to the over-abstraction of water throughboreholes which in turn lead to saline intrusions.The problem of water quality is aggravatedby the increase in leachates mostly nitrates,from fertilizers (natural manure and artificialcompounds) and to a more limited extent, frompesticides and herbicides.

2.4.2 Fisheries

The fishing industry in Malta is relatively small.More than 65% of landings by weight are taken upby large pelagic species. However, at local level,the social importance of fisheries far outweighstheir economic output. This is due to the small-scale and traditional nature of local fisheries and totheir role in supplying valuable food items and insatisfying the demanding request for high qualityfish to the touristic hospitality industry.

Statistics issued in September 2001, showed thatthe total licensed fishing vessels were 1,411 in

Malta and 325 in Gozo. Of these 1,736 vessels,only 45 were considered to be industrial vessels(i.e. over 15 m in length). These industrial vesselswere mainly trawlers, long-liners and neers. The

rest could be considered as multi-purpose, sincethey undertook all types of fishing, although on asmaller scale.

Due to their commercial value, the most targetedspecies were common dolphinfish (Coryphaenahippurus), northern bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus),swordfish (Xiphias gladius), stone bass or wreckfish(Polyprion americanus) and species in the Sparidaeand Scorpaenidae families, such as dentex (Dentexdentex), common sea bream or red porgy (Pagruspagrus) and black scorpion fish (Scorpaena porcus).

Other demersal species such as blue and red

shrimp (Aristeus antennatus), rose shrimps(Parapenaeus longirostris), European hake (Merluccismerluccius), red mullets (Mullus barbatus/surmuletus), common octopus (Octopus vulgaris)and various other species, including skates andrays, are caught by trawling. The total estimatedcatch in 2000 was 987 tons, with a value of aboutUS$ 4.23 million. Almost all the fish are landedat Vallea, where there is the Islands only fishmarket (Department of Fisheries, 2004).

Fishing in Malta is mainly seasonal and, as a

consequence, most full-time fishermen (i.e. whosemain income is derived solely from fishing) ownat least one small and one large vessel, whichenables them to practice off-shore fishing duringthe milder seasons and coastal or inshore activitiesduring the winter months. The average number offishermen employed on each full-time boat is threeduring winter; when undertaking trips of morethan two days, extra hands are sometimes recruited.The remaining 1,599 were registered as part-timefishermen, whose contribution towards the industryis minimal. Most of the full-time fishermen (42%)come from the south-eastern region (including

Marsaxlokk Port), while 25% of the local part-timefishing population is also from this region.The Maltese fishing industry is facing a numberof problems, including the lack of deck hands due

Plate 9

Traditional fishing craberthed at Marsaxlokk (Vella,2003)


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to the very hard work associated this trade. Theyounger generation prefers less arduous jobs on

land which guarantee a steady income. The onlyboats which are still economically viable are thoseentirely owned and manned by families with afishing tradition and trawlers.The recent trends in the Maltese Islands are theincrease in offshore fish farms and aquaculture.Fish such as sea bass is thus being bred to the sizerequired by restaurants, diminishing seasonalityand taking from the wild thus giving somemeasure of conservation and sustainability totourism demands.

Aquaculture is essentially based on large-scalecommercial offshore units employing moderntechnology. The cost of producing farmed fish isstill relatively high. The aquaculture production,which reached 1,746 tons in 2000, is almost entirelyexported (95%).

Traditionally, the Maltese population is oneof the least fish consuming communities inthe Mediterranean, although it is a popularrecreational activity. Some indiscriminate fishinghowever is still occurring, e.g. gill neing in

enclosed bays which are nurseries for small fish.

2.4.3 Fisheries conservation zone

The waters surrounding Malta, are essentiallyof the oceanic type, and are poor in nutrients ascompared to the waters around Sicily. This leads tovery low productivity in the waters surroundingMalta. The surface and deep water currents alsoprevent the migration of water masses betweenthe mainland and Malta, thus larval dispersalbetween fish stocks spawning on the shelf of Sicilyand on that of Malta, is limited. Additionally fishstock prefer to spawn in shallow coastal waterson the Maltese shelf, and such stock in generalcan be considered as exclusive national resources.

Figure 5

National Fisheries Conservation Zone (outermost circle)

BOX 2

Trends in offshore aquaculture in MaltaChristine M. Tanti

Maltas potential in the field of aquaculture isconsiderably high since the Maltese coastal watersoffer favorable growth temperatures for fish and

relatively clean waters. Moreover, the proximityto the main Italian market is an advantage.However, the local scale of production, togetherwith taxation imposed on exports to EuropeanUnion countries, rendered the local production ofthese species non-competitive with respect to otherMediterranean producers.

The Maltese aquaculture industry experiencedsignificant changes aer 2000, as a result of theintroduction of tuna penning. Since then, theproduction of sea bass and sea bream have notremained the mainstay of the local aquacultureindustry. The success of the tuna-penning ventureprompted three of the existing farms initiallyculturing sea bass and/or sea bream to partlyconvert production capacity to tuna.

The offshore aquaculture industry has developedwithin the tight constraints of a NationalAquaculture Plan and policy guidelines that

ensure environmental protection and sustainabledevelopment. In 1994, the former PlanningAuthority issued a Policy and Design Guidancefor fish farming in Malta which aimed to provideadvice on applications for aquacultural units. ThisGuidance document also identified six search

areas for the location of these farms, which werebased on the prevailing wind conditions.

These were revised very early, since practically allthe proposed areas pose problems in one way orthe other. The Environment Impact Assessmentof a tuna penning application at Ta Cenc (cliffs atthe Northwest of Gozo) showed that the site wasinadequate, since it would cause severe negativeimpact on important migratory bird coloniesbreeding on the cliffs at Ta Cenc. Other areas arealso problematic from a shipping point of view.

The above issues have led the former PlanningAuthority to delete the search areas from the Policyand guidance document of 1994, whilst a revisedversion is prepared. Although an amendment tothe Policy and guidance document was issued in2001, no specific sites were identified.


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On the bases of this Malta has declared a nationalfisheries conservation zone extending out to 25nautical miles, in which strict measures are takento manage fish stock in a sustainable manner.

2.4.4 Agricultural land

Agriculture in the Maltese Islands is largelyconcentrated in the Northwestern region, wherethe highest percentage of agricultural land (57%)

is located. About 77% of this land is dry farmedwhilst only 11% is irrigated.

According to the latest agricultural census,Registered agricultural land in the Maltese Islandsis 10,738 hectares, i.e. 34% of total land area (NSO,2001). About 77% of this agricultural land is dryfarmed land whilst only 11% is irrigated. Sincemost of the southern parts of mainland Malta areurbanized, the highest percentage of agriculturalland (57%) is located in the northwestern region.

An increase in the drive to place more of the land

under viticulture has been noted during the pastfew years. In part this has been brought about bythe increased standard of living and the demandsof the tourist industry for locally produced wines.

Much of this land has remained abandonedaer the production of animal fodder for beastsof burden was no longer required due to themechanization of agriculture, transportation andindustry.

Viticulture and some small animal rearing inthe countryside, is now a common countrysiderecreation for city dwellers. Much of this is drivenby the hard working newly rich middle classcity-dwellers, many of whom have achieved social

standing through the conscious or unknowingdespoliation of the countrys natural capital, butwho now crave for nature and a return to the oldlifestyle. This new phenomenon could also be asign of the search for open spaces and an escapefrom a stifling and crowded urban lifestyle, ifnot an enhanced environmental sensitivity andconsciousness. Such activities, if suitably regulated,could help to improve the landscape by providinggreenery in the dry summer months. Moreover,rubble walls are repaired and maintained althoughthere is a trend for a proliferation the building ofillegal small rural rooms and other structures,

housing city paraphernalia which mar thetraditional landscape.

BOX 3

Erosion risk areas in Northwest of MaltaAdapted from Tanti et al. (2002)

The growing impact of erosion processes and the riskof desertification as well as experiences in depletionof natural resources were mandatory to consider

erosion and desertification control management inthe efforts for sustainable coastal area managementin Malta. Thus, a soil erosion/desertificationcontrol management component was included inthe CAMP Malta Project. This activity dealt withthe environmental problem of desertification wasimplemented following the Guidelines for erosionand desertification control management withparticular reference to Mediterranean coastal areas(UNEP/MAP/PAP, 2000).

One of the main outputs of the activity was anerosion risk map for the NW. This map consistsof a composite derived map based upon a set ofphysical factors (lithofacies and slope) coupledwith a set of human factors (terraces/retainingrubble walls and land use).

The study showed that the greatest threat to soilsoccurs along the clay slopes which delineate theUpper Coralline Limestone platforms. Part of theproblem lies in the difficulty that farmers have toface in aempting to construct rubble walls uponclay foundations.

Flat or low gradient slopes on the contrary are lessprone to erosion. These areas are characterisedby terraces and retaining rubble walls which arewell constructed on sound, solid rock foundationson Upper Coralline Limestone platforms and theseries of graben valley structures cuing across

Malta in a northeast to southwest direction.These areas are also characterised by a very highpercentage of irrigated cultivation.

Areas with moderate risk occur on terracedfarmland which may have been recentlyabandoned, or are converted to hunting andtrapping sites, or whose farmers may have allowedtheir retaining rubble walls to fall into some stateof disrepair. Many of these fields are found on thelower parts of the clay slopes. Some of these fieldsoen experience problems of rilling and gullyingdue to surface water runoff originating from muchfurther upslope.

In some cases, neglect seemed to be historicalwhere there were only remnants of old rubblewalls with soil profile removal. These areas havebeen abandoned mainly due to low potential foragricultural production and difficult access to thefields. Some terracing with no obvious retainingrubble walls can occur at the coastal fringe and ingarigue.


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2.4.5 Soils

The Maltese soils are traditionally characterizedby their similarity to the parent rock material andtheir relatively young age. They are also generallyinfertile, shallow (~ 5cm) and prone to erosion.

Three main types of soil can be described. TheTerra (Red Mediterranean) soil is a relic soilformed during the Pleistocene period and occurswhere Coralline Limestone is located. This soil ismature and highly weathered, with a low calciumcarbonate and organic maer content.

Xerorendzina is an immature soil with highcalcium carbonate content and low in organicmaer. This soil type develops on weatheredGlobigerina Limestone and deposits are foundwithin valley beds.

The Carbonate raw soils are also immature soilswith a very high calcium carbonate contentand very low organic maer content. Thesesoils develop mostly on weathered Quaternarycalcareous sandstones, Greensand and the lowerbeds of the Upper Coralline Limestone, calcareousBlue Clay and Globigerina Limestone.

The greatest threat to soils is water and winderosion (Box 3). This threat is higher on clay slopeswhich are particularly prone to soil erosion. Partof the problem in these cases is the difficulty that

farmers have to face in aempting to constructrubble walls upon clay foundations.

On the other hand, flat or low gradient slopessuch as the Upper Coralline Limestone platformsand the series of graben valley structures whichcut across Malta in a northeast to southwestdirection are less prone to erosion. Terraces andretaining rubble walls in these areas are oen wellconstructed on sound, solid rock foundations.These areas are also characterised by a very highpercentage of irrigated cultivation.

Another threat to soil is the trend for landabandonment, or agricultural land being convertedto hunting and trapping. These activities do notrespect and conserve the soil, and hence retainingrubble walls fall into a state of disrepair, andthe slow wear and tear of time and the elementseventually lead to their disappearance from thelandscape.

2.4.6 Salinisation of lioral agricultural fields

Salinisation of agriculturally important soils isgenerally on the increase. This phenomenon canbe found in a greater degree in some coastal areas(which are not classified as aquifer protection

areas) and are therefore allowed to be placedunder irrigation from treated waste waters. Suchtreated waters are quite saline (exceeding 2000micro -siemens), due to an input of saline sewagegenerally caused by (as yet) poorly controlled seawater infiltration into the sewage network.

A degree of successful agriculture thus dependson excessive irrigation quantities to wash the saltdown into the ground and to natural cleansingduring the winter months when the rain wouldflush away the salt. With unpredictable and highlyvariable precipitation (a possible effect of climatechange), this washing out does not take placereliably and crop quality and quantity suffer.

2.5 LANDSCAPE AND NATURAL VALUES

The Maltese Islands have been aptly describedas a country of spectacular coastline whichcomprises steep, vertical cliffs within whichare some of the most fantastic arches, caves,tunnels and other spectacular rock formations(Middleton, 1997).

The paern of the landscape of the MalteseIslands is mostly influenced by the resistanceeach rock layer has to erosion, the amount ofvertical displacement of faults and finally thegentle tilt seawards to the northeast (Pedley et al.,2002). These factors have led to an interesting and

contrasting variety of relied features of the Islands.

2.5.1 Faults

These features form the most spectaculartopographic elements in the Islands. Two majorfaults the Maghlaq fault occurring in a NW toSE trend and the Great Fault bisecting Maltaperpendicular to its long axis. A system of ridgesand valleys are found between these two majorfaults.

These faults give Malta and Gozo theircharacteristic topography of plains and shallowdepressions separated by low hills and plateaus.The plateau surfaces form karstic limestonesurfaces which support garigue habitats, whilstthe hillsides and plains are mostly used foragriculture.

The Lower Coralline limestone formation (theoldest rock formation on the Maltese Islands)makes up main part of the towering sea cliffs/rdum at Dingli, Malta and Ta Cenc in Gozo. These

topographic features are of importance since theysupport many endemic flora and fauna species.Nearly all such features are protected by law.


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2.5.2 Shore platforms

Shore Platforms form as a result of weatheringon the vertical surface of heavily burrowedGlobigerina limestone. The ensuing characteristichoneycombed surface has been copied bymasons on many prestigious buildings such as

the Old Opera House in Vallea to enhance theirappearance (Pedley et al., 2002).

Another characteristic shore formation is a layerpacked with the flat sub circular shells of aburrowing sea urchin Scutella. This scutella bedoccurs at or very close to the top of the lowerCoralline limestone and is common at DwejraGozo.

Xwieni coast in Gozo also provides anothercharacteristic feature. This consists of weathered

globigerina limestone, cuing back into gentleslopes. This feature has been exploited and saltpans were dug out on this platform. These pansare still in use today and are the main producers oftable salt for the Maltese Islands.

Blue clay weathers easily to form the typical low orrounded clay thalli found at for example Qarraba,Ghajn Tuffieha. The clay thallus is slippery whenwet and is therefore covered with landslip debris.Apart from their aesthetic value, these clay slopesalso support an important semi-climatic steppiccommunity dominated by the Esparto grass

Lygeum spartum (Schembri, 1994).

2.5.3 Other features

The limestone rock and the maritime environmenthas led to the formation of several caves and dolines.

Several underwater caves were formed whenthe seafloor collapsed. Such structures are only

currently known in Dwejra and Qawra, bothin Gozo and form the most spectacular sea-scapes of the Islands. The popular and famousAzure Window in Gozo is a sea cave which hasenlargened by continuous wave action into anatural arch.

Several dolines can be identified in the MalteseIslands. Perhaps one of the most known is il-Maqluba (which literally means inverted). Thissub circular sink hole represents a relatively recentcollapse of limestone surface which formed the

roof of a fairly large cave. Natural regenerationhas occurred within this subsidence and todayharbours one of richest and untouched maquiscommunities of the Islands.

Plate 10

Fishing community turned touristic araction in the

sunken doline of Dwejra in Gozo


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2.5.4 Terracing

The rural landscape of Malta today is widelydominated by man - made terracing. Thephosphatic conglomerate beds within theGlobigerina limestone weathered into flat lyinglayers forming steps in the landscape. These stepshave been accentuated in many areas by humans,resulting in the building up of the natural step intoa terrace wall between field levels.

2.6 BIODIVERSITY AND PROTECTED AREAS

Despite their small size, the Maltese Islandssupport a variety of habitats and is particularlyrich in flora and fauna diversity. A considerablenumber of species and subspecies are in factendemics, some with a restricted Mediterraneandistribution. The species recorded to date in theMaltese Islands are listed in Annex I, Annex II, andAnnex III.

During the past 15 years or so, the drastic increasein development and urbanization has resultedin the complete obliteration of habitat types.Moreover, other habitats, such as salt marshes andsand dunes supporting specialized species, havebecome endangered and scarce.

The three nature reserves found in the MalteseIslands include the small uninhabited islands ofFilfla (Northwest coast of Malta), Fungus Rock(Dwejra, Gozo) and Selmune Islands (Northeastcoast of Malta). The protection afforded to these

sites includes the prohibition of access andlanding on the islands. It is also illegal to capture,collect, trap, keep in captivity, and to stuff andcommercially exploit, pick and hunt any species of

flora and fauna in or from these islands. Althoughat present only the terrestrial biota is protected,there are plans for the extending this protectionto a delineated part of the marine environmentaround them.

Bird sanctuaries are declared according to Schedulesforming part of bird protection regulations. As thename implies, the 20 designated bird sanctuariesafford protection to the avifauna and thus are

actually managed as such (Box 4).

Similarly, tree protection areas are declaredaccording to Schedules forming part of the Treeand Woodlands protection regulations. A total of29 sites in the Maltese Islands have been declaredas tree reserves.

The EU Council Directive on the Conservationof Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora(92/43/EEC) known as the Habitats Directivecalls for the establishment of a European network

known as Natura 2000, of Special Areas ofConservation (Natura 2000). To date, 35 terrestrialsites have been designated as a candidate Natura2000 site in the Maltese Islands. These include allsites that have been protected via the EnvironmentProtection Act as nature reserves and/or birdsanctuaries.

Following the establishment of the PlanningAuthority, a number of areas have been scheduleddue to their ecological importance under theDevelopment Planning Act. Some habitatsand biocoenoses are also afforded protection

through Structure Plan policies which instituteRural Conservation Areas, Areas of EcologicalImportance (AEIs) and Sites of ScientificImportance (SSIs).

Plate 11

Terracing in Xlendi Gozo. DeRedin Tower in the

foreground (Vella, 2003)


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Thus, to date, all sandy beaches/sand dunes,saline marshlands, coastal wetlands, valleys, forestremnants and woodlands, coastal cliffs and clayslopes have been scheduled.

This scheduling affords blanket protectionfrom certain activities but does not provide for

management of the areas. Conservation Orderswhich specify management requirements for ascheduled site can however be issued.

Plate 12

Citrus Orchards on terraced coastal slopes. San Blas

Gozo (Vella, 2002)


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BOX 4

Ornithology in coastal areas of the Maltese IslandsChristine M. Tanti

Several bird species feed, breed and winter alongMaltese coastal areas, in particular along thecoastal cliffs and in salt marshes, hence their local

and regional importance.

The cliffs are usually honey-combed with caves,crags and fissures. Since these features are situatedat different heights, they offer ideal nesting sitesfor certain birds. The boulder screes that form atthe foot of the cliffs increase availability of thenesting sites.

The main breeding bird colonies in cliffs are theCorys Shearwater Calonectris diomedea and theLevantine Shearwater Puffinus yelkouan, whichare important both on a national scale as well asbeing important on a Mediterranean scale.

Two sites, Ghadira (l/o Mellieha) and Simar (l/oXemxa) have been modified to facilitate thedevelopment of a managed habitat for aractingmigratory bird species, such as herons (Ardeaspp.) and egrets (e.g. Egrea garzea). Bothsites are designated as Bird sanctuaries underthe EPA (Act XX of 2001) and as Important Bird

Areas/Special Areas of Conservation (HabitatsDirective and Wild Birds Directive). Ghadira isalso designated as a Ramsar site (Convention onwetlands of international importance, known asthe Ramsar Convention).

Both sites are currently being managed by localNGOs. The management of these sites has beensuccessful since they have provided a breedinghabitat for certain species such as the MoorhenGallinula chloropus and the Reed warblerCharadrius dubius.

Plate 13

Simar Bird Sanctuary

Plate 14

Ghadira Bird Sanctuary

Source of photographs: www.birdlifemalta.org


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Plate 15

Dense conurbation around the ports. Anti Clockwise:

Le - Sliema & Gzira, Center Vallea Floriana

Hamrun and Marsa, Right Kordin, Senglea, Birgu &

Ricasoli (anon)


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3.1 SOCIO-CULTURAL FEATURES

The coastal regions of Malta are influenced bya number of physical, cultural or sociologicalcharacteristics. Some of these can be consideredto be real and tangible, whilst others are of a moretenuous nature. Some may appear to be somewhatstrange on an island just 28 km long by 15 kmwide, Non the less they have a considerable,indeed in some instances a profound effect oncoastal issues. It is to be stressed that many ofthese divisive influences are indeed real and thereis statistical data in their support.

It also note worthy that some of thesecharacteristics are now only evident in the largerisland of Malta and are essentially absent from, ormuch aenuated in the smaller island of Gozo.

3.2 MALTA / GOZO GEOGRAPHICAL INDUCEDDISTRIBUTIONS

Many years ago, living in Gozo was a seriousdisadvantage. Almost all economically and culturallyimportant activities, took place exclusively onMalta, and thus Gozitan residents missed outon the benefits of these activities. Transportationinfrastructure was very poor and dangerous (bytodays standard) and consequently Gozo wasculturally, socially and economically underserved.

The situation has now changed dramatically whenthe Maltese discovered the potential for relaxationin the sister island. With the birth of internal tourism,life in Gozo today reaches an enviable level of quality,although still retaining most of its rural charm.

There is now a strong movement and feelingin Gozo, that the previously underserved andunderdeveloped area should reap the sameeconomic benefits which Malta has apparentlysecured from its building boom. This translatesinto a strong wish to build touristic and otheraccommodation, and to generally develop the

land. On the other hand, many Maltese who retreatto Gozo for relaxation seem to be worried andalarmed at the ever increasing construction takingplace, particularly in the countryside.

3.3 NORTH / SOUTH CULTURAL INDUCEDDISTRIBUTIONS

The concept of a North-South divide is animported term that has been applied to theMaltese case to highlight inequalities in thegeographical distribution of socio-economic,and even environmental, variables. The concept,originally, reflected geographical divides expressedat a continental scale and hardly conforms to thegeographic realities of Malta. In fact, a more accuratedivide would be aligned along an East-West axiswhere the Vallea peninsula separates the moreaffluent western (Sliema/St. Julians) residential areasfrom the poorer eastern, Coonera area.

This divide gives rise to concerns since there isstatistical evidence showing that standards of living,earnings and educational levels differ in the twoareas. Many political initiatives have been taken to

address this imbalance. They are mainly concernedwith encouraging more investment and job creationin the South, by promoting tourism, industry,cultural and sporting initiatives and education.

3.4 COASTAL / INLAND INDUCEDDISTRIBUTIONS

A large proportion of the Maltese live in the centralurban agglomeration around the Capital of Vallea.Most Maltese own the property where they live.

Property has considerable status implications, ingeneral, owning a large dwelling (on a denselypopulated island where land and space are verylimited) caries considerable social and statusbenefits. In order to augment such a status,dwellings are elaborately and expensively furnishedand (thus) difficult to clean and maintain.

Since nearly a century it has been customaryfor any self respecting family, to own a summerresidence at a seaside resort. The urban areaswould be deserted on the commencement of thescholastic vacation period, and most town dwellers

and entire villages would migrate6 to summercoastal residencies which were smaller and more

CHAPTER IIISocial, cultural and archaeological features of the coastal area

6 This may be compared to the alpine transhumance practice.


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frugally furnished (easy to keep clean), and coolerdue to the daily sea breezes.

The importance of owning a coastal locationpersists to the extent that when Local Councilswere introduced in Malta in 1993, special effortsseem to have been made to maximize the number

of councils having some jurisdiction over acoastal area, particular aention being given to anequitable division of desirable locations such asbeaches and coastal promenades.

3.5 AGRARIAN / INDUSTRIAL DISTRIBUTIONS

As indicated earlier, the main industrial areasare mainly to be found in the coastal areas. Thispersists to this day. Industry in Malta establisheditself initially, around the dry-docking and shiprepair facilities set up by the Knights around Birguand Senglea. These activities were then muchreinforced with the introduction of mechanizationstarting from the time of the presence of BritishNavy in Malta.

In the middle 60s, when efforts to introducemanufacturing industry in Malta started, manyof the Industrial zones which were designated forthis purpose where also located in the vicinity ofthe coast. Industrial estates such as those of Marsa,Kordin, and Bulebel are typical.

Other activities apart from ship repair includethe traditional fish markets, and more recentlythe booming yachting harbors and the activitiesconnected with them. Recent major developmenthas been driven by the perceived benefits ofassociating with these new marine leisure activitiesand include new touristic development, such ashotels, casinos, and a cruise liner terminal. Thisprocess of industrialisation has resulted in a cleardivision, with industrial areas located in the vicinityof the coast, and agricultural areas (and openspaces) concentrated in the center and towards the

West coast which has no easy access to the coast.

3.6 LAND / SEA AS RECREATIONAL SPACES

The space at sea also offers great scope for manynew types of Sport. These include traditionalevents such as water polo, races of many types,diving, sailing and rowing, hunting, amateurfishing, and more extreme types of sports such aspara-gliding, jet skies, wind surfing and powerboat racing.

The land space is quite heavily urbanized orotherwise unavailable for many types of sportrequiring wide open areas. Thus the developmentof golf courses gives rise to public controversy

and planning concerns on the part of regulators.Similarly the introduction of sporting events suchas Formula 1 racing, has been mooted, but as yetremain unrealizable for this reason.

It has been observed that the extreme demand foropen space on land has generated a shi in certain

activities from land to sea. Prime examples includethe leing off of fireworks from anchored bargesduring village festas as well as the staging ofoperas on floating stages.

It is a well-known fact that Maltese and Gozitansalike make most of the cool summer sea breezeby traditionally having bar-be-ques on the beach.These oen start late aernoon, continue at nightand keep on till the early hours of the morning.This late night activity is a good example of themultiple use of scarce resources since it avoidscompetition for the same space with the influx oftourists during the summer days.

On the other hand, the continued use andoccupancy of the beaches make maintenance andcleaning operations nearly impossible, resultinga degradation of the small sandy beaches. Suchmaintenance can only be carried out manuallywhilst the coast is still in use. Areas taken overby beach umbrella forests and rocky coastlinesare particularly difficult to clean and maintain,because of the difficult terrain, the former createdartificially, whilst the laer is of natural origin.

The lack of beach space for recreation coupledwith less clean beaches has resulted in the rapidincrease of Maltese owning a speed boat/sailingboat/yacht.. Not only can these boaters enjoybeaches and areas which are inaccessible from theland, they can also enjoy cleaner waters and less-crowded areas.

The lack of space on land and the competitionfor different activities is increasingly becoming alimiting factor. This problem has seen migration

of traditional land-based activities to offshorelocations. This includes offshore aquaculture (Box3), and bunkering operations, and for the future,wind generation and land reclamation.

3.7 RELIGION

The coast is strongly associated to the birth ofRoman Christianity in the Maltese Islands, wherethe shipwreck of St. Pauls on one of the reefsjust off the mainland Malta (Box 5) features highin Maltese history. The islands of Malta are still

deeply religious, the majority professing to belongto Roman Catholicism7 which was brought to the

7 In Malta there is complete freedom of religious practice.


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Islands in 60AD, by the Apostle Paul, although itis nearly certain that this was lost (and regained)a number of times according to the fashion orappropriateness under various rulers and colonizers.Under the Spanish rule (1283 1530), the Malteseacquired a taste for the dramatic externalizationof their beliefs. Today, this has developed intoquite elaborate spectacles as evidenced inthe traditional village feasts, especially thoseconnected with the major events such as GoodFriday, Easter, Mnarja (St. Peter and St. Paul), and8th September. Many towns and villages organisecomplicated enactments and processions whichcould involve the enthusiastic participation alarge proportion of the local residents. These

semi-religious events include the participation ofbands and a conclusions with fireworks display.Many of these events are associated with the sea.Thus the 8th September festivities involve Regaaswith traditional and colorful boats races in theGrand Harbour. Some other coastal village feaststake place on the coastal promenade, or involvereligious activities (e.g. blessing of fishing vesselor statues transported on boats) carried out atsea.All these traditional events have found newimportance through the work of the Malta TourismAuthority, as important touristic products.

3.8 TRANSPORTATION

The public transport system in Malta has, by tradition,developed on a radial system. All buses start andend their journey from the capital Vallea. Thishas been recognised as being unsatisfactory andnew routings for route busses are being proposed,involving a diversity of termini.

Way back in the early 40s, a ferry service fromMarsamxe (Vallea) to Sliema and vice versa

was a quick and effective means of transport.Although this service is still available today, it isonly considered by most as a tourist araction. Thepossibility of diverting some of the daily commuter

traffic to and from Vallea, by using ferries andwater taxies is also being considered, in view ofthe favourable distribution of the main residentialareas around the two main ports (see Plate 16).

The inter-island ferry service is well developed andoffers a reliable communications route. The serviceis being strengthened by the upgrading the portsof Cirkewwa in Malta and Mgarr in Gozo.

The coastline remains the main recreational areafor residents and tourists alike. The open spaceat sea also offers great scope for many sports,including traditional events such as water polo,sailing and rowing and amateur fishing. Extreme

sports such as para-gliding and jet skies have alsobecome popular overnight. Many such activitiescan and are, also amenable to winter recreation.Thus, such sports also maximize the use of beachesand coastal cliffs, by utilizing them when theyare less in demand. The disadvantages of thesepractices include disturbance of habitats andperhaps a greater sensitivity to environmentaldamage such as erosion, both aspects of whichhave not yet received sufficient investigations.

The diving industry in the Maltese Islands has also

seen a rapid increase and year aer year, morediving holidays are being organized to Malta,particularly Gozo which in the recent years hasdeveloped as an all-year round diving destination(Middleton, 1997).

3.9 TRADITIONAL BELIEFS

The coastal regions are inexorably linked withreligious and cultural beliefs. The most importantof these concerns the shipwreck of Saint Paulof Tarsus, in AD60. There is still no beer text

than that set out by the Evangelist Saint Luke inchapters 26 and 27 (Box 5).

Plate 16

Inter Island transport is a key element in the

development of tourism and industrial activity

(Vella, 2004)

Plate 17

Erosion and degradation caused by off-road

activities (Vella, 2004)


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BOX 5

The shipwreck of St. Paul

But soon a tempestuous wind, called thenortheaster, struck down from the land; and whenthe ship was caught and could not face the wind,we gave way to it and were driven

As we were violently storm-tossed, they begannext day to throw the cargo overboard; and thethird day they cast out with their own hands thetackle of the ship. And when neither sun nor starsappeared for many a day, and no small tempestlay on us, all hope of our being saved was at lastabandoned.

When the fourteenth night had come aboutmidnight the sailors suspected they were nearingland. So they sounded and found twenty fathoms;

a lile farther on they sounded again and foundfieen fathoms

Now when it was day they did not recognize theland but they noticed a bay with a beach, on whichthey planned if possible to bring the ship ashore.

So they cast off the anchors and le them in thesea, at the same time loosening the ropes thattied the rudders; then hoisting the foresail to thewind they made for the beach. But striking a shoalthey ran the vessel aground; and bow stuck andremained immovable, and the stern was broken upby the surf

Aer we had escaped, we then learned thatthe island was called MELITA. And the nativesshowed us unusual kindness, for they kindled afire and welcomed us all

BOX 6

Legends and mythsChristine M. Tanti (adopted from Bezzina, 1991)

The lure of CalypsoPerhaps one of the best known legends in theIslands regards the stay of Ulysses, the Greekwarrior on Gozo while returning home aer the

Trojan War. Perched on the edge of Xaghra village,overlooking Ramla bay lies the case of nymphCalypso. Ulysses is shipwrecked on an emeraldisle, where alder, poplar and sweet smellingcypress grew from every crack, flowers bloomedprofusely and trees were heavily laden with fruit.Amidst the luxuriant wood is a cave. Ulysses madehis way into the cave. Calypso kept him under herlure for seven long years with the promise of theislands kingdom and eternal youth and happiness.The Gods finally pitied Ulysses and let him goback to his wife and son.

San DimitriOn the westernmost point of Gozo, beyond thevillage of Gharb, there is small rural chapeldedicated to Saint Dimitri, a soldier martyr. In thischapel, St. Dimitri is pictured on a white stallionwith an old lady imploring his help on the le.

An old widow, Zgugina, lived in a small room notfar from the chapel with her son Mahew. Everymorning she passed the chapel and made a specialprayer to St. Dimitri to safeguard her beloved son.On her return home in the evening she repeatedthis procedure.One middle summer night, the dreaded corsairs

broke into her poor abode. There was hardlyanything to take away but her young son wouldfetch a good price in the slave market. Theyquickly bundled him away and disappeared inpatch darkness.The corsairs had also broken into the chapel,taking everything expect the painting of St.Dimitri. Whilst Zgugina was praying for a miracle,St. Dimistri began to move, his stallion made a stepforward and he hovered towards the open sea. St.Dimitri re-appeared with Mahew holding fast tohis waist.

It is said that the original chapel was submergedintact in a landslide and the lamp that Zguguna litis still burning in the submerged church. Next tothe present chapel, folk can point out in rocks themarks le by the hoofs of Dimitris stallion whenhe landed with Mahew.


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3.10 COASTAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL,

CULTURAL AND HISTORIC SITES

3.10.1 Marine archaeology

The Maltese Islands are rich with historical andarchaeological remains which span over severalepochs. Coastal locations further reflect the factthat the Islands culture is a product of the uniquegeographical characteristics of archaeology.

A number of remains have been discovered at sea.Subsidence and sea level change have led to the

submersion of archaeological features, e.g. Romanbath remains at Ramla l-Hamra in Gozo havebeen completely buried in the sand. The Knightsconstructed an underwater stop wall in the samebay so as to hinder vessels from gaining access toshore.

The Bronze-Age silos at St. Georges Bay,Birzebbuga are another example. Artifactspurposely or accidentally thrown overboard havealso been found, mainly in the port area. Theseinclude roman anchors, amphorae, cannon andshot, smoking pipes, ceramics and glass.

There are a number of wrecks in Malta, includingships of all ages, submarine and aircra which arenow also considered of archeological importance.

They are important diving sites, aracting local

and foreign divers.

Moreover, recently ships and small vesselshave been sculed in suitable locations. The40m tug Rozi is perhaps one of the most knownand photogenic wrecks to be found locally andinternationally. These all provide added aractionsto the economically important diving industry,offering novelty and wreck dives. They also reducepressure from other more ecologically sensitivelocations.

The strategic siting of the creeks and embaymentsresulting from natural geomorphic processeshas been developed for maritime transport anddefense. This includes the development of thecapital city of Malta, Vallea.

Shipping activities (i.e. Dockyard/Ship repair),industry (i.e. salt pans and quarries) and defensestructures are common features along theMaltese coastline. The magnificent fortificationsfound in the Grand Harbour, the coastal towersestablished under the Knights of St. John and theforts and military outposts constructed under the

British period are some other remarkable coastallandmarks.

Plate 18

St Pauls Islands: Nature reserve and cultural site

(shipwreck of St. Paul)


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Plate 19

Coastal fortifications around Vallea (Vella, 2003)


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In a country which is noted for its maritimetradition as well as for its lack of industrial naturalresources, the Maltese coastline has become themost hotly contested real estate in the nation. Awide variety of activities compete for an extremelylimited stretch of coast. Shipping and fishing werethe traditional users of the coast, but new demandsfor coastal locations are now made by the touristindustry. Such demands are all too oen respectedby politicians and other policy lobbyists sincethe industry now accounts for more than 40% offoreign currency earnings and is a major source ofemployment. This has given rise to some concernas the local population sees a highly visibleprocess of greater privatisation of the coastlineand, therefore, face the prospect of their everdiminishing access to the coast.

The coast is, therefore, a location of opportunityas well as a potential source of conflict. Shoreline

residences, shipping, mariculture, oil bunkering,desalination, sewage treatment and disposal,fishing, water sports, yachting, scuba diving,bathing are all examples of activities which requireexacting standards in the quality of the marineenvironment. At the same time, they producechanges within that same marine environmentwhich have to be tolerated by other activities.Under such circumstances, it is not surprising toobserve that activities which have less economicsignificance, and the consequent political clout,have to suffer a diminishing level of accessibility

to coastal resources. This is a problem which ischaracteristic of all commonly shared naturalresources.

This is reflected in land and marine use planningpriority schemes. A key coastal planning policyenshrined within the 1990 Structure Plan for theMaltese Islands (Government of Malta, 1990)stated that privatisation of the lioral areas neededto be halted and, where possible, governmentneeds to recover land which had been lost toprivate interests. Within the decade that followedhowever, development permits were, in fact,

granted to a number of projects that resulted infurther privatisation of the coast despite publicprotest.

4.1 POPULATION OF COASTAL AREAS

Just like in many other countries, coastalresidential properties in Malta commandpremium prices on the real estate market; theterm unobstructed sea-views works magic inthe industry. In line with these market forces, theSliema-St.Julians foreshore has seen spectacular re-development over the last two decades. Practicallyall of the single family terraced residences thatfaced the sea have been torn down and rebuilt intomulti-storey apartments.

Anecdotal information claims that owners ofsuch houses were given the penthouse apartmentplus a sum of money to allow their houses to bedemolished. In other cases, the land previouslyoccupied by residences was rebuilt into multi-storyhotels.

This, naturally, has been the source of somecontroversy between residents of the area. Ownersof properties which were not fortunate enoughto possess seaside frontage complained thattheir residences were suddenly obscured by avirtual wall of multi-storey development in thedirection of the seafront. Concomitant problemsof construction nuisance, noise, parking andvehicular congestion created considerable tension.Despite all of this, demand for residences withinthe Sliema-St.Julians area remains high and

CHAPTER IVDevelopment pressure

Figure 6

Population growth for Maltese Islands for last 6 years

(reproduced from NSO)


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still commands high prices. A cross-section ofproperties along an imaginary line perpendicularto the coast shows high-rise, and high costproperties on the coas

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