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Extended VocalTechniques:The New Bel Canto?By Danielle Buonaiuto

Students and scholars of voice andvocal literature have a veritable wealth of musicat their fingertips, spanning 500 years anddeveloping what we now refer to as bel cantotechnique. This music is part of the canon ofmusic literature for the voice from which wedraw for recitals, auditions, and performances.However, at its introduction, this music wasrevolutionary and previously unchartedterritory- at one time, audiences would nothave recognized the melodies so familiar to usnow, and indeed would have been shocked andexcited to hear the developments that wereunfolding before their eyes.

Our bel canto school is so wellestablished that we have long since acceptedthese works and techniques as standards, triedand true. It is very easy to forget that asidefrom this familiar repertoire there is an ever-growing literature of new music, complete withintriguing compositional techniques and vocalproductions. We refer to these productions asextended vocal techniques.

Schoenberg’s experimentation withSprechstimme in Pierrot Lunaire opened doors forcomposers and vocalists alike. Suddenly, itseemed, there were no holds barred, and wenow have music such as Ligeti’s Aventures,Berio’s Sequenza III and Circles, and Joan LaBarbara’s countless experimental soundpaintings. Extended techniques appearing inthese works and others, include, besidesSprechstimme, laughter, crying, shouts,whispers, glottal and tongue clicks and stops,inverse phonation, speech, extremities ofrange, timbral variations, deletion of vibrato,vowel morphing and muting, whistling,microtones, reinforced harmonics, andmultiphonics.1 They are not, as some less

1Sharon Mabry, Exploring Twentieth Century Vocal Music

educated opinions may hold, unsafe, radicalusage of the voice, or in other words, inhuman.They are non-conventional in terms of thetraditional bel canto method, but are, moreoften than not, sounds we experience ineveryday life or at least know we are capable ofproducing.

Daniel Albright notes in Modernism andMusic that the “extended” performer is arelatively new concept, and it is logical that inaddition to experimenting with theperformance of a work visually, aurally, andphysically, a composer should want to extendthe use of the voice into speech to balance theperformance aesthetic. The result was thatsingers such as Cathy Berberian, Roy Hart,Phyllis Bryn-Julson, Jan DeGaetani, and JoanLa Barbara, in collaboration with composerslike Luciano Berio, Morton Feldman, PeterMaxwell Davies, John Cage, and MortonSubotnick, experimented with all aspects ofvocal production and discovered exactly howfar the human voice could go. Through amore detailed exploration of some of the morecommon techniques they established, we willobserve that they are nothing more than theresult of a desire to explore the full range ofthe human instrument and the creativepossibilities of contemporary expression.

For convenience, I have categorizedthe techniques into classes of graduateddifficulty and remoteness. Some of the piecesI have chosen to exemplify each class includetechniques from other classes, but I have triedto discuss each piece in terms of how I think itis most striking.

We begin with the most accessible ofclasses – the vocal hybrids and speech-sounds.These include but are not limited toSprechstimme, recitation, speech, shouts,laughter, crying, and whispering. Recitation issimply the declamation of a text over music,which may be pitched indeterminately or not.The most obvious instance of this isSprechstimme. Schoenberg's piece, PierrotLunaire, is the first and best example of thistechnique. Composed in 1912 near the end ofhis atonal period, the piece explores the

(New York: Oxford University, 2002), Part II.

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possibilities of the German melodrama (a piecewith a declaimed text over music).2 Since thevoice is not restricted to certain pitches andproductions, it has expressive freedom andmore accurate depiction of emotions.

Unfortunately for us, Schoenberg doesnot specify in his foreword to the piece howexactly one is to produce the desired effect,only what that effect is. He notes:

To emphasize fully the contrast between thesung note and the spoken note, whereas the sung notepreserves the pitch, the spoken note gives it at first, butabandons it either by rising or falling immediatelyafter... The difference between ordinary speech and amanner of speech that may be embodied in musical formis to be clearly maintained. But again, it must not bereminiscent of song.3

This implies that Schoenberg desiredeach spoken pitch to be connected by aglissando in the direction of its following pitch,so that the note is iterated on the correct pitchbut immediately leaves it and leads into thenext. The only way to do this and to achieve a“spoken” sound at the same time is to deletevibrato. (We will discuss straight-tone singingin more detail later.) In addition to a straighttone, vowels with more “speech-like”formations- that is, less space in the mouth andmore relaxed pronunciation of diphthongs-and registral integration will contribute to thedeclamatory quality essential to the productionof Sprechstimme.

As previously noted, the ability of thesinger to explore the territory between thenotes is what makes this particular techniqueso exciting. Although some singers choose todisregard the instructions completely and singit how they please, performances like that ofChristine Schafer, that are accurate musicallyand technically, convey the unfolding drama insuch a manner that the listener understands thedark, chilling undertones of Pierrot's words.4

2Sharon Mabry, Exploring Twentieth Century Vocal Music,

78.3Arnold Schoenberg, “Vorwort”, Pierrot Lunaire

(Universal, 1914).4 Arnold Schoenberg, Pierrot Lunaire, Christine Schafer,

soprano, Pierre Boulez, conductor (Deutsche

It can be argued that without the ability tomove freely between notes and use the voice toinflect the text so creatively, the poetry wouldnot bear as much weight.

Occasionally, a composer will insert asection of truly spoken text, as is the case in IHate Music by Leonard Bernstein, or Recital I forCathy by Luciano Berio, which is a monologuewith interspersed sung sections.5 Thistechnique allows the singer to extend his or herperformance into more intimate relations withthe audience -- being spoken to is an entirelydifferent feeling than being sung to. Inaddition, it brings the performance into therealm of acting, in the spirit of the movetoward theatricality so popular with post-World War II composers.6

Other speech-sounds appear frequentlyin works of varying degrees ofexperimentation. Cathy Berberian’s Stripsodyand Luciano Berio’s Sequenza III for voice aretwo pieces whose meaning rests on theunderstanding of the listener of the“humanness” of the subject matter andcharacter. Stripsody is intended to beperformed as though the singer is a radioannouncer who needs to communicate withoutprops the happenings of a series of well-knowncomic strips. To do this, Berberian created agraphic score in collaboration with RobertoZamarin, which leaves time and pitchsomewhat open to interpretation and notes,“Whenever possible, gestures and bodymovements should be simultaneous with thevocal gestures”.7 The result is that theperformer creates a world of onomatopoeiaand pantomime that if done effectively, ishumourous and really quite fascinating. Theexclamations (“BLAM!”, growls, declaimedtext, animal sounds, for example) are allproduced at a relatively low, medium, or highpitch, depending on the stave on which theyappear, and in the performer’s comfortable

Grammophon, 1998).

5 Luciano Berio, Recital I For Cathy, Weill, Berio andNiles, (RCA,1995).

6Daniel Albright, Modernism and Music (Chicago:University of Chicago, 2004), 145.

7 Cathy Berberian, Stripsody (New York: C.F. Peters,1966), Foreword.

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speaking production. Events like a sneeze, asingle sob, several shouted tones, and somelaughter-like sounds also occur, making thecommunication of the graphics realistic,understandable, and expressively creative.8

It is a good time to discuss at this pointthat much freedom is given in a graphic scoreto the interpretation of the performer. It isinteresting to observe, although CathyBerberian created a performance practice forpieces like this, how the reading of the newgeneration of avant-garde singers will differ.Linda Hirst, herself a noted performer ofavant-garde music, comments in her essay“Alternative Voices”, “… the individualsensibility and technical command which eachnew performer brings to its interpretation andthe realisation of the vocal symbols means anenlargement of the original tradition.”9 Notevery singer will produce these generic speech-sounds in the same fashion; the beauty of theseparticular effects is that they are flexible,adaptable to the abilities and expressiveconcerns of each individual performer.

Sequenza III for Voice differs in thisregard in that it includes a 2-page glossary ofBerio’s notation, indicating his desire for thepiece to be performed in essentially the samefashion every time. I include this piece in thecategory of speech-sounds because although itincludes virtually every other effect I willdiscuss, such as timbral variation, inverse andpressed phonation, vowel morphing andmuting, and phonemes, the beauty of the pieceis its human element- its communication of theemotional state and psychological nuances ofits female character. The manner in whichtones are whispered or spoken, shouted orsobbed at various points in the score emulatesthe way this woman might communicate thesame things in a monologue. Voiced breathing(as in crying), laughter, actual sobs, andmuttered and whispered segments are alsoutilised by Berio. In terms of the contrastbetween sung and spoken tones, the glossary 8 Ibid., Full Score, and Cathy Berberian, MagnifiCathy

(Wergo, 1995).9 Linda Hirst and David Wright, “Alternative Voices”,

Cambridge Companion to Singing (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 2000), 193.

states, “Although the borderline betweenspeaking and singing voice will often beblurred in performance, the vocal actionswritten on one line are “spoken” while thosewritten on three or five lines are ‘sung.’”10 Thisimplies Berio wishes there to be expressivefreedom for the performer to utter a given lineof sound at whatever point on the continuumshe sees fit; this is an interesting example ofcreative license designed to expand thepossibilities of communication, even in a piecewhere much of the notation dictates theexecution, as speech can be expanded bysinging as well as vice versa.

It goes without saying that thesetechniques, given their flexibility and proximityto everyday human sounds, are safe for anysinger to produce.11 They should be utteredwithin comfortable ranges, without affect suchas vibrato or hard onset unless otherwise noted(in which case, care should be taken under thesupervision of an experienced teacher), andinflected as they would be in another setting.12

The category of “vocal effects” I calledthus because it includes sounds not normallyheard in Western vocal production, such asglottal sounds and mouth clicks; sounds thatare “unlunged” or “unvoiced” such aswhistling; and sounds that do not correspondto the “normal” idea of that particularproduction, such as inverse and pressedphonation and audible (heavy) breathing.13

Pieces that include these are Ligeti’s Aventures,Vivier’s Love Songs, Cage’s Aria, and aspreviously mentioned, Sequenza III.

In the case of Sequenza III and LoveSongs in particular, these effects are used ascommunicative devices, whereas in the otherpieces they function more as musical devices.It is not to say that Cage and Ligeti did notwant a character or story to emerge (that would

10 Luciano Berio, Sequenza III for Voice (London:

Universal, 1968), Foreword.11 John Large and Thomas Murry, “Studies of Extended

Vocal Techniques: Safety.” (NATS Bulletin, May1978), 32-34.s

10 Sharon Mabry, Exploring Twentieth Century VocalMusic, 83, 122-124.

13 Trevor Wishart, “Extended Vocal Techniques”, TheMusical Times (Vol 121 May 1980), 313.

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be inaccurate), but the effects in their piecesserve the music before the character; vocalextension in this case creates a new sonic worldfor the listener to become immersed in, asopposed to a character to get to know.

Glottal stops and mouth clicks arethings we are capable of doing, but may nothave thought to experiment with. In uttering aword that begins with a vowel, mostAnglophones and Germans will make a slightstop before iterating the initial sound. This is aglottal stop, and it is used with varying force inhard onsets leading to spoken or sung tones.It can also be carried through the sound toproduce the “gravelly” tone as heard in singerslike Louis Armstrong.14 Referred to at times as“glottal overpressure”, it is consideredrelatively dangerous if not performed with careand supervision, and awareness of its effect onthe singer.15

Mouth clicks can be performed in anyarea of the mouth with the tongue or uvulararea. When performed with the tongue nearthe alveolar ridge, it is the sound some peopleuse to call animals. Farther back on the hardpalette it begins to have a more hollow sound.A click in the uvular area involves dropping thetongue into the throat and has a darkerconnotation due to its sounding more“dangerous” (although in reality these soundsare easy to produce). They can be modifiedwith the shape of the lips to lend brighter ordarker qualities.16

Whistling is used in many folk andmusical theatre songs, but is making moreappearances in avant-garde repertoire with orwithout its usual jovial connotation; forinstance, a single whistled tone at the end of adarker piece can impart an eerie quality. Mostpeople can whistle; its production is as onewould expect- pursed lips create the windchannel, and the tongue articulates pitch. Itcan be performed with or without vibrato butthis is usually specified.

14 John Large and Thomas Murry, “Studies of Extended

Vocal Techniques: Safety.” 31.15 Ibid, 34.16 Sharon Mabry, Exploring Twentieth Century Vocal Music,

136.

Inverse phonation requires moreattention to production as it can be drying andsometimes dangerous if not performedcorrectly. The sound is chilling, and is used byBerio in Sequenza III and also notably by PeterMaxwell Davies in Eight Songs for a Mad King;usually it imparts the idea that the performer iscommunicating some sort of pain. It is createdby allowing the folds to phonate as one inhales,with varying force. A similar sound isproduced with the opposite mechanism, whichis overly pressed phonation.17 This is similar tothe sound one might make when attempting tospeak while lifting a heavy object—very littleair is passed over the folds, which do notvibrate but remain in almost constantapproximation. Again, the sound imparts afeeling of duress or pain, and can be harmful ifdone improperly. Mabry suggests it is best toexperiment with these techniques for shortperiods of time under supervision of anexperienced teacher, and to keep the foldslubricated at all times when executing theseeffects.18

The last of these I intend to discuss isaudible, or heavy, breathing. It is mosteffective when amplified, due to its lack ofnatural resonance. Sequenza III, Love Songs,Eight Songs for a Mad King, and Aventures allexplore the possibilities of this effect. It canbring an emotionally charged, dark, eerie, orerotic quality to music, depending on how it isused. It is produced in the same manner asone would sigh heavily or gasp audibly, andcan be extended or shortened. Again, thiseffect tends to be drying to the vocal folds andshould be practiced sparingly and with wateron hand.19

Although with this category we start tosee sounds that require more consideration bythe performer in terms of accurate execution,safety, and technique, they still remain in goodfavour with performers of avant-garde music,who have learned to find ways for their ownvoices to safely deliver the music. Therefore, 17 Joan Logue, “Extended Vocal Techniques.” NATS

Journal (Nov-Dec 1988), 10.18 Sharon Mabry, Exploring Twentieth Century Vocal Music,

132.19 Ibid, 132.

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these effects remain in the vocabulary of avant-garde composers and performers, and serve toexpand the sonorities composers imaginewould most accurately depict characters,moods, or scenarios.

Timbral variations include everythingfrom falsetto, white tone, and other vocalcoloration to vowel muting and use ofphonemes. Timbral variation is somethingeasily experimented with and utilized bycomposers; we are constantly playing with thetimbre of our voices, be it through imitatingthe sound of another person or an animal orthrough attempts to accurately communicateour mood or meaning. It is used in virtuallyevery piece of music from this repertoire. JoanLa Barbara, a noted avant-garde performer, isrenowned for her ability to imitate musicalinstruments accurately, and this has been putto use extensively in her sound paintings andher work early on in her career for PhilipGlass.20 John Cage frequently asks singers todelete vibrato for his works, notably Aria andA Flower. Works such as Phonemes pour Cathy byHenri Pousseur use only sounds built fromcombinations of IPA characters, making thepossibilities of sound endless. Vowelmorphing and muting create continuumsbetween pure vowels, so that there is infinitefreedom to experiment at the discretion of theperformer.

The effect of deleting vibrato is usefulin pieces where tuning is essential (such asStimmung by Stockhauesen, which asks singersto produce the overtone series of the B flatbelow the bass clef) or where the composerrequires a certain aesthetic to be unobstructedby “bel canto” (the case with theaforementioned Cage pieces, which are forvoice and closed piano).21 The main concernwith deletion of vibrato is a tendency to engagein pressed phonation or physical tension whileattempting to execute straight tone; the idea isnot to try to sing without vibrato but to letoneself. Isolating head tone is also somewhat of 20 Joan La Barbara, “Voice is the Original Instrument.”

Contemporary Music Review (Vol 21, No 1, 2002),36-37.

21 Linda Hirst and David Wright, “Alternative Voices”,Cambridge Companion to Singing, 195.

a tension management problem for somesingers; attempting this without visual feedbackfrom a mirror or the help of a teacher is notrecommended, as is logical. However, whendone correctly, these techniques are notdifficult and can be executed for longer periodsof time with no more vocal strain thanproduction with normal vibrato. Thepossibilities a voice offers a composer by beingversatile in this manner are indispensable insome cases.

Composers’ work with non-textualvocal works has opened an entirely new worldof expression, compositionally, sonically, andvocally. Without text, music is not required tohave programmatic meaning- but beyond that,the voice is no longer restricted to dictatedphonetic shapes and can create any experiencepossible from infinite combinations of possiblesounds.

The use of phonemes is self-explanatory- the singer makes the shapesrequired with normal production unless askedto do otherwise. Vowel morphing and mutingis more interpretive. The singer is given acertain length of time to travel from one purevowel shape to the other seamlessly, or to gofrom a closed mouth position to a pure vowelshape or vice versa. The effect is exciting; it isamazing to the uninitiated that the humanvoice is capable of such resonance and variety.

These productions are definitely safeand serve to extend the sonic possibilities ofboth the voice and the composition in whichthey occur. The fascination that avant-gardecomposers have with timbre makes it essentialfor a singer wanting to perform this repertoireto be able to manipulate his or her voice inthese fashions, due to the abundance oftimbral effects required for any givencomposition.

The last category I will discuss is one Iconsider an exception to the rules I have so farexemplified in the realm of extended vocaltechniques. The virtuosity required to performEight Songs for a Mad King by Peter MaxwellDavies and Versüch über Schwiene by HansWerner Henze is definitely in the realm of the“extended voice”, but not in the same league atall. These pieces were written for Roy Hart,

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and extraordinary reciter with an alleged 8octaves to his name and formidable versatility.He indeed produced actual chords with hisvoice, a technique we call multiphonics. Othersingers capable of this are Joan La Barbara andJulius Eastman. The fact that we can namejust two or three people capable of this type ofproduction (La Barbara does not performworks as Hart and Eastman do) should standto explain why these pieces, and thesevocalists, should not be considered within thereasonable realm of compositional and vocalpossibility. Once in a while there will be asinger capable of performing Eight Songs, butthe work is by no means in the canon ofbaritone literature. Roy Hart, able to carry offextremity of range and multiphonics inaddition to his zealous use of inverse andpressed phonation, glissando, audiblebreathing, and many of the other effects wehave discussed, at extreme levels, could nothave created the mad world of King GeorgeIII without the full use of his vocal prowess.22

This, the most striking and provocativeexample of extended expression, truly standsalone.

Other techniques, perhaps less extremebut just as interesting, include reinforcedharmonics (that is, manipulation of formantsby channeling air and sound through differentresonant cavities), the circular breathing LaBarbara uses in her pieces, and her work withmicrotones.23 These techniques are moreaccessible to other singers, and indeed areutilized in some standard repertoire, but due totheir selective nature (not everyone can breathecircularly) are worth mentioning but notconsidered within the standard pedagogy.

With the avant-garde repertoire forvoice only growing, the possibilities for vocalproductions remain undefined. It is onlylogical to include these new techniques in thestandard pedagogy, along with traditional belcanto method, because of their pervasivenessin the important literature of the twentieth and 22 Paul Griffiths, “Peter Maxwell Davies, The

Contemporary Composers. (London: RobsonBooks, 1981), 74.

23 Joan La Barbara, “Voice is the Original Instrument”,42.

twenty-first centuries. A well-rounded vocalistcannot ignore the repertoire of new music, andindeed should be aware of the possibilities ofhis or her own voice, as cultural interest turnsmore and more to new music. Aside fromsafety considerations that are simplypedagogical factors to take into consideration,as any method of production has, extendedvocal techniques are not far off from accessibleand already-familiar sounds and productions,and their usage has so expanded the potentialof composition for the voice that it is a travestyto ignore them. It is my hope that as a newgeneration of singers grows into its own, thismusic will enter the canon of vocal literatureand the techniques of which it consists, thestandard pedagogy of the modern vocal studio.�

The Essential Roleof Interpretation inSingingBy Karla Dickieson

To achieve flawless technicalproficiency and agility in singing is oneimportant quality of an artist. If one desires tobe a truly successful singer, however, she mustaspire to the highest level of artistry whichcomes only from a true understanding of boththe score and text, and a personalinterpretation of the song expressed in asincere and honest manner. A song presentedin this way results in magnetism onstage; aperformer who has the attention of allaudience members focused on her at all timesduring a performance. A true artist gives morethan just a technically flawless performance.For this reason, it is possible that an audiencecan be moved more by a less advanced singerwho sings with intent, sincerity and a true

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understanding of what they are singing, than bya further advanced and technically flawlessperformance by a singer who exhibits noemotional attachment to their repertoire.Singing with perfected technique alone is notenough; personal interpretation and expressionof vocal music is not an option, but a necessityif one hopes to enjoy a successful career as asinger.

The Concise Oxford Dictionary of CurrentEnglish (1964) defines the word interpret as“[to] expound the meaning of (abstruse words,writings, dreams, etc.); make out the meaningof; bring out the meaning of, render, by artisticrepresentation of performance…”.24 HarryPlunket Greene opens his book, Interpretation inSong, by stating that “[i]nterpretation is thehighest branch of the singer’s art”.25 Van A.Christy (1974), defines interpretation as simply“the act of musical expression orreproduction”.26 Clifton Ware (1998), in hisbook, Basics of Vocal Pedagogy goes further todefine interpretation as “the act of explainingor clarifying an art work’s meaning (what it isabout) according to the artistic intentions ofthe composer, the textual source, and theperformer, in that order”.27 In his book, Singing& Imagination, Thomas Hemsley adds that“[s]ingers are not free to give an individualinterpretation of a poem, while ignoring whatthe composer has done; nor free to sing thecomposer’s music, while ignoring the wordswhich make clear the thoughts and feelings ofwhich that music is an expression”.28 All of

24 Fowler, H.W., & F.G. Fowler. (ed.) The concise oxforddictionary of current english

(1964). London, England: Oxford UniversityPress. p. 63725 Plunket, Harry G. Interpretation in song. (1919).Toronto: The McMillan Co. of

Canada, Ltd. p.126 Christy, Van A. Expressive singing: Volume 1. (1974).Dubuque, Iowa: WM. C. Brown CompanyPublishers. p.18927 Ware, Clifton. Basics of vocal pedagogy: the foundations andprocess of singing.

(1998). U.S.A.: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.p.1

28 Hemsley, Thomas. Singing & imagination: A humanapproach to a great musical

tradition. (1998). New York: Oxford UniversityPress Inc. p.114

the definitions come to the same conclusion,though some look deeper than others:interpretation involves studying the poetry andmusic, and then relating to them in a waywhich dictates how the song will be expressed.

The elevated and desired level ofartistry which comes with the interpretationand expression of vocal music is accomplishedin many ways. A singer should already have agood foundation with regards to technicalability before attempting to add a level ofinterpretation to the music. Plunket Greene(1919), suggests that “[t]echnique must be thesinger’s servant, not his master”.29 In otherwords, a singer’s technique should be sufficientin terms of breathing, support, andequalization of registers to allow for theimagination to take over the song. Hemsley(1998), suggests that one “should not begin tosing, until there is a clear picture in their mindof what they intend to communicate throughsinging”.30 Before the first note of theaccompaniment has been played, the singershould already possess intent towards what sheis about to communicate. Even the initialbreath should be guided by a visualization ofthe phrase which is to be sung and what is tobe communicated to the audience through it.Hemsley (1998) adds that “it is the impulse tosing which determines how we breathe – whichstimulates us to take a breath appropriate towhat is to be sung”.31 For example, when oneis singing a very tragic song, the breathingmight be gasp-like, reflecting the emotionalstate which the character expressing the poetryis feeling at that moment. Imagination can alsohelp singers with technical issues such as poorbreath management. If a singer is havingtrouble getting through a phrase because she isrunning out of breath, imagining the phraseand delivering it with intent may eliminate theproblem. Peterson (1966) agrees that “manyproblems of breathing disappear when thesinger’s attention is focused uponinterpretation and musicianship”.32 In these 29 Plunket, p.530 Hemsley, p.4731 Hemsley, p.10032 Peterson, Paul W. Natural singing and expressiveconducting. (1966). North Carolina: John F. Blair. p.19

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ways, it is clear that the breath is being used forexpressive purposes, guided by the singer’sinterpretation of the song.

So how does one go about developingeffective interpretive skills for singing? Theeasiest way to begin the interpretation processis by studying the poetry to which the song isset. The presence of text helps to make theintent of both the poet and the composer moreobvious to the singer. The text becomes aspringboard from which the singer can launchherself into the interpretation of the song.Clifton Ware suggests “a thoroughunderstanding of poetry, includingdenotation/connotation, imagery, figurativelanguage, allusion, meter, tone, and pattern,can help singers to better understand andexpress not only the sound but the meaning ofwords in songs”.33 Peterson (1966) seems toagree when he states,

Just as the composer is inspired to set the text to music,the singer should be equally as inspired to convey themessage through song. Imagination provides the singerwith the ability to visualize the actions, characters,setting, and similar details. The inflections of the voice,tonal colors, changes of dynamics, and all the variousfactors of vocal artistry evolve from poetic sensitivity.The voice is the reflector of the imagination.34

When singing songs in languages otherthan the singer’s native tongue, one shouldalways do a word-for-word translation as wellas a poetic translation. Word-for-wordtranslations are of great importance, as theyprovide the singer with a true understanding ofthe words which she is singing. This allows forappropriate word emphasis and phrasestructure, as well as proper flow of the phrase.The composer’s interpretation of the poetrygenerally emphasizes these previouslymentioned elements, but it is not enough for asinger to rely strictly on the composer’s intent.Hemsley suggests that “until singers know

33 Ware, Clifton. Basics of vocal pedagogy: the foundations andprocess of singing. (1998). U.S.A.: The McGraw-HillCompanies, Inc. p.2

34 Peterson, p.54-55

what the poet is saying, they cannot be in aposition to make their singing appropriate tothe sentiments being expressed. They cannotinterpret the music in anything but the mostgeneralized and superficial way”.35 He goes onto say that “singers must, in effect, in themoment of performing, be able to love theaudience, and must genuinely wish to sharewith them the experience, through singing, ofthe poet’s and composer’s inspiration”.36

It is necessary that singers’ first attemptto fully understand the intent of both thecomposer and poet before adding a personalinterpretation of a song. Peterson (1966)offers, “to become a true artist, the singer muststudy the text and music so thoroughly that hethinks and interprets with the same sensitivityas the poet and composer who inspired thesong”.37 Only after both the text and themusic of the score have been studied in detailcan one respond sensitively and accordinglycommunicate sensitively with an audience inperformance.

First, one must strive to find the storyin the song. By reading the poetry andtranslations, much is revealed with regards tothe characters, setting, situation, and emotions.Robert Caldwell and Joan Wall (2001) explorethis concept and suggest this:

We want our student to find the story in her song, evenif the story is merely suggested. When she works torender a story from the song’s text and music, thestudent gives herself a conceptual and emotionalstructure she can use to sequence and pace her inneractivity. When she begins to sense the story within orsurrounding the song, she starts to sharpen the complexdetails of the human condition – the very ideas we wanther to express through the song. She awakens her owndeep currents of emotions, ideas, relationships, andstruggles, which release from within her and play out inher interior life, ultimately forming the visible andaudible distinctions of the score. And when theaudience members sense a story or even its raw outlinesin those distinctions, they ready themselves to experiencemeaningful details of the human condition, and they

35 Hemsley, p.11336 ibid, p.19037 Peterson, p.50

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perceive deeper meaning in the song.38

Caldwell and Wall, go further to suggest a two-step method for interpreting the text of a songin their book, Excellence in Singing:

1. Have your student read the text for its content anddevelop her own interpretation of its meaning.

a.) Ask her to think about who is singing towhom. Have her decide whether she is singingto a specific person, to a group, or to herself.b.) Ask her to explore the intent of the singer– what prompts the singer to say these words?

2. Then ask her to read the words aloud with ameaningful dramatic interpretation.39

A very important step in theinterpretation of song is an understanding ofthe character who is singing. One must look atwho the character is, what their motivation forsinging is, who they are singing to, and whattheir emotional state is at the time the song issung.40 These elements may not always beovert within the score. This then allows forsingers’ to imagine their own character qualitiesand motivations, adding a deeper level to thesong which they are singing. Some of the mostmoving performances are given by singers wholook deeper into the poetry and identifyintimately with the character who is singing bydrawing upon their own life experiences andemotions, thus adding depth to theinterpretation. Christy (1975), concurs that“since finest details of expression are beyondthe capacity of the composer to notate in thescore, they are the result of the singer’sprojecting his own personality, his ownindividual thoughts, emotions, andunderstandings of the song”.41

When singing a full recital program, orwithin the framework of an opera, a singer may 38 Caldwell, Robert, & Joan Wall. Excellence in singing:multilevel learning andmultilevel teaching. Volume 4: becoming an artist. (2001).Redmond, WA: Caldwell Publishing Company. p.78

39 ibid, p.6040 ibid, p.8141 Christy, Van A. Expressive singing: Volume 2. (1975).Dubuque, Iowa: WM. C. Brown CompanyPublishers. p.111

be required to sing many songs, eachprojecting very different mood. This requiressignificant concentration, and a mental switchmust occur between songs which is obvious tothe audience. These changes in mood willresult in changes in the vocal colours andqualities displayed by the singer. Christy notesthat “all songs require an appropriate tonecolor to best express their general mood” andgoes on to suggest that,

It is as important a resource for a singer to use variousshades of tone in interpreting songs as it is for a painterto have at his command the full range of the color chart.It is not enough for the singer or painter to have allshades of color available, however: they must have theeven more important artistic sensitivity to select just theright shade at the right place. When the singer is ableon a phrase, even on a single note, to express anydivergent sentiment such as joy-sorrow, passion-apathy,love-hatred, dignity-frivolity, longing-indifference,tragedy-humor, he truly can move the listener to the coreof his being. Then and only then is the singer a realartist.42

Once a singer has explored the intentof both the composer and poet of a song, sheis free to add her own interpretation andemotions. When a singer gives a sincere,honest performance of a song which has beenprepared in this way, the audience will betransfixed on the performer and moved by theperformance. Plunket Greene (1919) calls thisphenomenon magnetism, and suggests that it is aspecial gift. He goes on to suggest “magnetismis the indefinable something which passes fromsinger to audience and audience to singer alike;for the audience which the singer holds in thehollow of his hand, holds him as surely in itsown”.43 Hemsley (1998), believes that amagnetic singer is “mentally drawing theaudience, or their partners to the stage, tothemselves rather than trying to importune”44.Magnetism could also be seen as effectivestorytelling on the part of the singer. Christyconcurs that “the singer must be essentially a

42 ibid, p.12243 Plunket, p.944 Hemsley, p.33

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good storyteller. Telling the story must be sovivid and interesting that attention is heldcontinuously from beginning to end”.45

Sincere, appropriate gestures, facialexpressions and other physical detailscombined with details of vocal effect help tomake a performer magnetic. Peterson (1966)discusses the importance of these physicaldetails when he writes, “the face must alwaysportray the mood of the song. The eyes,especially, are effective means for artisticinterpretation”.46 These effects combined withsufficient technique and sincere interpretationlead to an enjoyable and memorableperformance. Fields (1977) summed up theidea of total expression when he said,“expression in song, therefore, demands morethan technical competence. It requires growthof character, reinforced by a matureunderstanding that can interpret andcommunicate the thrilling dramatic,philosophical, and esthetic content of a musicalcomposition to the audience”.47

It is not sufficient to sing withperfected technique alone; a personalinterpretation and expression of vocal music isnot an option, but is extremely necessary if onehopes to enjoy a successful career as a singer.Interpreting a song involves exploring theintent of both the poet and composer, thenadding an interpretation which draws onpersonal experiences and emotions andcombining these things to create a mood andatmosphere for the piece. This results inappropriate dynamic changes, structure ofphrases and differences in tonal colour whichlead to a performance which is certain to movean audience more deeply than the mosttechnically impressive performer ever could. �

45 Christy 1974, p.19446 Peterson, p.5847 Fields, Victor A. Foundations of the singer’s art. (1977).New York: Vantage PressInc. p. 265

Aggiustamentoin Male andFemale VoicesBy Julie Grieve

The skilled singer, trained in the belcanto technique, appears to have a singleregister. There are, however, several eventswhich occur at various regions of thisapparently uniform voice. While there areseveral different opinions regarding theregisters of both the male and female voices,there is one generally accepted view of thetwentieth century. This approach states thatthere are specific registral events that take placein every voice. With the male voice, he sings inthe voce di petto (chest voice) until the primopassaggio. The primo passaggio and secondo passaggioare register transition points, with the zona dipassaggio (the passage zone) between them.48

During the zona di passaggio, he sings in the vocemista (mixed voice), and he sings in the voce ditesta (head voice) above the second passaggio.49

Likewise, in the female voice, she sings in thechest voice, which terminates with the lowerpassaggio (similar to the male’s primo passaggio),followed by the zona di passaggio ending with theupper passaggio (similar to the male’s secondopassaggio), followed by the female’s upperrange.50 It is important to note that within thezona di passaggio in the female voice, there is the‘lower middle’ voice and the ‘upper middle’voice. The concept of vowel modification, oraggiustamento, which is the focus of this paper, isused to unify the registers of both the male andfemale voices. While there are severalsimilarities between aggiustamento in male andfemale voices, there are distinct differences aswell. There are several schools of vocalpedagogy which share, to some extent, the ideaof vowel modification, yet the degrees and

48Richard Miller, The Structure of Singing- System and Art inVocal Technique, (Belmont, CA: Schirmer, 1996), 115.49Ibid., 118.50Ibid., 134.

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approaches at which they accomplish it vary.In the German school, the concept of

vowel modification is termed deckung. The aimof deckung is relatively the same as that ofaggiustamento: to achieve unity between theregisters, while maintaining consistentresonance. Deckung occurs from “darkeningthe vowel by altering its acoustical shapethrough increased laryngeal depression andpharyngeal enlargement; the vocalis musclesare encouraged to greater activity as a result ofescalated muscular antagonisms in the torsoand neck.”51 Heavy deckung, where there is anextreme depression of the larynx, may beharmful for the voice. Dr. Richard Millerstates that “in this pedagogy, the tendency maybe marked so that an arpeggio (1-3-5-8-5-3-1)executed on (Α) . . . in the key of F will soundto an uninitiated ear as though it were (Α - � -o - u - o - � - Α) . . . although the same vowelis indicated throughout.”52 Using thistechnique, if a soprano was to sing a C majorscale beginning on middle C on the vowel [Α],upon reaching the zona di passaggio the vowelwill have already reached a “high degree ofneutralization, regardless of its actual phoneticshape.”53 Evidently, deckung, although it aimsto achieve resonance and unity, vocal qualitiesall singers wish to have, it accomplishes thesethings by extreme and potentially hazardousmethods.

In the French school, there is lessemphasis on the appoggio technique, which isone of the fundamentals of the Italianapproach to singing and “as a result, thegeneral weight of [the voice is] lighter.”54

There is, however, an historic parallel betweenthe voce mista of the Italian school and the voixmixte of the French school: both look for “agradual modification of the vowel . . . [toachieve an] even scale throughout the singing

51Richard Miller, National Schools of Singing- English, French,German, and Italian Techniques of Singing Revised, (Lanham,MD: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1997), 135.52Ibid.53Ibid.54Ibid.,136.

voice.”55 This concept is not given muchpriority in the French school since the singerfocuses less on matters of registration andinstead appreciates his or her ‘natural’ sound.Therefore, this singer “finds little necessity tomodify . . . [their] sound, and tends to applythe principles of vowel modification hardly atall.”56 It would appear that the Frenchpedagogical approach to vowel modification isalmost opposite to the Germanic approach.

Singers from the English school use atechnique that tends to fall somewherebetween the French and the Germanapproaches. Miller argues that the Englishschool adopts somewhat Italianate pedagogiesas their national aesthetic, and so in “the caseof vowel modification, this means avoidance ingeneral of the heavy alteration of the Germanschool and the whiteness of the Frenchschool.”57 A singer using the Englishtechnique does have a “tendency toward voweldistortion as pitch mounts”58 because thebrilliance of the upper register, which is heardin voices trained in the Italian school, is lost.

The Italian school, with its focus on belcanto, uses the term aggiustamento for thetechnique of vowel modification. It is a muchless drastic method of achieving registeruniformity in comparison to deckung. As well,in most cases, “vowel modification is inducedonly near the secondo passaggio point.”59 Incontrast to the German school, whichadvocates extreme muscular tensions in orderto accomplish vowel modification, “thephysiological alterations within the vocal tract[i.e. pharyngeal distention and laryngealdepression] which the German sees asconcomitant to vowel modification are avoidedin the Italian school.”60 D. Ralph Appelmanoffers an excellent description of the purposeof aggiustamento: 55Richard Miller, National Schools of Singing- English, French,German, and Italian Techniques of Singing Revised, (Lanham,MD: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1997), 137.56Ibid.57Ibid.58Ibid., 138.59Richard Miller, National Schools of Singing- English, French,German, and Italian Techniques of Singing Revised, (Lanham,MD: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1997), 136.60Ibid.

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One of the objectives of the singers of bel canto was thedevelopment of a vocal line that was pure, unbroken,and uninterrupted. The transition of registers- either upor down the scale- demanded a modification in the tonalcolour of the topmost notes to prevent them frombecoming disagreeable and harsh and to preserve thequality of the vocal sound as well as an even tonalline.61

As Appelman implies, a modification inthe tonal colour in the upper register is amodification of the vowels. The vowelspectrum may be divided into two categories:front or closed vowels and back or openvowels. The closed vowels consist of [ι], [ε],[Ε], [Θ] and [α]. The open vowels are [υ], [U],[O], [�], and [Α]. In the centre of these twogroups are the neutral vowels: [℘] and [↔].These types of vowels are significant becauseof the timbres they produce when sung at highpitches. When the singer is not making use ofaggiustamento, it may be noted that as pitch risesthe vocal timbre changes. In his or her upperregister the closed and open vowels producevery different vocal sonorities. The closevowels are rather shrill sounding since theylack the chiaroscuro the Italian school advocates.To avoid this undesirable vocal quality, onemust “minimize the conjoining of highharmonic partials [which are created naturallyby the shape of the vocal tract when singingclosed vowels,] and high pitch.”62 The singerachieves this by modifying the closed vowels inthe direction of their neighbour that is closerto the neutral centre. Since the vocal tractdoes not produce as many highly-resonantpartials for open vowels, the resulting timbre isoften too dark when sung at high pitches.Aggiustamento corrects this problem bymodifying the vowel slightly towards a moreclosed vowel, thus creating a balance ofchiaroscuro. It is “most easily accomplished byretaining the same tongue position and movingthe jaw. . . there is no need for [a] change of

61D. Ralph Appelman, The Science of Vocal Pedagogy,(Bloomington, ID: Indiana University Press, 1974), 90.62Richard Miller, Training Soprano Voices, (New York:Oxford University Press, 2000), 125.

embouchure.”63 Although it may soundcomplicated, the process of a gradual openingof the mouth in order to adjust the vowel isvery natural. As the mouth opens toaccommodate a rise in pitch, the vowelnaturally moves towards a neighbouring, moreneutral vowel: [i] to [I], [I] to [e], [e] to [Ε], [Ε]to [a], [a] to [�], [�] to [O], [O] to [U], [U] to[u].64 Sundberg states: “Some variability existsbetween singers using different singingtechniques. In other words, some singers canbe expected to be considerably easier tounderstand at high pitches than others.”65 Thisreflects the contrast between the severalschools of singing that exist, particularly thedifferences between the Germanic andItalianate teachings. As it was stated earlier,severe vowel distortion may occur when usingdeckung, whereas a slight alteration of the vowelwhen employing aggiustamento achieves whatdeckung aims for, without the muscular strainand loss of vowel integrity.

The male voice and the female voiceshare both similarities and differences whenmodifying vowels. In the male voice, vowelmodification is used to maintain a consistenttimbre throughout the range of the voice andthus avoid the feared “break” betweenregisters. Although it is “chiefly the secondopassaggio point that often frustrates a tenor, theproblem generally results from what has takenplace below it”66 in the zona di passaggio. It is,therefore, necessary to begin a very slightdegree of aggiustamento at the primo passaggio.This allows him to have the chiaroscuro quality ina relatively lower part of his range. As pitchascends, and there is a continued, but notextreme, use of aggiustamento, the bright/darktimbre is carried into the zona di passaggio, thesecondo passaggio, and the upper register. Anindication of the effectiveness of vowel

63Arden J. Hopkin, “Vowel Equalization,” Journal ofSinging- the Official Journal of the National Association ofTeachers of Singing 53, no. 3 (January-February 1997): 11.64Richard Miller, Training Soprano Voices, (New York:Oxford University Press, 2000), 124.65Johan Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice, (Dekalb,IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 1987), 117.66Richard Miller, Training Tenor Voices, (Belmont, CA:Schirmer, 1993), 48-49.

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modification is the quantity of performers whoemploy it. Jussi Björling, for instance: whenlistening to his recordings one is able to hear“how well-blended the upper registers are andhow critically important this is in order tobalance the male voice.”67 Enrico Caruso alsounderstood the importance of “vowelmodification in the Italian tradition”68 in orderto maintain a healthy instrument. “Che GelidaManina” from Puccini’s La Bohème is a primeexample of the process of aggiustamento in themale, and in this case specifically, the tenorvoice. When singing the “la speranza” phraseof this aria, the tenor continues to“differentiate the vowels [a] and [e], but themodification process shows a spectral changetoward [�] and [Ε], or even [Θ].”69 Whencomparing Roberto Alagna, Luciano Pavarotti,and Jose Carreras’ performances of this aria,one hears no vowel distortion. At the sametime as the audience can understand the lyrics,the tenor maintains an even vocal timbre.Each performance exemplifies the necessityand beautiful results of vowel modification.The female voice also reflects the importanceof aggiustamento.

Before going into depth regarding thefemale voice and vowel modification, one mustacknowledge that each voice is unique.Registral events do not occur in the exact samelocation for every singer, whether male orfemale. In the soprano voice, the lowerpassaggio point typically occurs around Eb4 andthe upper passaggio point occurs around F#5.Within this zona di passaggio, “a mouth posturethat is too narrow in [the] upper middle rangewill cause shrillness, [and] a mouth posture thatis too open in [the] lower middle range willcause muddiness of timbre.”70 Although the

67David L. Jones, “Male Voice Protection:Understanding the ‘Cover’”, _ 2004,http://www.voiceteacher.com/male_voice.html(accessed February 1, 2004).68Craig Timberlake, “Practica Musicae: On BecomingCaruso,” Journal of Singing- the Official Journal of the NationalAssociation of Teachers of Singing 52, no. 4 (March-April1996): 35.69Richard Miller, Training Tenor Voices, (Belmont, CA:Schirmer, 1993), 48.70Richard Miller, Training Soprano Voices, (New York:Oxford University Press, 2000), 130.

mouth opens wider as pitch ascends and thezygomatic area remains elevated, Milleradmonishes that “grinning foolishly”71 is notthe answer to migrating towards a more neutralvowel. An excellent example of a singer’s useof vowel modification is the phrase “ti vo’ lafronte incoronar” from Susanna’s aria “Deh, vieni,non tardar” from Mozart’s Le Nozze di Figaro.The first statement of “incoronar” begins at G4and ascends to A5. At the beginning of thisphrase, the mouth “remains only slightly moreopen than it would by in speech until thesyllable -ro-, at which point a gradualaggiustamento of the vowel begins: a subtleincrease in mouth aperture and jawlowering.”72 Both Graziella Sciutti and AlisonHagley who performed the role of Susanna,have clear diction in their upper registers buttheir vocal timbres do not change whenapproaching or past the upper passaggio. It isapparent that they make use of vowelmodification yet they do so subtly.

The primary difference betweenaggiustamento in male and female voices is aresult of vocal acoustics. The fundamentalsexhibited in the female voice are different fromthose of the male voice. As pitch rises, “thenumber of prominent harmonic partialsbecome . . . reduced [since] the fundamental israised.”73 Because of this, the soprano“exhibits roughly only half the number ofovertones when singing her high C (C6) asdoes the tenor when singing his high C (C5).”74

The soprano, then, may be forgiven for havingslightly more distorted vowels in her upperregister than the tenor voice has, since hervoice has fewer upper partials which definevowels. Miller argues: “for that reason, voweldefinition at high pitch levels will undergomore modification for her than for the male”75

in order for her voice to get more harmonicpartials to define the vowel so the audiencemay better understand what is being sung.

71Ibid., 134.72Richard Miller, Training Soprano Voices (New York:Oxford University Press, 2000), 130.73Ibid., 132.74Ibid.75Ibid.

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In summation, aggiustamento is avaluable technique within the Italian school.In both the male and female voice, vowelmodification produces a consistency in vocalcolour: the chiaroscuro timbre. This consistenttimbre is created by slightly turning the vowelthat is being sung towards a more neutralneighbour. It allows for uniformity of theregisters, creating the impression of anapparently seamless voice. In the female voice,however, the main difference is that there arefewer vowel-defining upper partials the higherthe pitch. Understandably, the male voice,since it is lower, has more overtones and so hisvowels (before applying vowel modification)are better-defined than in the female’s upperregister. Therefore, he does not require thesame degree of aggiustamento that the femalesinger does. Both male and female voices,however, when employing aggiustamento,epitomize the vocal quality the bel canto schooladvocates. �

Performance Anxiety:The Musician’sStruggleBy Beth Hörst

On some level, all performers,including musicians, public speakers,magicians, dancers and actors, fear some aspectof performing. Instrumentalists may fearmuscle spasms or shakes that would affectpositioning and fingering, woodwind playersand singers may fear trembling lips and jaws,and all artists fear loss of concentration ormemory lapses. Most performers haveanxieties over the factors they have littlecontrol of. An audience’s reaction andjudgment are relevant sources of concern forperformers, and the fear of making publicmistakes is often overwhelming. A performermay dread the outcome of the performance,imagine failure, or go into the performancewith a dread of inaccuracies or othershortcomings.76 The irony of the situation isthat this fear of the future (the impendingperformance) affects the present performanceand results in a more negative outcome than ifthe performer had had no, or less, initial fear.Although a certain amount of performanceanxiety is normal, and perhaps even helpful, itis when anxiety begins to limit or affect theperformance that it becomes a real point ofconcern. The following will examine thecauses and effects of performance anxiety, aswell as a variety of solutions and treatments ofthis common singer’s ailment.

An age old dilemma, anxiety has beenpresent in performance arguably since manbegan to perform, though research into theissues and effects of stage fright have onlyrecently become a social science.77 Early

76 Mark Ross Clark, Singing, Acting, and Movement in Opera:

A Guide to Singer-getic (Bloomington: IndianaUniversity Press, 2002), 105.

77 Elizabeth Valentine, “The Fear of Performance,” inMusical Performance: A Guide to Understanding, ed. JohnRink. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

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studies surrounding general performanceanxiety came out of the study of sportspsychology. However, musical performanceanxiety is unique, although related, to otherforms of public appearance anxieties.78

Deemed “the musician’s number oneenemy,” stage fright is an often debilitatingeffect on performance.79 Havas describes stagefright as “one of the most destructive elementsin the performing arts, be it acting, dancing,singing, making a speech or playing aninstrument.”80 Others define this condition asthe fear experienced before and during aperformance. Valentine’s analysis of thedilemma defines performance anxiety as “theexperience of persisting, distressfulapprehension about, and/or actual impairmentof, performance skills in a public context, to adegree unwarranted, given the individual’smusical aptitude, training and level ofpreparation.”81 Performance anxiety, on itsmost basic level, is simply a physical, mentaland emotional reaction to a stressful situation.It is often associated with the broader categoryof fear commonly referred to as social phobia,such as fear of people or public situations.82

Performance anxiety meets the criteria forbeing catigorised as a phobia since it is markedby “a persistent, unreasonable fear resulting inintense distress.”83

Performance anxiety is a conditioned,habitual response; the fear associated withperforming is conditioned into the individualafter onset, and continues or even worsensover time. Stage fright “occurs throughthoughts and learned responses toperformance situations,” and therefore is theresult of a pattern of behaviour developed by

2002), 168.

78 Charlene Ryan, “Gender Differences in Children’sExperience of Musical Performance Anxiety,”Psychology of Music 32, no. 1 (2004): 90.

79 Kato Havas, Stage Fright: Its Causes and Cures (London:Bosworth & Co. Ltd., 1973), 2.

80 Ibid., 2.81 Valentine, 168.82 Clark, 105.83 Deborah Caputo Rosen, R.N., Ph.D. and Robert

Thayer Sataloff M.D., D.M.A., Psychology of VoiceDisorders (San Diego: Singular Publishing Group),141.

the performer and repeated in everyperformance situation.84 Like an addition, thispattern of behaviour must be undone to treatthe habit. Fear must be disassociated withperforming in order to reduce stage fright.

The incidence of performance anxietyis extremely common. Famous performer’swho admittedly suffered from a significantamount of performance distress include MariaCallas, Caruso, Pablo Casals, Godowsky,Vladimir Horowitz, Rachmaninoff and BarbaraStreisand.85 Professionals and amateurs areequally affected; in this instance, experiencedoes not necessarily reduce stress. Althoughthere is evidence that anxiety can decrease withtime and additional experience, mostperformers report generally consistent levels ofanxiety throughout their careers; even thoughexperience is gained, the expectations areequally raised.86 A 1990s American studyfound that 21% of American students of musicsuffered from significant performance anxiety,while another 40% suffered from moderateanxiety and 30% reported “moderate distressand impairment in performance” due toanxiety. The remaining 9% reported that theyavoided performance opportunities all togetherdue to severe anxiety. A more recentAmerican study of several thousandprofessional musicians reported 24% ofmusicians considered stage fright “a hazard totheir health,” and 16% reporting it as a serioushealth problem.87 Another study of nearly allthe professional orchestra members in theNetherlands found that 59% ofinstrumentalists were “affected professionallyor personally by stage fright and that 10%suffered anticipatory anxiety for weeks beforeperformances.”88 Some experience stage fright

84 Clark, 104.85 Valentine, 158.86 David Roland and Glenn D. Wilson, “Performance

Anxiety,” in The Science and Psychology of MusicPerformance, ed. Richard Parncutt and Gary E.McPherson. (Oxford: Oxford University Press,2002), 9.

87 André-Francois Arcier, “Stage Fright,” in MedicalProblems of the Instrumentalist Musician,ed. Raoul Tubiana and Peter Camadio. (London: MartinDunitz Ltd., 2000), 507.88 Roland., 48.

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only on stage, while others experience anxietyhours or even weeks before a performance.Others experience anxiety even after theperformance is complete.89

Undeniably common in mostperformers, there is also evidence thatperformance anxiety is far more prevalent andsevere in women.90 Critics of this theoryspeculate that women simply report or admitto having anxiety more often than men, notthat they actually suffer from higher levels. Ina Canadian study or child performers, findingsshowed that boys’ heart rates rose much lessthan girls’ pre-performance, but exceeded girls’heart rates during performance. By adulthoodhowever, men appear, in general, less physicallyand emotionally affected by stage fright thando women.91 Adult men and women alsodisplay different methods of dealing withanxiety in performance situations: women tendto rely on emotionally-focused strategies,whereas men tend to employ problem solving,mentally-focused strategies.92

Solo performance unanimously trumpsgroup performance concerning a higheramount of performance anxiety.93 Stage frighthas also been linked with particular personalitytypes and traits. For example, a perfectionistor “type-A” personality (Myers-briggs J’s) willlikely suffer from a greater amount ofperformance anxiety seeing as their standardsmay be higher; so is the case when comparing aprofessional and student performer. It isworthy to point out that self-prescribedperfectionism and socially-prescribedperfectionism (that which is imposed byothers) result in differing, though both high,levels of performance anxiety. Those withhigh socially-prescribed perfectionism exhibitthe highest levels of anxiety.94

Although obviously prevalent andcommon, performance anxiety remains a taboosubject, rarely addressed, by many musiciansand teachers alike. Although some performers

89 Arcier, 512.90 Roland, 48.91 Ryan, 89.92 Ibid., 91.93 Arcier, 507.94 Roland, 49.

may admit to having some degree ofperformance anxiety, this is particularly rare formusicians, in comparison with theatrical anddance performers.95 A genuine “hush-hush”subject in the music world, most musicians failto admit they have any issue with nervousness,as this may brand them as a less capableperformer, or make patrons or audiencesuncomfortable. Many try to hide their anxietyfrom the public and other performers. Thereis a certain amount of shame attached to thismost natural process. Singers may considerstage fright to be embarrassing and “aweakness” since visible signs of nervousnesscould greatly affect a performance. Forexample, a very gifted performer can be stifledby their anxiety and alternatively musicianswith perhaps less actual skill or musicianshipmay advance faster or become more successfuldue to their extremely comfortable and easefulperformance on stage.96 The management ofperformance anxiety is most certainly a “makeor break factor” of success in the musicindustry.97

For singers in particular, high levels ofanxiety can cause detrimental effects toproductive singing. Symptoms of performanceanxiety can be classified as physiological,behavioural or mental. Seeing as performanceanxiety is a neuroendocrine response, physicaleffects include palpitations, hyperventilation,dry mouth, sweating, nausea, diarrhoea anddizziness.98 In hearing tests carried out at theUniversity of Indiana by Dr. S. D. Curtis,subjects were unable to make fine distinctionsin pitch when agitated, resulting in an out oftune performance.99 Other physical processesaffected by anxiety are the subtle fine motorskills and muscular co-ordinations required toeither sing or play. When suffering fromanxiety, increased levels of adrenaline in thebody elevate the heart rate and quickenbreathing, resulting in overly rapid, ineffectivebreath management and hypoxia (low bloodoxygen). Fluids are redirected to the blood 95 Havas, 2.96 Clark, 105.97 Ibid., 104.98 Valentine, 158.99 Clark, 101.

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stream, causing a dry mouth sensation and/orperspiration.100 Panic attacks or fainting canoccur in extreme cases.101 Behaviouralsymptoms include trembling, shaking, stiffness,twitches, “dead-pan” expression, or otherimpairments of the performance itself.102

Mentally, anxiety can distract the performerfrom the task at hand, causing memory lossesor other mistakes. A severe sense of dread,caused by negative thought processes and lossof self-esteem can result in extreme mentalanxiety. One example of a mental process ofperformance anxiety is “catastrophising,” orirrationally exaggerating the likelihood ofdisaster and convincing one’s self that theperformance will be a negative experience.Another common example is “self-handicapping” whereby the performerprematurely fabricates excuses (hangovers,illness, lack of sleep) to justify any mistakesthat might occur.103

Conversely, some degree of tensionadds electricity to a performance; hence fearcan be a good thing.104 The body’s innatephysical response to anxiety transports oxygenand adrenalin into the blood stream, causingthe heart to beat faster. This in turn causes aheightened sense of awareness and alertness.Unfortunately this alertness is often distortedinto tension when muscles ready themselves tobe used, thus breathing becomes shallow andrapid, and extremities may tingle or becomenumb.105 Still, a healthy level of performanceanxiety can be classified as "good stress; a stateof heightened physical and mental alertness[and the] type of emotional high that intensifiesand can thus enhance the performance.”106

A variety of solutions to performanceanxiety are currently available. Just as theanxiety itself can be classified as physiological,behavioural or mental (cognitive), therapeutic 100 Roland, 48.101 Anne Petrovich, “How Teachers Can Help

Performance Anxiety,” American Music Teacher 53, no.3 (2003), 24.

102 Arcier, 513.103 Valentine, 169.104 Roland, 47.105 Lucinda Bassett, Life Without Limits (New York:

Harper Collins Publishers, 2001), 127.106 Petrovich, 26.

solutions to performance anxiety are largelygrouped under four categories: behavioural,cognitive, psycho-therapeutical orpharmacological.107 Behavioural-wise, someschools advocate that musicians must simplylearn to perform with the nerves. Is this ahelpful scenario, a simple solution, or aridiculous suggestion? As it is true that allpublic performers experience some degree ofperformance anxiety at one point or another, itis also possible to combat this anxiety bysimple means. Certain aspects of cognitiveprocessing, including self-assurance, self-congratulating and positive self-talk are oftenemployed. Other solutions include relaxationtechniques, such as yoga, meditation,hypnotherapy and the ever-popular Alexandertechnique. Diet alterations and drug use aremore prevalent than ever. The use of drugssuch as Beta-blockers has risen significantlyover the past several decades.

Forms of mental processing, orcognitive re-constructing, can be used aseffective tools for mild performance anxiety.108

Dr. S. D. Curtis offers that musicians “sufferfrom performance anxiety because they havefailed to develop the mental and emotionalstrength that will allow for more positivethoughts and feelings.”109 Since performanceanxiety is rooted in self-esteem issues,performers can benefit from recognising theirmusical strengths and desires beforeproceeding to the stage.110 A positive attitudecan go further than one might think. Pre-performance self-assurance and self-motivatingcomments can often boost a performer enoughto take the edge off. However, Lieberman andothers caution against the isolation of verbalself-assurance. According to sensoryawareness studies, imagistic instructions are farmore effective than verbal instructions.111

Therefore, it is suggested that visualizing apositive, successful performance, mentally

107 Arcier, 515.108 Rosen, 140.109 Clark, 105.110 Ibid., 107.111 Julie Lyonn Lieberman, You Are Your Instrument: A

Definitive Musician’s Guide to Practise and Performance(New York: Huiksi Music, 1991), 79.

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rehearsing the performance, or auralizing thepiece (using one’s inner ear) are more effectivetools of mental processing than a simple “selfpep-talk.”112 Others rely on a regimented pre-performance routine, which may include ascheduled order of events throughout theentire day, such as napping, meditating,warming up, dressing, to the types of food theywill eat pre-performance. Some performers areso set in these routines that any interruption tothis schedule could greatly increase theiranxiety.113

Other mental stabilizing techniquesinclude methods of combating that which mostvocalists are primary concerned with duringpublic performances– memory loss. Someperformers create and rely on “memorystations,” or designated measures throughout acomposition where one can check in or jumpto if a memory loss occurs. Using video- oraudiotapes in practise sessions serves to aidperformers in reviewing material andidentifying possible problematic areas. Thismethod may also create a mock audience (thecamera), when one is rehearsing in lesson.114

Relaxation techniques and autogenictherapies implemented before performing havea profound calming affect on many musicians.Yoga, Zen, Tai Chi and Reiki are among someof the Eastern originating models that havebeen collaborated into Western music.Alexander Technique can serve to releasetensions and focus the mind. As well ascultivating relaxation, this low impacttechnique fosters more effective co-ordinationsand posture, balance and body awareness. Arelated school, Progressive Muscle Relaxation,involves tensing and relaxing muscle groups insequence, in hopes of co-ordinating andrelaxing muscles before proceeding to thestage. 115 Self-hypnotising or hypnotherapy caninduce a state of calm and serenity.116 In this

112 Ibid., 80.113 Roland, 57.114 Joann Kirchner, “Managing Musical Performance

Anxiety,” American Music Teacher 54, no. 3 (2005), 31.115 Ibid., 32.116 Eloise Ristad, A Soprano on Her Head: Right-side-up

Reflections on Life and Other Performances (Moab: RealPeople Press, 1982), 171.

form of treatment, positive verbalreinforcements can be delivered underhypnosis, reinforcing to the subconscious asense of confidence and self worth.117 Properwarm-ups are necessary. Being physicallyprepared, as well as mentally prepared, iscritical for all musicians. Aside from theaforementioned self-preparation and relaxationtechniques, general musical preparation is oftenthe key to an anxiety free (or low anxiety)performance; practice makes perfect.Knowing the music as well as humanlypossible is a sure way to reduce at least someanxiety, whereas being under prepared can bedetrimental to a successful performance, andheighten anxiety. Running the piece(s) orportion of the performance in front of someform of an audience prior to the public eventcan serve to reinforce a performer’sconfidence. Regular performanceopportunities, such as master-classes can servein this purpose.118 Attending to non-musicalmatters, such as administrative or logisticissues, well in advance, can help reduce thestress of a performance, whereas adisorganized performance can contribute tostress and distract a performer.119

To reiterate, certain personalitytypes and lifestyle choices contribute to thelevel of anxiety experienced by differentmusicians. Those with stressful lifestyleelements in general, such as family disharmony,other addictions or substantial financial stress,may suffer from greater anxiety in general, aswell as higher performance anxiety. Having anorganized, low- to moderate-stress lifestyle canobviously contribute to reducing performanceand other anxieties. Valentine suggestscreating a “performance-free” or “music-free”component to one’s life, such as a non-musicrelated hobby, to balance the demands of aperforming career with a happy non-performing home life.120

Diet can also affect one’s performance,as well as one’s anxiety levels. High caffeine 117 Roland, 54.118 Kirchner, 32.119 Kristy Meretta, “Clammy Hands and Inner Voice,”

International Musician 102, no. 7 (2004), 11.120 Valentine, 173.

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diets dry the vocal folds, cause physical jittersand hinder concentration. Caffeine alsoinhibits sleep, which may contribute to illness,or affect one’s performance by reducingalertness. Eliminating or reducing caffeine canbe a subtle but simple change to combatanxiety.121 Another popular dietary remedy isthe humble banana. High in natural beta-blockers, a banana can be an effective naturalsedative. Other herbal remedies, such as BachFlower Sedatives, are mild, natural alternativesthat can be taken prior to or during aperformance.122To the more serious, variousdrugs promise to reduce or relieve anxiety alltogether. While it is true that drugs can beeffective, it is equally true that their misuse canbe highly dangerous. Anxiety-reducing drugsshould never be taken unless medicallyprescribed. Introduced in the 1960s, Beta-blockers, such as Propranolol (Inderal), blockthe body's reaction to adrenaline. Betareceptors are found in the heart, lungs, arteries,brain and uterus, thus beta-blockers chemically‘block’ these receptors and preventnorepinephrine for binding to these receptors.Mild side effects of most beta-blockers include:rash, fainting, dizziness, fatigues, headache,nausea, diarrhea, constipation, vomiting, drymouth, heartburn, bloating, cold extremities,sleep disturbances, impotence or decreasedlibido, coughing, joint pain and muscle cramps.Clearly most of these non-life threateningailments would still affect a musician and theirperformance. Not all individuals wouldexperience all or any of these side effects.However more serious effects of beta-blockersinclude an increase in frequency and severity ofasthma attacks (bornchoconstrictions),dangerously low blood pressure and uterinecontractions. They may also complicate theeffects of Raynaud's syndrome, and diabetes.Allergic reaction and anaphylactic shockcausing unconsciousness or death are rare butpresent concerns associated with this family ofdrugs. Beta-blockers are not consideredaddictive, however long term use can lead to a

121 Clark, 110.122 Brian Finn, M.D. and Laura Musselmann, M.D.,

telephone interviews, January 19, 2005.

physical, if not mental, dependence. This inturn will require an increase in dosage toremain effective. There is also some evidenceof withdrawal upon discontinuing beta-blockers.123

Propranolol is considered a fairly safeand mild drug and is often prescribed fortreatment of high blood pressure, anginapectoris, irregular heart rhythms, migraines andhyperthyroidism. Side effects of Propranololare more specific, since it enters the brainfaster than other blockers, and therefore resultsin more side effects of the nervous system,such as hallucinations, nightmares, depressionand short term memory loss.124 All of theafore mentioned effects could and would havemajor effects on a musician’s performance.The irony of beta-blockers causing memoryloss lies in the fact that most users take thedrug primarily as a means by which to calmdown and focus, so that memory loss will notoccur.

There are presently several types ofbeta-blockers available, including Beta-1selective blockers, which target only thereceptor-1 area; the heart, but not the uterus orlungs. Beta-blockers are not technicallysedatives and can not ‘cure’ anxiety of a purelypsychological nature. Since beta-blockers arechemicals used to treat physical imbalances orblock normally functioning systems, thesedrugs will have little to no effect on emotionaland mental symptoms of stage fright. Theywill not help treat sleep deprivation or negativefeelings associated with performance, nor willthey reverse negative thought patterns. Theyare simply inhibiters of norepinephrine, andwill have a physically calming effect. Sincemost musicians admit that a certain level ofadrenaline aids in their performance, beta-blockers would erase all traces of the chemical.Those considering drug use should consult aphysician beforehand. It is also recommendedthat one try the drugs before a performancesituation to gage their effectiveness, monitorthe dosage and test the side effects. 123 John Kunz, M.D., ed., The American Medical Association

Family Medical Guide (New York: Random House,1982), 778-9.

124 Finn, 2005

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Throughout recent decades, a growingmajority of professional and amateurmusicians, not the least of which includedGlenn Gould and others, were and are avidusers of medical sedatives. Interestingly, inseveral studies, the vast majority of occasionalusers took the drug only before auditions.Others used these drugs much more regularly,predominantly for solo performances ratherthan group performances.125 A recent studyestimates that up to 40% of North Americanmusicians use beta-blockers on a semi-regularto regular basis.126 It is also curious to pointout that the taking of any for the aforementioned substances would be banned by anynational or even minor sports association, butthat for musicians and other performers, someself-medication is actually regularlyencouraged.127

Other drugs associated with reducingstage fright include valium, buspirone,benzodiazepines and alcohol or cannabis.Although these drugs may temporarily aid theperformer, they are ultimately destructive tothe voice and performer in general.128 Theymay also impair function and judgment,leading performers to believe theirperformance was better than it actually was.129

Others may attribute a successful performanceonly to the drug, reducing one’s own sense ofself-efficacy for managing anxiety.130

Regardless of themethod(s) employed to combat this anxiety,stage fright is an extremely common, naturalprocess of performing experienced by allmusicians at one point or another. Manyperformers try desperately to suppressperformance anxiety, with varying levels ofsuccess. Others give up performing alltogether due to the strains of stage fright.131

Hence performance anxiety can not onlynegatively affect your performance, but candamage you quality of life. A variety of coping

125 Valentine, 175.126 Arcier, 515.127 Ibid., 519.128 Roland, 51.129 Valentine, 175.130 Petrovich, 26.131 Lieberman, 79.

methods can be employed or even combinedto help combat this anxiety. Still, performanceanxiety remains a problem of some magnitude,not easily explained or cured. Modernmusicians will hopefully mature to the pointthat we can recognise anxiety, admit to havinganxiety, and cope with this anxiety, with the aidof strategies employed and offered bycolleagues. Hopefully this issue, so common inall sectors of the performing world, can beaddressed sufficiently by musicians in the nearfuture. �

Issues of theTenor VoiceBy Jason Kehler

There are many issues that the tenorvoice needs to deal with when developingproper singing technique. In order to achievethis goal, a singer must balance vocal elementssuch as breath management, registerintegration, and tonal imagery.132 While thismay sound simple in theory, many other vocalissues come into play in the achievements of

132. Robert Carter Barefield, “The Passaggio in the

Tenor Voice” (Ph.D. diss., University of Cincinnati,1991), p. 20.

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these goals. Various vocal issues must beovercome in order to find the balance of thevocal elements mentioned above. This paperwill look specifically at vocal issues that arecharacteristic of the tenor voice and differentapproaches to these vocal obstacles, which aretenor registration, agguistamento, high notes, andappoggio. All these issues are connected to thedesired aesthetic of the tenor voice, specificallythe “opening-up” of the whole tenor register.

Tenor TypesIn order to be able to discuss the tenor

issues outlined in the introduction above, it isimportant to describe the various types oftenors that exist and how they differ in therevocal quality, approach to registration andrepertoire. Richard Miller has provided a clearand descriptive outlines of the various tenorvoices in his book, Training Tenor Voices,describing both the quality of tone, timbre,passaggi points, repertoire, and other vocalcharacteristics133. These categories of thevarious tenor types are based upon theinformation found in the book mentionedabove.

There are four categories of light tenorthat are mentioned by Miller: tenorino, tenoreleggiero (tenore di grazia), spieltenor, and tenore buffo.They all have similar vocal qualities and tone,but vary in subtle ways which affect therepertoire that they perform. Some of thesedividing lines seem so subjective that it wouldbe difficult to discern one of these four tenortypes from the next.

Tenorino is the lightest of all the tenorvoices, which can sing through the firstpassaggio point without any registrationmodification. The primo passaggi is often foundat E4 and the secondo passaggi at A4.134 Thespeaking voice is very light and high and whensinging, this tenor may or may not findadequate chest voice resonance (voce di testa).Miller goes on to mention that professionalperformance opportunities are quite limited.135

133. Richard Miller, Training Tenor Voices (New York:

Schirmer Books, 1993), pp. 9-13.134. Ibid, p.9.135. Ibid., p.9.

Tenore leggiero (light tenor) is quitesimilar to the tenorino tenor, but has enoughsize and quality to pursue a professionalsinging career.136 The passaggi points of thistenor are often found to be a semitone lowerthan the tenorino tenor (primo at Eb and secondoat Ab). The vocal quality of this category oftenor is described by Miller as having an air of“sweetness” about it, and is able todemonstrate “considerable control overmusical dynamics”.137 Most likely, this tenorwould specialize in early Baroque music orsimilarly suited repetoire.

The Spieltenor tenor is quite similar tothe tenore leggiero, but able to sing a wider rangeof repertoire that includes pieces and worksthat are a bit more weightier than what theleggiero could manage. The passaggio point ofthe spieltenor varies somewhat, depending onwhether or not he is closer to the leggiero or lyricvocal qualities.138

The tenore buffo tends to have a verydistinct timbre to the voice.139 The voice tendsto sound quite “throaty”, due to the voicebeing pushed to create a larger sound. Oftenthis type of tenor performs secondary rolesthat are character in nature - minor villian, thebuffoon, or the lower-class friend of thehero.140

The operetta tenor has a “voice ofromantic character” and specializes in singingrepertoire of the operetta genre.141 In Miller’sopinion, the operetta tenor is not sturdy enoughfor lyric operatic roles, but for operetta it iswell-suited (as long as it is of good size andquality).142 Because of the close relation of thistenor type to the tenore lirico, the primo andsecondo passaggi would be in a similar vocallocation (D4 and G4 respectfully).

The next category of tenor is the lyrictenor (tenore lirico). This is the category intowhich much of the standard tenor operarepertoire falls and is the most useful category

136. Ibid., p.9.137. Ibid., p.9.138. Ibid., p.10.139. Ibid., p.10.140. Ibid., p.10.141. Ibid., p.11.142. Ibid., p.11.

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for a tenor to be a part of, due to the widerange of repertoire that is available to this voicetype.143 The passaggi points of the lyric tenorare at D4 and G4.144 The vocal timbre of thelyric tenor is warm and romantic, and must beable to sustain a high tessitura whilenegotiating the upper range with ease andbeauty.145

The tenore lirico spinto is very similar tothe tenore lirico, differing only in vocal weightand adaptability of a specific tenor to specificroles.146 Miller goes on to say that, “The liricospinto has all the advantages of the tenore lirico,but in addition he has the power and vocalimpact to deliver the dramatic aspects of theVerdian and verismo repertoires.”147

The tenore robusto (also known as tenoredrammatico), Miller describes as, “the heaviest ofall non-Wagnerian tenors.”148 As a heaviervoice type, in comparison to the lyric tenor, thepassaggi points are found to be lower andsituated at C4 and F4.149 Even though specificopera roles are outlined for this type of tenor,the tenore robusto may sing some of the spintoroles.150

The final tenor voice type is theheldentenor. He sings primarily the music ofWagner, which requires a heavily weightedtimbre and often pushing up the “chest voice”into the upper reaches of the vocal range.151

The heldentenor must be able to sing the tenorerobusto repetoire, but is not this is not theprimary focus of their voice type.

In summary of these various voicetypes, the characteristics of the tenor voice canbe described in many ways. The type ofrepertoire, passaggi, and timbre quality variesfrom one category to the next, with repertoiresuited to each specific tenor type. But at thesame time, the differences between certaincategories of tenors can be quite subtle and

143. Ibid., p.11.144. Ibid., p.11.145. Ibid., p.11.146. Ibid., p.12.147. Ibid., p.12.148. Ibid., p.12.149. Ibid., p.12.150. Ibid., p.12.151. Ibid., p.12-13.

hard to discern; especially when there isoverlap between specific categories withregards to repertoire or some tenors being ableto sing repertoire from two different tenorcategories. This simply adds to the complexityof figuring-out the tenor voice and properlyaligning the voice and knowing how toapproach issues of tension and registration.

RegistrationThere are many different theories, or

models of registration and approaches tounifying the tenor voice with the goal ofcreating an equal scale from the lowest to thehighest note. The ultimate goal being able tosing any note in the vocal range with the sameease and unified timbre.

In surveying many different books onthe subject of registration, the most populartheory encountered is the 3-register theory(chest, middle, and head registers). Althoughthere are two distinct registers (chest andhead), with the third register being a mixture ofthe prior two (middle), the blending of thesevarious registers to create a balanced vocaltone throughout the vocal range is the ultimategoal. As stated by Viktor Fuchs, “One registeris not a starting point, but a goal”.152

A constant issue that plagues manytenors is the balance, or mixture of chest andhead register. In my opinion, it is the mixedvoice that brings colour and uniqueness to thecharacter and resonance of the voice. Otto Irocompares registration and resonance by callingchest resonance ‘earth’ and head resonance‘water’.153 By mixing the two together, clay isformed. But by adding more water, the clay isthinner; and by adding more earth, the clay isthicker.154 The ability to control the variousregistration of the tenor voice in a connectedand blended manner, allows the voice to freelyexpress and colour the music and text in anartistic and interpretive manner.

Too often, the chest voice is carriedinto the upper range of the tenor voice without 152. Viktor Fuchs, The Art of Singing and Voice

Technique (London: Calder and Boyars Ltd, 1967),p.64.

153. Ibid., p.67.154. Ibid., p.67.

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mixing in the head register, causing tensionthat restricts an easy and lyrical-sounding upperrange. The head register is the “oil” that is ableto unite the sounds of the notes for the entirevocal range.155 A tenor should experiment withbringing the head register down into themiddle and chest register in order to find abalance and blended tone throughout theentire vocal range.

Douglas Stanley says that the upperregister of most men needs to be developedout of the falsetto voice because most meninitially have lost their upper range.156 Whenproperly developed, the falsetto range doesn’tsound ‘false’ but rather is heard as a mere vocaladjustment.157 Stanley goes on to say that themuscular system that activates this adjustmentneeds to be strengthened by singing a purefalsetto tone as loud as possible moving up anddown the vocal scale.158 It is through the useof this mixed register that tenors are ablenegotiate the zona di passaggio and the secondopassaggio and bring the full voice and registersinto alignment.159

I believe that a tenor should first movedown the scale in falsetto across the primopassaggi and secondo passaggi in an effort to blendthe chest and head registers at the vocal breakand continue to carry the headregister/resonance down as far as possible intothe lower part of the voice. By practising thisexercise, a young tenor is able to feel thesensations and placement of a free and lightblended sound (resonance) that can then growover time in a relaxed and balanced vocalposition. There is a lot less possibility ofunwanted tension being created by thedownward descent, opposed to the tenor tryingto force his way up into the high extremes ofthe vocal range. As the falsetto develops andgrows the chest register will also, withoutadding tension and muscle, develop inflexibility, resonance, and freedom and

155. Ibid., p.66.156. Douglas Stanley, The... Science of ... Voice (New

York: Carl Fischer Inc., 1958), p.16.157. Ibid., p. 16.158. Ibid., p.17.159. Miller, p.3.

continue the overall development of thevoice.160

Cornelius Reid (1950), in his bookBelCanto: Principles and Practices, states fivecategories of register balance:

1. A state of perfection co-ordination where each registerhas been fully developed and smoothly joined.2. A desirable, but not ideal, condition where bothregisters are used with an audible gap separating them.3. A less desirable condition where the falsetto is usedalone and the chest register is excluded.4. An equally undesirable condition where the chestregister is used alone while the falsetto is excluded.5. The last possible arrangement is the mostundesirable by far and finds both registers joinedtogether, seemingly as one, before each register has beenfully developed, purified, and properly joined together.161

These categories are useful in analysingwhat state a tenor’s vocal development is atand identifying what needs to be worked on incorrecting register issues that may exist. Thesedescriptions are a tool that can create a startingpoint from which to work at register balance.They also help in creating a vision and the idealgoal for which to strive in order to develop the‘one-register’ goal (Viktor Fuchs).

The main registration concept that Ihave found in reading various books is not tohave a balance of head and chest voice, butrather I’ve been struck by the emphasis ondeveloping the falsetto voice. I’ve beenexperimenting over the past few weeks withdescending down through the primo passaggioand secondo passaggio and I have found that I’mable to negotiate the vocal breaks better andkeep a more freedom in the upper register.And through the development of a moreflexible and free upper register I’ve been ableto carry the head register down into the middleand chest voice for a more unified andbalanced tone up and down the entire vocalrange.

160. Fuchs, p. 84.Reid, Cornelius L., Bel Canto: Principles and Practices,New York: Coleman-Ross Company Inc., 1950: p.30.

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Agguistamento (“Cover”)Agguistamento tends to be one of the

most difficult and later aspects of vocaltechnique for a tenor to develop. This may bedue to the various terms and approaches thatare and/or have been taught in developing thetechnique of agguistamento. Various terms areattached to the technique of agguistamento, suchas Richard Miller’s preference for the termvowel modification162 and Marilee David’s use ofthe term cover, which she says includes vowelmodification.163 It becomes difficult for a tenorto know how to use the terminology with aproper understanding of meaning and how histeacher defines each term. But only after abalanced registration has been established andproper breath control is being used can a tenorfocus attention adequately on the meaning andproper technique of agguistamento.

There are certain aspects ofagguistamento that are characteristically commonof most descriptions of this vocal adjustment.Marilee David (1995) quotes Hertegard,Gauffin and Sundberg as defining the vocal artof covering as:

“An elevation of the soft palate, alowering and forward tilting of the larynx. Also awidening of the supraglottal tract as well as of thehypopharynx and laryngeal ventricles...”164

An important comment that David makes isthat the lowering and tilting of the larynxcauses the vocal folds to lengthen, preventingthe chest register from becoming involved indescending passages and engaging the headregister on ascending passages.165 Overall,there is a correlation among all the variousdescriptions of agguistamento that a lowering ofthe larynx and widening of the pharynx areintegral to this vocal technique and adjustment.

Various approaches describe and useterminology to create modifications of thesame end goal. James Stark refers to Richard

162. Miller, p.38.163. Marilee David, The New Voice Pedagogy

(Maryland: Scarecrow Press Inc., 1995), p.75.164 David, Marilee, The New Voice Pedagogy, London: TheScarecrow Press Inc., 1995: p.75165. Ibid., p.75.

Miller’s use and division of terminology indiscussing the approach of cover andagguistamento. Miller describes the ‘covered’sound of the upper range as being created by astable laryngeal position (relatively low) and asomewhat widened pharynx. Along with thesephysical characteristics is the need for propervowel modification, which Miller refers to asagguistamento, in creating the complete ‘covered’sound.166 Miller creates a division between themeaning of these two terms that refers toagguistamento specifically as vowel modification,with the understanding that it is part ofcreating the ‘covered’ sound. This separation ofmeanings allows the teacher and student to bemore specific in reference to particular vocaladjustments and which segment of the vocalaction of ‘cover’ is being referred to. A tenorneeds to be clear in their understanding of howto accomplish vocal cover when singing into theextreme range of their voice in a healthymanner.

In specific reference to agguistamento,Miller expresses the need to modify the tonalcolor of the upper range in order to preservethe quality of vowel sound and maintain aneven tonal line.167 He also goes on to say thatcover creates fundamental changes in themechanical function of the larynx and altersthe shape of resonators, along with a loweredlarynx and tongue, a high velum, and additionalspaciousness in the pharynx, thereby increasing“depth” in the tone.168 At times, it still seemsconfusing as to how Miller uses the terms coverand agguistamento, but it seems that it is throughthe action of cover that agguistamento isaccomplished. Through the lowering of thelarynx and all the other mechanical functionsthat have been previously discussed withregards to cover, the action of agguistamento (vowelmodification) naturally occurs due to physicalstate of the mouth and throat regions.

An interesting point that Miller makesis his observation that a popular opinion

166. James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal

Pedagogy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press,1999), p.45.

167. Richard Miller, The Structure of Singing (Belmont:Wadsworth Group, 1996), p. 150.

168. Miller, The Structure of Singing, p.150.

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among many voice teachers today is thatpharyngeal expansion and a low larynx positionis accomplished through proper breathinhalation and remains stable during a well-managed breath cycle.169 Many variouselements of cover seem to align themselves withproper breath intake. Various muscles areexpanded or stretched open and only need tobe “suspended” in order to maintain a loweredor widened position. Miller goes on to say thatall these various vocal technique issues need tobe accomplished in a more unconcious andrelaxed manner.170 It would seem quite naturalthen that this could be accomplished throughproper use and focus on the control of thebreathing mechanism in order to align otheraspects of the art of singing.

AppoggioThere is so much imagery and variousdescriptions of breathing that are used todevelop an understanding of even andsupported breath control. By developing thebreathing mechanism, a tenor can align or aidother vocal challenges such as agguistamento,balanced registration, tension, and high notes. Everysinger has different strengths and abilities, andbreathing in itself is an art-form that needs tobe strengthened and internalized in a mannerthat connects with both the mind and the bodyof the singer. Breathing is the foundation ofsinging and needs to be treated with greatimportance.

Some approaches speak primarily ofthe mechanical action and explain what needsto happen inside the body. The description ofsuch an internal and mechanical functioncannot and does not always translate into asmooth working of the art of breathing, eventhough the concept is logically understood.Stating the facts of proper breath support doesnot explain to a singer how to attain thatdesired goal.

An example of such a logical approachis found in Viktor Fuchs book, The Art ofSinging and Voice Technique. Fuchs lists eightmain principles in breathing for singing:

169. Miller, The Structure of Singing, p. 150.170. Miller, The Structure of Singing, p.155.

1. The quantity has to be in creased by usingthe abdominal cavities, which are generallyneglected in daily life.

2. The outgoing breath has to be controlledby the abdominal muscles, so that it will beadequate for any note or phrase.

3. All the available breath must betransformed into tone.

4. An emergency reserve must be allowed for,just as in diving it is unwise to use the lastdrop of petrol! Otherwise the voice maybe overstrained.

5. The chest should never be moved, either ininhalation or exhalation. By standing erectbefore and during inhalation, the chestcavities can receive no more air; it thengoes to the abdominal cavities, whichsupply the breath used in singing. Byconstant inward pressure on the abdominalwall (or exhalation) all the air there can beused without using the breath in the chestcavities.

6. The abdominal cavities should not be filledto capacity, otherwise a phrase cannot beattacked well, with smooth, clear tone.

7. The breath must be prepared by a momentof suspension.

8. Regular exercises must be practised, andthe teacher must check constantly that theyare being done correctly, so that they canbecome quite automatic.171

All the principles stated above by Fuchsspeak of certain truths in the art of breathingfor singing, but they give no “how to” insight.As an example, in response to the thirdprinciple, how does a singer transform breathinto tone? A more detailed description isneeded, through various images andexplanations, in relating a well-roundedresponse that gives a singer a variety of ways ofapproaching the concept of transformingbreath into tone. It would be like aprofessional figure skater verbally explaining tosomeone how to perform a specific jump and

171 Fuchs, Viktor, The Art of Singing and Voice Technique,London: Calder and Boyars Ltd,1967: pp.75-76

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expecting them to be able to execute the jumpperfectly. The logical approach must beaccompanied by various other approaches toteaching in order to allow the singer toexperience all the eight principles that are listedabove by Fuchs.

One such alternative approach, byPerley Dunn Aldrich, takes a more imaginativeand simplistic perspective. Imagery can be avery powerful tool in aiding the mind toaccomplish involuntary or unconsciousphysical actions. Sometimes logic can get inthe way of letting the body accomplish what itnaturally is designed to do and imagery is greatat “tricking” the body into accomplishing thedesired objective. The most important elementin appoggio is to inhale without disturbing theposture of the body.172 In the action ofinhalation there are two distinct forcesopposing each other – 1) atmosphericpressure and 2) muscular pressure from insidethe body.173 Aldrich explains that by simplyflattening the diaphragm and “letting” the aircome in of its own accord, we can breathe withmore relaxation.174 Aldrich (1895) goes on tosay:

“This thought – that the breath comes in ofitself – is a great help towards repose of thechest, for many of the movements of the chestwhich are made by the thoughtless singer arequite useless and not only do not assist in theprocess of singing but they retard it andembarrass the muscles that ought to do thework easily. So, whether it be entirely scientificor not, we shall find it helpful to think that theair pressure does most of the work” (p.38).

This imagery of the breath coming in by itselfas a vacuum allows the body to stay morerelaxed and able to accomplish the desired goalof an even and full breath; which is then ableto create a well-supported tone. By not over-thinking the breath, the singer is able to get outof the way and allow the body to do what it is 172. Perley Dunn Aldrich, Vocal Economy and

Expressiveness (New York: The Vocalist, 1895),p.37.

173. Aldrich, p.37.174. Ibid, p.38.

naturally designed to do and avoid tension inbreathing and other elements associated withthe act of singing. Analogies and images areneeded for every singer in accomplishing goodappoggio technique, and the more images andfacts that a singer has at their disposal toachieve proper breath control the better.

High NotesOne tenor issue that I wanted to

research and address was the topic of “highnotes” for the tenor voice. The tenor voice isreferred to by various authors as the most‘unnatural’ singing voice. Richard Miller says,“For no other Fach is ‘the high note’surrounded with such expectation as it is intenor literature”(p.139). The high note is asmuch about the psychological state as it isabout the physical ability. A tenor needs todevelop strong and secure technique in orderto create a confidence in knowing that the highnotes are at their disposal. Too often, a youngtenor, who is in the process of learning propertechnique (cover, agguistamento, etc.), will focustoo much on the high notes in a piece andcreate unwanted anxiety. Fuchs says that untilhigh notes are automatic, a young tenor shouldnot focus on the high notes, but rather onlyhow to prepare for them.175 Barefield (1991)more clearly states that, “... the success of agiven note is dependent upon ‘the note beforethe note’ ”(p.37). In preparing for any highnote, a tenor needs to prepare for the highnote by making sure that there is a balancedregistration of head and chest, a full breath issupporting the vocal sound, soft palate israised, and other elements of proper vocaltechnique are being implemented leading up tothe vocal climax. If this preparation is notdone, there is little hope of a mixed and freeregister (and tone) being successfullyaccomplished.

The concepts of cover and agguistamento(in singing in the upper range of the tenorvoice) has already been discussed at length, butthe reason for wanting to discuss ‘high notes’ israther the psychological aspect for the tenor toovercome. Fuchs says that high notes call

175. Fuchs, p.83.

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forth two types of singers: 1) a singer thatlooks forward to them with pleasure, 2) asinger who is afraid of them.176 The tenor issinging on the ‘edge’ of the vocal range and hasto develop a confidence in his ability to sing onthat vocal ‘edge’ of his range in a relaxed state(physically and mentally). For a young tenorthis is a mental challenge to be stretched inboth the physical ability of the voice (withproper technique) and in the mental maturityto trust the voice, and at the same time, allowthe voice to fail in finding ‘the high notes’ . Tofocus and try too hard in attaining the upperrange of the voice (forgetting technique) causesunwanted tension and quickly leads to a failedattempt and questioning of one’s ability toattain ‘the high notes’.

In my studies this year, I have had tolearn to calm my mind in approaching highnotes and get out of my own way – preparingfor the high note upon ‘the note before thenote’.177 By distracting myself with propertechnique and preparation on the notes in amore relaxed placement of the voice I’m ableto prepare by placing the lower notes in the“place” that I want to sing the high note. Thisis a “rite of passage” that every tenor mustnavigate themselves through over manycountless hours of practise andexperimentation.

SummaryMany of the comments and references

made in this paper apply not only to tenors,but singers in general. Nevertheless, some ofthese vocal issues may be termed as beingmore characteristically found in the tenorvoice. The challenge for any tenor is to createa natural and even tone throughout the vocalrange by studying the different aspectsmentioned and discussed in this paper. Theaim being to create a natural sound out of amore ‘unnatural’ instrument (especially in thehigh register) that needs to be trained anddeveloped through dedication anddetermination.

176. Ibid, p.83.177. Barefield, p.37.

The variety of tenor types onlycomplicates this issue due to the variousregistrations and characteristics that are foundwithin the tenor voice. The differentpossibilities of colour, texture, timbre, andvocal quality that are found within the tenorvoice seem to have a wider spectrum thanother voice types due to the transition from amore comfortable and natural low chestregister into the high extremes of the unnaturalhead register. For this reason, weaknesses inthe young tenor voice are often quite obviousand take time to resolve.

The approach that two tenors take indeveloping their voices can differ dramaticallybecause the voice type is so different and couldbe almost categorized as a completely differentvoice type. The technique that a heldentenoruses and needs to focus on will be completelydifferent than that of a tenorino tenor. Therange of tenor types seems more varied thanany other voice type and thus, is filled withadded challenges that are not as common inother voice types.

The topics discussed in this paper arecommon challenges to the tenor and throughthe discussion, analysis and vocalexperimentation of these issues a tenor candevelop and refine their voice. There is no oneanswer to these issues for the tenor, but ratheroptions by which to apply general principles ofvocal technique that are needed in discoveringa free and open tone. �

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Alexander Techniqueand TraditionalVocal Pedagogy:Conceptual Connectionsand Their Implications inthe Process of VoiceTeachingBy Christopher Mayell

Imagine a voice student who is unableto apply the idea of the singer’s posture, orproper breath support. What is it that keepsthe student from acquiring these skills? Onone level, the student perfectly understands theconcepts being communicated. Yet, there is agap between concept and execution. Adifferent method of learning and teachingcould greatly benefit the student and teacher.The principles of Alexander Technique can beapplied to traditional approaches of vocalpedagogy, thereby enhancing the student’sunderstanding of singing technique, by learningdifferent, but related, concepts. Traditionalvocal pedagogy, in this case, refers to thewritings of historic and contemporarypedagogues including Giovanni and FrancescoLamperti, Pierfrancesco Tosi, and RichardMiller. By making comparison to some majorconcepts of vocal pedagogy such as breathsupport, breath management and phonation, itwill become clear that the AlexanderTechnique can be a useful tool in theenhancement of the student’s learning, both interms of quality and quantity.

It will be of some use, beforediscussing the similarities between theAlexander technique and concepts oftraditional pedagogy, to outline the main termsand concepts of the Technique as described byits founder, F. Matthias Alexander. Alexandercreated and refined his technique as a result ofextensive analysis of the factors leading tovocal-health problems in his professional stage

career. In his book, The Use of the Self,Alexander begins by stating two guidingprinciples of his technique:

(1) That the so-called “mental” and “physical” are notseparate entities.

(2) For this reason, human ills and shortcomingscannot be classified as “mental” or “physical and dealtwith specifically as such, but that all training, whetherit be educative or otherwise… must be based upon theindivisible unity of the human organism.178

These principles describe the use of“the self” as a whole, in all that we do. Thebasic force behind the use of the self in thismanner is called the Primary Control. It refersto the orientation of the head in relation to theneck, and the back in relation to the neck andhead. Alexander argues that every localizedaction that takes place (the singer’s movementof the tongue, for example) should be executedin harmony with the co-ordination of the head,neck and back179. So, by attaining andcontinuing one’s Primary Control, one caneliminate secondary “shortcomings” such aspostural problems when singing (whatAlexander would refer to as effects of bad use,not a cause of bad singing). The voiceproblems that Alexander encountered in hisstage career were the result of three tendencies– or bad habits – that did not allow for optimaluse of his self. One tendency was for him topull his neck back and down as he recited apassage in performance. He was shocked tofind that, upon “telling his body” to keep theneck straight and erect – and, while trying tocorrect the habit, feeling that he was successful– he continued to pull his neck down and back.This was an example of what is now calledfaulty sensory awareness. It is the gap that existsbetween what you do and what you think or

178 Alexander, F. M. The Use of The Self. Integral Press,Kent. 1946, p.2

179 Alcantara, P. Indirect Procedures: A Musician’s Guide to theAlexander

Technique. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1997:p.26.

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feel that you are doing. It is caused bypsychological factors of familiarity and habit.Alexander was so willing to succeed atremedying his tendencies that he saw past thenecessary process to achieve his goal, andinstead sought a feeling of “correctness” andcomfort. The problem in this process is thatwhat felt correct to Alexander was the familiartendencies (the bad habits) that he’d beendoing for years, and had become used to.Alexander called this desire to obtain results atthe cost of meaningful process end-gaining, andconsidered it the ultimate cause of alldifficulties.180 Alexander concluded that thekey to overcoming end-gaining is what hecalled inhibition. To inhibit is not to consent toa habitual reaction which causes a misuse ofthe self.

Now that a basic knowledge of theprinciples of the Alexander technique havebeen discussed, it is possible to point to linksbetween the technique, and those of traditionalvocal pedagogy. While it is possible to seeconnections between the technique and almostevery facet of vocal use (since the technique is“whole self” based), it will be useful for thescope of this discussion to focus on some ofthe more direct and easily illustratedrelationships that exist. The most directrelationship is arguably with breathing andbreath support. Early in his study of the self,he noticed that he had the debilitatingtendency to audibly gasp for air before recitinga phrase on stage. After considerablespeculation, observation and refinement, hewould later argue that “breathing is a functionof use” (this being, the use of the self, with thePrimary Control), and may be best dealt withindirectly.181 It may be beneficial to outlinesome ideals put forth in vocal pedagogyliterature, and then to illustrate possibleimprovements – or at very least, new andalternative corroborating points of view – on

180 Alcantara, P. The Alexander Technique: A PracticalLesson. Online article. Viewed

January 31, 2005.http://www.pedrodealcantara.com/practical_lesson.html. p.1

181 Alcantara, 1997: p.91

the original. It has been said that, as a teacherof singing, it is important to be able to explainconcepts in a variety of different ways sinceeach student learns and thinks differently. Webegin then, with breath support and thewritings of Giovanni and Franceso Lamperti.They spoke of the lutte vocale, saying:

“…the respiratory muscles, by continuing their action,strive to retain the air in the lungs, and oppose theiraction to that of the expiratory muscles, which at thesame time, drive it out for the production of thenote.”182

This opposition of respiratory(“inspiratory”) and expiratory forces is referredto literally as a “vocal struggle”. He went on todescribe the sensations of and, in part, theresults of, use of the lutte vocale.

Singing is accomplished by opposing motions and themeasured balance between them. This causes thedelusive appearance of rest and fixity – even ofrelaxation. The singing voice in reality is born of theclash of opposing principles, the tension of conflictingforces, brought to equilibrium.183

Both of these concepts merge well with that ofopposition in the Alexander Technique. In hisbook, Indirect Procedures: A Musician’s Guideto Alexander Technique, Pedro de Alcantaradescribes opposition as “…the ability of thebody to move in one direction while tendingtowards another direction”. He goes on to saythat opposition “…allows bodily positions tobe stable and dynamic, and movement to befluid and efficient”.184 According to thetechnique, opposition is an important elementof bodily integration and stabilization. It neednot be considered a negative force, just as thelutte vocale need not be considered unduetension in the abdominal region.

182 Lamperti, F. The Art of Singing. Translated by J.C.Griffith. G. Schirmer, New York. 1916. p.25

183 Brown, W. E. Vocal Wisdom: Maxims Transcribed andEdited by William Earl Brown.

Taplinger Publishing Co. Inc., New York, 1931p.29,63184 Alcantara, 1997: p.66

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Let us leave the concept of this strugglefor a moment and examine the messa di voce.Tosi said that messa di voce, “… consists ofletting the voice come out softly from the leastpiano, so that it goes little by little to thegreatest forte, and then returns”185. Theimportant link, in this case, is the idea of lettingor allowing the voice to come out. TheAlexander Technique has been describe as anon-doing technique since its method involvesthe inhibition of habits in order to allownatural use of the self (in this case, to easilysing messa di voce). Giovanni Lamperti wrotethe following about messa di voce:

The messa di voce is produced solely by breath-control.The spinning-out technique (filare la voce) is verydifficult; it must be managed with the utmostcircumspection. Singing loudly is releasing; singingsoftly is restraining the pent-up energy in compressed airfilling the lungs, co-ordinately gauged in doing so.”186

It is interesting then, to note the similaritiesand difference between these writings andthose of Alcantara (a student of PatrickMacdonald who himself studied withAlexander in the 1930’s). Alcanatra writes:

You do nothing to alter breathing directly in anAlexander lesson. There are no exercises in which youare asked to change the mechanics or the speed of yourbreathing, to count while you breath in or out…Instead you must first clear your mind of allpreconceived ideas you may have about breathing. Withthe help of a teacher, accept that your sensory awarenessmay be faulty. Become aware of your habitual misuses,stop misusing yourself – and let your breathing rightitself.(1) Stop constricting your breathing; (2) Stop forcingyour breathing. Stated otherwise, inhibit overbreathingand inhibit other breathing.187

The technique, as describe here, worksnicely with the writings of Lamperti and Tosi.In the Alexander Technique, then, the concept 185 Stark, J. Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy.University of Toronto Press,

Toronto. 1999: p.95.186 ibid. p. 104187 Alcantara, 1997: pp. 97, 98

of messa di voce can instead be expressed asdirected inhibition of tendencies which wouldotherwise not allow the voice to easily bloomfrom a soft piano to a great forte. The notabledifference is that, according to Alexander,“given the perfect co-ordination of parts asrequire by my system, breathing is asubordinate operation which will performitself”. So, while traditional vocal pedagogywould have the pupil concentrate on breathcontrol, Alexander would have the pupilconcentration on proper use of the self, andthe inhibition of bad habits, which will allowfor free and proper use of the breath in orderto achieve messa di voce. Neither of thesemethods is necessarily correct or incorrect, andit is not necessary to make this distinction.Each of idea expressed above is simply adifferent means to the same end.

A discussion of breath support wouldnot be complete without a look at thetechnique of appoggio. One of the most recentauthors and pedagogues to write aboutappoggio is Richard Miller. In his 1986 book,The Structure of Singing: System and Art inVocal Technique. Miller says:

Appoggio includes resonance factors as well as breathmanagement. The historical Italian school did notseparate the motor and resonance facets of phonation.It is a system for combining and balancing musclesand organs of the trunk and neck, controlling theirrelationship to the supra-glottal resonators, so that noexaggerated function of any one of them upsets thewhole.188 [emphasis added]

Here it is easy to see the connection betweenthe “full system” approach of appoggio andthe unity of self described in the AlexanderTechnique. In both cases, there is emphasis oncombination and balance (integration, if youwill) of the elements of the self.Miller himself hints at the Primary Controlwhen he speaks of “the trunk and the neck”.It is arguable that, in the same way appoggiobuilds on the concept of lutte vocale in concert 188 Miller, R. The Structure of Singing: System and Art inVocal Technique. G. Schirmer,

Belmont. 1986: p.23

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with full-system use, The Alexander Techniquecan improve upon appoggio by using it to notonly work on support and resonance system,but indeed, all aspects of singing. Alexanderwrites,

There is a close connection between use and functioning.The functioning of organs of speech are influenced by themanner of using the whole torso, and that the pullingback of the neck is not merely a misuse of the specificparts concerned, but one that was inseparably bound upwith misuse of all other mechanisms.189

Let us examine some specific aspectsof appoggio as describe my Richard Miller.One of the first things he says is about thesternum. He tells the pupil that, “…thesternum must initially find a moderately highposition. This position is then retainedthroughout the inspiration-expiration cycle.”190

Alexander’s writings say nothing that conflictswith this statement. However, Alexander iscareful to avoid words such as “position” or“posture”. He would instead make use of aterm like direction, which implies the sameintent on consistency of the raised sternum,while emphasizing the dynamic, flexibility ofthe sternum as the part of an integrated wholeself. Martha Munro and Maren Larson, in theirarticle The Influence of Body Integration on VoiceProduction, write that, “There needs to beconstantly adjusting relationship between thehead, the spine, and the limbs in response toeven the most subtle shift of weight. Suchatunement and mobility is an essential aspectof effect voice production”.191

Another important characteristic (andwhat Miller calls the hallmark) of appoggio issilent inspiration. Unfortunately, Miller givesvery little specific and direct advice on how toachieve this. The Alexander Technique, whichtells the student to allow the breath to enter thebody of the properly used self, should aid inproducing silent inhalation, since a gasping

189 Alexander, pp. 7, 8190 Miller, p. 24191 Munro, Martha and Larson, Maren. The Influence ofBody Integration on Voice Production. Journal of Singing.53:2, 1996: p.21

sound is most likely causes by eithermisalignment of the neck, or tension in thelarynx or throat (misuse of the self).

By successfully employing theAlexander Technique, one not only succeeds inusing appoggio, but also prevents the misuse ofany part of the self that may not be consideredrelevant to appoggio. This could includemisuse of seemingly unrelated or extreme partsof the self. After a great deal of self discovery,Alexander wrote:

I found that a certain control of the use of my neck andhead in relation to my back brought about a moresatisfactory working of the musculature, and not onlyrelieved my specific difficulties, but improved conditionsgenerally.As soon as you can establish the primarycontrol, a satisfactory control of the rest of the workingsof the organism can be expected to follow in due time.192

A final note on breathing and breathsupport is necessary, relating to breathexercises. Since the Alexander Technique iscentered around the idea of the unity of theself (the “mental” and “physical” as one), it isimportant that if a teacher or student insists onthe use of breath exercises that they be usedintelligently. Alcantara, admits that, “somepeople have benefited from working on theirbreathing consciously and conscientiously. Allthe same, they might have learned more, better,and faster by working on their use instead, andleaving breathing alone.” In his paper AnAlexander Teacher Reads The Free Voice, HisMouth Agape, Alcantara reiterates this pointnicely, saying:

How many thousands of students have faithfullypracticed Marchesi exercises, and how few have derivedbenefit from them! They key to vocal development is notto be found in the exercise but in the manner in whichit is performed!193

It is not enough, then, to simply gothrough the breathing exercise mechanically,just as it is no use for a pianist to practicescales without full use of self. One’s entire self

192 Alexander, p. 48193 Alcantara… p.3

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must be part of the process. Through wholeuse of the self, the student becomes fully awareof the exercise he is doing. By making use ofmental, physical and perhaps even emotionalfaculties, he is able to be truly absorb theexperience, and derive something from it.

Another facet of vocal pedagogy thathas strong direct links with AlexanderTechnique is phonation (or use of the larynx).As has been stated, the technique is dependanton the Primary Control, which considers therelationship between the back, and the neckand the head. Since the larynx is located in theneck, the centre of these three elements, it isnot surprising that there is so much conceptualoverlap. In The Use of the Self, Alexanderspeaks of the neck saying, “Since [everything isconnected], neck tension can cause anynumber of problems”.194 In her thesis on theAlexander Technique, Lori Lovell Laux writes,

When the neck muscles tighten, the pharynx isshortened, narrowed, and distorted. Because thepharynx rests in front of the cervical spine, when theneck is tense, these cervical vertebrae are jammed. Thisdistortion also causes the tongue to bunch and invadethe front of the mouth. This very change in thealignment of the spine and neck directly affects theresonance space in the pharynx.195

This sentiment is echoed in the views ofGiovanni Lamperti. He advised the singer toseek a dark tone associated with an expandedpharynx as a starting point to be brightenedsufficiently to create chiaroscuro.196 In the samelight, Richard Miller argues:

There can be little doubt that in desirable “closedvoice”… there is a stabilized laryngeal position –relatively low – and a somewhat widened pharynx.These conditions together with proper vowel modification(aggiustamento) produce the so-called “covered” sound ofthe upper range.197

194 Alexander, p. 48195 Laux, L. The Alexander Technique: Its Purpose andValidity in Singing and in the Teaching of

Singing. Thesis excerpt. Viewed January 31,2005. http://lauxweb.com/lori/thesis.html. p.4196 Stark, p. 45197 Miller, p. 151

Again it is shown that the same endcan be achieved either indirectly, by use ofinhibition and Primary Control, or by directlytelling the student to lower his or her larynxslightly, or even worse, to resort to subjectiveinstructions such as “picture a big ball in yourthroat”.

Finally, it is important to discuss waysof integrating the Alexander method into avoice lesson, and using it to help the studentlearn. Alexander gives advice on lessonstructure in The Use of the Self. There, hespoke about Alexander lessons, but theprinciples he outlines can be easily transferredto music lessons without any need for revision.In his attempts to inhibit the detrimentalmovement of his neck during recital,Alexander discovered a seemingly successfulnew method of good use. In the beginning hefound there to be three steps involved:

(1) Conception – The brain decides whatit is that it wants to do. (For example,sing a high note).

(2) Inhibition – Before the action iscarried out, there is conscious projection ofdirection not to do any bad habits thatwill impede the natural use of the self.(For example, conscious direction not tostick the head outward and up and tensethe neck while singing a high note).When there are multiple bad habits thatmust be inhibited, it is important thatwhen the student directs not to engage inthe second bad habit, that he not forgetabout inhibiting the first. Alexandernoted that, “to [continue the firstinhibition while adding a second andthird] and to continue all three going aswe proceed to gain the end, has proved tobe the pons asinorum of every pupil I haveso far known.”

(3) Direction – The actual singing of thehigh note.

Still, however, Alexander found himself– at the last moment – falling into his badhabits, despite conscious and logical direction

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of inhibition. He then realized that anintermediate step was needed between thesecond and third. He argued that, before thethird step, the pupil must choose a direction. Atthe last moment before step 3, the pupilchooses between singing, not singing, or doingsomething different (like raising a hand). Thechoice belongs entirely the student. Alexanderposited that, “As long as reasoned directionwas maintained… it would result in an activitydifferent from the old habitual activity”.198 Herealized that he had been trying to employ anew use of his self which was bound to feelwrong to him (since it was unfamiliar), while atthe same time trusting to his feeling of whatfelt right to tell him if he was successful. Thisleads back to the idea of faulty sensoryawareness. By subjecting his processes to anentirely new experience – one dominated byreasoning instead of feeling (choice to sing,instead of feeling whether the singing was“correctly executed”) – he was able toovercome his bad habits by skipping overfaulty sensory awareness completely.

This seemingly long tangent isnecessary to illustrate an importantpsychological component of the learningprocess which can often be skipped in vocalpedagogy, as teachers become focused onparticular vocal technique issues in the pupil.The whole self must always be considered –physical and mental (emotional). Alexanderfurther illustrates the importance of psychologyand emotion in learning by telling the story ofthe end-gaining golfer who, after being told byhis teacher to “keep his eye on the ball”, findshimself unable to do so:

The process is repeated every time he tries to make agood stroke, with the result that his failures faroutnumber his successes, and he becomes more or lessdisturbed emotionally, as always happens when peoplefind themselvesmore often wrong than not, without knowing the reasonwhy. And the more he finds himself unable to carry outhis teacher’s instructions with anything like thenecessary degree of certainty for him to get any pleasure

198 Alexander, p. 33

out of the game, the worse this emotional conditionbecomes. The immediate effect isthat he tries harder than ever to make a good strokeand falls into the old wrong [familiar, habitual]ways… and again takes his eyes off the ball.”.199

There is, indeed, a strong link betweenmany of the concepts of traditional vocalpedagogy, as written by figures such as RichardMiller, Pierfrancesco Tosi, and Giovanni andFrancesco Lamperti. Alexander Technique caneasily be related to ideas of appoggio, messa divoce, la lutte vocale, and laryngeal use. In all ofthese cases, it is possible for the AlexanderTechnique to achieve the same ends as theexercises and methods put forth by these vocalpedagogues in their writings, through use ofthe Primary Control. It is also possible that, asAlexander states, learning proper use of theself will see to the proper functioning of all ofthese parts of the self, indirectly andsimultaneously. Perhaps by learning theAlexander Technique, the student can indeedlearn more, faster. Furthermore, Alexanderbelieved that to effect a change in the use ofthe self would bring about changes in aspectsof one’s life other than singing.200 However, itwould be foolish to assume that to learn theAlexander Technique is to learn to sing. It isimportant to remember that the AlexanderTechnique can never serve as a replacement totraditional vocal pedagogy. It should act as anew and fresh point of view which can allowstudent and teacher to consider aspects ofsinging in a different way. Clearly, there arelimitations to the Alexander Technique, since itcannot be of much help to the understandingand achievement of unification of registers inthe male voice, for example. It can, however,ensure the proper use of the body, which willinhibit bad habits, and allow the student tolearn and acquire principles of singing withgreater ease than otherwise. �

199 Alexander, pp. 33, 34200 Hudson, Barbara. The Effects of The AlexanderTechnique on the Respiratory System of the Singer/Actor Part II:Implications for Training Respiration in the Singers/ActorsBased on Concepts of the Alexander Technique. Journal ofSinging – The Offical Journal of the NationalAssociation of Teachers of Singing. 59:2, 2002. p.9

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Keys to Divadom:Nine Truths AboutHighly EffectiveFemale OperaSingers1950-2000By Jackie Nelson

Each year, thousands of young womenfind themselves being trained as classicalsingers at post-secondary institutions all overthe world.201 A much greater number offemale highschool-age students take classicalsinging lessons each year, and many moreindividuals than have vocal talent havedreamed of captivating an audience with awonderful singing voice. Regardless of thenumber of young female students of singing orof the number of individuals who may wish tohave “divadom” befall them, however, the factremains that world-class opera singers are notborn every day. In reality, many very talentedsingers choose not to make their careers out ofclassical singing and many others are simplyunable, despite their desire, to do so. Certainly,making a living from opera singing, as withmaking a career in any performing art, candepend heavily on the specific timing ofauditions and vocal development of a singer,personal connections an individual artist maypossess, and mere chance. There are, however,several character traits and experiences that arecommon to almost all highly effective femaleopera singers. By considering the lives andcareers of female opera singers whose careersflourished between 1950 and 2000, nineimportant truths about highly effective femaleopera singers can be gleaned. These truthsrange from the seemingly mudane to the rather

201 Eatock, C. (2001). The great singers: What sets thebest apart from the rest? Opera Canada 42(2), 16-19.

unexpected, but each is equally necessary, itseems, for the evolution of a highly successfuland effective female operatic performer. Foralmost all of the singers studied, from Kiri TeKanawa, to Maria Callas, Renée Fleming,Maureen Forrester and many in between, thefollowing statements were found to be true:the singer possessed vocal talent from a youngage; an adult noticed her talent and took a keeninterest in her musical development while shewas still young; she possessed an insatiabledesire to learn; she worked hard and sacrificedmuch for her musical development and career;she was able to reconcile the lifestyle demandsof an opera career in her own life; she was ableto accept criticism; she had a uniquelyidentifiable voice; she knew the strengths andweaknesses of her instrument and assessed theroles she would be suited for accordingly; andshe communicated with her audience at alltimes while performing. Certainly, there areexceptions to each of these rules but, uponclose scrutiny of the lives and careers of theworld’s most recent highly successful primadonne, it can be observed that most of themring true for the biggest female names insinging throughout the past half-century.Students of singing would do well to considerwhether or not these truths apply to their ownlives and singing, before attempting to pursueperforming careers. Likewise, teachers ofsinging would be wise to attempt to identifythese traits and experiences in their students.From the viewpoint of the student or teacher,therefore, it cannot be denied that those whowish to sing professionally now stand to learnmuch from the experiences of those who havegone before them.

That the female singers who havebecome successful on the operatic stage hadvocal talent as children is perhaps expected;still, the extent of their interest in singing aschildren is worth confirming, using the singers’words. Maureen Forrester, for example, canrecount the story of her performance in aveterans’ hospital at age three (Forrester &McDonald) and confesses "I don't remeber a

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time when I didn't sing".202 Kiri Te Kanawaadmits to “always singing” as a child203 andMaria Callas, perhaps the supreme example ofa child prodigy in singing, was engaged by theGreek National Theatre as a soloist by the timeshe was thirteen.204 Barbara Frittoli’s voice wasexcellent enough for her school choirmaster tosingle her out of a group of six hundred by thetime she was twelve, and Angela Gheorghiuremembers both having a good voice andtrying to imitate the opera singers that sheheard on the radio during her childhood.205

Galina Gorchakova apparently recalls, as asmall child, “often locking herself in thebathroom and not emerging until she had sungevery song and aria she knew”.206 CatherineMalfitano remembers performing as early asthe age of six207 and Cecilia Bartoli’s mothermaintains that “when she was small, she likedto sing as much as talk”.208 Christina Ludwigremarks, “I always had a voice. I sang when Iwas three or four years old. I sang always inschool”209 and Barbara Bonney had perfectpitch by age three.210 In short, the seeds ofinterest in singing for most female operasingers were sown at a young age.

Mere interest in singing, however,could not be enough for these women to makecareers as professionals. Each of thesuccessful singers studied also required theenergy and interest of an adult who noticed hertalent and became committed to her youngvocal development. For both Callas and TeKanawa, this adult came first in the form of an

202 Forrester, M. & McDonald, M. (1986). MaureenForrester - Out of character: A memoir. Toronto: McClelland& Stewart. p. 34

203 Fingleton, D. (1983). Kiri Te Kanawa: A biography.New York: Atheneum. p.17204 Ardoin, J. (1987). Introduction to Callas at Juilliard:The master classes. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press.205 Matheopoulos, H. (1998). Diva: The new generation.Boston: Northeastern University Press.206 ibid, p.93207 ibid.208 Hoelterhoff, M. (1998). Cinderella and company:Backstage at the opera with Cecilia Bartoli. New York:Alfred A. Knopf. p.14209 Newman, E. (2000). High times, hard times. OperaNews 64(9). p.43210 Matheopoulos

over-bearing mother who strove to make herdaughter into an opera singer. Te Kanawa’smother went so far as to move the family to adifferent city and then beg “the best teacher inNew Zealand” to teach her daughter, at thetime too young by that teacher’s standards.211

Maureen Forrester recalls her mother forcingher into the local church choir “as soon as Icould open my mouth”212 and later pleadingwith Maureen’s teacher Bernard Diamant tocontinue working with the young contralto,who had gone against Diamant’s wishes byentering a popular voice competition.213

Christina Ludwig recounts her years of trainingwith her own mother, who continued tocritique her daughter’s singing for decadesafterward.214 After this initial push to studysinging, which often came from a familymember, the female singers who became highlysuccessful were also given attention by at leastone dedicated coach or teacher. For Callas,her teacher de Hildalgo filled this role; for TeKanawa, a nun singing teaching by the name of“Sister Mary Leo.” Each singer had her ownteacher who not only recognized her talent butunderstood how to develop it. As Callassuggested, "a singer's career is essentially builton youth; wisdom comes later... the earlier wereceive our training, the better, so that we havethe basis to acquire wisdom sooner".215 Theattention and display of belief in their talentsby an adult, which these singers received asyouths, spurred many of them on to furtherstudy and, thus, is an inextricable part of thepath to success for these female opera singers.

Next to raw talent and adults dedicatedto helping singers hone their skills, highlyeffective female opera singers also share anunquenchable thirst to learn their craft. MariaCallas exemplifies this thirst for knowledge.Even as a child, she would stay all day at theGreek conservatory where her teacher deHidalgo worked because she felt was always

211 Fingleton, D. (1983). Kiri Te Kanawa: A biography.New York: Atheneum. p.17

212 Forrester & McDonald, p. 11213 ibid.214 Newman215 Ardoin, p. 3

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learning something.216 Conductor Rescignobore witness to the way in which Callas was"always the first to arrive at rehearsals and thelast to leave, because of her eagerness tolearn".217 Callas herself maintained that “Whenit comes to music, we are all students, all ourlives”218 and her suggestion that “the more youlearn, the more you realize how little youknow,” confirms her fascination with thelearning of her art form. Both Te Kanawa andForrester demonstrated their devotion to thevocal learning process by working many hoursat non-musical jobs in order to be able to payfor their own singing lessons as youths. Whenthey began their professional careers, these twowomen joined all singers with internationalcareers in having regular sessions with languagespecialists, dramatic coaches, and specialists invarious specific singing techniques, which alsoattests to the commitment of opera singers ingeneral to continued learning. Outside ofindividual coachings, female opera singersmust take opportunities to learn from thosearound them. Isola Jones, for example, foundthat just singing at the Metropolitan OperaHouse provided her with an incredibleoccasion to soak up knowledge about goodsinging merely by listening. Natalie Dessayasserts a similar desire to continually learn withthe following statement: ''After ten years ofmy career, I have done all the [standard] roles Ican do in this repertoire. I don't want to repeat.I have to progress, to work on the voice, andto move on to something else, something that'smore interesting, acting-wise''.219 Many haveechoed her sentiments and have continued toexpand their role repertory and theirunderstanding of particular opera characters inorder to expand their knowledge base.Matheopoulos maintains that today’s topsingers are smart and no wonder, when thelearning process never stops for them.

216 ibid.217 Rescigno, N. (1987). Foreword to Callas at Juilliard:The master classes. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press. p.xii218 Ardoin, p. xvii219 Kellow, B. (2001). Femme du monde. Opera News65(10), p.33

As in the cases of Te Kanawa andForrester, a commitment to learning means, inits early stages, much hard work and sacrificeon the part of all successful opera singers.Forrester recalls having to give up manyfriendships when she began to study withDiamant, simply because she did not have timeafter daily work and vocal practice to spendtime with friends. Forrester also remembersthat her life was not that of a normal girl onceshe began serious voice study.220 For TeKanawa, sacrifice was especially great uponleaving her homeland of New Zealand forEngland to study at the London Opera Centrein her early twenties. Leaving the countrywhere she was a celebrity to study in a newplace where her teachers were less tolerant andshe had few friends was definitely a sacrificefor this singer, and one which caused her to,eventually, work hard. For Dessay, singing hasmeant working “like a dog, really”.221 Yet, asMatheopoulos reminds, contemporary operaticsingers have “an infinite capacity for hardwork”.222 Rescigno extends this infinitecapacity back several decades when hereinforces the ambitious work ethic of MariaCallas by stating, "I do not doubt that thenatural talent of Callas was immense, but sheperfected this gift with a great deal of study,discipline, and humility".223 All of the singersstudied invested in numerous lessons andstudied and performed overseas frequently.Thus, it is obvious that many other interestshad to be laid aside in order for highly effectivefemale opera singers to pursue their musicalcareers.

A logical step after making some ofthese sacrifices is dealing with theirrepercussions and the general lifestyle of anopera singer. To some, this lifestyle was toostrenuous. In the words of Janet Baker, "Ifsomeone asked me if my career has been‘worth it,’ in other words worth the sacrificesmade by me and members of my family, worththe separations, the agony of performing...thestrains and pitfalls of being a public figure, my 220 Forrester & McDonald221 Kellow, 2001, p. 33222 Matheopoulos, p. xxiii223 Rescigno, p.xxi

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honest answer would have to be "No”.224. Shecontinues by saying that she found "in the life[of a singer] itself and the principles whichguide it . . . there is a terrible kind ofruthlessness".225 These statements prove thatsuccessful singers do not necessarily have to beenamoured of every aspect of their career, butthey must, nevertheless, come to terms withthe way opera singers must live. For RenéeFleming, this meant toting her pre-school-agedchildren and their nanny along on manyinternational engagements.226 For Forrester,adjusting to operatic life has meant separatingherself from “The Voice” inside her. Luckilyfor Forrester, her constitution and high level ofenergy have enabled her to avoid the constantpampering and “palpitations over everybreeze” that she knows many of her colleaguesmust endure in order to be able to do theirjobs.227 Matheopoulos aptly describes opera-singer life in the following paragraph:

For, away from the electricity,excitement and high tension of the operaticstage, a diva’s life boils down to a peripateticexistence in hotel rooms and rented flats; ontop of this a daily routine requiring discipline,training, careful living and the stamina of anathlete. Moreover, divas live in a state ofpermanent preoccupation with their health, theslightest variation in which can affect TheVoice, this volatile and unpredicatbleinstrument, so bound up with their physicaland emotional state.228

Undoubtedly, this lifestyle is not foreveryone. Singers such as Marie Collier provedto be unable to truly tolerate this kind of life,always detesting traveling to new places andbeing alone in hotel rooms. However, despitethe drawbacks, which also often include short-lived marriages, short tempers among operadivas, and the demand for singers to performeven when they are not feeling their best229,

224 Baker, J. (1982). Full circle: An autobiographical journal.New York: F. Watts. p. 52225 ibid. p.53226 Matheopoulos227 Forrester & McDonald, p.9228 Matheopoulos, p. xxvi229 Kellow, B. (2002). On the beat: Diva stories. OperaNews 67(5), 8, 10.

many singers have found ways to balance thestress of their jobs with an active family andextra-curricular life.230 Finding the balancebetween the need to perform and the need tolead a well-rounded life is an achievment thathas been credited to such singers as Kiri TeKanawa and Felicity Lott, who “have beautifulvoices, but . . . are still real women”.231 Afterall, not every singer can develop Callas’ mottoof "What is there in life if you do notwork?...You can only live on work, by work,through work... I work, therefore I am".232

Certainly, “the lights, fame, or the drug ofaudience acclaim,” which Baker says are part ofthe job233 as well as the frequent traveling anddifficulty that in itself can present while raisinga family, should be aspects of opera singingthat students consider before they attempt tolaunch their full-time careers. Priorities mustbe evaluated and goals set before a studentcommits to a life professional opera work.

In addition to accepting the lifestylerequirements of opera, another skill whicheffective female opera singers share is theability to accept criticism and disappointment.This quality is essential to survival amongdirectors, colleagues, audiences and critics, andrequires the singer to have enough self-confidence to not doubt her talent after afailure or criticism is encountered, but not tohave so much confidence that she is no longerflexible and open-minded in a rehearsalsituation. Certainly, among highly effectivefemale singers, examples of both attitudesexist, but the former is certainly morefavourable to contemporary conductors andcolleagues. One example of a singer who hasher own artistic ideas but who has neverthought of them as singularly valid, is TeKanawa. Perhaps this is a result of numerouscompetitions as a young singer, where sheencountered many failures before winninglarge prizes in her early twenties. Similarly, if

230 Fingleton231 Bambarger, B. (1999). Global classical pulse. TheInternational Newsweekly of Music, Video and HomeEntertainment 111(36), 54-55.232 Lowe, D. (Ed). (1986). Callas as they saw her. New

York: Ungar, 1986. p.177233 Baker, p.140

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Renée Fleming had not learned how to copewith criticism before her opening night ofDonizetti’s Lucrezia Borgia at La Scala in 1998,she learned at that performance, where she wasloudly booed by the audience.234 Maria Callaseven admits to not being well-liked when shefirst began to sing because she “took the publicaway from the tradition they knew”.235 In aworld fraught with critics’ opinions in reviewsof each performance executed, femaleprofessional opera singers must certainly beable to accept criticism, learn from theirmistakes, and develop the ability to discernhonest, valid, constructive criticism fromuninformed, ignorant gossip.

Yet another quality shared among mosthighly successful and effective female operasingers is a uniquely identifiable instrument.Matheopoulos maintains that an instantlyrecognizeable voice is perhaps the mostimportant ingredient in the recipe for a world-class opera singer, and Stanley-Porter agrees.236

It cannot be denied that many successfulsingers have been hailed as having a timbre alltheir own, including Maria Callas,237 MarilynHorne,238 Brigitte Fassbaender,239 JanetBaker,240 Régine Crespin,241 Kiri Te Kanawa,242

Kathleen Battle,243 and Jessye Norman244. Inaddition, some singers have been faulted forhaving instruments that were less distinctivethan their contemporaries.245 Even if the 234 Kellow, 2001235 Ardoin, p. 6236 Eatock, C. (2001). The great singers: What sets thebest apart from the rest? Opera Canada 42(2), 16-19.

237 Steane, J. (1998). Singers of the century, v. 2. AmadeusPress: Portland, Oregon.

238 ibid.239 ibid.240 Eatock, C. (2001). The great singers: What sets thebest apart from the rest? Opera Canada 42(2), 16-19.241 ibid.242 Fingleton243 Malafronte, Judith (2002).Recordings: Recital:

Kathleen Battle. Opera News 67(2), 58-59.244 Mark, M. (2003). Collections: "The Very Best ofJose Carreras"; "The Very Best of Placido Domingo";"The Very Best of Jessye Norman." American Record

Guide 66(5), 253.245 Steane

sound is technically flawed or a bit harsh insome repertoire, it seems that a distinctivevoice is more important than a beautifulinstrument that sounds like thousands beforeit. Whether the tone is steely, harsh, round orlight, it seems to matter not, provided there issomething unique and recognizeable about thevoice. As Stanley-Porter says, “when you hear asound that stands out, that’s very exciting”246

and this is a truth that young singers shouldalso be aware of as they prepare forprofessional careers.

Having a unique and identifiable timbreis but one of the strengths that one mightpossess as a singer, and it is important thatfemale opera singers be aware of their ownvocal strengths and weaknesses, so that theymay accept roles accordingly. Highly effectivefemale opera singers today must constantlyrefuse roles which are too large or dramaticallyinappropriate for their voices or ages and, thus,the knowledge of the resources that theirinstruments possess is one key to keeping thesevoices singing. While Patricia Craig247,Frederica von Stade248, and Natalie Dessay249

have denied roles because they were too largefor their voices, it has been equally importantfor the careers of singers such as BarbaraBonney250 and Janet Baker251 to refuse roleswhich they have grown out of vocally anddramatically. Steane praises Renata Tebaldi forhaving remained within an appropriaterepertoire for her voice, while Aberbach insiststhat, lately, too many voices are singing roles attoo young an age.252 Whatever the quality ofthe voice may be, it is apparent that highlysuccessful female opera singers must be awareof the properties of their voices, so that theycan maximize their skills but not damage theirinstrument or bore themselves dramatically.

246 Eatock, p. 19247 Braun, W. (2003). Mainstays [Resident Members ofthe Metropolitan Opera in the 1980s]. Opera News68(3), 53-57.248 Steane249 Kellow, 2001250 Matheopoulos251 Baker252 Eatock

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An infallible cure for dramaticboredom is a singer’s ability to communicateand express emotion to an audience. This wasfound to be a unanimous skill among highlyeffective female opera singers. Marilyn Hornehad an “instinctive flair for the dramatic”253

while Janet Baker’s eyes have been called asexpressive as her voice.254 Maria Callas wasdubbed “ a natural actor”255 and RégineCrespin “one of opera’s most compellingactresses”.256 Steane forgives some ofFrederica von Stade’s technical flaws becauseof the naturalness and humanity in her acting,and Aberbach echoes a similar sentiment aboutTeresa Stratas.257 Kellow mentions Dessay’s“blazing theatrical instincts”258 and Driscollmaintains that, aside from astute managementand great reviews, it was Renée Fleming’sability to connect dramatically with an audiencethat made her and has kept her a star.259

Richard Turp purports that the most importanttrait that great opera singers share is theirability to enlighten and communicate themeaning of the text they sing, and StanleyPorter declares that “on stage, the mostimportant thing is to “bring the characteralive”.260 Singers such as Ferrier, Te Kanawaand Mattila have been praised countless timesby critics for their abilities to draw an audienceinto the music they are singing. This dramaticskill is not to be underestimated in operaticsingers. It is obvious that audiences and criticsalike look not just for a beautiful voice, but forthe dramatic intention allowing that voice, andthe actress behind it, to communicate deepemotion. Thus, opera singers who do notpossess natural dramatic instincts should becoached incessantly to this end, knowing that italone can make a performance meaningful toan audience. 253 Steane, p.173254 Steane255 Ardoin, p.6256 Albright, W. (1999.) [Review of the book On stage,

off stage: A memoir]. The Opera Quarterly 15(1),p.109

257 Eatock258 Kellow, p.36259 Driscoll, F. P. (2003). Upward bound. Opera News

68(3), p.6260 Eatock

Aside from the nine skills andexperiences, or “truths,” discussed here, highlysuccessful female opera stars do share otherqualities. Many of them are naturally beautifulwomen, and almost all thoroughly enjoy theirwork. In the case of Mattila, the fun she haswhile singing has even been said to be audibleon her recordings.261 However, this enjoymentdepends largely on the success of the priornine points, and the perception of a singer asbeing beautiful can be greatly enhanced bythese other traits. Without natural talent,parents and teachers who helped develop thattalent, a strong desire to learn, hard work andsacrifice, an understanding of the lifestyle thatopera singing often demands, the ability toaccept criticism, the possession of a unique andrecognizeable instrument, a knowledge of one’sown vocal strengths and limitations, as well asa keen ability to convey emotion andcommunicate with an audience, today’s femaleoperatic artists would not be successful orcelebrated. Some may say that, with thesetraits and experiences, “there is a sense, then,in which diva life narratives writethemselves”.262 However, each singerpossesses many other individual traits thatenhance or detract from her ability to performand, certainly, there are many more factorsthan these which determine a successful career.Still, by examining the lives of successfulsingers, it is plain to see that these nine truthscertainly cannot be ignored, as they are allintegral to the development of world classopera singers. Students of singing would bewise to measure their own past, present, andfuture experiences and skills against thosecommon to successful female opera singers, toensure that they have considered some of theinevitable situations they will face asprofessionals. The career of opera singing is,as Callas said, “difficult work”,263 but for thosewho are blessed with the stamina and talent towithstand its pressures and who are invigorated

261 Myers, E. (2001). Recital - Karita Mattila. Opera News

65(8), 76.262 Leonardi, S. & Pope, R. (1996). The diva's mouth: body,voice, prima donna politics. New

Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. p. 142263 Ardoin, p. 8

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by its challenges, it can also be very rewarding.�

The Art of EmotionBy Rachel Schwarz

The career of a professional singer isunder constant scrutiny. In an age of digitalrecording technology, vocal technique must beflawless to meet the expectations of a classicalmusic aficionado. Young, would-beperformers spend countless hours in diligentstudy and practice in order to perfect theirtechnique, and devote all their energy topursuits that might further their career. Theystudy languages, diction, and doggedly entercompetitions and attend auditions in the hopesof building a successful performance career.Unfortunately, many devoted students of voicefail to come close to achieving their goalsdespite their hard work and fortitude.Although many will quickly dismiss actualsuccess in a performing career to luck, abeautiful voice and flawless technique are onlya part of the total package required to reallycement a career in performance. Many critics,coaches and voice teachers agree thatperformers needs to demonstrate acommanding stage presence, aesthetic appeal,audience rapport and a mastery of dramaticnuances in conjunction with a healthytechnique if they hope to pursue a seriousperformance career. While this may seem likecommon sense, the actual art of performing isoften neglected by serious voice students if notcompletely ignored.

In a typical performance degreestudents have access to a variety of theoretical,historical and pedagogical courses, but arerarely offered the chance to improve theiracting skills or learn the deportment necessaryto capture the attention of an audience or apanel of judges. While it may be easy to blameinstitutions for a lack of focus on performingtechniques, the onus must ultimately rest onthe performer. Often, the cause for a lacklusterperformance can be attributed to inattention tothe amount of work and study that is necessary

to offer a truly well rounded, engagingperformance. After the initial technicalfoundations are firmly in place, students muststrive to incorporate dramatic shadings intotheir music from the moment they begin tostudy a new piece, and they must learn to dothis by any means necessary. It is crucial thatsingers pay serious attention to the dramaticaspect of their studies in performance, whichwill ultimately pay off in many ways, and willeven serve as a vehicle for a betterunderstanding of their music and improvedtechnical abilities. In most cities studentswould have the opportunity to enroll in aprofessional acting course, which is one of theeasiest ways to gain knowledge of the dramaticarts so that they may be incorporated into amusical performance. Students may alsochoose to embark on a self study of basic stagetechniques to incorporate into their practicingand performance. It is still very important forsingers to maintain their study of the technicalaspects of their instrument. A dramatic stageperformance void of technical prowess andmusical thought is just as unfulfilling as atechnically glowing performance given by adeadpan performer. The singer must learn tostrike a balance. Above all, a student must tryto observe themselves critically at any givenopportunity, and enlist the aid of anyonewilling to help them become a more well-rounded performer.

Many of today’s professionalperformers will agree that it is absolutely vitalthat a singer be well versed in the art of stagecraft in order to build a career. Renée Flemingis definitely considered one of the topperformers of our time. Her voice isabsolutely beautiful, but it is not that aspect ofher performance that has held the attention ofa world that is always so eager to move alongto the next big hit. Critics have hailed here as

“the most celebrated American soprano before thepublic right now … with her warm stage presence thatseems both queenly regal and ‘girl next door’, and hermagnificent way with a song.” (Tim Page) 264

264 Renée Fleming, “The Inner Voice” (New York,

Penguin Group, 2004) Back Cover

41

Reading any review of Fleming’s recentperformance triumphs or having the chance towatch her create her art live or on film willcement the view that she is truly a master ather craft. In her new book, Fleming shares herviews on what make a performer successful,and how to create an unforgettableperformance. She speaks candidly about thedemands on the classical singer, and it is clearthat she ascribes to the belief that performanceis an art that encompasses beautiful singing,but an inspired performance cannot rest on thevoice alone.

In the course of my career I have appeared inmany different venues. I’ve sung for a small roomful ofpeople, and I’ve sung in giant outdoor arenas, butwhether I’m performing for a group of twelve or a groupof twelve thousand, my goal is the same: communicatingwith the audience … I can reach out with my voice andtouch the audience in an almost physical way. For me,the singer’s art is the art of expression – expressing themusic, expressing the text, projecting my voice into alarge space, and then using it to make that spacebetween me and the audience grow smaller andsmaller.265

Clearly, Fleming believes in thesymbiotic relationship between the voice andthe performance. Her success dictates that shehas indeed discovered how to make the stagework for her. Many singers follow her careeravidly, admiring her success and technicalability without ever truly grasping that thenature of her performance stems from agenuine desire to evoke emotion and to drawin the audience. In order to give themselvesthe opportunity to build a career even remotelyclose to that of Renée Fleming, it is clear thatsingers must start to more actively take aninterest in the actual art of performance.

Fleming goes on to contend that it iswithin the structure of a freely givenperformance that she actually finds technicalnuances that she was not aware were withinher scope of ability. She states that the hoursshe spent working on the technical aspects of a

265 Fleming, p. 175

piece actually free her to become a vehicle ofexpression.266 Obviously, it would be difficultfor an aspiring performer to convince anyonethat he or she does not dream of the criticalacclaim and devoted following that Flemingenjoys. If that is truly the case, singers owe itto themselves to try and attain the dramaticfreedom that Fleming states cam be foundwithin the context of good musicalunderstanding and technical fortitude.

As each singer is different, the samesolution to the problem of lack of polish in aperformance will not work for everyone.Singers must be diligent in attempting to gainsome dramatic freedom within the context oftheir performing. They are responsible forresearching various methods of amending theirperformance style to include some genuinelymoving emotional moments. In order to dothis, the must first understand how to mosteffectively create these moments.

Arguably the best tool for a singer istheir mirror. Everyone should make a point ofsinging in a full length mirror as often aspossible. The trick is to allow the time withthe mirror to not simply be about techniqueand posture, rather, observing how an effort tocommunicate can change a performance.Singers must guard against overacting lest theybecome a cliché, and with a clear goal ofcreating a believable performance they are ableto embark on a very rewarding journey of selfdiscovery. As everyone is different, somesingers will have an easier time of this thanothers, as they are naturally gifted with aneffusive personality and tangible charisma.This does not mean that they should beexcluded from the study of stage craft, becausethe most engaging performers can still fail tocapture an audience if they do not learn tohone their personality and physical attributes totheir advantage. Sometimes it is more difficultto watch a singer desperately trying to conveyemotion without an understanding of how toeffectively do so, than it is to watch a boringperformer.

266 Fleming, p. 175

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Fleming actually claims to besomewhat of an introvert267, which means thatshe has had to make a concerted effort to crafther inimitable performance style. Uponreading her book, one might draw theconclusion that part of her performancesuccess can be attributed to the fact that shehas icons that she admires, and she strives toachieve the kind of depth of performance thathas been achieved by legendary singers such asMaria Callas. Fleming spends a good deal oftime musing over the qualities that haveallowed the legend of Callas to live on, andseeing that kind of thought and insight intoperformance ability give the reader theimpression that she will never be content withthe level of technical ability and performancethat she has achieved, and that her genuinedesire to become better with each subsequentperformance will allow her to continue to growas a vocal titan.

Maria Callas is a modern legend. She isone of the last opera divas to ever reach iconicstatus outside the classical music world.Although her performances were not alwaysflawless, audiences seem to have been willingto forgive her anything because of her stunningperforming ability. Her vocal style is inkeeping with the Bel Canto ideal of ‘thelanguage of the soul’. In conjunction with thetechnical work of singers of that time, lookingback at manuscripts show that just as muchthought was placed on the subtlest dramaticnuance as on the technical mastery of a piece.Gestures and emotional motivation can befound written into countless scores of theperiod, and treatises proclaim the ‘language ofthe soul’ to be of vital importance to acomplete performance. This includes actualsighs, tears, cries and changes to the timber ofthe voice for dramatic purposes.268

Suggesting to modern singers that theyactually sacrifice some vocal beauty in order tocommunicate emotion would leave many ofthe balking at the thought. While it is easy tosee how vocal gesticulations are not necessarily

267 Fleming, 175268 Robert Toft, “Heart to Heart” (New York, Oxford

University Press, 2000) p. 168

vital to a modern performance, a singer mustnot discount the validity in the freedom thatthey would afford. Perhaps taking some BelCanto principles into the practice room wouldallow singers to see exactly how far they cantruly go in a performance without making amockery of the music. It would truly be anexercise for many to interrupt their beautifullegato line with a sigh of heartbreak, butperhaps it is a valuable practicing tool that isnot given the credit that it truly deserves.

It is interesting to pick up a manual forstage actors and read what it will have to sayabout the importance of the voice inperformance. Many authors of acting manualswill approach the instruction of the voice inmuch the same way as a teacher of classicalsinging. Patsy Rodenburg, a well respectedvoice and acting coach in London, England,views proper vocal technique as thecornerstone for any successful stageperformance. She views the voice as thecornerstone of success in acting, and in hercourses at the Guildhall School of Music andDrama she spends years training young actorsin much the same fashion as singing teacherstrain their students. She applies many of thesame principles and studies used by acclaimedvocal pedagogs such as Dr. Richard Miller tothe art of acting, and she has actually devotedan entire book to the importance of healthyvoice technique as a vehicle forcommunication.269

If a singer were to take the time tothink about the importance placed on the voicein stage acting, they might eventually come tothe conclusion that speaking and singing aresimply different sides of the same craft. Theart of dramatic acting is far more technical andpedagogical than many singers realize, and yetthe ultimate performance never suffers as aresult of technical concentration. Rodenburghas some very interesting views on singing thatshould at least draw the consideration of anyserious singer. “I realize that singing is, on onelevel, a very technically complex activity. Yet itis more natural than speaking. It has a fluency

269 Patsy Rodenburg “The Actor Speaks” (New York,

Palgrave MacMillan, 2000) pp. 4-16

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and a free flow that should be fun and moreliberating than speaking text … the potentiallyjoyous side of singing has been corseted witjudgmental fears.”270 If Rodenburg’s views onthe close similarities between the speaking andsinging voice are true, than it would have greatimpact on the studies of a would-be performer.The next logical step for singers on their wayto a performing career would be to realize thatit is necessary to build their stage craft with themeticulous study and planning exerted by aShakespearian actor.

Richard Miller has written manyauthoritative texts on the subtle workings ofthe human voice. He is at the top of his field,and is revered by the classical community asone of the great vocal pedagogs of our time.With all of his technical study, it is sometimeseasy to forget that Dr. Miller also had aperforming career that would be the envy ofmany a classical singer. It is refreshing torealize that he has very strong opinions on themultiple demands of a successful performingcareer, and refers to a well rounded singer ashaving the ‘Performance Package’.271 Thisrefers to absolutely everything society couldwant from a professional singer, includingtechnique, natural ability, musicality, a sense ofdrama and a genuine feeling forcommunication. If a teacher as technicallyexacting as Dr. Miller feels that a grasp of thedramatic is necessary to complete theperformance package, perhaps many studiousyoung singers would do well to take heed.

Dr. Miller also contends that a seniorperformance major should most likely have adecent technical basis for their singing, andthat a singer’s practicing must be devoted toboth technical and dramatic mastery. Hestresses the importance of attention to theinner meaning of a text, and encourages youngprofessionals to strive towards creating abelievable and authentic performanceexperience. To that end, he offers the advicethat performance technique can be taught justas easily as vocal technique. He asserts that

270 Rodenburg, p.137271 Richard Miller, “Wrapping up the Performance

Package”, (NATS Journal, vol. 49, no.3)

while acting workshops and the like are ofgreat value, a large amount of interpretive workcan be done in the studio. He calls on thevocal coaches and teachers to be more diligentwith students with regards to creating a feelingof ease within the student’s body, and thiscomfort will ultimately lead to ease on stage.Dr. Miller explains facial expression is ofprimary importance in communication, andsuggests that singers videotape lessons,rehearsals and performances so that they maywatch themselves with a critical eye and learnfrom their shortcomings.272 Dr Miller is readyto admit that although technical study is alwaysof the utmost importance, as a performanceapproaches it must cede to the need to focuson the musical and interpretative aspects ofsinging. He states that “Technical studyshould not aim at a assembling a singingmachine, but at developing a communicativeartist.”273

A good bit of wisdom for the classicalsinger would be to “Never sing withoutsomeone, or the illusion of someone, to singto”.274 Sometimes a great deal of headway cansimply be made by deciding your motivationbehind singing, and who you are singing to.Sometimes the singer is lucky enough to have alive person to sing to, but more often theymust train themselves to create an imaginarypartner. If they can master this technique, thenthey are able to begin to create another worldfor the audience. Matt Bean also contends thatcreating someone to sing to affects singing in ahealthy way. He believes that if that illusion isnot there, singers have a tendency to push theirvoices, and creating another individual ‘createsthe sensation that the singing is being pulledout of us by the person we’re singing to; this iseffortless’.275

Obviously there is a great push formodern classical singers to begin to pay more

272 Richard Miller, “Learning to Portray Emotion”,

(NATS Journal, vol. 45, no. 5)273 Richard Miller, “Balancing Technique and

Literature”, (NATS Journal, vol. 58, no.4)274 Matt Bean, “To Whom do you Sing?”, (NATS

Journal, vol. 45, no.3) Quoting: David Craig, OnSinging Onstage, p.82, 1978

275 Bean

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attention to their performance style in order tocreate the package of a well rounded singer andperformer. They must use any optionsavailable to them, including acting courses,dramatic theory resources, outside feedbackand constant personal monitoring in order toensure they are growing dramatically as well asvocally. When this dramatic motivation ishandled properly, it can actually create anenvironment to foster technical freedom,which will allow singers to reach new levels ofvocal ability. It should be a vehicle to allowperformers to reach any goal they set forthemselves on stage, whether it is technical ordramatic. Ultimately, singers are solelyresponsible for their own improvement in thisarea. They must be diligent and have a genuinedesire to learn the invaluable stage toolsnecessary to have the chance to build aprofessional career. For any successful singer,the dramatic arts are a vital part of their craft.Young singers can do themselves a greatservice by realizing this, and taking a proactiveapproach to developing their performancetechnique sooner rather than later. �

The Cognitive and PhysiologicalAspects ofPerformance AnxietyBy: Katherine Serniwka

At one time or another, everyone hasexperienced some form of anxiety. Whether itbe in music performance, sports, or other focalanxieties such as a fear of spiders or heights,the individual responds similarly, bothphysically and mentally to the presence of thefeared situation.276 Anxiety has both a 276Andrew Steptoe: “Performance Anxiety. RecentDevelopments in Its Analysis and Management”. TheMusical Times (Aug., 1982) 537-541, online, available:JSTOR, [database online, UWO], accessed 05 February2005.

physiological and psychological aspect thataffects the way we interpret sensations–we canbecome anxious in situations merely becausewe perceive a threat even where there is none.277 Performance is not simply the product ofphysiological and biomechanical factors, butpsychological factors also play a crucial role indetermining performance278

There are few activities that canproduce tension and anxiety as quickly and asthoroughly as performing in public.279

Cognitive, behavioural, and physiologicalfactors are involved in the underlying processesof performance anxiety.280 A performanceitself involves a sequence of skilled actions thatmay easily be disrupted since the physicalsystems sustaining a performance are preciselythose most likely to be disturbed by excessivetension281. Music performance requires a highlevel of skill in a diverse range of skill areasincluding fine motor dexterity and co-ordination, attention and memory, aesthetic,and interpretative skills.282 Sweating, musclecontrol and breathing pattern are mostsensitive to bodily arousal, yet are crucial tomost performing arts.283

Anxiety does not always result in anegative affect on the performer. Accordingthe Inverted-U Hypothesis, performance canactually improve with increasing arousal up toan intermediate level, and it is not until thearousal level rises beyond the optimum that

277“A Discussion on Performance Anxiety”. (Accessed:02 February 2005)http://www.mostlywind.co.uk/performance_anxiety.html278J. Graham Jones, Lew Hardy, Stress and Performance inSport (England: John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 1990), 3.279“A Discussion on Performance Anxiety”. (Acessed:02 February 2005)http://www.mostlywind.co.uk/performance_anxiety.html280Ibid.281Ibid.282Dianna T. Kenny et. al: “Music Performance Anxietyand Occupational Stress amongst Opera Chorus Artistsand Their Relationship with State and Trait AnxietyPerfectionism”. Journal of Anxiety Disorders (Sept 2003)757-777, online [database online, UWO], accessed 02February 2005.283Steptoe, Musical Times (Aug. 1982)

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performance begins to deteriorate.284 Levels ofarousal above or below this optimum amountare seen to produce inferior performance.285

Difficulties in performance may also arise onthe other end of the spectrum–some musiciansare unable to rise to the occasion and give adull performance through failing to generateenough excitement and arousal.286 Thisaccounts for the claim frequently expressed byperformers that they need a certain level ofanxiety and nervousness to perform well.287

The tension needed for a good performance isnot anxiety, but a generalized state of moderatephysical excitement.288

The tension experienced with anxiety iscaused by an overload of Adrenaline andnoradrenaline which enters the bloodstreamwhenever one is faced with a stressfulsituation.289 It causes hyper-alertness and inpart, this reaction is a survival response–the‘fight or flight reaction’290 The nervous systemis activated and physiological reactionsinterfere with performing by making it difficultto control otherwise simple functions such asbreathing.291

During the ‘fight or flight reaction’, thebody changes the way it operates physically inorder to maximize strength and energy;normally the body uses only a small amount ofenergy and strength.292 This reaction is a verypowerful response that serves as an importantsurvival function, however when one is facedwith non-physical threats such as the fear ofmaking mistakes or performing in public, thisreaction results in an inferior performance.293

Since the action of performing does notrequire a physical action such as running froma threat, energy is neither used nor absorbedand thus the outcome is stress and anxiety.294

In a performing situation, this build up of 284Jones, Hardy, 20.285Ibid.286Steptoe, Musical Times (Aug 1982)287Ibid.288Ibid.289“A Discussion on Performance Anxiety”, 1.290Ibid, 1.291Ibid., 2292Ibid., 1293Ibid.294Ibid.

adrenaline causes symptoms like shaking,excessive sweating and hyperventilation, andinterferes with the performance.295

Anxiety is generally considered to be acombination of the cognitive and somaticmanifestations of perceived emotional orphysical threat.296 Cognitive anxiety ischaracterized by negative expectations, lack ofconcentration and images of failure, whilesomatic anxiety refers to the perception ofphysiological symptoms such as sweaty handsor tension.297 Anxiety can be divided int298osubcategories. Trait anxiety is one’spredisposition to perceive certain stimuli asthreatening; individuals with high trait anxietylevels tend to exhibit a chronically higher levelof arousal in all situations.299 They eitherperceive more situations as threatening orrespond to threatening situations with moreintense levels of state anxiety, or both.300 Stateanxiety is the situation-specific anxiety state; itcan be aroused by the perception of danger,fear of failure and worry or threat to self-esteem in a particular situation.301 State anxietyis arousal produced by the perception ofdanger.302

There are several theories that strive toexplain performance anxiety in terms of itscauses and effects. Two such theories are theDrive Theory and the Inverted-U Hypothesis.Drive Theory is one of the most influentialtheories of motivation in psychology and hasplayed an important role in sport psychology,particularly as an explanation for the effects ofan audience on motor performance.303 It isbelieved that state anxiety has motivational anddrive properties that are of benefit toperformance–to an extent, anxiety can be

295Ibid.296Dorothy V. Harris, Bette L. Harris, The Athlete’s Guidetp Sports Psychology: Mental Skills for Physical People (USA:Leisure Press, 1984) 34.297Jones, Hardy, 6.298

299Harris, 34.300Rainer Martens, Sport Competition Anxiety Test (Illinois:University of Illinois, 1977) 5.301Harris, 34-35.302Martens, 5.303Diane L. Gill, Psychological Dynamics of Sport (Illinois:Human Kinetics Books, 1986) 117.

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motivational. 304 One of the main componentsof drive theory refers to learned responses orbehaviours.305 Drive theory proposes that asarousal or drive increases, as in intensecompetition, learned behaviours are most likelyto occur.306 Anxiety occurs when an individualbelieves that they do not have to ability tohandle the demands of a situation; studiesindicate that high levels of anxiety are relatedto lower levels of confidence.307 If the task isrelatively simple or well-learned by anindividual so that correct responses aredominant, the presence of an audience willenhance the performance of the task.308 If thetask is complex and poorly learned, thedominant response is an incorrect response,and increased arousal brought on by anaudience will impair performance.309 Theargument is that the presence of othersincreases drive and thereby enhances theperformance of well-learned tasks and inhibitsthe performance of poorly learned tasks.310

The Inverted-U Hypothesis states thatfor every type of behaviour there exists anoptimum level of arousal, usually of moderateintensity, that produces maximum performanceand that this optimum level decreases asperformance decreases.311 The required levelof arousal is related to the degree ofcomplexity of the task and the length of timenecessary to execute the task.312 Performancelevel progressively declines as arousal increasesor decreases from a moderate level.313 Simplestrength tasks, such as weight-lifting, mayprofit from high levels of arousal or anxietywhile more cognitive tasks, such as a musicalperformance may suffer from even moderatelevels of anxiety.314 It is difficult to accurately

304“A Discussion on Performance Anxiety”, 3305Gill, 116.306 Ibid.307“A Discussion on Performance Anxiety”, 2.308Ibid.309Gill, 119.310“A Discussion on Performance Anxiety”, 3.311Graham, Hardy, 20.312Harris, 40.313Gill, 118.314Dieter Hackfort, Charles D. Spielberger, Anxiety inSports: An International Perspective (USA: Hemisphere,1989) 79-80.

measure what constitutes a moderate level ofanxiety as opposed to a high or low level ofanxiety since it differs depending on theindividual; this is one of the complications ofthe Inverted-U Hypothesis. Predicting preciseoptimal arousal levels for each performer andeach task is not possible.315

Past performances shape theexpectations of future performances–one badexperience of performing leads to another.316

The experience becomes internalized through aprocess of conditioning and so the fear isreproduced in later situations.317 Anxietybecomes a response to something that mayhappen and not a response to something thatdoes happen.

Performing in front of an audiencerequires a great level of focus andconcentration. The performer’s inner dialogueor inner speech plays an important part inintensifying and exaggerating anxiety.318 Thecognitive aspects of performing may interferewith this concentration and cause theperformer to experience worries aboutmemory lapses, fear of a difficulty in the piece,and disapproval from friends and teachers.319

There might also be negative thoughts aboutthe self, and deeming oneself unworthy,technically incapable, and not as talented asone’s colleagues.320

As general anxiety, it is believed thatperformance anxiety tends to run in families.321

Also, several studies have shown that theremay be a connection between personality andperformance anxiety.322 It has been indicatedthat there is a direct correlation betweenperformance anxiety and neuroticism.323 It hasalso been proposed that personality is made upof many traits and that these traits give rise totendencies to behave in particular ways,including being anxious.324

315Gill, 121.316Harris, 40.317“A Discussion on Performance Anxiety”, 3.318Kenny et. al., 539.319Ibid.320Ibid.321“A Discussion on Performance Anxiety”, 3.322Ibid.323Ibid.324Ibid.

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The relationship between stress andperformance is an extremely complex one,involving an interaction between the nature ofthe stressor, the cognitive and motor demandsof the task to be performed and thepsychological characteristics of the individualperforming it.325 Be it in a performancesituation, or an athletic competition, everyoneexperiences certain levels of anxiety and stress,which if not handled properly, can result in aless than desirable performance. Severaltheories have been established in order toexplain the causes and effects of performanceanxiety and many researchers continue toexplore and understand the complexities ofperforming under pressure. Anxiety is anintrinsic part of human nature and, at amoderate level, can be beneficial to achieving asatisfactory performance. �

Laryngeal Plight:A critical analysis oflaryngeal height andits significance tooral interpretationand intelligibilityBy Geoffrey Sirett

Since the beginning of history, expertshave been intrigued and mystified by theunique voiceprint of the singing voice, andhave thus tried to codify it. Music is aprofound expression of the soul common to allcultures; the universal vehicle of suchexpression is song. Singing as a cultural entityis evident through all traces of history. Untilthe end of the Renaissance, methodologies andinstruction on singing was learned through‘word of mouth’326. Some of the efforts in

325Graham, Hardy, 37.326 Bernhard Ulrich, Concerning Principles of Voice Training

understanding vocal pedagogy until this pointwere hypothesized through paintings by artistssuch as van Eyck who, known for hisimpeccable attention to detail, captured singersin performance327 and taught theorist a greatdeal about performance practice and vocaltechnique.

By the end of the Renaissance period,and certainly by the beginning of the Baroqueera, musicians had a rising interest in notatingconcepts of performance practice andpedagogies. The voice, being as unique anddifficult to understand as it is, claims the topicfor a great majority of these treatises. At theturn of the 19th century, science became animportant consideration in the development ofvocal pedagogy, in particular the invention ofthe laryngoscope by Manuel Garcia in 1855328.After this invention, great attention was givenby physicians and vocalists to the actions ofvocal cords, particularly their relationship withregistration329.

Pedagogues have since led manyscientific investigations into understanding thehuman voice and the function of laryngealheight is a variable that often comes intoquestion. This study will observe the structurein question (the larynx), important surroundingmusculature, past experiments to codify therelevance of laryngeal height, a detailedspectrographic analysis of varying laryngealheight and its significance to oral interpretationand intelligibility.

In order to understand the relevance oflaryngeal height , one must have fundamentalknowledge of important physical and acousticalconsiderations of the voice. The first item tobe discussed is the larynx, which is thevibratory source of the vocal apparatus. Thelarynx consists of three cartilaginousformations, suspended over the trachea. The

during the a capella period and until the beginning of Opera(1474-1640) (Minneapolis: Pro Musica Press, 1973),98.

327 Sarah Carr-Gomm, The Secret Language of Art(London: Duncan Baird Publishers, 2001), 86-87

328 James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy(Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999), 5.

329 David C. Taylor, The Psychology of Singing, (New York:The MacMillan Company, 1908), 34-35.

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cricoid cartilage sits at the bottom of these.The thyroid cartilage, the largest of the three,attaches to the cricoid at the back, allowing itto pivot along the shaft. The arytenoids sitinside this structure and are attached to thevocal ligaments intrinsic musculature of thelarynx. All three cartilages are connected byligaments and membranes330.

The arytenoids are able to adjust thevocal folds to varying lengths. This, incombination with the vocalis muscle, locatedbehind the vocal folds, make necessaryadjustments to change oscillation frequency ofthe folds which corresponds to pitch. Thelower and middle pharyngeal constrictormuscles are important to consider in terms oflaryngeal height.331 These muscles aresuprahyoid muscles and act to raise thelarynx.332

The relevance of laryngeal height is aquestion that has been dealt with by vocalteachers, but brought into the spotlight in themiddle of the 19th century by Italian vocalscholar Manuel Garcia and has maintained itsinterest to pedagogues since. Even with thehelp of modern scientific means, the purposein studying laryngeal height is ultimately amatter of aesthetics. This is to say, one needsto decide what sounds good, and then relatethose sounds to an approachable technique forsingers. This is and elusive task at best, andcan in many ways be a matter of personalpreference. The main school of thought onthis matter was established by Garcia in themiddle of the 19th century, and has since beenreaffirmed by contemporary pedagogues suchas Richard Miller and Johan Sundberg.

In 1840 Garcia presented his “Mémoiresur la voix humaine” to the Academy ofSciences.333 His observations dealt almostexclusively with the position of the larynxduring the singing of various tones. Thecurrent main school of technique for laryngeal

330 Richard Miller, The Structure of Singing: System and Art in

Vocal Technique (Belmont:Schirmer/WaldsworthGroup/Thomson Learning, 1996), 242-243.

331 Johan Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice (Illinois:Northern Illinois University Press, 1987), 114.

332 Miller, The Structure of Singing, 249333 Taylor, The Psychology of Singing, 34.

position is that the larynx should remain in astabilized position, at approximately the sameheight as the position assumed when the singertakes a breath.

There are other schools of singing thatsupport a particular depression of the larynx.The concept supported is that the larynxshould be as low as possible, as it would beduring a yawn, so that there is more verticalspace available in the pharyngeal cavity forresonance. This technique, though popularparticularly in the 1940’s-1960’s334, has beengenerally discredited by many pedagogues,including contemporary American scholarRichard Miller,

Is it possible to remain free during singing whileconstantly depressing the tongue, spreading thepharyngeal wall, maintaining and extreme velarelevation, and lowering the larynx excessively – allconcomitant with the yawn?335

This brings into light anotherimportant muscle, particularly as a larynxdepressor: the tongue. Every movement of thetongue effects the position of the larynx.336

Since the tongue is a vital muscle in theintelligibility of text337, excessive depression ofthe tongue can interfere with thecommunicative elements of singing. LeoKofler, German author of various books onvocal production makes his own observationsagainst the use of this technique:

I have had opportunities, during the past four years, ofexamining a number of tenors and basses who hadbeen trained by teachers who force them to keep thelarynx in a firm, and closely-confined position.Without one exception their tones sound unmusical,dry, and harsh…338

334 Richard Miller, Solutions for Singers: Tools for Performers

and Teachers (New York: Oxford University Press,2004), 55.

335 Miller, The Structure of Singing, 151.336 Lennox Browne and Emil Behnhe, Voice, Song, and

Speech: A practical guide for Singers and Speakers(London: Sampson Low, Marston & Company, Ltd,1896), 68.

337 Miller, The Structure of Singing, 151.338 Browne and Behne, Voice, Song, and Speech, 157.

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Laryngeal elevation is often considereda flaw of “untrained” singers. The observationmade by Miller is that, in untrained voices, aspitch rises the larynx elevates, particularly atregister pivot points.339 The sound producedby a high larynx is one associated with present-day pop culture and is an undesirable trait forbel canto singing. Bel Canto is a term meaning‘beautiful singing’. Its origins begin with thetraces of early opera experiments at thebeginning of the Baroque era. The term cameinto use in the 19th century during debatebetween vocal mechanisms used in Wagnerianstyle opera. The term is currently used todescribe ‘classical’ voice training/technique.

The connection to pitch and laryngealheight is adapted from speech. There isnoticeable movement of the larynx in regularspeech patterns, and it is natural for the larynxto rise with pitch. Singing is considered anextension of speech, but there are significantdifferences between both. Singing is a “higherdevelopment of the same power [speech]”340

but the technique for both is quite different.The precise phonation required in singing isabsent in speech, as well are factors of range,and sustaining of pitch. The extension ofspeech required in singing not to carry overspeech habits of phonation and breathmanagement, but rather to maintain the abilityto communicate . “There must be speech insong, or it would lose all the charm attached tothe distinct rendering of the words”341.

Johan Sundberg, an active scholarcurrently professor at the University ofLondon, undertook more exhaustive researchof harmonic and formant patterns in varyinglaryngeal heights342. Sundberg describes therelationship between laryngeal height andtimbre by analyzing the amplitude of harmonicfrequencies. The voice is unique amonginstruments in its ability to change the shape ofthe tract resonating column, and therefore thesound. In singing, vowel differentiation ismade as it is in speech; changing the shape ofthe mouth isolates certain frequencies, 339 Miller, Solutions for Singers, 56.340 Browne and Behnhe, Voice, Song, and Speech, 27.341 Ibid.342 Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice, 113.

amplifying some and diminishing others. Sinceeverything supraglottis (above the vocal folds)determines the shape of the tract, it is clear thatlaryngeal height can affect not only strength offundamental pitch and the singers’ formant,but also vowel differentiation.

The following study results investigatefurther some issues revealed in Sundberg’sobservations. Three subjects were recordedfor this experiment; two tenors, and onebaritone. To diminish variable data to thatexclusively of laryngeal height each singerrecorded the same pattern, each on similarnotes relative to their passaggi: the two tenorsubjects at 330 Hz, and the baritone at 269Hz.In subject one, the prevalent singers’ formant(around 3000 Hz for this subject) as well as thefundamental amplitude stayed relativelyconsistent through all trials. However,important consideration must be made to theaction of harmonics between formants. In thesecond trial [Subject 1 – Depressed Larynx],the dominant amplitude of the singers formantwas reduced in frequency by 3%. Observingthe second formant (vowel formant), it appearsquite similar to the first trial [Subject 1 –Stabilized Larynx], but the modification ofvowel was revealed in the increased amplitudein harmonics between the vowel formant andthe first and third formants. In the third trial[Subject 1 – Elevated Larynx] the results aredeceptive. It appeared that the third formantdiminishes in significance. In fact, theconcentration of amplitude spread out, andstrong formants prevailed well above the 4000Hz mark, although it is not visible on thisgraph.

The remaining two subjects haveresults consistent with the findings of the firstsubject’s trials. In subject three themodification of vowel is particularly evident.In the depressed laryngeal trial [Subject 3 –Depressed] the later two vowels [o] and [u] arehardly differentiated, and in the third trial[Subject 3 – Elevated] the vowels [a] [o] [u] areindistinguishable spectrographically, and orallyunintelligible. Spectrographically these resultsspeak for themselves.

Although three subjects is notcompelling scientific data, it does give a fair bit

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of insight into the importance of laryngealposition. Pedagogues in support of thisstabilization of the larynx maintain that itsprimary purpose is to maintain the ‘oscuro’factor (the first formant)343. Although this datasupports the stable laryngeal position, it doesso for a different purpose, mainly theintelligibility of the text. In none of the threetrials does the ‘oscuro factor’ diminish; thestrength of the first formant has littledifferentiation in amplitude. However, therelationship of the first formant to the singers’formant is rather what makes distinctionbetween the three trials. Although the firstformant strength remains constant, an increasein the strength of partials above 3500 Hzwould create the illusion of a diminished firstformant or ‘oscuro’.

In interpreting the above data one mustconsider it as a scientific means of studying andevaluating sound. The purpose of this is tounderstand how sound is conceived andinterpreted orally and to provide insight intothe concept of ‘ideal tone’. Despite thedifferent approaches to laryngeal position asexpounded in different pedagogical techniquesthere is one unifying element throughout; agoal to create bel canto or “beautiful singing”.The tonal/harmonic structure of the stabilizedlarynx is perhaps enough to describe this belcanto style, but how to implement it has been ofdebate for many years. David Taylor, authorof “The Psychology of Singing” believes thatscience has shed no light on this topic and that“knowing how the vocal cords should act doesnot help the singer in the least to govern theiraction.344” This idea is discredited by thissurvey after observations made in the abovespectrographic study. There is noproprioseptic sensory for the singer inobserving their own laryngeal height; onecannot feel the larynx move up and down, withthe exception of sense memory and perhapsnerves in the skin of the neck. In the threesubjects discussed, none were able to identifythe height of their larynx without visual orkinetic sensory feedback. Yet all of them were

343 Miller, Solutions for Singers, 74.344 Taylor, The Psychology of Singing, 37.

able to govern the action of the larynxresponding to the sound – a concept calledaudiation. This ability is often overlooked,particularly in male singers. Because of thelarger anterior prominence (Adam’s apple) inthe developed male larynx, there is particularemphasis by teachers of singing on laryngealposition because of this visual consideration.It is important that this factor not become theprimary emphasis on vocal training, and thatthe most important consideration is that ofsound. There is a strong tendency in malevoices for over-correction in the concept ofstabilizing the larynx345 and undue emphasis isgiven to lowering the larynx too far.

It is important to note that scientificdata on this matter is used to reaffirm our oralinterpretation and transparency in what each ofus believes to be bel canto. By understandinghow the singing voice should act, and how thesound should act (or resonate), the singer cangovern actions, and direct themselves toward aunique, and yet common goal of beautifulsinging and personal expressivity. �

The Sport of SingingBy Erin Stone

Your palms are clammy, your pulse isracing and your legs won’t stop shaking.Butterflies are fluttering madly around yourstomach and your heart is beating so loudly, itsounds like someone is drumming in your ear.

345 Miller, The Structure of Singing, 151.

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Your head is screaming “don’t screw up” andat about this point, you feel as though there isenough adrenaline pumping through yourveins to power an entire city for a year.Whether it is your turn at bat and a baseballgame is riding on your shoulders, or you areapproaching the high C at the end of a verychallenging aria, the physical and psychologicaleffects of performance anxiety are universal.

In recent time, growing research hasbeen made in the field of performance anxietyand psychology. The majority of this researchhas stemmed from psychological and scientificinvestigations made in sports psychology. As aresult of the overwhelming demand forperformance psychologists, many sportspsychologists have crossed over into music andthe arts. Using similar psychologicaltechniques and strategies, sports psychologistshave helped artists and performers to copewith the pressures and anxiety that come withperforming. Despite the correlations that havebeen made between sports psychology andmusical performance, very few books on voicepedagogy address the physiological andpsychological connections that performanceanxiety can have on a performer. Instead, themajority of vocal pedagogy books, past andpresent, concentrate only on the physiologicalconditions and functions of the voice assumingthat the singer is performing at their optimallevel of arousal and psychological state.

The reality for singers, musicians andathletes, is that they rarely perform in an“optimal state”. Depending on thepsychological state or level of arousal, aperson’s efficacy to achieve physiologicalcoordination can be greatly impeded byperformance anxiety. As part of our dailypractice and teaching, it is essential thatteachers and singers emphasize the importanceof incorporating the strategies and exercisesoutlined by sport and performancepsychologists. When a performer has theability to understand and identify theirphysiological and psychological “triggers”, theyare better able to diagnose and makeadjustments in their performance to minimizeor maximize their performing potential atdifferent points of arousal. The purpose of

this essay is to bring into focus thephysiological and psychological symptoms ofheightened levels of arousals, as well as outlinesome of the current strategies shared betweensport and performance psychologists on howto deal with stress in performance.

On the day of a performance, a singercan experience a wide range of differentemotional and physical states on stage and off.Whether a singer is actually experiencing anemotional state or dramatically portraying one,when there is an elevation of emotion, there isan increase in the level of physical andpsychological arousal. Scientific research hasconcluded that when monitoring theautonomic nervous system, there is no way toobserve whether arousal levels are attributed toanxiety, joy, anger or lust. Althoughindividually we are able to distinguish thediverse nature of these different emotionalstates, our bodies respond with the same levelof arousal.346 Whether we experience joy oranger, if we are unable to be in command ofour different emotional states, we are,therefore, unable to control the increases anddecreases in our levels of arousal.

One of the reasons a singer must learnto be aware of their emotional andpsychological arousal, is because the bodyresponds to psychological stimulus withphysical arousal. Heightened psychologicalarousal usually stimulates a physiologicalresponse that represents itself in some form oftension. Sports psychologists and physiologistshave discovered that uncontrolled physicalarousal can result in excessive muscular tensionthat works against an athlete’s function ratherthan for the athlete.347 Similarly, when a singeris performing with excessive muscular tensiontheir performance can be inhibited by limitedfunction and lack of physical coordination ofthe voice.

Some of the physical symptoms thatone can experience when they are in anelevated state or level of physical arousal caninclude an increase in pulse, faster shallow 346Michael Scott, Don’t Choke, (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1982), 11.347Michael Scott, Don’t Choke, (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1982), 53.

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higher up breathing in the lungs, increasedstomach acid or “butterflies” in the stomach,and cold, clammy extremities. In some casesarousal can become so intense that in cancause people to hyperventilate. Thecombination of all these reactions is ourprimitive instinct in reaction to fear.348 Stressor elevated levels of arousal cue the brain’sautonomic responses to elevate a person’sheart rate to send more blood to large musclegroups and extremities. The reasons we beginto sweat and feel cold is because the surge ofadrenaline in our bodies is pumping at a levelto give us the strength to do insurmountablethings. Unfortunately, unlike athletes, singershave no major physical outlet to release thiskind of surge of adrenaline in our bloodstream.349 Our inability to be able release thiskind of adrenaline can cause tremors, feelingsof unsteadiness, and other minor symptoms. Itis for this reason that singers must be able tomonitor their levels of arousal and find ways tocontrol or avoid the sensory overload that isassociated with performance anxiety. Toimprove dexterity, breathing and bloodpressure when singing, a useful tactic is re-creating the feelings of anxiousness by exertingenergy before trying to sing. One way ofrecreating anxiousness in a performance isrunning up a flight of stairs or jumping up anddown for a minute. After increasing the heartrate and adrenaline, the singer must begin tosing without stopping no matter how it soundsor how it feels. After doing this, the singermust try to figure out how it felt and whatparts of their piece you were most difficult toperform. The singer should keep practicingthis until they are able to sing with more easeeven after exerting themselves.350

The success of professional athletesand singers is most often attributed to the ease

348Don Greene, Performance Success: Performing your Bestunder Pressure, (New York: Routledge, 2002), 17.349Don Greene, Performance Success: Performing your Bestunder Pressure, (New York: Routledge, 2002), 17.5Don Greene, Performance Success: Performing your Best underPressure, (New York: Routledge, 2002), 18.6 Michael Scott, Don’t Choke, (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,1982), 66.

at which they perform. It is these types ofprofessionals that have the greatest control oftension in performance. As mentioned before,our natural reaction when we are aroused orunder stress is to brace ourselves and tightenup. Conversely, speed and coordination arethe direct result of the rapidity with which youcan loosen your muscles. The more relaxed orloose the muscle is, the greater length it can bestretched. The more stretched a muscle is, themore strength and force the muscle is able topossess.351 For athletes and singers, it is best toavoid doing things that will unnecessarily tensethe muscles beyond their natural range ofmotion. In singing, for example, tension mustbe avoided to sustain a singer’s breath capacity.In order to maintain the constant muscleantagonism required for breathing, the singer isrequired to have a relaxed abdomen andfreedom of movement without tension.

Singers can learn to refine theirtechnique by learning to allow theircoordination to become reflexive withouthaving overly conscious control theirmovement.352 The natural tendency ofperformers and athletes is to concentrate onthe small steps of their performance and theexecution of each action. This kind of focuscan result in a performance where the functionor movement of the voice is unnatural,awkward, and without rhythm. On thecontrary, doing the opposite, concentrating onthe greater whole of the performancecommonly results in smoother more naturalmotion without jerkiness. In many cases whenyou ask an athlete or performer how theyexecuted such a fine performance, often thecase is that they won’t be able to tell you onespecific element because their focus wasbroader. Instead of focusing on one particularaspect of technique, they relied on their“reflex” technique. It is through rehearsal andrepetition in practice that the incremental stepsof technique must be established to becomereflexive. In performance, however, it is oftenbest to have a holistic approach without

352 Michael Scott, Don’t Choke (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1982), 68.

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necessarily having one particular technicalfocus.353

To explain this point even further, thegroups of muscles in the body are joinedtogether in opposition of each other. Whenflexing or tensing a muscle, automatically acorresponding muscle relaxes creating fluidityof motion. It is for this reason being able toidentify tensions and where they occur is thefirst step in being able to use muscleseffectively and efficiently so that the propermuscle groups are targeted.354 Again, it is theidentification of tension in practice andrepetition that must occur before being able toestablish reflexive action. When all themuscles are able to work together withouttension or focus on one particular muscle,coordination can occur without jerky motion.

When the mind of singer responds towhat they perceive is as stress, our body reactsimmediately to mental cues from the brain.The way to reverse these anxious feelings on aphysical level is to change the perception of thephysical change in the level of physicalarousal.355 One of the ways in whichperformers can change their physiologicalreactions is through biofeedback. Biofeedbackis process by which people learn to train andregulate their physiological functions byconnecting them psychologically. Functionsthat once were thought to be “involuntary” areable to be regulated. One of the first practicesof Biofeedback was Yoga. The ability toredirect control and the changing of heart ratesthrough relaxation is an example of the powerof control over “involuntary” responses to theautonomic nervous system.356 EdmundJacobson developed a method called“Progressive Relaxation”. His methodinvolved control over specific muscle groups 353 Michael Scott, Don’t Choke (New Jersey: Prentice-

Hall, 1982), 73.354Charlotte Whitaker, “But I Played it Perfectly in the

Practice Room!”, (Lanham: University Press ofAmerica, 1987), 17.

355 Charlotte Whitaker, “But I Played it Perfectly in thePractice Room!”, (Lanham: University Press ofAmerica, 1987), 18.

356Charlotte Whitaker, “But I Played it Perfectly in thePractice Room!”, (Lanham: University Press ofAmerica, 1987), 18.

related to other areas in the nervous system.The process is not so much the actualrelaxation of the body part but the awarenessof tension exists in the first place.357 Ifperformers became more aware of theirbiofeedback or used techniques such as“Progressive Relaxation” on a regular or dailybasis, performers would be able to identifytensions more freely and, therefore, be able todeal with their responses by modifying theirperception.

One of the ways sport andperformance psychologists suggest dealing withtension and perceptions is through imageryand visualization. Images are essentially visualrecreations of an experience this isremembered by our senses and produced byour memory and imagination. Although ourmemories are most commonly associated withvisual images, they are produce auditory andkinesthetic sensations. As a result, when weare recalling a memory or experience, our bodyand mind will react to it as if they are re-experiencing it. In the same way, if a personvividly creates a vividly imagined experience,the body will also react to with the associatedsensations.358 The key to using this skill for usas opposed to against us is by visualizing andre-enacting situations while sill relaxed as aprocess of reconditioning responses. The twotypes of conditioning include classicalconditioning and operant conditioning.Classical conditioning is when a naturalrelationship reoccurs when a stimulus alwayscreates the same response. Operantconditioning is a conditioned response tostimulus that invokes the anticipation of somesort of reward or event.359

Being able to recognize the physicalresponses to stress is only one part ofimproving a person’s performing capabilities.Perhaps even more significant to performance

357Charlotte Whitaker, “But I Played it Perfectly in the

Practice Room!”, (Lanham: University Press ofAmerica, 1987), 23.

358Jon Waite, Reducing Musical Performance Anxiety,(Oregon: University of Oregon, 1997), 5.

14Jon Waite, Reducing Musical Performance Anxiety,(Oregon: University of Oregon, 1997), 14.

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success is being able to identify thepsychological responses that trigger physicalreactions. Some of the mental effects of stresscan cause unfocussed attention, lapses inmemory, and thinking that is not associatedwith the task at hand. Often when singers areconfronted with stress we have a tendency tomentally self-criticize, obsess about peoplewho might be judging, or create worst possiblescenarios in their performance.360 One of theways to overcome this is being able to balanceleft brain and right brain co ordinations.

Although very useful in ordinarysituations, the left part of the brain can reaphavoc on the mindset of a performer. The leftbrain is responsible for judgments, analyses,and responds with a constant verbal feedbackto our actions and responses. The right brain,however, is where the brain visualizes, and hasan overall better sensory awareness. Unlike theleft brain, the right part of the brain digestsinformation in holistic way allowing for morefree flowing movements and responses.Utilizing the visual and sensory capabilitiesallows for “mental quiet”, and avoids the“noise” or judgments and commentary fromthe left side of the brain.361 It is vital,therefore, that as performers we begin tounderstand how we can make the distinctionbetween left brain and right brain thinking andhow to switch between each when performing.

One of the reasons that we activate theleft brain so much when we perform orparticipate in sports is because we have anassociation to the activity. In most cases forsingers, because their chosen activity issomething for which they excel, theirparticipation in the activity has an associationto their ego. When people participate inactivities where they are required to perform,in some form or another there is a reward thatis associated with the action. An athlete’sreward may be winning first place and for asinger their reward might be receiving applauseat the end of an opera. Unfortunately whenunmonitored realistically, rewards can root 360 Don Greene, Performance Success: Performing your Best

Under Pressure, (New York: Routledge, 2002), 19.361 Don Greene, Performance Success: Performing your Best

Under Pressure, (New York: Routledge, 2002), 20.

themselves much more deeply in a performer.Some performers use their art as a way to seekattention or approval from others fulfilling anemotional or social need. Particularly withpeople who played sports or performed from ayoung age, their need can go as deep as tryingto please a parent or obtaining love by beingsuccessful. Instead of focusing only on thechallenges of the performance or game, theylink their outcome of each challenge as aquestion of their own self-worth.Psychologically attaching winning orperforming successfully with self-worth arewhat can mentally sabotage the mind of aperformer.362 In the case of some of the mostfamous performers, their only sense of valuewas through their success as a performer. Inthese cases their victory or defeat determinedtheir personal value to others and themselvesin every day life. Contrary to this kind ofmentality, people who are “self-actualized” areable to define themselves without the crutch oftheir musical ability or athletic strength. Inother words, they are able to separate their“ego” from their art.363

To separate or identify how aperformer assumes their ego associations, it isimportant to analyze the environment andpeople who impact the life of the performer.Often the two most important role models of aperformer are parents, coaches or teachers. Ateacher or parent’s attitude and influence canhave a huge impact on an individual’sperformance.364 Once a coach, teacher orparent is able to establish the psychologicalboundaries of a performer they can betterunderstand how much the performer can bepushed in terms of their level of arousal. It isimportant that levels of arousal and boundariesare established to achieve successful resultswith a healthy psychological outlook. The levelan individual can be pushed varies from personto person as some people are more sensitivethan others. Some people are motivated by

362 Michael Scott, Don’t Choke (New Jersey: Prentice-

Hall, 1982), 16.363 Michael Scott, Don’t Choke (New Jersey: Prentice-

Hall, 1982), 17.364 Michael Scott, Don’t Choke (New Jersey: Prentice-

Hall, 1982), 25.

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their own terms, while others need to bepushed by fear or guilt tactics. It is when thesetactics are blown out of proportion orsabotaged that some of the worst outcomescan prevail. One of the most dangerousmentalities is the Vince Lombardi philosophy,“Winning isn’t everything, it’s the onlything.”365 This mentality is also referred to as“doomsday mentality” because it promotes theidea that if they lose or “screw up” their valueas a person is diminished. In these types ofsituations, the pressure is so great that theindividual focuses so much on not screwing upthat they end up visualizing themselves doingexactly that, screwing up. While having thesekinds of negative visualizations, the bodycompensates by heightening arousal level touncontrollable levels.366 As opposed tofocusing on the task at hand, there performerbegins to have a preoccupation with the needfor approval or the need to “win”.

It is when an individual continues tonot win or be unsuccessful in their pursuitsthat self-defeating or self-pressure statementsand behavior can start to reoccur. Self-defeating statements are learned responses thatpeople reinforce by repeating them over andover again in their head. These types ofstatements can become “triggers” or cues thatpsychologically and physiological causereactions in the nervous system. These cuescan include statements such as “don’t screwup”, “I’ll never get it right”, or “They willalways be so much better than me”. When werepeat these statements to ourselves weperceive the situation as though it is ourbeyond our control. The reason that we endup perceiving these situations to be beyond ourcontrol is not because the situation at hand isbeyond the individual’s capabilities, but ratherthese statements are usually said aloud only inthe person’s mind and never actually outloud.367 When people are unaware of their self-talk, they usually do not realize how unrealistic

365 Michael Scott, Don’t Choke (New Jersey: Prentice-

Hall, 1982), 32.366 Michael Scott, Don’t Choke, (New Jersey: Prentice-

Hall, 1982), 34.367 Michael Scott, Don’t Choke, (New Jersey: Prentice-

Hall, 1982), 83.

or unreasonable their thoughts are. Being ableto comprehend these thoughts by either sayingthem out loud or sharing them with another isone way of breaking this learned response ofbelieving self-defeating statements.

One of the dangerous elements of self-talk is that it is an automatic reaction and doesnot take time to reason or reflect on eachstatement. It is for this reason that thesestatements are not perceived in an objectivemanner or rational sequence. The way for anindividual to actualize their potential whencreating self-talk is to re-direct their automaticresponses to self-defeating statements andreplace them with more positive ones.368 Oneof the ways of changing this kind of self-talk isagain, through visualization. When we setgoals for ourselves, more often than not wevisualize with a clear mental statement of whatwe want to happen. The repetition of seeingwhat they desire is a way of creating a self-fulfilling prophecy and expectancy to a morepositive outcome. It is in the same way, whenwe visualize negative outcomes in addition theself-defeating statements, as mentioned earlier,we create a negative self fulfilling prophecy.369

The way to change the repetition of negativevisualization or self-defeating statements canbe accomplished by voluntary self-regulationand learning to react positively when there is astressful event. It is through visualization,identification, and sensory awareness thoughbiofeedback that an individual can re-conditiontheir behavior so that it is more realistic andmore positive.370

Part of this re-conditioning and realisticthinking is visualizing only optimal levels ofperformance success. When a personcontinues to only visualize themselves in theirpeak performance, when they fail to meet theirexpectations or visualizations it can often cause

368 Charlotte Whitaker, “But I Played it Perfectly in the

Practice Room!”, (Lanham: University Press ofAmerica, 1987), 15.

369 Charlotte Whitaker, “But I Played it Perfectly in thePractice Room!”, (Lanham: University Press ofAmerica, 1987), 16.

370 Charlotte Whitaker, “But I Played it Perfectly in thePractice Room!”, (Lanham: University Press ofAmerica, 1987), 38.

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them to be more frustrated then when theystarted. Constantly reminding oneself of theirperforming potential in their optimal state andpeak state is vital to understanding how torealistically visualize. After experiencingsuccessful or optimal performance, aperformer may be able to increase theirperforming potential or re-evaluate where theiroptimal and peak states are.371

One of the ways of being able to clearlyunderstand what an ideal performance is foreach individual is to have a clear mindset andagenda to define it. Some of the termscommonly used in the literature of sportspsychology and performance psychologyinclude suboptimal, optimal, and peakperformance. A suboptimal performance isone in which you do not achieve theperformance you desired with the ability to doso. An optimal performance is one in whichyou are performing as well as you practiced butnot necessarily at your best. A peakperformance is basically flawless anduncommon performance in most situations.372

Using self-talk and centering is anotherimportant strategy when being able to switchbetween left brain and right brain. Centering isa strategy created by Robert Nideffer that wasdeveloped in the seventies to help channelenergy in stressful situations. The centeringtechnique physically and mentally allows themind to switch activity between the left andright parts of the brain.373 Centering downinvolves directing focus by starting with thetilted downwards and directing focus in to aspecific point or location. When focusing onthis point, the eye level of the performershould be slight lower than normal. It hasbeen studied that the higher your eye level isthe more there is a tendency to switch into leftbrain. When a person’s gaze is slightly lowerhowever, they are able to more easily able to

371 Linda Hamilton, “The person Behind the Mask”,

(Greenwich: Ablex Publishing Coporation, 1997),54.

372 Don Greene, Performance Success: Performing your Bestunder Pressure, (New York: Routledge, 2002), 15.

373 Don Greene, Performance Success: Performing your Bestunder Pressure, (New York: Routledge, 2002), 40.

access right brain alpha waves.374 The reasonwhy the left part of the brain can be ahindrance to performers is because there is nosort filtering systems when engaging in self-talk. For example, when you say negativethings under pressure when your mindprocesses it, it automatically goes into yourbelief system with your mind not being able toseriously filter it.375 One of the ways toencourage the breaking of this habit is throughvisualization and mental rehearsal. Being ableto imagine yourself performing well in a multi-sensory way can help you to mentally correctyour mistake, mentally prepare you for thewhole performance experience, as well as helpyou to increase your likeliness of actuallyperforming well.376

When performing, singers are betterable to deal and cope with heightenedpsychological/physiological arousal when theyare able to re-enact high pressure performancesituations. Identifying when heightenedphysiological and psychological arousal occursis essential to managing performance tensionand anxiety. It is time that researchers in thefield of pedagogy give the performance anxietyand performance psychology the attention itdeserves. Ignoring the issues of performanceanxiety and arousal levels is an omission of thephysiological and psychological connections insinging. Now more than ever, informationshould be available to performers who aretechnically proficient in their ability to sing butare unable to execute their ability in aperformance situation. Instead of sports andperformance psychologists being responsiblefor this information, specialists in vocalpedagogy should also collaborate with thesepsychologists to have a greater understandingof the physical effects on the voice inperformance anxiety. Should a union occurbetween physiological and psychologicalresearch in singing, there is a better

374 Don Greene, Performance Success: Performing your Best

under Pressure, (New York: Routledge, 2002), 41.375 Don Greene, Performance Success: Performing your Best

under Pressure, (New York: Routledge, 2002), 49.376 Don Greene, Performance Success: Performing your Best

under Pressure, (New York: Routledge, 2002), 52-57.

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opportunity for singers to conquer and succeedin the sport of singing. �

Cause and Effect:A Glace at Vocal FatigueBy Rebekah Sutherland

The American poet, Henry WadsworthLongfellow, once wrote, “The human voice isthe organ of the soul.” Combine humanlimitations with a society characterized byambition and competition, and is it any wonderthat this so-called “organ of the soul” should attimes exhibit symptoms of weariness? Thehuman voice is a very complex organism that isstill only understood very incompletely byleading scientists world-wide. Its range ofoutput varies from the softest whisper to theresounding shout. Few man-made machinescan perform such a range of action withefficiency.377 Fatigue is obviously antitheticalto optimal voice production. It is in theinterests of all professional voice users tounderstand vocal fatigue: its causes and how toavoid it. Many would also benefit fromknowing that treatment is available when vocalfatigue has reached advanced physiologicalstages.

Vocal fatigue can be caused by manydifferent things. Some fatigue has an actualphysiological cause, but most fatigue and mostphysical abnormalities in the larynx are causedby functional misuse of the vocal organs.According to a study done in 1971, eightypercent of vocal disorders are due to voiceabuse, while only twenty percent are due toorganic causes.378 It is also widely believed that

377Ingo R. Titze, “Vocal Fatigue,” The NATS Bulletin:39:3 (Chicago: The National Association of Teachers ofSinging, 1983): 22.378Robert Thayer Sataloff, “Common Medical Diagnosesand Treatments in Professional Voice Users,” Vocal

in many cases, functional misuse may developinto an actual physical disorder, in the form ofnodules or swellings on the vocal folds.

Vocal abuse can be classified intoseveral different categories. Many problemsrelate to overuse of the voice due tooccupational demands. Not only singers, butalso ministers, teachers, businesspeople, andpoliticians use their voices professionally, andvocal health may influence the success of theircareers. The absence of vocal training inschools doubtless contributes to the formationof vocal problems which persist into later life.It is surprising how often people who expectto make their living with their voices receivelittle or no instruction about how their voiceworks and how to keep it healthy.379 Theywould do well to visit a professional speechtherapist long before vocal difficulties set in.Experts claim that many singers would alsobenefit greatly from formal speech training,and that people with speech problems benefitfrom taking singing lessons. The singingteacher and the speech-pathologist shouldalways agree on matters of vocal productionand what constitutes healthy phonation.380

Because of the importance of healthyvocal function, vocal hygiene has been taughtand practised by professional voice users forthousands of years. The Greek physicianHippocrates (460-377 B.C.) knew practically asmuch about vocal hygiene as we know today.He advocated simple living, physical exercise,moderate eating, and the avoidance of vocalstrain as aids to good vocal production.381

Other personal health issues may contribute tovocal fatigue. Smoking, for example, irritatesthe mucous membranes in the vocal tract,while the consumption of alcohol may impairjudgment and muscular coordination. Alcoholalso increases the production of mucous,

Health and Pedagogy (San Diego: Singular PublishingGroup, Inc., 1998): 107.379Friedrich S. Brodnitz, Keep Your Voice Healthy (NewYork: Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1953): 175.380Robert Thayer Sataloff, “Introduction to TreatingVoice Abuse,” Vocal Health and Pedagogy (San Diego:Singular Publishing Group, Inc., 1998): 258.381Large, 23.

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which may interfere with optimal vocalizing.382

Proper hydration of the cords is also anessential element of vocal health.383 Simplecautionary measures, such as the avoidance oftalking over loud noise and warming up thevoice before singing, can go a long way inmaintaining vocal health over a long period.384

The voice can also be affected by weight gainor weight loss, allergies, air pollution, andchanges in type or amount of use.385

Some vocal fatigue is directly linked toemotional stress. The voice mirrors not onlythe physical, but also with the emotional stateof its owner. According to one writer, “thereexists an intimate connection between thevoice and personality, emotional balance,moods, passing and lasting emotions.”386

According to another, “the human voicecontinually reflects our various states ofhappiness, sorry, worry, rage, andfrustration.”387 Fatigue seems to strikeperformers at the moment when emotionalstress is high but total vocal well-beingessential: i.e. shortly before an importantperformance.388 Emotions can also play a rolein the retraining of a damaged voice. Vocalbehaviours in speech are mostly automatic,especially as relating to pitch and quality.389

However, a speech pathologists may help apatient to identify the emotional situations inwhich he uses his “best” voice (e.g. speaking toa loved one), and encourage him to use thatvoice more consistently.

Vocal dysfunction is often traced backto a previous illness affecting the larynx, andfor this reason singers need to exercise extremecaution when sick.390 Singers with solidtechnique will often be able to sing “over” a

382Large, 34.383Van L. Lawrence, “Laryngo-scope,” The NATSBulletin: 37:3 (Chicago: The National Association ofTeachers of Singing, 1980): 24.384Gates, 195-98.385Linda Gates, Voice for Performance: Training the Actor’sVoice (New York: Applause Books, 2000): 194.386Brodnitz, 64.387Joseph J. Klein, Singing Technique (Anaheim: NationalMusic Publishers Inc., 1972): 135.388Titze, 22.389Ibid., 103.390Large, 33.

cold without the audience being able to detecta problem. However, the long-term vocaleffects of such singing may be devastating.391

The collecting of body fluids on the cordsduring illness results in swelling which hindersfree vibration of the cords. Forceful use of thecords during such a time can cause damage tothe cords because of friction. Such damage isonly temporary, but results may linger longafter the illness has passed if appropriate care isnot taken.392 Allergies can cause the same sortof damage.393 A laryngeal infection may alsocause a hypersensitivity to the sensation of a“tickle in the throat,” resulting in unnecessaryand damaging coughing after the infectionitself is healed.394 This habit should be resisted.A hard swallow will accomplish just as much asa cough, and result in no damage to the vocalfolds.395

Improper use of the speaking voice isan often-discounted cause of vocal fatigue.396 Itis important for vocal health to speak in theappropriate tessitura. Speaking at a higher orlower pitch than is natural is a common causeof hoarseness, and must be avoided. Someother easily identified forms of vocal activitythat are detrimental to vocal health includecrying, screaming, throat clearing andcoughing. Even a small amount of such activityon a daily basis may be enough to causedysphonia or maintain a previously existinglaryngeal pathology.397 Excessive talking mayalso lead to many problems and should becautioned against.

The voices of young singers areparticularly prone to succumbing to vocalfatigue, and teachers of singing are responsibleto protect their students against voice abuse.One way is to ensure that the young singer issinging in an appropriate range for his or her 391Richard Miller, The Structure of Singing: System and Art inVocal Technique (Toronto: Schirmer, 1996): 224.392Brodnitz, 154.393Ibid., 164.394Klein, 393.395Ibid..396Morton Cooper, “Vocal Suicide in Singers,” TheNATS Bulletin, 26:3 (Chicago: The National Associationof Teachers of Singing, 1970): 7.397Daniel R. Boone, The Voice and Voice Therapy(Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1971): 124.

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voice type. Too much singing in the head orchest register can result in overall imbalances inregistration and loss of power in other parts ofthe range.398 Correct voice classification isintricately linked with this aspect of safesinging. It is also important to warn the youngsinger of the dangers of singing too much toosoon. Even experienced singers can sufferfrom the demands of a heavy schedule andshould exercise caution. Some pedagoguesrecommend that young singers should not singmore than 15-20 minutes at a time.399 Inaddition to the restrictions of age, nature tosome extent also dictates repertoireboundaries. Some voices are evidently notmeant to sing Wagner. For a singer seriously toattempt to sing repertoire beyond what he orshe is vocally and physically capable of, is theequivalent of vocal suicide.400 Even with theproper voice classification and repertoireselection, damage may be done by inadequatelywarming up the voice before singing. A goodwarm up is essential for young singers, andequally important for older, more experiencedsingers. According to Richard Miller, biggervoices may need more time to warm up thansmaller instruments, and he recommends thirtyminutes of warm-up exercises daily.401

Poor vocal technique is a commoncause of vocal fatigue. Sometimes there is aphysical cause for both technical problems andthe fatigue, but often it is technique alonewhich hinders free and “relaxed” vocalfunction. A good rule of thumb is to look forsigns of vocal abuse when the vocal fatigueexperienced is associated and/or proportionalto vocal use.402 Technical problems result inthree main types of vocal dysfunction:hyperfunction, hypofunction, and glottal tone.Hyperfunction is the use of too muchmuscular force in vocalizing. Hyperfunction isthe disorder that afflicts singers the most, andit is also the main cause of vocal nodules.Simply telling the patient to “relax” is not

398Large, 34.399Bunch, 121.400Brodnitz, 176.401Richard Miller, Training Soprano Voices (New York:Oxford University Press, 2000): 158.402Sataloff, “Common Medical Diagnoses”: 107.

generally a useful or even an accurate piece ofinstruction. Daniel Boone, the author of TheVoice and Voice Therapy, states: “If the patientcould relax, he would; if his tension did not infact serve him in some way, he would get rid ofit. A certain amount of psychic tension andmuscle tonus is normal and healthy, of course,but there are individuals who overreact to theirenvironmental stresses; instead of ‘running at aslow idle,’ they are like ‘fast idle engines,’expending far more energy and effort than thesituation requires. By relaxation, therefore, wemean a realistic responsiveness to theenvironment with a minimum of needlessenergy expended.”403 So then hyperfunction isnot merely the application of too muchmuscular force in the laryngeal muscles, butthe inefficient application of force.404 Overtime, hyperfunction of the vocal folds resultsin actual physical changes. These changes mayinclude thickening cords, the development ofnodules, contact ulcers, polyps, and polypoidthickening of the cords.405 Extremehyperfunction may result in aphonia, or thecomplete loss of voice due to a centrallesion.406

The opposite of hyperfunction ishypofunction, in which the muscles of thelarynx are not active enough to produce aresonant tone. Hypofunction often followshyperfunction, as the overworked laryngealmuscles grow tired and weak. According toFriedrich Brodnitz, hyperfunction andhypofunction of the vocal mechanism aremerely different stages of the same disorder.407

There exist four main types of hypofunction.The first is merely functional, that is,characterised by inefficient use of the vocalmechanism. Voices with this disorder tirewhen introducted to a new type of singing,different from their previous conception ofwhat was optimal. The second type ofhypofunction is simply characterised by a lackof muscular strength. The third type is themost complex, and is characterised by fatigue 403Boone, 143.404Brodnitz, 171.405Large, 35.406Ibid., 37.407Brodnitz, 171.

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in the non-muscular tissues of the larynx, suchas tendons, ligaments, skin, and joints. It isthought that prolonged stress on laryngealtissue in phonation decreases the tension onthe vocal muscles themselves, making it harderto sing high pitches. According to Titze, “Allbiological tissue gradually relaxes the stress thatit can support due to elongation...Moreelongation is then required to restore theoriginal tension, which will again relax. Unlessfull recovery is experienced during briefmoments of vocal silence, the process willcontinue until no more elongation is possibledue to limitations in the posterior movementof the arytenoid cartilages.” The fourth type ofhypofunction is associated with a loss ofvibrancy over long phonation as a result of thegradual drying of the cords.408

A glottal tone is characterized by toomuch breath in the sound as well as pitchproblems.409 This tone is associated with aform of onset in which the folds are squeezedtogether, and blown apart violently by a gust ofair from the lungs, and is detrimental to vocalhealth. The only covering on the glottalmargin of the arytenoid cartilages is a thinmucous membrane, and contact ulcers mayform relatively easily through excessive use ofthe glottal plosive. Such misuse of the voicecan eventually lead to generalized glottaledema, which may seriously affect vocalquality.410

Proper vocal technique, on the otherhand, allows for the a lifetime of optimumvocal use. Regular exercising of the voicethrough good singing seems necessary togeneral vocal health, and complete vocal rest isrecommended only in extreme cases.411

According to Richard Miller, the voice is likeany other muscle: endurance only comesthrough consistent practice.412 However, likeanything else, it is important to practise singingcorrectly. If the voice is overworked and notallowed a reasonable amount of time to rest,injury is to be expected. 408Titze, 22.409Large, 34.410Boone, 126.411Miller, Structure of Singing: 229.412Ibid., 220.

Many singers, after a short period ofheavy voice use, form “bilateral, symmetrical,soft swellings at the junction of the anteriorand middle thirds of the vocal folds.”413 This isnot a serious problem, and the swelling usuallyheals within one or two days as long as heavyvoice use is discontinued.414 If, however, thevoice is overworked to that extent on a regularbasis, without allowing time for healing andrecuperation, these swellings may develop intonodes or nodules.415 Although some nodulesremain not only untreated but also unnoticed,most have symptoms that professional voiceusers find unacceptable.416 These symptomsmay include persistent hoarseness, a breathy orhusky sound quality in the middle range,exaggerated difficulty in the high vocal range,and extra breath pressure needed to producesound.417 If nodes do form on the cords dueto misuse of the voice, simple vocal rest alonewill not cure the problem. After the cordsreturn completely to normal, nodes will formagain if the voice is not retrained.418 Oncetreatment is begun for vocal nodules, it usuallytakes eight to ten weeks for small nodules toheal, and up to twelve weeks for older, hardernodules.419

For many people, vocal production isnot something they think about until problemsstart to set in. Vocal fatigue may be an enemyto professional voice users, but it would seemto be also a necessary safety mechanism of thebody. According to Meribeth Bunch, fatigueand hoarseness, even apart from any pain ordiscomfort, are nature’s signal that the voiceneeds rest. A tired or sick body equals a tiredand sick voice.420 However, the proper amountof rest, a healthy diet, and an appropriatefitness level, combined with a solid technical

413Gates, 108.414Ibid..415Boone, 102.416Sataloff, “Common Medical Diagnoses”: 108.417Teresa Radomski, “A Singer’s Notes: PreventingVocal Nodules,” Wade Forest University BaptistMedical Center. March 2, 2005www.thevoicecenter.org/singers_notes.html.: 1.418Radomski, 1.419Joseph C. Stemple, Voice Therapy: Clinical Studies, 2nd

ed. (San Diego: Singular Publishing Group, 2000): 392.420Bunch, 110.

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foundation and emotional well-being shouldmaintain a voice as healthy as the rest of theperson. �

Zen and The Artof Singing:An Alexander TechniqueResponse to LampertiBy Olga Tylman

A singer’s competence, as that of anymusician, rests upon her ability to use herinstrument to achieve the desired musicalsounds. A musician’s body forms part of theinstrument in the case of a non-singer, andcomprises the exclusive instrument of thesinger. The Alexander Technique, concerningitself as it does with the efficient use of one’sbody, applies very well to singing, as it does toevery other physical endeavour. If one acceptsas true, good, and all encompassing theprinciples Alexander discovered and taught,one is inclined to use his Technique as acriterion by which she evaluates all othermethods. It is from this perspective that Iwould like to evaluate Lamperti’s famous vocaltreatise, The Art of Singing.

I would like to begin by talking aboutthe published treatise as a teaching medium.The effectiveness of such a treatise, like theeffectiveness of any form of instruction, restsupon the condition of the student at the timeof instruction. There is a Zen story whichillustrates this point:

Nan-in, a Japanese master during theMeiji era (1868-1912), received a universityprofessor who came to inquire about Zen.Nan-in served tea.421 He poured the visitor’scup full, and then kept on pouring. Theprofessor watched the overflow until he nolonger could restrain himself422.

‘It is overfull. No more will go in!’‘Like this cup,’ Nan-in said, ‘you are full of

your own opinions and speculations. How can I showyou Zen unless you first empty your cup?’423

This story ties in with a saying of Alexanderregarding books:

“Be careful of the printed matter: you may not read itas it is written down.”424

Alexander had serious objections totraditional teaching methods. He observedthat unsuccessful attempts to perform a simplephysical act usually have their roots in badhabits, which are deeply ingrained in a person’ssubconscious from early childhood, and thatattempting to fix the bad habits throughspecific exercises of any sort tends tocompound problems, or at best shift the poorcoordination to another part of the body-mind.We have, each of us, an assortment of suchhabits and preconceptions, which ofteninterfere with our perception of the worldaround us, and affect our reactions to stimuli,such as printed instructions, for example.Each person will have a different filter throughwhich they read The Art of Singing. 421 Let me remind the reader of the quasi-sacred

importance of tea in Japanese culture.422 I can just imagine the Japanese professor, extremely

reserved and on his best behaviour, in the presenceof this venerable spiritual authority, becomingincreasingly disturbed at the sight of tea pouring allover the floor and staining whatever might becovering it. Poor fellow!

423

http://www.ashidakim.com/zenkoans/zenindex.html. I find many parallels between Zen philosophyand Alexander Technique. The famous Zeninstruction, ‘When hungry, eat, when tired, sleep,’embodies Alexander’s ideal of natural, efficientresponse to stimuli.

424 The Resurrection of the Body, p. 11.

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Furthermore, Lamperti himself would havewritten the work with his own bad habitsintact. This brings us to conclude that truly notreatise should be taken at face value; ‘you maynot read it as it is written down’. Nonetheless,just as Zen is said to be ‘the finger whichpoints to the moon’425, Lamperti’s treatise canalso point us in some direction, provided weunderstand its function, and not confuse it forthe moon herself. So in other words, let’s notreject the thing altogether. It may have someuse.

Alexander technique is a method foreliminating bad habits. But eliminatingsomething from one’s use is not what weusually conceptualize when we talk aboutlearning how to ‘do’ something—it is preciselythis absence of doing, or of what we might calloverdoing which Alexander found to be theprerequisite for efficient physical function.Alexander referred to this detrimental sense of‘doing’ as ‘end-gaining’. Basically, he foundthat when a person is focused on attaining acertain result, she tends to be unaware of thecomplex physical process involved in achievingsaid result. If a person has developed poorhabits of use, then no amount of instructionwill help this person, unless she first ‘emptiesher cup’ of these habits.

Because Alexander believed that mindand body are indivisible and work together, histeaching had a physical component whichaccompanied the verbal. I have heard theTechnique described as ‘kinesthetic re-education’. A teacher gives instructions whilstusing her hands to guide the pupil’s motions,or simply to provide physical informationwhich relates to the verbal instructions.Singing involves setting into motion body partswhich a teacher’s hands cannot stimulate, butstanding or sitting well go very far towardmaking a good vocal sound, and hands caninfluence a standing or sitting person.Furthermore, it is possible to sing well whilstmoving well, which motion can also be guided 425

http://www.zenmeditation.org/chan_buecher_zen_beyond_leseprobe.html orhttp://www.sentientpublications.com/catalog/fingers_pointing.php

from the outside. Alexander recognized theinterconnectedness of all aspects of the bodyand mind, and for this reason his method issuccessful in treating a huge variety ofailments, mental, emotional, and physical.From The Use of the Self:

…the so-called ‘mental’ and ‘physical’ are not separateentities [and] for this reason human ills andshortcomings cannot be classified as ‘mental’ or‘physical’ and dealt with specifically as such, but…alltraining, whether it be educative or otherwise—i.e.,whether its object be the prevention or elimination ofdefect, error, or disease—must be based upon theindivisible unity of the human organism.426

Finally, Alexander’s technique isconcerned not so much with what a persondoes with her body, but with how she does it.The method is applicable to all humanendeavours. Like Zen, it is a method forachieving enlightenment.

In the preface to The Art of Singing,Lamperti explains his purpose in writing. LikeAlexander regarding people in general, andprofessional teachers and healers in particular,Lamperti bemoans the lack of skill in thesinging profession. Like Alexander, he finds itsurprising that ‘the force of [moral andintellectual] progress’ so rapid in his day havenot had a beneficial effect upon ‘theintelligence of those who devote themselves tosinging’.427 Alexander explains thisphenomenon thus:

Indeed, from its beginnings, the process of civilizingtended to widen the scope for so-called mental and tonarrow the scope for so-called physical activities, and, ona basis of subconscious guidance and control, thisprocess meant for the time being a further developmenton the so-called mental side, but at the cost of anequally distinct if more gradual deterioration on the so-called physical side, with an accompanying deteriorationin the standard of sensory appreciation.428

426 The Use of the Self, p. 2.427 The Art of Singing, p. 5.428 The Resurrection of the Body, p. 74.

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Lamperti does not look so deeply intocause and effect. He concludes that thedecline in singing is due to insufficient trainingin what he calls ‘breathing well’, compoundedby modern vocal music, which, ‘in order toassume a more dramatic character, is almostentirely despoiled of agility of every kind…’429

He blames impresarios for hiring poorlytrained singers. He blames composers for re-defining which type of voice should sing whichparts, setting text syllabically as in declamation,and making roles require strong low and highnotes, which, when produced forcibly, can leadto a weakening of the middle voice. He blamesthe raising of the musical pitch. Most of all,however, he laments that the young generationof singers embark on professional careerswithout a solid enough grounding in technique,however talented they may be. UnlikeAlexander, he does not present a new method,but hopes only to ‘check, if not all at least apart of the abuses as regards singing, and tocounterbalance the influence which modernmusic exercises to the prejudice of goodsinging, by some practical and fundamentalrules, the result of experience gained in manyyears of teaching’.430

Alexander might argue with Lampertiabout the causes he proposes for the decline insinging. He calls for a more radical solution,beyond choice of repertoire and perhaps evenduration of training. He said, ‘We can throwaway the habit of a lifetime in a few minutes ifwe use our brains.’431 He would say that if asinger had a proper sense of her body, shewould produce sound naturally and effortlessly,avoiding ‘abuses as regards singing’; ‘If I wentto a man to take singing lessons, it wouldn’tmatter what he taught me, he couldn’t injureme.’432 (The implication here is that the onlyperson who has the power to injure herselfthrough poor use is herself.) The musicchosen should not affect the singer’s use of herbody. Furthermore, it is the quality of thetraining, and perhaps not even the quantity,which leads to good use of the self. Lamperti’s 429 The Art of Singing p. 6.430 The Art of Singing, p. 8.431 The Resurrection of the Body, p. 6.432 Ibid., p.12.

‘practical and fundamental rules’ are useless if aperson does not first eliminate her bad habits.Alexander’s technique is more focused on notdoing than it is on doing. He refers to thisabsence of action as ‘inhibition’:

You come to learn to inhibit and to direct your activity.You learn, first, to inhibit the habitual reaction tocertain classes of stimuli, and second, to direct yourselfconsciously in such a way as to affect certain muscularpulls, which processes bring about a new reaction tothese stimuli. Boiled down, it all comes to inhibiting aparticular reaction to a given stimulus. But no one willsee it that way. They will all see it as getting in andout of a chair the right way. It is nothing of the kind.It is that a pupil decides what he will or will notconsent to do. They may teach you anatomy andphysiology till they are black in the face—you will stillhave this to face, sticking to a decision against yourhabit of life.433

Lamperti’s treatise is comprised of veryshort ‘articles’, dealing with different aspects ofthe art of singing. A large number of vocalizesfollow the text. I think Alexander might objectto some of the language Lamperti uses ininstructing on matters of vocal technique inparticular (I will leave aesthetic preferences andmusical excerpts aside, as Alexander’s methoddoes not address such topics). I would like toaddress Lamperti’s Articles III (The Positionof the Body, Mouth, and Vocal Organ), IV (OfRespiration), VI (Of the Emission of theVoice), VII (The Appoggio of the Voice), X(General Rules for Study), XII (TheApplication of the Rule for the Appoggio ofthe Voice), and finally some of his partingnotes at the end of the text.

First, another Zen story:

Mokusen Hiki was living in a temple in the province ofTamba. One of his adherents complained of thestinginess of his wife. Mokusen visited the adherent’swife and showed her his clenched fist before her face.‘What do you mean by that?’, asked the surprisedwoman.

433 The Resurrection of the Body, p. 9.

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‘Suppose my fist were always like that. What wouldyou call it?’, he asked. ‘Deformed,’ replied the woman.Then he opened his hand flat in her face and asked,‘Suppose it were always like that. What then?’‘Another kind of deformity,’ said the wife.‘If you understand that much,’ finished Mokusen, ‘youare a good wife.’ Then he left. After his visit, this wifehelped her husband to distribute as well as to save.434

This story illustrates what I believe iswrong with Lamperti’s Article III (ThePosition of the Body, Mouth, and VocalOrgan). Lamperti says to hold oneself erect ‘inthe position of a soldier’, the mouth smiling,the lips ‘drawn sufficiently tight to merelyshow the upper row of teeth’, the tongueremaining extended. He adds, in Article IV(Of Respiration), that a perfect respiration maybe obtained ‘by standing in the position, andobserving closely the directions pointed out inArticle III, and then inhaling the air, firstthrough the nose, so that the lungs may dilategradually and without strain; a breath thustaken may be held for a considerable timewithout fatigue.’ I do not believe thatLamperti intends any harm in giving theseinstructions, but I do not agree with thelanguage he uses. The problem lies with wordssuch as ‘hold erect’, ‘position’, ‘draw tight’, andwith the implications of instructing someone toinhale on demand. The effect of suchinstructions might easily result in a lack offlexibility such as that of the stingy wife, whodoubtless believed that she was doing right bysaving her money, perhaps having been told todo so by similarly well-intentioned instructors.The singer who dutifully follows theseinstructions to ‘hold’, ‘position’, ‘draw tight’,then ‘inhale slowly’ may end up appearing asdeformed as Mokusen’s hand, a caricature of asinger. Lamperti is aware of this danger. Inhis Article VI, he makes reference to Mancini’sidea that ‘the master should exaggerate alldefects of emission on the part of the pupil, torender them more apparent to him, and thusmore easy to avoid.’435

434

http://www.ashidakim.com/zenkoans/zenindex.html

435 The Art of Singing, p. 14.

Alexander’s solution to the problem ofinstruction, and the resulting inflexibility, is aradical one. Like the wise Mokusen, he knewthat the solution is not in telling someone whatto do, but rather in showing them what theyhave been doing wrong, and allowing them todecide what to do about it. He recognized thata person must choose to act consciously of herown accord, if she is to act freely. His‘inhibition’ in the face of instruction is aconscious refusal to follow orders436; arebellion. From a discussion of breathing:

For instance, suppose that a pupil has a special desireto increase his chest capacity. This desire acts as astimulus to the psycho-physical processes involved andsets in motion all the unreliable guiding and directingsensations associated with his established idea of chestexpansion. The only way, then, by which he canprevent the old subconscious habits from gaining theupper hand is for him to refuse to act upon this idea.This means that as soon as the idea or desire comes tohim he definitely stops and says to himself: ‘No. Iwon’t do what I should like to do to increase my chestcapacity, because, if I do what I feel will increase it, Ishall only use my mechanisms as I have used thembefore, and what is the good of that? I know I havebeen using them incorrectly up to now, else why do Ineed these lessons?’ In other words, he inhibits hisdesire to act.437

It is only after the student becomesfamiliar with this process that she can begin toaccept new directions. These new directions,in Alexander’s method, must concernthemselves with ‘means whereby’ an action isperformed. In other words, they must remaindirections, and they must not turn into anobsession with ‘ends’, such as Lamperti’s

436 It is very important to note that the orders, or what

Alexander calls ‘stimuli’, which come from otherpeople, such as teachers, come more commonlyfrom the inside. We are constantly directing ourselvesto act, and when these directions produce anundesirable result, it is these flawed internal directionswhich must be rejected before they can be replacedwith new, helpful ones. Alexander Technique is verymuch about bringing harmful subconscious thoughtpatterns to light.

437 The Resurrection of the Body, p. 47.

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‘position of a soldier’, for example.438

Alexander blames most human lack ofcoordination on what he calls ‘end-gaining’—essentially a greedy clinging to desired states ofbeing. In Eastern philosophies such as Zen,this is often called ‘attachment’. More sayingsof Alexander, which resemble closely Zenideas:

‘I see at last that if I don’t breathe, I breathe…’439

‘There is no such thing as a right position, butthere is such a thing as a right direction.’440

‘The experience you want is in the process ofgetting it. If you have something, give it up. Getting it,not having it, is what you want.’441

In Article VII (The Appoggio of theVoice), Lamperti makes reference to the rulesestablished in Article III, and adds thatbreathing must make use of the ‘muscles of thechest, especially the diaphragm, acting uponthe air contained in the lungs.’ He thensuggests ‘opening the lower part of the throatwith the vowel A.’442 Language and ignorancere. physiology aside (the diaphragm is not amuscle, nor can a person will it to move), let uscompare Lamperti’s ideas with Alexander’s:

The truth is that when we refer to thismal-coordinated condition as ‘bad breathing,’we are mistaking a general malcondition for aspecific defect, and the conception of therespiratory act which makes this error possible,and which affects even our way of expressingit, provides yet another instance of thedominance of our general attitude by the ‘end-gaining’ principle.

438 From The Resurrection of the Body, p. 109: ‘For years past

I have drawn the attention of medical men to the evils wroughtby the physical training and the ‘stand-at-attention’ attitude invogue in the army, and also the harmful effects of the drill inour schools, where the unfortunate children are made to assumea posture which is exactly that of the soldier, whose strikingcharacteristic is the undue and harmful hollow in the lumbarspine and the numerous defects that are inseparable from thisunnatural posture.’

439 The Resurrection of the Body, p. 3.440 Ibid., p. 4.441 Ibid., p. 5.442 The Art of Singing, p. 14.

This ‘end-gaining’ principle is again dominantwhen it is decided that a person who is spoken of as a‘bad breather’ needs specific ‘breathing exercises’ or‘lessons in breathing.’ We shall see that in this, as inso many other spheres, a vicious circle is developed. […]The pupil is asked to take a deep breath. He may alsobe asked to perform some ‘physical’ movement at thesame time…the idea behind this request being that theperformance of the movement may help to increase thechest expansion. Yet it is a scientific fact that all‘physical’ tension tends to cause thoracic (chest) rigidityand breathlessness (lack of respiratory control), twoconditions which should be avoided as far as possible bysuch pupils during their attempts to pass fromconditions which are symptomatic of bad breathing tothose which ensure satisfactory respiratoryfunctioning.443

Alexander continues by stressing theimportance of inhibiting bad habits of usebefore good ones may be established, and ofunderstanding that specific problems, such as‘bad breathing’, are symptomatic of wrong useof the whole person, and must be addressed assuch, and not with breathing-specific exercises.The diagnosis will differ for each pupil;Alexander lessons are always given one-on-one; there is no book which can replace theteacher’s pupil-specific diagnosis, or thefeedback of touch.

The marvelous efficiency of the respiratory machine,when properly employed, becomes apparent when werealize that we have only to continue to employ the samemeans whereby we secure the increase (expansion) tosecure the decrease(contraction) of the intra-thoraciccapacity… When a satisfactory, co-ordinated use of themechanisms concerned with the acts of inspiration andexpiration is established, the teacher may then proceedto help the pupil to employ this co-ordinated use inconnexion with all vocal effort. This should begin withwhispered vocalization, preferably the vowel sound‘Ah,’ as this form of vocal use, being so little employedin every-day life, is rarely associated with ordinary badpsycho-physical habits in vocalization.444

443 The Resurrection of the Body, p. 41-42.444 The Resurrection of the Body, p. 42.

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It is interesting to note that bothteachers advocate the use of the open vowel‘Ah’, and to note the differing motivations fordoing so. I suspect that Alexander would agreethat the openness of this vowel serves as agood litmus test for a person’s degree offreedom, although ultimately a singer aims forequal freedom in every vowel, open or closed.

In my two years of AlexanderTechnique lessons, I was never able to producea free ‘whispered Ah,’ the name given theexercise described above. I don’t believe I hada clear enough understanding of thephilosophy behind the technique. Whereas Iresponded well to the physical feedback givenmy back, neck, arms, legs, feet, and the like, myuse of the vocal mechanism was still hampered.After all, a teacher cannot guide one’s breathinto or out of one using her hands! I speculatethat had I understood at the time whatAlexander himself discovered (I did not readAlexander before preparing to write this paper,six years later), my singing would haveimproved sooner. It is also distinctly possiblethat I was not ready to understand hisphilosophy on a deep level, being too young,and certainly too fixated on ‘ends’ at the time.My example demonstrates the importance ofmental involvement (a.k.a. attitude) in use ofone’s body, and the fact that singers tend tomaster their voices at a late age. Another Zenstory illustrates the idea that true understandingis a lifelong journey, and reinforces Lamperti’sadvice that a singer ought to commit to a longperiod of study before she embarks on acareer. In this case the period of study takes atleast 16 years:

Zen students are with their masters at least ten yearsbefore they presume to teach others. Nan-in was visitedby Tenno, who, having passed his apprenticeship, hadbecome a teacher. The day happened to be rainy, soTenno wore wooden clogs and carried an umbrella.After greeting him Nan-in remarked: ‘I suppose youleft your wooden clogs in the vestibule. I want to knowif your umbrella is on the right or left side of the clogs.’Tenno, confused, had no instant answer. He realizedthat he was unable to carry his Zen every minute. Hebecame Nan-in’s pupil, and he studied six more years

to accomplish his every-minute Zen.445

Alexander addresses the difficulty ofmastering his technique in an excerpt from TheUse of the Self, entitled ‘The End-Gainer’sDifficulties with the Means-Whereby’:

…when a person has reached a given stage ofunsatisfactory use and functioning, his habit of ‘end-gaining’ will prove to be the impeding factor in all hisattempts to profit by any teaching method whatsoever.Ordinary teaching methods, in whatever sphere, cannotdeal with this impeding factor—indeed, they tendactually to encourage ‘end-gaining.’446 […]

He presents as a solution to thisproblem the following advice:

I therefore claim that if any habit so confirmed as thatof ‘end-gaining’ is to be changed and not merelytransferred, it is essential that the pupil should be giventhe experience, at first in the simplest activities,

1. of receiving a stimulus to gain a certainend and refusing to react to it, therebyinhibiting the unsatisfactory habits of useassociated with his habitual reaction;

2. of projecting the directions for the new andmore satisfactory use in their propersequence, primary, secondary, etc., ‘alltogether, one after the other,’ as alreadyexplained, whilst the teacher at the sametime with his hands makes him familiar

445

http://www.ashidakim.com/zenkoans/zenindex.html

446 Mastering the Alexander Technique is an ‘end’ withwhich I have struggled since I discovered thetechnique. That is likely why I have not yet masteredit! It’s a battle. I like calling it ‘the eternal battle ofgood and evil’, or ‘The Force vs. The Dark Side,’ or‘Heaven vs. Hell.’ Other names for ‘end-gaining’ aresin, greed, ego, ambition, and attachment. Christianmysticism (i.e. the teachings of Jesus) addresses thesefaults, as do Buddhism and Zen. The absence of sinis known, in these philosophies, as the kingdom ofheaven, enlightenment, and satori, respectively. Iappreciate Alexander’s teachings for their completeavoidance of religious or spiritual terminology, whichis so much misunderstood by so many people, andfor his reliance on what are essentially scientificprinciples to achieve a deep sense of wellbeing.

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with the new sensory experiencesassociated with this new use.

By this procedure a gradual improvement will bebrought about in the pupil’s sensory appreciation, sothat he will become more and more aware of faults inhis habitual manner of using himself; correspondingly,as with this increasing awareness the manner of his useof himself improves, his sensory appreciateion willfurther improve, and in time constitute a standardwithin the self by means of which he will becomeincreasingly aware both of faults and of improvement,not only in the manner of his use, but also in thestandard of his functioning generally. […] Thisimprovement will necessarily include an improvement inhis manner of reacting to the stimulus to gain a certainend, showing that it is possible, by working to theprinciple involved in the ‘means-whereby’ procedure, tostrike at the very roots of the habit of end-gaining whichis so deeply embedded in our make-up.447

Lamperti offers some very sensibleadvice in Article X (General Rules for Study).He advocates ‘Singing with the voice full andclear, with as much grace and ease as possible,and being very careful to avoid forcing. […]The general rule is to study moderately, andwith a variety of exercises, always finishingbefore feeling tired.’448 He continues that it isnecessary, for the purpose of study, to use ‘alooking glass, which the pupil should placebefore him while singing, so that he may avoidgrimaces and other bad habits.’ About thenecessity of intellectual understanding: ‘[Thepupil] should study [his exercises] mentally,until he has thoroughly understood their truenature and then he may sing them.’449 ‘In orderto preserve the voice fresh and unworn for theprofessional career, the pupil should makemuch use of the mental method of study; bythis means he may do much toward educatinghis voice without drawing upon its valuableresources.’450 The common theme in all thesepoints of advice is the importance of whatAlexander calls inhibition. Here, Lamperti,rather than telling us what to do, warns us 447 The Use of the Self, p. 43-44.448 The Art of Singing, p. 18.449 The Art of Singing, p. 18.450 Ibid., p. 19.

against doing the wrong thing. I would arguethat the mirror, albeit a useful tool at times,must be used sparingly so as not to become acrutch (we are not given mirrors inperformance), but one can use the mirror, or inour modern day, a recording device or aspectrograph, to become aware of one’s badhabits. Alexander himself developed his self-awareness with the aid of mirrors, which hecarefully arranged to allow him to observe hishead and neck from all angles, and not justfrom the front.

Article XII (The Application of theRule for the Appoggio of the Voice) featuressome advice similar to that in Article X:

By singing appoggiata, is meant that all notes, from thelowest to the highest, are produced by a column of airover which the singer has perfect command, by holdingback the breath, and not permitting more air than isabsolutely necessary for the formation of the note toescape from the lungs. By practice he will be able to dothis without any effort, and so avoid those defects causedby straining the breath, such as frowning, contraction ofthe tongue, and a fixed expression of the eyes; for thevoice will never be neither well appoggiata nor capable ofexpression until the pupil is able to render his featurescalm and natural while singing.451

This excerpt shows yet againLamperti’s inconsistencies. On the one hand,he uses a popular albeit anatomically incorrectvisualization device, the ‘column of air’, andthe ambiguous phrase ‘holding back thebreath.’ The image of holding anything back,other than one’s bad habits perhaps, ispotentially misleading, as is the metaphor of airas a motionless stony column. On the otherhand, he warns against some very commondefects among singers, those of straining thebreath, frowning, contraction of the tongue,and a fixed expression of the eyes. Thewarning encourages us to become aware ofthese bad habits and inhibit them.

Some of Lamperti’s closing commentsparallel Alexander:

451 Ibid., p. 22.

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Every art may be divided into two parts—theNatural and the Acquired. The mind conceives theidea, and the instrument represents to others the mind’sconception.

A painter conceives the subject of a picture,but it is necessary that his hand and eye be educated byart to enable him to paint it. This argument we willapply to singing…452

I will give Mr. Alexander the finalword. He wrote, in his preface to The Use of theSelf:

…in the process of acquiring a consciousdirection of the use of the human organism, a scope forthe development of human possibilities is practicallyunlimited, and anyone who chooses to take the time andtrouble to carry out the procedures necessary foracquiring a conscious direction of use can put this to thetest.

I would venture to suggest that even the meageramount of knowledge of the use of the self contained inthese pages may be sufficient to enable workers in allfields of investigation, whether in biology, astronomy,physics, philosophy, psychology, or any other453, torealize that in their researches they have passed over afield of experience which, if explored, would add newmaterial to the premises from which to make theirseveral deductions. After all, the self is the instrumentthrough which all these workers must expressthemselves.454 �

452 The Art of Singing, p. 25.453 Like SINGING!454 The Use of the Self, p. xii-xiii.

Bel “Belting” CantoBy Shannon Watson

“Beauty is in the eye of the beholder”

The debate regarding the ultimate vocalaesthetic is one that has been around forcenturies. But what exactly constitutes vocalbeauty? Today, we continue to struggle withdefining ‘beautiful singing’; the literaltranslation of bel canto. Bel canto encompasses awide range of vocal production throughouthistory, but today has come to represent the‘classical’ or ‘operatic’ aesthetic of singing. Butwhat about the vocal sounds that seem to lieoutside of the set parameters of today’s belcanto singing? According to most, belting isloud, chest voice singing by untrained,nonclassical singers using a ‘technique’ that willdestroy the voice455. This is simply not true. Itis likely that most opinions are formed on thebasis of very little, or no knowledge of beltingtechnique and its physiology, or they are basedon a personal theory of vocal aesthetic. It is thepurpose of this essay to explore the aestheticof belting, the concept and physiology of thebelting technique and its most commonmisconceptions.

Beauty can be defined as a “quality thatgives pleasure to the mind or senses456 ”. If thelistener does not receive any pleasure from themusical experience, then they classify theperformance as not being beautiful, but ugly.This is a personal aesthetic judgementdependant upon the kind of sound the listenerdesires to hear. Robert Edwin provides thebest analogy: “A fisherman catching a record-breaking tuna may be moved to exclaim, ‘Isn’tshe a beauty?’ when gazing upon his catch.Those who fail to see the tuna’s beauty maynot share the fisherman’s aesthetic457 ”.Therefore, one may prefer musical theatre’smain goal which is to communicate the 455 Edwin, Robert. “Belting 101.” Journal of Singing Vol55.1 (Sept/Oct 1998): 53.456 www.dictionary.com457 Edwin, Robert. “Belting: bel canto or brutto canto?.”Journal of Singing Vol 59.1 (Sept/Oct 2002): 67.

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emotions of the character through clear andmeaningful speech, sometimes sacrificing theproduction of tone to do so. This vocalaesthetic is a speech style of singingconcentrating on the chiaro part of thechiaroscuro vocal aesthetic. On the other hand,someone else may prefer opera’s main goalwhich is to produce sounds with flawlesstechnique in order to create an artistic andmoving performance. This aesthetic includesthe chiaroscuro tonal colour, a continuousvibrato and vowels and consonants which areclear but more sung than spoken. Neither islegitimate than the other, it is simply a matterof personal preference.

The technique of belting lies in thebalance between the ‘head’ and ‘chest’ voice.These are the terms that most people arefamiliar with and can be very misleading, butfor all intents and purposes, will be used here.Instead of an actual place of origin or separatevocal register, these terms describe theresonance, or tonal colour of the sound beingproduced. In order to achieve a healthy beltvoice, one must learn to balance the twomechanisms which create these voices. Thequality of the‘chest’ voice is in part created bythe cricothyroid muscles, which lengthens,thins and stretches the vocal chords. The‘head’ voice quality is partially created by thethyroarytenoid muscles, which are the musclesresponsible for the closing of the vocal folds.Whether one is singing in the classical style orthe belting style, there is the need for acontinuos balance between these two muscles(and various others) for healthy vocalproduction. Although the movement of thethyroarytenoid and cricothyroid muscles arecoordinated, belting differs because ofincreased cricothyroid involvement. Therefore,the difference lies in the percentage of eachmuscle being used in comparison to the other.For example, a classical singer will have a largepercentage of involvement from thethyroarytenoid muscles, but the singer whobelts will increase the use of their cricothyroidmuscles (especially as the pitch rises) incomparison to the classical singer. At this pointit is imperative to reiterate that the belt voice isnot solely the use of the ‘chest’ voice, but a

conscious mix between the two. Because of theincreased cricothyroid involvement, the foldschange in shape, thickness, elasticity and/orstiffness, creating a different tonal colour. Thevocal folds and their relative muscles are notthe only differences in the belter’s physiology,belters also have a longer closed quotient ,meaning that the vocal folds spend a longertime adducted.

There are many that believe that thistechnique is not in fact a technique at all, butthat “if you are belting, you are not singingsafely; if you are singing safely you are notbelting458”. This kind of judgement is madewith no appreciation or understanding of themechanics behind the belt voice. How is it thatyoung children can yell for hours on end andnever lose their voice? It is because the soundis free and unrestricted and our bodiesautomatically manipulate the vocal tract andfolds in order to make these sounds. Is it thennot reasonable to assume that the same is trueof the belt voice? There is not only one way ofmanipulating the human voice, and thereforethere is not just one way of singing (ie. classicalmusic). Some teachers believe that if you learnthe classical technique of singing than you cansing in any style, but this is a very dangerousstatement. For if a singer tries to impose theclassical technique in order to produce a ‘belt’sound, they will seriously harm theirinstrument. This leads into the belief that onewill get nodules from singing belt when in fact,one may get nodules from singing beltincorrectly, just as one may damage theirinstrument trying to sing incorrectly in theclassical style as well. Many don’t realize thatbelting is not driving up the chest voice intothe higher register as previously mentioned, forthat is detrimental to the voice. The studentsimply needs to be aware of the differentmuscle activities and be able to achieve areasonable balance between the muscle groups.

Now, what has been mentioned here isonly the tip of the iceburg. Hopefully this essayhas brought to light the issue of personal vocal

458 Elizabeth Howell, “Chest Voice and Belting,” 1991from Edwin, Robert. “Belting 101.” Journal of Singing Vol55.1 Sept/Oct 1998): 53.

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aesthetic preference and that it has a largeimpact on how many perceive the beltingtechnique. It is fine to make an aestheticjudgement, but the validity of the techniqueshould not be criticized because it is deemed‘ugly’. The quality of belt is considered bright,nasal and speech-like; created through themanipulation of the vocal tract and folds. Themanipulation is entirely different from theclassical technique, but the relationshipbetween the various muscles is crucial.Correctly done, as proven by Billie Holiday,Barbara Streisand, Frank Sinatra and EthelMerman, belting can be a long and healthycareer. �

ExpressiveVocalTechniquesBy Alicia Woynarski

Musical expression is the keycomponent to an effective, vocal performance.In order for a singer’s expression to touch onesaudience and clearly represent the sentimentimplied by the text, the singer must employmany different vocal techniques. Musicologistsfor centuries have held numerous studies todiscern the components of a truly musicalperformance. Although there is still muchspeculation about even the definition ofmusicality, most musicologists agree that theeffective use of dynamics and tempo are twoof the most important components thatdistinguish one performance from another.Gabrielsson noted, “The ability to perform

expressively by varying dynamics and tempo(among other elements) distinguishes advancedmusicians from lesser-skilled performers”459.The other elements to which Gabrielssonrefers could well be vibrancy of tone, effectiveuse of breath and consistancy of vibrato. Othermusicologists such as James Stark, and RichardMiller deem these elements important toeffective expression. These vocal techniquesthat form the art of expressing are madeknown through ancient musical treatises,journal writings, and markings on music scoresof performers and teachers.460 With the analysisof this documentation, one can begin tounderstand the specific vocal techniques thatheighten musical expression through the use ofvibrato, messa di voce and tempo rubato.

In the late eighteenth century, minimalvibrato was employed to create what audiencesand vocal pedagogues thought of as bel canto(beautiful singing). The bel canto techniqueinvolves a strong preference for purity of tone;therefore singers had to learn to sing withvirtually no vibration in their voice. Importantartists of the nineteenth century (Meyerbeer,Auber and Gounod) openly expressed theirhatred of a tremulous tone.461 Critics gave badreviews to those that used vibrato, whichcertainly hindered the careers of someperformers, such as Elizabeth Feron, who wasoften ridiculed for her tremulous voice.462 Thetendency for the voice to vibrate on theloudest and highest notes, however, wasthought as natural and unavoidable. Even so,some teachers tried to coach their singers tostrain the tone to become light and straighteven on the loud notes.463 Joseph Corfe and

459 Robert Woody, Explaining Expressive Performance:

Component Cognitive Skills in an Aural Modeling Task,Journal of Research in Music Education 51:1 [Spring2003] 51-63.

460 Robert Toft, Heart to Heart:Expresive Singing inEngland (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000)ix.

461 Herman Klein, The Bel Canto:with particular referenceto the singing of Mozart (New York: Oxford UniversityPress, 1923) 25.

462 Robert Toft, Heart to Heart:Expresive Singing inEngland (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000)31.

463 Robert Toft, Heart to Heart:Expresive Singing in

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Robert Smith, for example, “counseled singersnot to sing high notes too strongly but to fixthem sweetly without any quivering ortremulous motion.”464 Other teachers oftenmade their singers practice exercises on longheld notes to correct a singer’s tendency to usevibrato. Despite the negativity that was tied tothe use of vibrato it could be and was used bysingers as a tool to heighten their expression.465

Vibrato was used to emphasize strongemotions such as deep sorrow, fear, distressand wrath. Singers also liked to use vibrato onthe end of long held notes, and especially at theend of phrases to accentuate the punctuationof a phrase.466

The modern view of the vibrato is thatits warmth can make every note soundbeautiful and expressive. It is understood moreas a natural occurring, vocal ornamentation.More recent studies of the vibrato include acloser look at where exactly the vibrationsoccur within the body, the frequency or rate atwhich the vibrations occur, the specific pitchoscillation and why it seems to occur naturallyin trained voices.467 Advanced technology and amore scientific look at the physiology of thevocal apparatus led to the discovery of thehealth benefits of using vibrato. Studies haveshown that the vocal muscles that cause avibrato to contract and relax naturally to avoidfatigue.468 This realization has led teachers toencourage their singers to use vibrato moreoften. In the past vibrato was only used in alimited way, in specific instances of strongemotions. Modern pedagogues advise singersto sing with a consistent vibrant tone and ininstances of heightened expression, experimentwith different colours one can produce withvibrato. Many singers experiment withdifferent vocal colours by varying the rate atwhich their vocal folds oscillate (average rate

England (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000)31.

464 Ibid. 465 Ibid. , 32. 466 Ibid. , 34. 467 James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy (

Ontario: University of Toronto Press Incorporated,1999) 138

468 Ibid. , 139.

of vibration per cycle is 5 – 8 pulsations asecond)469. A singer may slow vibrations downin order to imitate the tremulous sounds ofcrying or speed vibrations up when expressingmoments of fear or excitement. It is mostcommon for heightened oscillation rates tooccur in high voices on notes in the uppermost parts of the register. With high subglottalpressure, a lowered larynx and a sloweroscillation rate the vibrato becomes morepronounced and can be heard over largeorchestras. Audiences of our time seem toprefer a slower vibration rate perhaps becauseto the ear it sounds more powerful. Take forexample the vibrato of Luciano Pavarottiwhose oscillation rate is around 5.5 comparedto that of another famous singer (of theseventeenth century), Enrico Caruso, whosevibrato rate was near 7.0.470 Modernpedagogues agree with the pedagogues of theearly centuries in that vibrato can be controlledin order to colour music, however, todayvibrato is expected to be used more frequently,to further vocal colours.

Another device that aids in underliningthe emotional content of the text is the singingtechnique ‘Messa di Voce’. This term has beenused since the early eighteenth century, relatingto the artistry of using loud and soft singing toshape a phrase. It was a key element in vocalinstruction of the Old Italian schools. For itwas a great exercise in which to teach singershow to control dynamics through supportedbreath and tone management.471 The messa divoce technique is considered rudimental bysome musicologists such as Stockhausen andTosi while others consider it to be a highlycomplex maneuver. Many prominent vocalpedagogues have studied and discussed it indetail, including Manuel Garcia in his treatise,Hints on Singing. He describes messa di voce as“swelled sounds” beginning very softly andslowly increasing the dynamic to its loudestcapacity and then backing down to the softest

469Ibid. , 140.

470Ibid , 141.471 Herman Klein, The Bel Canto:with particular

reference to the singing of Mozart (New York: OxfordUniversity Press, 1923) 32.

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degree.472 When he advises the singer in detailon how to execute this technique he instructsto begin with loose glottal closure in falsetto(mid-register) and move through the headvoice as one crescendos with firm adduction(folds are firmly closed). Besides a change intimbre and register Garcia’s messa di voce alsodemands refined control of subglottal pressure(airflow rate) and positioning of the vocaltract.473 As one can see by his description, themessa di voce exercise is complex thereforeGarcia reserved it for highly trained singers.Another prominent musicologist namedLamperti had a slightly different definition ofmessa di voce. His did not involve a change inregister rather a consistent timbre and slightlyhigher subglottal pressure through out theexercise. Some of the Italian masters likePierfrancesco Tosi, thought of messa di voce as atype of ornamentation that was to be usedtastefully on sustained notes. 474 While othervocal pedagogues applied the technique,sparingly to open vowels. The messa di vocetechnique was most often applied to long heldnotes as a mean of sustaining them, especiallyat the ad libitum pause just before a cadenza.This was very effective in shaping the ends ofphrases and aided singers to avoidmonotony.475 In later years, there was anobvious decline in the use of Messa di Voce. Asnoted by Tosi, “there are very few singers whoesteem it worthy of their taste, whetherbecause they love instability in the voice, orbecause they wish to remove themselves fromthe past.”476 Today, using messa di voce on everynote as singers did in the early centuries isconsidered ineffective as a method of aidingexpressive singing. Singing with a swelled

472 Ibid, 31.

473 James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of VocalPedagogy ( Ontario: University of Toronto PressIncorporated, 1999) 98.

474 Owen Jander and J.B. Steane: 'Messa di Voce',Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Accessed [Sun. 20,Feburary, 05]), <http://www.grovemusic.com> 475 Robert Toft, Heart to Heart:Expresive Singing in

England (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000)71.

476 James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy (Ontario: University of Toronto Press Incorporated,1999) 95.

sound on every individual note or word is nota convincing method of expression. If thetechnique is misused, it may take on whatteachers refer to as the “wah-wah” or“doppler” effect in which legato line andsteady tone are disrupted. This vocal techniqueis better suited to entire phrases, which allowssingers to shape towards the most importantwords of the text; making the expressive wordsthe loudest. Many singers continue to use messadi voce as a daily exercise to achieve brilliantconsistent tone throughout the entire range ofdynamics. If one can master a consistentvibrant timbre throughout the range ofdynamics it is assumed that one can then applythis acquired technique to the text providingthe audience a well-expressed performance.

As the contrasting dynamics of messa divoce can help express a range of emotions, socan the contrasting tempos of the tempo rubato.The literal translation of tempo rubato is robbedtime, it is a technique in which the accompanistcontinues to play in the established tempowhile the soloist pushes and pulls the tempo inorder to suit the emotional content of thepiece.477 Pierfrancesco Tosi introduced robbedtime in 1723. In his opinion this ‘stealing of time’was best suited to the aria style called the ariapathetic, popular around 1687-1700.478 Singersaltered rhythms in the rubato manner for manyreasons: to aid in avoiding “falseaccentuations”479, to elongate appogiaturas aswell as other ornamentations and portamentosor “to simply add an expressive element ofrhythmic tension to the music”.480 Singersoften employed tempo rubato to move quickly inpassages of excitement, increasing passion orhatred, where as the pulling back of the tempois reserved for moments of hesitation,

477 Richard Hudson: ‘Rubato’, Grove Music Online ed.

L. Macy (Accessed [Fri. 18, February, 05]),<http://www.grovemusic.com>

478 Richard Hudson Stolen Time: The History ofTempo Rubato.. (New York: Oxford University Press,1994) 41.

479 Robert Toft, Heart to Heart:Expresive Singing inEngland (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000)80.

480 James Stark, Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy (Ontario: University of Toronto Press Incorporated,1999) 173.

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increasing despair or hopelessness.481 The skillof using tempo rubato effectively was deemedvery important by great musicians such as Tosi:“He who does not know how to use rubato insinging … remains deprived of the best tasteand the greatest intelligence”.482 In musicalworks by composers of post eighteenthcentury, such as Liszt, Mascagni and Puccini,tempo rubato is extended over entire works,allowing the tempo to be flexible throughout.483 As there are varying instructions on howto execute messa di voce, musicologists also differin their opinions about rubato. Tosi and RobertNorth describe rubato in terms of anticipationand delay where as Alencons (who published aDutch translation of Tosi’s documents)interprets rubato as an increase and decrease ofnote values. The difference is that in Alencon’sversion the lengthening of one note isequalized by the amount of time lost on thelast note of the same musical phrase. With Tosiand North’s anticipation and delay such abalance is not required. One may anticipate theentry of one note and not have to compensateby following with the delay of another note.484

To audiences of Tosi’s time it was in thebeauty of the dissonance created by delaying anote that created such interest.485

Tempo rubato is still employed by singerstoday, although tempo fluctuations occur moreoften in the form of accelerandos and ritardandosindicated by the composer. The differencebetween these two forms of tempofluctuations is quite noticeable, as theaccompanist plays in strict time while thesoloist uses rubato where as the accompanistmoves in sync with the singer for accelerandosand ritardandos. Both are effective methods ofheightening expression. The text seems tocome alive when the tempo is in rhythm with acharacter’s stirring emotions or with the flow

481 Toft, Heart to Heart, 83. 482 Stark, Bel Canto,173. 483 Richard Hudson: ‘Rubato’, Grove Music Online ed.

L. Macy (Accessed [Fri. 18, February, 05]),<http://www.grovemusic.com>

484 Richard Hudson Stolen Time: The History ofTempo Rubato.. (New York: Oxford University Press,1994) 50.

485 Ibid, 57.

of nature. This is one vocal technique thatshould never be discontinued for it speaks sostrongly to ones emotion. Music would be verydull and monotonous without it.

Through the use of vibrato, messa di voceand tempo rubato expressive singing has thepower to create aesthetic feelings that onecompares to human emotion.486 The eighteenthand nineteenth centuries’ use of vibrato givescolour to words of strong emotion. Messa divoce draws the attention of the audience toexpressive words within a phrase and addsmusical interest to the line through the use ofdynamics. Tempo rubato effectively representsthe increasing and decreasing action of boththe music and the text. The changes in the useof these techniques, from the eighteenthcentury to now, demonstrate how ideas ofwhat are aesthetically pleasing and expressivehave evolved and are continually changing.Singers will be steadily presented with newexpressive techniques in which to pleaseaudiences. �

486 Nancy Kovaleff Baker: ‘Expression’, Grove

Music Online ed. L. Macy (Accessed [Wed. 23,February, 05]), <http://www.grovemusic.com>

74

The Fach System:Definitions andControversiesBy Meagan Zantingh

Attempts at codifying anything in therealm of vocal pedagogy usually end indisastrous confusion and biased terms. TheFach system, however, is one system ofcodification that is generally recognizedthroughout the world, with varying degrees ofspecificity. The Fach system began as aclassification of voice types, in order to guideopera companies in their casting, and toprotect singers from performing inappropriateroles. However, today it has spread far beyondthe opera company, becoming a marketingtool, and in some cases, a definition ofcharacter. Each broad Fach can be subdividedinto more specific sub-categories, containingspecific roles suitable for each voice type.Determining a singer’s voice type, or Fach, hasbecome a controversial issue of vocalpedagogy, often being given too muchimportance in the training of a young voice.The idea of Fach, to today’s degree ofspecificity, is a relatively modern concept.Historically, singers could perform roles of adifferent voice type, without the baggage ofFach definition. Today, the importance of Fachfor casting differs according to the country andthe politics of the opera company. In any case,Fach is a factor in the casting process, either asa marketing device, or as a determination ofpersona.

The Fach system developed from thetraditional categorizations of soprano, alto,tenor, and bass. These four main voice typesare divided into Fächer, or literally, divisions,that relate more specifically to individualvoices. Originating in Germany, thesesubdivisions also stipulate what dramatic rolesare suitable for each voice type. The wholesystem is intended as a guide for operacompanies in their audition process; to help

them cast appropriate voices to suitableroles.487 The names and titles of these sub-categorizations vary depending on the sourceand the translation, but the general idearemains the same. For example, the sopranocategory alone can be divided into seven types,including the soubrette, lyric coloratura, lyric,dramatic coloratura, spinto, dramatic, andheavy dramatic. These titles do not include thethree divisions of the mezzo-soprano voice:lyric, dramatic, and contralto (although thecontralto is often considered a voice type on itsown, with its own subcategories).488 Every rolein opera has become associated with a Fach,and occasionally can be cross-listed into morethan one Fach. Some typical examples includethe role of Lucia, from Donizetti’s Lucia diLammermoor, known as a dramatic coloraturasoprano role; or the title role in Carmen, byBizet, known as a dramatic mezzo-sopranorole. Some very specific Fächer can also bedefined by a composer, or a nationality, like theWagnerian soprano or the tenore di grazia, whichincludes mostly Italian roles. Despite all ofthese variations, the basic structure of the Fachsystem remains intact.489

There is also great variety in the way aFach is determined. Definition of Fach occursin two areas: the type of role, or the actualvoice type of the individual singer. Althoughthe range of an operatic role is obviously animportant factor, there are many otherpertinent elements. The tessitura of the part, aswell as the sostenuto demands help to define theactual type of voice needed, whereas theorchestral writing underneath the vocal line 487J.B. Steane, “Fach,” in Stanley Sadie, ed., The New

Grove Dictionary of Opera (London: Macmillan, 1992),II: 234.

488 http://www.e-paranoids.com/f/fa/fach.html Articlelicensed under the GMU Free DocumentationLicense.

http://www.lyricoperaofwaco.org/education/voices/,designed by Melanie McCalmont, updated Jan 5/03.

http://www.geocities.com/concertopera/voicetype.html489 Anthony Legge, The Art of Auditioning (London:

Peters Edition Limited, 2001), 55-167.http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/cardiffsinger01/guide.sht

ml?voice, provided by the BBC, updated Mar. 4/05.Andrea Suhm-Binder, http://www.cantabile-

subito.de/Categories/hauptteil_categories.html,updated Feb./05.

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calls for a particular size and colour. Dramaticrequirements of the role also suit some timbresbetter than others, and cannot bediscounted.490 Certain types of roles oftenbecome associated with a certain Fach; forexample, the lyric soprano is the typical‘girlfriend’ personality.491 The placing of a roleinto a specific Fach is, to some extent, asubjective process, and some leeway ofdefinition is necessary.

The issue of determining the voice typeof a singer is surrounded by even morevariables and controversy. Once again, therange and tessitura of the voice are importantfactors, assuring the comfort of the voice. Thenatural timbre and size of the voice also play arole in deciding the voice type. Because theFach is also used for dramatic purposes, evensuch subjective factors as the physicalappearance of the singer, and his or herpersonality help to define the Fach.492

However, some voices never really fit into aspecific category, and are able to sing rolesfrom different areas. Especially in youngsingers can the Fach be difficult to identify, andmany argue, that Fach identification should noteven be a part of early vocal training. The Fachsystem was developed for the opera house andshould be confined to the opera house. Tobring discussions of voice type into a lessonprogram of a young singer takes emphasisaway from other pedagogy issues, and couldcause the student some anxiety, worrying aboutfitting in to a specific category. In fact, somepedagogues believe that young voices shouldnot even attempt to sing arias, let alone entireroles. 493 However, young singers may find thisdifficult. Even delaying the process of Fachidentification can be challenging, whilesurrounded by an abundance of opinions.Most auditions for schools and programs, even

490 Richard Miller, On the Art of Singing (New York:

Oxford University Press, Inc., 1996), 199-201.491 J.B. Steane, Voices: Singers and Critics (Portland:

Amadeus Press, 1992), 3-111.492Bard Suverkrop,

http://www.su.edu/SUOpera/classes/mupp425/Documents/Performances/Fach/Home.htm,provided by the Shenandoah Conservatory.

493 Miller, On the Art of Singing.

for less experienced singers, require the studentto state their voice type and sing at least onearia. While many pedagogues realize it is nothealthy to push a voice in one direction oranother, the singer himself or herself may findit difficult not to lean in a particular direction,being immersed in a Fach-obsessed society.There are also pedagogues who believe indefining the voice type of a student as soon aspossible, in order to healthily train the voice.494

Once the singer knows his or her voice type,he or she can begin learning roles pertaining tothat Fach. However, the development of avoice can change drastically in the early adultyears, so these learned roles may later becomeobsolete for the singer. Regardless of Fach, theteacher must have a perceptive ear to guide thestudent in choosing repertoire appropriate forhis or her voice at that time. In many cases,after basic, fundamental training, the singer willcorrectly identify his or her voice typeaccording to where the voice is comfortable,and the teacher should also respect thisjudgment.495 Whether it is determining theFach of an individual voice, or of a specificrole, the decision is based on a great deal ofsubjective insight, as well as musical andtechnical aspects.

The whole historical development ofthe Fach system is surrounded by personalopinion and contradiction. Generally, thesystem has evolved from a broad to a muchmore specific classification. In order to look atthis topic from a broad historical perspectivefor the purposes of this essay, the focus will beon the female voice, specifically thedevelopment of the mezzo-soprano as a Fach.The original seventeenth- century pieceswritten for soprano usually had an approximaterange of middle C to high G, which wouldnow be considered an appropriate mezzo-soprano range. Beginning in the first half ofthe eighteenth century, as composers startedwriting voice parts with a more extended upperrange, there was a greater perception of theslightly weightier and lower voice that could 494 David L. Jones, “Lower Voice or Higher Voice?,”

http://www.voiceteacher.com/vocal_fach.html,2000.

495 Miller, On the Art of Singing.

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not manage these higher notes as extensively.J. J. Quantz was the first composer todistinguish the female role into three maincategories: soprano, mezzo-soprano, and alto;but it was not until after 1800 that the term‘mezzo-soprano’ came into general use.496 G.F. Handel, of course, wrote for lower voices,but his roles were intended for contraltocastrati, rather than women’s voices. In theearly nineteenth century, when the castratobegan to disappear, the mezzo-sopranogradually took his place, and composers startedto write more often specifically for this lowervoice type. However, this evolution was notsudden, and therefore many of the famousmezzo roles of the 1800s are heroic trouserroles, many of which are by Rossini.Composers also tended to write roles with aspecific singer in mind, writing idiomaticallyfor her voice. For example, Rossini wrote therole of Malcolm for Benedetta Pisaroni, whocalled herself a soprano; but this role today isgenerally considered more suitable for a mezzovoice. Verdi is perhaps the first composer towrite specific mezzo-soprano roles, althoughhe often deemed them contralto parts. Thesame contradictions appeared in Germany,with roles written for mezzo, but premiered bya soprano; Weber’s role of Eglantine inEuryanthe was premiered by soprano ThereseGrünbaum. By the twentieth century, manycomposers were writing for the mezzo-soprano voice, most notably Jules Massenetand Richard Strauss. The trend throughout thehistory of the mezzo usually casts her, if not asa man, at least as a less romantic role than thesoprano. Nurses, confidantes, mature marriedwomen, dowager duchesses and elderly auntsare all typical mezzo-soprano characters, alsobecoming a defining factor of the Fach itself.497

The ambiguity of the mezzo-soprano Fach isalso apparent in the voices themselves.

The trend in the development of theFach system has evolved from a general idea ofvoice area, to a much more specific and 496 J. J. Quantz lived from 1697-1773497 Owen Jander, J.B. Steane, Elizabeth Forbes, Ellen T.

Harris, “Mezzo-soprano,” in Stanley Sadie, ed., TheNew Grove Dictionary of Opera (London: Macmillan,1992), III: 145-152.

restrictive classification. Historically, the rangeof roles sung by one singer was typically muchwider and more varied than singers of today.Tracing the roles of Maria Malibran andPauline Viardot, this wider breadth of roles isapparent. In a short career, ending with herdeath at 28 years old, Maria Malibran sang atotal of nine full roles. She debuted in 1825 asRosina in Rossini’s Il barbiere di Siviglia. Shewas generally considered to be a mezzo-soprano, and sang typically mezzo roles, suchas the title roles in Rossini’s La Cenerentola andTancredi, as well as Arsace in his Semiramide.However, she also sang the title role inDonizetti’s Maria Stuarda, and Armina inBellini’s La Sonnambula, both of which are rolesthat have since been made famous by manysopranos.

Malibran’s sister, Pauline Viardot, hadan even more varied career, singing a total of atleast twenty-two roles, covering a wide rangeof Fächer. She was also considered a mezzo-soprano, and sang all of the roles that her sistersang, but she also overlapped a great deal intosoprano territory. After her debut in 1839 asDesdemona in Rossini’s Otello, she went on tosing such soprano roles as the title role inBellini’s Norma, and Donizetti’s Lucia diLammermoor, and both Zerlina and DonnaAnna in Mozart’s Don Giovanni. Apart frombeing soprano roles, these parts also coverdifferent Fächer within the soprano category.She also sang works by Meyerbeer, Halevy andGounod, breaking away from the moretraditional Italian styles.498 This great variety ofroles demonstrates the lack of rigidity in thesystem of voice types during the nineteenthcentury.

Grace Bumbry, over a century later,still defied the boundaries of the averagesinger, and the trend towards specificity.Beginning as a mezzo-soprano, she sang mostof the great mezzo roles in the Frenchrepertoire, like Carmen and Dalilah, as well asroles by Verdi: Azucena, Eboli, and Amneris.Later in her career, she sang more soprano 498 April Fitzlyon, The Price of Genius: A Life of Pauline

Viardot (London: John Calder Ltd., 1964).Andrea Suhm-Binder, http://www.cantabile-

subito.de/Teachers/hauptteil_teachers.html

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repertoire, including Mascagni’s Santuzza,Strauss’s Salome, and Janacek’s Jenufa.499

A more typical career of a modernsinger is illustrated through the careers ofDenyce Graves and Elina Garanca. They havea select few roles that they are known for,mostly staying in a specific Fach. DenyceGraves is especially known for the roles ofCarmen and Dalilah, performing themrepeatedly and almost exclusively for manyyears.500 As a less experienced singer with aless extensive career, Elina Garanca is also sofar limited to a few select roles: Dorabella inMozart’s Cosi fan tutte, Rosina in Rossini’s Ilbarbiere di Siviglia, Charlotte in Massenet’sWerther, and a few performances of Oktavianin Strauss’s Der Rosenkavalier.501 The limitedroles of both these singers present a muchmore restricted idea of Fach than earliersingers.

Because of this evolution, many singershave controversial opinions about the Fachsystem. Grace Bumbry, for example, believessingers today restrict themselves by singing in aspecific Fach: “Too many singers stay withinone certain boundary. Instead of all theirinstrument, they just use that portion that isrequired at that particular time, instead oftrying to do whatever they can do with theirentire voice.” She cautions singers againstchoosing a Fach according to the market, ratherthan the suitability of their voice. However, ina way, she contradicts herself when askedabout a particular singer: “My point of view isthat Dolora Zajick is not a mezzo sopranoanyway. She’s a soprano.” 502 In thisstatement, Bumbry is stating a specific Fach fora singer, categorizing her in a way that she hadearlier protested. The opinions of ThomasHampson are also contradictory; when hepromotes himself as a baritone, but is

499 Grace Bumbry,

http://home.swbell.net/gyurci/bumbrybio.htm.500 Denyce Graves,

http://www.denycegraves.com/biography.html.501 Elina Garanca,

http://www.elinagaranca.com/en/news.html.502 Joel Kasow, “An interview with Grace Bumbry,”

http://www.culturekiosque.com/opera/intervie/rhebumb.htm, Sept. 2/97.

described as “resisting passionately the notionof Fach, which, he believes, is built by agencies[…] ‘Singing is not about timbres or categorylabels.’”503 Other singers perhaps have thesame opinion, but it rare to see a professionalsinger that does not advertise according to hisor her Fach.

The role of the Fach system in theprocess of casting brings to the forefront manymore debates, in many cases depending on thecountry. As a tool for opera companies, theFach system is especially helpful forinexperienced directors to find an appropriatesinger for each role. The singers themselvescan also use it for contractual protection, tokeep them from being forced to sing unhealthyroles for their voices. The system is used invery different ways in Europe and NorthAmerica. The general opinion is that thesystem is used more often, and morespecifically in Europe. In Europe, the idealsituation for the typical regional repertoireopera house would be to hire a set ensemblefor the season, which would include one singerfrom each Fach. Unfortunately, this rarelyhappens, as there are many different Fächer,and it would require the hiring many singers,usually an economic impossibility. As a result,singers often cover roles that are outside oftheir Fach.504 In some cases, this can meanunhealthy singing, as in the less successfulproductions of the English National Opera:“When casting is influenced by economicconsiderations, the variable should be therepertoire, not the singer.”505 Often however,the role is still comfortable for the singer. Ifthe singer is perfectly able to sing the role, evenif it is outside of his or her supposedly fixedFach, perhaps the idea of Fach is too restrictingand specific.

503 Thomas Hampson, http://www.hampsong.com,

updated Mar. 4/05.504 Bard Suverkrop,

http://www.su.edu/SUOpera/classes/mupp425/Documents/Performances/Fach/Home.htm,provided by the Shenandoah Conservatory.

505“ENO and the Fine Art of Casting,”http://www.operatalent.com/Safe/articles/FineArtofCasting.asp, (Inter Ads Ltd., 2003).

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In North America, many believe thatthe Fach system is less rigid, but it is actuallyjust used in a different way. Here, with thedifferent hiring system, companies usually hirea singer for a specific role, for one production.In this way, he or she is not hired according totheir Fach, but rather according to the role.However, it is often the case that once thesinger becomes known for a specific role, he orshe is only hired for this role, which isrestricting in a different way. To prevent thisfrom happening, it is the responsibility of theperformer, in the ten minute audition package,to present every quality of the voice, especiallyif the voice does not fall in the usual Fachboundaries.506 However, this ideal package isdifficult to create, especially when auditioningfor a specific role, towards which the singerwill gear his or her audition. Linda Maguirestates her difficulties:

However, in an 8-minute time slot,auditioners just don’t have time or head space to gatherand process the fact that I am a mezzo who sings suchsoprano operatic roles – it’s an unusual thing, andconfusing for them.

[…] If I can’t be put into a neat andconvenient little category… well, they just don’t have thetime, the imagination, or the inclination in normalaudition circumstances to ‘get it,’ especially when I’m inwith scores of other singers, the majority of whomobediently fit in their ‘five perfect opera roles.’507

Even in North America, where theFach system is based more on the roles, thesinger can have difficulty breaking away fromthe preconceived notions that are tied to aFach. The singer can be hired for their voice,regardless of Fach, but could then be restrictedto a select few roles for much of his or hercareer. In Europe, the system works in almostthe opposite direction, although it can beequally restrictive. Singers are generally hiredfor according to their Fach, but then may be

506 Lloyd W. Hanson,

http://www.vocalist.org/group/vocalist-temporary/message/7111.html, Nov. 30/00.

507 Linda Maguire,http://www.lindamaguire.com/info/faqs.html, froman interview for Wholenote Magazine.

required to sing outside of this category oncehired. In both scenarios, the rigidity of theFach system becomes an opponent to thesinger.

Despite this criticism, the Fach systemcan work. In theory, on paper as a guideline,the system is helpful for teachers, singers, anddirectors. However, it should be restricted tothe opera house, and even then just as a basicguide, always receptive to different possibilitiesand interpretations. Determination of Fach inthe young singer often causes anxiety, andshould not be a focus of the training. It is onlyrecently, that the idea of a rigid Fach hasbecome popular, but perhaps freedom can befound once again in the historical, moreambiguous views of voice type. Today, used asa marketing device, Fach only results inrestricting the career of a singer, rather thanguiding the path of the career. The voice as aninstrument is unique to every singer, andtherefore it is impossible to classify voices intogroups, where they lose their sense ofindividuality. Great voices are notremembered for their ability to fit into acategory, but rather for their singularity. �