vol 3 issue 01 june 2014

Volume 3 Issue 01 | June 2014

FUZZY WEIGHTED AVERAGE TECHNIQUE FOR EVALUATION PERFORMANCE OF TECHNICAL INSTITUTIONS Siti Nur Adila binti HadDr. Maznah binti Mat Kasim

TOOL WEAR WHEN MACHINING AL-SI /ALN METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE 10WT% REINFORCEMENT USING TIN CUTTING TOOLM. S. SaidJ. A. GhaniM. A. SelamatM. M. AmzariN. N. Wan

MENANGANI KEGELINCIRAN AKIDAH DALAM KALANGAN PELAJAR MENERUSI INTEGRASI SAINS DAN PRINSIP TAUHIDShafiah Abdul RashidDr. Azman YusofDr. Zanaton Hj Iksan

CATHETER-RELATED BLOOD STREAM INFECTION IN PATIENTS WITH INTERNAL JUGULAR CATHETER ADMITTED TO A TERTIARY HOSPITAL IN 2013Imtinaan Zain Al-AabideenSiti Nur Hajar Mohd ZainDr. Hla MyintC.L. Loh

EDITORIAL BOARD

MARA INNOVATION JOURNAL

Volume 3 Issue 01 June 2014 ISSN: 2289-2818

Patron

Datuk Ibrahim bin Ahmad Director General

Majlis Amanah Rakyat

Editor-in-Chief

Kamaruzaman bin Jaffar

Editors

Dr. Nor Aini Aziz Sharida Hashim Hasmah Markom

Wan Shahriza Wan Ab Rahman Mohamad Nizam bin Asmuni

Sarinah bt. Sulaiman Hanirus Osman

Siti Rosezaimah Ismail

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MARA Innovation Journal

Volume 3 Issue 01, June 2014

Welcome to MARA Innovation Journal

The MARA Innovation Journal (MIJ) is an independent, peer-reviewed journal devoted to sharing ideas and discussing issues related to innovation. The MIJ is also a forum for exchange of imaginative ideas readers wish to share.

Invitation to Submit Papers

The editorial board in Innovation and Research Unit, Majlis Amanah Rakyat invites researchers and writers to contribute articles to MARA Innovation Journal in the field of research and innovation. Please email your articles to [email protected]

Published by:

Innovation and Research Unit Majlis Amanah Rakyat (MARA) No. 21, Jalan Raja Laut 50609 Kuala Lumpur Tel : (03) 26134480 Faks : (03) 26910486

Copyright © MARA 2014

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the Publisher.

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Content Pages From Editorial Desk iv FUZZY WEIGHTED AVERAGE TECHNIQUE FOR EVALUATION PERFORMANCE OF TECHNICAL INSTITUTIONS

Siti Nur Adila binti Had Dr. Maznah binti Mat Kasim

TOOL WEAR WHEN MACHINING AL-SI /ALN METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE 10WT% REINFORCEMENT USING TIN CUTTING TOOL

M. S. Said J. A. Ghani M. A. Selamat M. M. Amzari N. N. Wan MENANGANI KEGELINCIRAN AKIDAH DALAM KALANGAN PELAJAR MENERUSI INTEGRASI SAINS DAN PRINSIP TAUHID Shafiah Abdul Rashid Dr. Azman Yusof Dr. Zanaton Hj Iksan CATHETER-RELATED BLOOD STREAM INFECTION IN PATIENTS WITH INTERNAL JUGULAR CATHETER ADMITTED TO A TERTIARY HOSPITAL IN 2013

Imtinaan Zain Al-Aabideen Siti Nur Hajar Mohd Zain Dr. Hla Myint C.L. Loh

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From Editorial Desk The MARA Innovation Journal (MIJ) publishes research findings related to innovations and foster the formation of policies and best practices. It is hoped that articles published in this journal will increase the readers’ awareness to new ideas, products, services, and practices.

This publication covers a diverse range of topics. Siti Nur Adila binti Had and Dr. Maznah binti Mat Kasim wrote the first article, entitled ‘Fuzzy Weighted Average Technique For Evaluation Performance Of Technical Institutions’. The objectives of this study are to identify the performance indicators used in measuring the achievement of technical institutions, prioritizing the performance indicators according to their relative importance, and evaluating the performance of the technical institution by using Simple Weighted Average (SWA) in crisp value and Fuzzy Weighted Average (FWA) in fuzzy approach. The second article, ‘Tool Wear When Machining Al-Si/Aln Metal Matrix Composite 10wt% Reinforcement Using Tin Cutting Tool’ is written by M.S.Said, J.A.Ghani, M.A. Selamat, M.M.Amzari and N.N.Wan. The article presents a study that examines tool wear when milling AlSi/10%AlN MMC material using a TiN-coated carbide cutting tool which is developed by SIRIM. It evaluated the machinability of the AlN-reinforced aluminum metal matrix composite (MMC) using TiN coated cemented carbide insert. ‘Menangani Kegelinciran Akidah Dalam Kalangan Pelajar Menerusi Integrasi Sains Dan Prinsip Tauhid’ is the third article, written by Shafiah Abdul Rashid, Dr. Azman Yusof and Dr. Zanaton Hj Iksan. The article discusses the role of school in educating students, the integrated education principle and issues related to it. In addition, the article also includes some suggestions to overcome the issue of ‘akidah’ or belief deterioration through Science subject. This article concludes with some examples of the integration of Science and the principles of Tauhid in Chemistry subject. Imtinaan Zain Al-Aabideen, Siti Nur Hajar Mohd Zain, Dr. Hla Myint and C. L. Loh wrote the fourth article, ‘Catheter-Related Blood Stream Infection In Patients With Internal Jugular Catheter Admitted To A Tertiary Hospital In 2013’. The article presents a descriptive study on risk factors for internal jugular catheter infection in haemodialysis patients who were admitted to Hospital Raja Permaisuri Bainun (HRPB), Ipoh. In conclusion, in relation to the risk factors, most effective methods of prevention seem to be the promotion of the infection control precautions by emphasizing the education of patients on the hygienic aspect and baseline control, as well as training the health providers. All the articles discussed current issues on topics of creativity and innovation. It also shows how creative thinking can be used to accentuate the practice of quality management in organisations. In addition, creative thinking stimulates innovation in products and services. It is hoped that this journal will provide an avenue for scholarly research, as well as facilitate consultancy and dialog among policy makers, organization leaders,

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academics and society as a whole. Additionally, the sharing of latest research findings, theories and practices will foster the creation of new and innovative products or services. The editorial board wishes to express our gratitude to all writers for their contributions to the MARA Innovation Journal. In addition, the editorial board also would like to thank Prof Madya Dr. Salwani Mohd. Daud, Dr. Nor Azan Mat Zin and Dr. Jainabee Kassim for reviewing this journal. Innovation and Research Unit Majlis Amanah Rakyat June 2014

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MARA Innovation Journal ISSN : 2289 – 2818, Volume 3, Issue 01(June 2014) www.mara.org .gov.my/en/publication

FUZZY WEIGHTED AVERAGE TECHNIQUE FOR PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF TECHNICAL

INSTITUTIONS

Siti Nur Adila binti Had1

Dr. Maznah binti Mat Kasim2 1Institut Kemahiran MARA Beseri, Perlis

2Universiti Utara Malaysia

[email protected] & [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Performance evaluation is a very important process for technical institutions to monitor their progress. Institut Kemahiran MARA (IKM) uses Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) as measures to evaluate its performance. However, the degree of importance of these KPIs is not taken into consideration when determining the overall performance of the institutions. Therefore, this study was conducted to re-evaluate the relative importance or the weights of the indicators in order to calculate the final performance of the institutions. The respondents who were the 2011 Deputy Director of Academic Affairs (DDAA) of 12 IKMs in Malaysia were asked to evaluate the relative importance of the KPIs under fuzzy environment. The results were represented as fuzzy numbers. Since the weights were in two formats, two types of aggregation methods were used, namely simple weighted average (SWA), and simple fuzzy weighted average (FWA). The 2010 performance of these institutions were re-evaluated and the two results were compared. In terms of the importance of the main indicators, both results showed no significant differences in the order of importance but different values of weights were identified. For the sub-indicators of the five main indicators, both methods gave the same rankings for the three sets of sub-indicators but with different weight values. For the other two sets of sub-indicators, the results from the two methods gave different rankings and different weights. In terms of the overall performance of the institutes, SWA and FWA gave the same rank for the first (IKM10), second (IKM11), third (IKM6), fourth (IKM8), fifth (IKM1), sixth (IKM9), seventh (IKM4) and eighth (IKM12) positions, respectively. Since the two methods used in this study are not competing with each other, the impact of the results depends on the degree of certainty of the evaluation. If the evaluators or the decision makers are certain about their evaluations, then the SWA result is preferred; but if they are not sure, then the FWA result is much more suitable. The outcomes of this study are significant to the administration officials and top management to assure the provision of best services to these technical institutions toward contributing to the development of skills and vocational education in Malaysia.

Keywords: Key Performance Indicator, Performance Appraisal, Higher Skill Institution, Fuzzy Weighted Average

MARA Innovation Journal Volume 3, Issue 01 (June 2014)

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1. INTRODUCTION

Organizational performance is defined by Mohd Faiez (2009) as the critical part of an organization’s achievement. It is the degree of how well an organization performs compared to other organizations. In other words, the extent of the success of an organization in meeting its aims or goals is directly based on its performance, while the key performance indicators or familiarly known as KPIs are used to establish a stable performance measurement system (Israt, 2009). The importance of KPIs is still debatable and is a major concern among many people and organizations. But in recent years, KPIs have been increasingly considered in management strategy and increasingly popular in business management, education, hospitality, and other areas of organizations as they are increasingly used as a basis for measuring performance of organizations. They help improve decision making and assist in the implementation of a better system in order to achieve organization performance by outlining carefully planned strategies.

In performance evaluation, various terms such as factors, indicators, criteria and KPIs are used as the basic metric in evaluating the performance achievement of an organization. Performance evaluation involves decision making. The term ‘performance measure’ is defined as a process of quantifying the efficiency and effectiveness of actions, and as a metric, it is used for quantifying efficiency and/or effectiveness. Previous researchers indicated that the consideration of corporation goals, resources, and constraints are crucial for the selection of a strategic portfolio. Griffin (2004), and Lin and Hsieh (2004) pointed out that there should be a direct link from KPIs to goals, from goals to objectives and from objectives to strategies. Every final decision has an exact value or else it may not be exactly right or wrong. In a broader perspective of decision making in a fuzzy environment, a fuzzy decision is different and requires a more natural conceptual framework.

Following the trends of the industry and the global demand, technical institutions have chosen to implement skilled workforce as its performance objective (Pounder, 1999). In 2009, KPIs were introduced in Institut Kemahiran MARA (IKM) and Kolej Kemahiran Tinggi MARA (KKTM) as the performance indicator to measure the performance achievement of these institutions throughout Malaysia. In 2009 and 2010, the number of the KPI indicators and the list of the indicators were different as indicated in MARA Technical and Vocational Division report. Furthermore, there were no studies to show how those indicators were selected and how relatively important the indicators were in evaluating the performance of the institutions. Because MARA has pioneered the training of technical skills for over 45 years and has produced many successful inventors and entrepreneurs in the fields of education, commerce and business, performance evaluation in MARA’s institutions is a very important issue that needs to be looked into. Although the performance indicators have been identified, problems still occur because there is uncertainty and inconsistency in the use of the KPI results to evaluate the performance of the institutions.

According to Ghosh, Chartterjee and Ghosh (2011), the backbone of an organization is its employees. Within the administration domain, the heads of academic departments or the student affairs department basically are appointed from the administrative people as they know about daily administration and management issues. On the other hand, lecturers as staff (employees) support the administrative tasks by engaging in teaching activities, handling projects or formal or informal activities. Students are clients who give feedbacks about the facilities provided in the institutions. It shows while the employees support the organization in order to achieve the desired objectives via the KPI sets, the administrators evaluate and set the indicators through their experiences and expertise without prioritizing them. Subjectivity entails human judgment to evaluate the performance of an organization. But the use of exact value or crisp value will permit evaluators to have more freedom when making judgment. Because of the uncertainty of human judgment, fuzzy approach was used to evaluate the KPIs in measuring the performance of the institutions. The outcomes of this study are significant to the administrative officials and top management to assure the provision of best services to these technical institutions toward contributing to the development of skills and vocational education in Malaysia.


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The objectives of this study were to identify the performance indicators used in measuring the achievement of technical institutions, consequently prioritizing the performance indicators according to their relative importance, and lastly to evaluate the performance of the technical institution by using Simple Weighted Average (SWA) in crisp value and Fuzzy Weighted Average (FWA) in fuzzy approach.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

A lot of studies on the performance measures in the evaluation of technical institution have been done. According to Das, Sarkar, and Ray (2012), India technical institutions are one of the largest educational systems in the world. The evaluation of performance of the technical institutions is important because liberalization, privatization and globalization have increased the demand for quality technical education to meet the challenge of developing economies.

There are two components of performances; namely performance measurement and performance evaluation. Performance measurement is the ongoing monitoring and reporting of a program accomplishment, or the progress towards pre-established goals. Performance measurement focuses on whether a program has achieved its objectives expressed as measurable performance standards. A program is referred to as any activity, project, function, or a policy that has an identifiable purpose or set of objectives (Government Accounting Office, 2005). According to previous literatures, both performance evaluation and performance measure are related to the overall performance achievement.

According to Othman, Mahmood, and Bakar, (2008), when the process of evaluating the situations is subjective in nature, the vagueness of imprecise information occurs therefore it deals quantitatively with imprecision, and randomness in questionable assumption (Bellman & Zadeh, 1970). Literatures indicate that evaluation also involves uncertain evaluations. An accurate evaluation of performance is a vital requirement in approximating reasoning in deciding the ranking of the indicators of KPIs in various institutions. Furthermore, availability of KPI data is necessary to achieve accurate evaluation.

According to Wei, Yan, and Fan (2000), in a multi-criteria group decision-making process, it is difficult to get a solution if different participants are involved and undetermined weights are assigned to each indicator. A multi-criteria problem involves identifying a set of performance alternatives or options or units to be analyzed with several indicators. KPIs as discussed previously can be considered as indicators in these multi-criteria problems.

Different types of KPIs between universities and technical and vocational education institutions have been discussed. However, this study is more concerned with the vocational institution performance rather than universities because they offer the best environment for the proposed KPIs as presented in previous section. Table 2.1 summarizes the main indicators used to measure performance as indicated by the literatures. All indicators should be observed carefully as they may not carry the same weights (each indicator is suitable for certain institute). In this study, the proposed main indicators and sub-indicators are identified through secondary data. However, the weights and the performance achievement of technical institutions are determined and evaluated. Therefore, related potential techniques in determining the weights are discussed in the next section.


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Table 2.1: Summary of Main Indicators for Performance Achievement Evaluation No. List of indicators Source

1. Leadership, culture, productivity focus, stakeholders focus,

employee focus and performance result Ab Hamid, Mustafa, Suradi, Idris, Abdullah, and Ibrahim (2011)

2. Education, experience, certification and language knowledge Zemkov ́ and Tala ̆ov ́ (2011) 3. Campus infrastructures, faculty, academic ambience

Teaching and learning process and supplementary process Chartterjee et al. (2010)

4. University reputation / image, facilities on campus, quality of teaching and campus environment

Muhamad et al. (2004)

5. Faculty strength, students intake, number of PhD rewarded, number of patent applied, campus area and tuition fees

Das et al. (2011)

6. Teaching and learning, financial management, industrial relationship, management and students affairs, image appearance and MARA education standards (SPMA)

BPL(K) (2009)

7. Teaching and learning, financial management, entrepreneurship, industrial relationship, human resources, alumni and image

BKT (2010)

There are two different weighting approaches, objective and subjective. Objective approaches determine weights by solving a mathematical model. On the other hand, subjective approaches involve a decision maker selecting the weights based on their expertise, knowledge, past data, and experience. Table 2.2 and Table 2.3 shows the summary of MCDM and FMCDM methods in weighting approaches.

Table 2.2: Summary of MCDM Methods in Weighting Approaches

MCDM METHODS

No. Techniques Sources Description

1. Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP)

Wang and Song (2011) To obtain weights that can reduce the subjectivity and randomness of determining weight.

Bindu and Ahuja (2010) To evaluate performance based using AHP to identify multi-attribute of vendor.

2. Rough Set Technique (RST)

Zhiyong, Xudong and Ming (2009)

To determine the weights of attribute in order to avoid subjective evaluation.

Li and Mengsen (2008) To determine the index.

3. Ranking Method

Barron and Barret (1996) Can be categorized into three famous ranks: Rank Order Centroid (ROC), Rank Sum (RS), and Reciprocal of the Rank (RR).

Stranger (2002) Limitation of this method is that it is inappropriate for a large number of criteria and it lacks any real theoretical foundation.

4. Ratio Method Al-Kloub, Al-Shimmeri, and Pearman (1997)

Use as direct determination for assignment of the realative importance of attributes into numbers which are often calls as weights.

5. Rating Method

Saaty (1980) Introduce another way to elicit the relative weights: point allocation and direct rating methods.


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Table 2.3: Summary of FMCDM Methods in Weighting Approaches

FUZZY MCDM METHODS


1. Fuzzy AHP (FAHP)

Das et al. (2011) Integrate this approach to aggregate the weighted average.

2. Fuzzy Evaluation (FE)

Chu (1990) Combining the concept.

Biswas (1995), Othman et al. (2008) and Zemkov ́ et al. (2011)

Integrate a fuzzy rule that is derived automatically from input data and introduced normalizing data that dampen the extreme value that exists in the data in determining the weighted.

Biswas (1995) Suitable, simpler and easier to gather compared to the approach of fuzzy sets data constructed by the evaluators.

Aggregation method has three fundamental steps, namely, (1) identification of alternatives for selection and criteria, (2) the assignment of the numerical measures to the relative importance of the criteria, and (3) combination of identified weights of criteria with the performance alternative. Table 2.4 and Table 2.5 show the summary of MCDM and FMCDM methods in aggregating approaches.

Table 2.4: Summary of MCDM Methods in Aggregating Approaches

MCDM METHODS


1. Weighted Mean Method

Zhang, Sun, and Jin (2007)

To come out the fusion of the minimum average mean variance that identified for multi-sensor.

2. AHP Saaty (1980) Proposed and used in aggregation phase.

3. Weighted Average Method

Wu, and Mendel (2010)

Possibly the pioneer, most widely used form of aggregation fusion and used in a lot of problem that are many techniques to prioritize and aggregation performance.


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Table 2.5: Summary of FMCDM Methods in Aggregating Approaches

FUZZY MCDM METHODS


1. Fuzzy AHP (FAHP)

Leung and Chao (2000) Fuzziness is uncertainty in the judgement preference and gives rise to uncertainty in ranking the alternative as well as difficulty in determining consistency of preference. In logistic performance evaluation of logistic enterprise, the integrated system also uses FAHP to determine KPIs.

2. Fuzzy TOPSIS (FTOPSIS)

Vikneswari (2009), Hwang and Yoon (1981), Wang and Chang, (2007), and Sun (2010).

Uses in the aggregation evaluation method.

3. Fuzzy Weighted Average (FWA)

Chen (2000) Is an important topic in both fuzzy logic theory and application and also is a function of fuzzy numbers.

Guh, Hon and Lee (2001); Guu (2002); Chu and Chang (2004); Cheng and Hung (2005); Liu and Mendel (2008); Liu, Mendel, and Wu (2012) and Guh and Ze (1998)

It is useful as an aggregation method agreed by most of the researchers with different diciplines of studies.

According to Table 2.4 and Table 2.5, the Weighted Average (SWA) method has been selected in this study after considering the advantages and disadvantages of different methods and it is widely used in aggregation and suitable to use as conventional weighted average functions. Thus, it may be used to rate indicators and their relative weighting indicators are presented as crisp values (Wu & Mendel, 2010; Klir & Folger, 1988). The crisp value can no longer be used to represent the status of the decision making environment due to data imprecision and decision under uncertainty. Therefore, Fuzzy Weighted Average (FWA) is used as an aggregation technique and this technique can evaluate the performance of technical institutions (Guh et al., 1996; Lee & Park, 1997; Guh et al., 2001; Guu, 2002).

3. METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research Design

There are four main phases in evaluating the performance of technical institutions. The identification phase involves reviewing the relevant literature on the current performance evaluation of the institutions. Then, secondary data would be collected from MARA Performance Analysis of KPIs, which reported 2010 KPIs and sub-indicators used by the institutions to measure their performances. Since these indicators do not have any measure and its importance, the construction phase of the study was carried out.

A set of questionnaires was designed to determine the relative importance of the indicators and sub-indicators. The questionnaires were sent to the respondents. The primary data collected from the respondents


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were used in the prioritization phase to generate the weights of the indicators. In this situation, the weights of the indicators were represented by two approaches of simple average in crisp values and simple fuzzy average in fuzzy numbers. In the last phase, all weights were utilized in the aggregation phase by SWA and FWA methods to evaluate the performance of technical institution. Then the results were analyzed.

3.2 Performance Indicators

The questionnaires were used to determine the weights of indicators and sub-indicators. The questions were distributed among DDAAs of IKMs throughout Malaysia. The rating used in the questionnaires was as shown in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Rating of Importance Weight for Each Indicator in Crisp Value

Rating Linguistic variable

5 Very Important (VI)

4 Important (I)

3 Fair (F)

2 Unimportant (UI)

1 Very Unimportant (VU)

Based on Table 3.1, the respondents were required to give their preference according to the linguistic variables from Very Important (VI) to Very Unimportant (VU) in the questionnaire. The scores given by the respondents were used to obtain the relative importance of the indicator. Then, the linguistic variables were used to determine the importance of weight for each indicator (Maznah & Aziz, 2004). This study used triangular fuzzy number because of the significance of multi-criteria method in evaluating the performance of the university lecturers. The following Table 3.2 and Table 3.4 show the triangular fuzzy numbers for the importance of weights for each indicator and for the rating of performance of the institutions.

Table 3.2: Rating of Importance Weight for Each Indicator in Fuzzy Numbers

Triangular Fuzzy Numbers

Linguistic variable

(0.6, 0.8, 0.8) Very Important (VI)

(0.4, 0.6, 0.8) Important (I)

(0.2, 0.4, 0.6) Fair (F)

(0, 0.2, 0.4) Unimportant (UI)

(0, 0, 0.2) Very Unimportant (VU)

Source: Maznah et al. (2004)

Table 3.2 shows a positive triangular fuzzy numbers in linguistic variable for the importance of the weight of indicator. The triangular fuzzy numbers were used in calculating the weights of the main indicators and sub-indicators. The decision makers individually made their own choice of the linguistic variables.


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3.2.1 Data Analysis Technique

There are two techniques to determine the importance of weights of each indicator and sub-indicator. Based on the literature, the techniques are Simple Average Technique and Simple Fuzzy Average Technique. According to these techniques, the weights or the relative importance of the indicator and the sub-indicator are defined using linguistic terms from Very Important (VI), Important (I), Fair (F), Unimportant (UI) to Very Unimportant (VU). The processes of each technique adopted in this research are discussed in the following sessions.

3.2.1.1 Simple Average Technique

Before focusing on SWA method to evaluate the performance of technical institutions, the technique of simple average was used to determine the weights of the indicators. Microsoft Excel was used as a calculation tool and the following steps show the process in defining the weights of the indicators.

Step 1: Main Indicators:

Let be the average rating in crisp numbers for raw data of main indicators M, M=1, 2, .., p evaluated by evaluators k, k = 1, 2, .., n. The final weights for main indicators, were as follows:

∑

(3.1)

∑ and ∑ 1 (3.2)

Where n: total number of evaluators p: number of main indicators

The formulation (3.1) was used to evaluate the final weights of the indicators (3.2) where the average rating of the main indicators were divided by the total value of average rating, , and the same operation was used for all main indicators.

Step 2: Sub Indicators

Let as average raw rating evaluated by evaluators k, k = 1, 2,.., n. for sub-indicators i, i = 1, 2, ..,q

related to main indicator M, M = 1, 2, .., p. The raw weight of sub indicator or the total summation of

was always equal to 1 and the calculation of

and was as follows:

∑ (3.3)

∑

and ∑

1 (3.4)

Where n: total number of evaluators p: total number of main indicators q: number of sub indicator , q 3 The formulations (3.3) and (3.4) were used for all sub-indicators. Then, the final weight, for sub-indicators i, i = 1, …,q of main indicators M, M = 1, 2, …, p was defined as follows:

(3.5)


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The final weight , was obtained when the raw weight of sub indicators , was multiplied with the final weight of main indicators, .

3.2.1.2 Simple Fuzzy Average Technique

According to several authors (Chen, 2000; Maznah et al., 2004), the linguistic terms are used to express the relative weight of the indicators as well as sub-indicators as triangular fuzzy numbers, and the membership function could be any value in the interval [0, 1].

A triangular fuzzy number can be defined by triplet ( 1, m, u) where 1 for lower fuzzy number, m, for mean fuzzy number and u for upper fuzzy number. Basic knowledge is conversion between the linguistic variable and triangular fuzzy number based on Figure 3.2.

Let = ( , , ) as raw data of main indicator. The membership function in Figure 3.3 could be any value in the interval [0, 0.8], where 0.8, ∈ ; 0, ∈ . Thus an element of in the interval [0, 0.8], may be weakly (near 0), a member of or may be strongly (near 0.8) an element of (Maznah et al., 2004).

Given any two triangular fuzzy numbers, , , ) and , , , then:

+ = ( , , ) Addition

= ( , , ) Multiplication

= ( , , ) Subtraction

= ( , , ) Division


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Step 1: Main Indicator

The decision makers individually assumed their own choice of the linguistic variables (refer Table 3.2). Let as the average fuzzy weight of main indicator M, M =1, 2, .., p evaluated by evaluators k, k = 1, 2, .., n

formulated as follows:

∑

(3.6)

Where n: total number of evaluators p: number of main indicators The formulation (3.6) was used to evaluate the final weights of all main indicators in fuzzy numbers. These fuzzy weights were converted to crisp values by using the Center of Gravity (COG) defuzzification method as discussed in Section 3.5.

Step 2: Sub Indicators

Let as average fuzzy weight evaluated by evaluators k, k = 1, 2,..., n for sub-indicators i, i = 1, 2, ..,q

related to main indicator M, M = 1, 2, .., p. The formulation is given as follows:

∑

(3.7)

Where n: total numbers of evaluators p: number of main indicators q: number of sub indicator In order to discuss the relative importance of the indicators, these fuzzy weights were converted to crisp values by using the Center of Gravity (COG) defuzzification method as discussed in Section 3.5. For the purpose of using the fuzzy weights in performance evaluation of the selected institutions, the fuzzy weights of the sub-indicators must be multiplied with the fuzzy weights of the main indicator as in the following equation

(3.8)

The same operation was conducted for all sub-indicators.

3.3 Performance of Institution

The objective of this study is to evaluate the performance of technical institutions. Initially, the indicators identified were allocated weights. The data collection was designed to evaluate the performance of the selected institutions based on the identified indicators. The respondents were asked to rate the institutions in two formats: crisps and fuzzy. The same respondents who evaluated the relative importance of the performance indicators were chosen to evaluate the performance of the institutions. They were Deputy Director of Academic Affairs (DDAAs) of 12 IKMs throughout Malaysia. All the evaluators involved in academic and management affairs, and the evaluators answered the questionnaires based on their perception. The respondents or the evaluators were asked to rate the performance of the selected institutions by choosing the suitable linguistic variables. The linguistic variables and the representations in crisps and triangular fuzzy numbers are shown in Table 3.3 and 3.4 respectively.

Based on Table 3.3, the data collection instruments in crisp value were used to evaluate the performance of technical institutions. The evaluators were required to give their preference using the


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linguistic variables from Very Poor (VP), to Very Good (VG). The next Table 3.4 shows the performance rating in fuzzy numbers.

Table 3.3: Linguistic Variable Used for Rating Performance in Crisp Value

Rating Linguistic variable

1 Very Poor (VP)

2 Poor (P)

3 Fair (F)

4 Good (G)

5 Very Good (VG)

Table 3.4: Linguistic Variables for the Rating Performance Using Fuzzy Numbers

Triangular Fuzzy Number

Linguistic variable

(0, 0, 2) Very Poor (VP)

(0, 2, 4) Poor (P)

(2, 4, 6) Fair (F)

(4, 6, 8) Good (G)

(6, 8, 80 Very Good (VG)

Source: Maznah et al. (2004)

According to Table 3.4, the linguistic variables represent the level of performance of the institutions under study. The second column of Table 3.4 contains the symbols which represent the fuzzy numbers.

3.3.1 Data Analysis Technique

3.3.1.1 Simple Weighted Average (SWA) Technique

The term `weighted average’ usually refers to a weighted arithmetic mean (Encyclopaedia of Weighted Arithmetic Mean, 2012). Essentially a simple weighted average (SWA) involves the assignment of different levels of importance or weights to various components that are used to arrive at a final answer or solution to a question or problem. This analysis is used to evaluate the achievement of technical institutions.

Step 3: Crisps Value

In order to determine the performance of the institution, the value of performance rating ( for each institution and final weights of each sub-indicator ( were multiplied to get the overall performance of IKMa where a = 1, 2, .., c. The overall performance of IKMa is given as:

IKM ∑ ∑ (3.9)

Where p: number of main indicators q: number of sub indicator


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The overall performance of IKMs obtained after the performance rating score by the evaluators and the final weights were multiplied. The highest performance was considered the best performance according to SWA technique approach.

3.3.1.2 Fuzzy Weighted Average (FWA) Technique

The evaluation of overall performance of technical institutions used Fuzzy Weighted Average (FWA). The analysis was shown in Step 3 below.

Step 3: Fuzzy Values

The following step shows the formulation of overall performance of IKM :

IKM ∑ ∑ (3.10)

Where p: number of main indicators q: number of sub indicator

The overall performance of IKM was calculated where the value of rating performance ( and final weights of each sub-indicator ( were multiplied to get the overall performance of IKMa where a = 1, 2, …,c. The evaluation of performance of technical institution used fuzzy numbers.

3.4 Defuzzification

Defuzzification or dissolution of fuzzy numbers was done by using Center of Gravity (COG) technique. It is most commonly used to normalize fuzzy decision numbers. The formulations (3.6) to (3.10) were used to dissolve the fuzzy numbers. Normalization technique using COG was recommended as the simplest way to dissolve fuzzy numbers in assessing effectiveness in service management (Wu, Hsio, & Kuo, 2004). This technique is an accurate result based on the weighted values of several output membership functions as follows:

(3.11)

(3.12)

The defuzzification was done in the same way for the main indicators. The symbols of and represented upper and lower triangular fuzzy numbers for the main indicators, respectively. While the symbols of and represented upper and lower triangular fuzzy numbers for the sub-indicators. The symbols of represented mean of the triangular fuzzy number.

3.5 Findings and Analysis

The two main findings of the study were the weights of the identified performance indicators and the overall performance of the selected institutions. In each part, the results were represented in crisps and in triangular fuzzy numbers, so comparison analysis could be conducted to compare the finding in non-fuzzy and fuzzy settings.


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4. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

The results of this study were based on the overall view of previous and current evaluations of achievement of MARA Technical Institutions of 12 MARA Technical Institution (IKM) throughout Malaysia namely, IKM Beseri Perlis (IKM1), IKM Alor Setar Kedah (IKM2), IKM Sik Kedah (IKM3), IKM Sungai Petani Kedah (IKM4), IKM Lumut Perak (IKM5), IKM Kuala Lumpur Wilayah Persekutuan (IKM6), IKM Jasin Melaka (IKM7), IKM Johor Bahru Johor (IKM8), IKM Besut Terengganu (IKM9), IKM Tan Sri Yahaya Ahmad Pahang (IKM10), IKM Kuching Sarawak (IKM11) and IKM Kota Kinabalu Sabah (IKM12). The Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) were used as the indicators to measure the performance of the 12 institutions. As shown in Table 4.1, there were 5 main indicators and 14 sub-indicators that were identified as the finalized result from the previous years 2009, 2010 and 2013 for this study.

Table 4.1: Identified Indicators of Performance of Technical Institutions Indicator

(Mi) Sub Indicator

(Mik) Achievement Performance of High Skill Institution Number of sub-

indicators M1

M11 M12 M13

Teaching and Learning Student Achievement :Dean List ( GPA ≥ 3.5) Student Achievement: Graduate (CGPA ≥ 3.0) Student Achievement: Graduate (CGPA ≥ 2.0)

3

M2 M21 M22 M23

Financial Management Managerial Cost Equipment and training aids Maintenance Tools

3

M3 M31 M32 M33

Industrial Relations Maintenance Tools Dividend payments to the cooperative numbers Participant in Creative and Innovative Competition

3

M4 M41 M42

Human Resource In-House Training Attend the Courses/Seminar/Workshop/Lecture

2

M5 M51 M52 M53

Reputation Winning in the national competition Participating in the international competition Recognition by external parties

3

Total number of sub-indicators 14

The finalized results showed the differences in the evaluations of achievement of technical institutions with regards to the indicators and the sub-indicators. The changes happened because of the decision agreed in the senate meeting by the directors of IKMs. The changes were approved and endorsed by the senate committee. Although as a result of this meeting the KPIs were changed, there was no study conducted on the relative importance of the indicators prior to changing the KPIs.

4.1 Analysis of Respondent’s Profile

The respondent’s gender, age, year of services, grade of position, and academic background were discussed. The questions were sent to all 12 institutions, but only 9 institutions responded. All of the nine respondents were the MARA DDAAs of IKMs throughout Malaysia. The analysis of respondent’s profile shows that, most of the respondents had technical-based qualification indicated by ‘J’ grade followed by others who were in ‘DG’ for education-based and ‘E’ for economy-based qualification.


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It shows that the grade position may influence the identification of the indicators of performance in technical institutions (Jennifer, 2003). The academic qualification is an important element to upgrade IKM to a university college (Berita Harian 2013, June 12). The approval of academic qualifications especially the degree holders was an important consideration in upgrading the institute to university college. The following section focuses on the indicators and sub-indicators used in this study.

4.2 Analysis of Identified Indicators and Sub-Indicators

The following Figure 4.1 illustrates the hierarchy of structure evaluation in this study.

Figure 4.1: The hierarchy structure evaluation of technical institution

Figure 4.1 illustrates the hierarchy structure of the achievement evaluation of the technical institution. There were five indicators and fourteen sub-indicators identified in this study. This hierarchy structure was summarized according to the whole analysis of identified indicators and sub-indicators as mentioned previously.


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4.3 Weights of Performance Indicators

4.3.1 Analysis of main indicator and sub indicators in crisp and fuzzy values

Figure 4.2: Summary of raw weights by using simple average technique and raw defuzzifed weights of performance indicators by fuzzy simple average technique (in second row)

Based on Figure 4.2, the result shows that two techniques were used to determine the relative importance of the indicators; the simple average technique and fuzzy simple average technique. The results of crisp value and defuzzified weights were compared and ranked. Then the performance of institution was analyzed.

4.4 Performance of Institutions

4.4.1 Simple Weighted Average (SWA)

The following calculation of the overall performance by using SWA is given as follows.

Step 3:

IKM ∑ ∑ (4.1)

Where p: number of main indicators q: number of sub-indicator

For example: a = 1

0.090 4 0.092 5 0.090 5 0.061 5 0.064 1 0.064 5 ⋯ 0.057 50.055 1 0.060 5 3.695


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4.4.2 Fuzzy Weighted Average (FWA)

Step 3:

The following step shows the formulation of overall performance using FWA method. The overall performances of institutions were obtained as follows:

IKM ∑ ∑ (4.2)

Where p: number of main indicators q: number of sub-indicator

For example: a = 1

IKM 4, 6, 8 0.334, 0.605, 0.640 6,8,8 0.347, 0.622, 0.640 6, 8, 8 0.334, 0.605, 0.622⋯ . . 6, 8, 8 0.228, 0.460, 0.605

15.064, 39.106, 53.370

The defuzzification technique was used to dissolve fuzzy numbers:

(4.3)

For example (k =1) then,

. . . . 15.064 35.847

According to the given formulation, the value of fuzzy final weights of each indicator ( ) was multiplied with rating performance ( . Then the obtained data was defuzzified and ranked.

4.5 Comparison Analysis

The comparison analysis focuses on the evaluation among the evaluators, weights of KPIs, and the overall performances of IKMs. The differences occurred in terms of performance and ranks of the main indicators and sub-indicators. The comparative analysis of evaluation by the evaluators on the main indicators and sub-indicators is very important to help researchers identify the consistency of the results. To check for consistency of the evaluations, crisp and fuzzy numbers were compared.

In this analysis, the weights of the relative importance of the indicators were defined. The weights assigned to the main indicator using simple weight average and simple fuzzy weight average techniques are shown in Table 4.2.


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Table 4.2: Comparison Table for Final Weights of Performance Indicators

Weights of performance indicators Simple average Simple fuzzy average

Final crisp weights

Rank Final fuzzy weights Final defuzzified weights

Rank

0.272 1 (0.600, 0.800, 0.800) 0.733 1

0.090 2 (0.334, 0.605, 0.640) 0.526 2

0.092 1 (0.347, 0.622, 0.640) 0.536 1

0.090 2 (0.334, 0.605, 0.622) 0.520 3

0.190 2 (0.556, 0.756, 0.800) 0.704 2

0.061 3 (0.296, 0.554, 0.622) 0.510 3

0.064 1 (0.321, 0.588, 0.622) 0.536 1

0.064 1 (0.321, 0.588, 0.640) 0.536 1

0.181 4 (0.511, 0.711, 0.800) 0.674 4

0.059 2 (0.204, 0.427, 0.605) 0.442 2

0.059 2 (0.204, 0.427, 0.586) 0.435 3

0.062 1 (0.227, 0.458, 0.622) 0.468 1

0.186 3 (0.533, 0.733, 0.800) 0.689 3

0.091 2 (0.261, 0.505, 0.622) 0.548 2

0.095 1 (0.284, 0.537, 0.640) 0.515 1

0.172 5 (0.489, 0.689, 0.779 0.652 5

0.057 2 (0.206, 0.429, 0.605) 0.458 2

0.055 3 (0.196, 0.413, 0.570) 0.435 3

0.060 1 (0.228, 0.460, 0.605) 0.479 1

Both techniques gave different weights for the main indicator and sub-indicators. The rank of performance indicators based on final weights shows that teaching and learning (M1) was the first rank followed by financial management (M2), human resource (M4), industrial relationship (M3) and the last rank was reputation (M5). While for the sub indicators of teaching and learning and industrial relationship, CGPA ≥ 2.0 (M13) and dividend payments (M32) were also in the third rank in fuzzy approach respectively. The other sub indicators show the same rank for both techniques. The hierarchy structure in Figure 4.1 and Table 4.20 shows that the degree of importance was recognized by the respondents to enhance the performance of the institutions, as indicated by the weights. A comparative analysis was also made to see the overall performance of technical institution. Table 4.3 demonstrates the results.


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Table 4.3: Comparison Analysis of the Overall Performance of the Institutions by using existing method, SWA and FWA

As shown in Table 4.3, 12 the overall performance of the institutions were compared and analyzed. Four institutions (IKM2, IKM3, IKM5 and IKM7) were automatically dropped from the list of overall performance due to insufficient information in 2010 report (Appendix 4 and 5). Based on the table, IKM10 had the highest rank among IKMs using the three techniques of SWA, FWA and existing method while the least performed technical institution was IKM12.

Using the existing method, IKM1, IKM4 and IKM6 were differently ranked as compared to the two methods of SWA and FWA which produced the same ranking but with different final scores. By using fuzzy approach, the final scores of the institutes were larger as compared to those in non-fuzzy approach, while the rank analysis shows that these four IKMs had the same result. Although IKM 8 to IKM 12 had the same rank based on the three methods, the weight of the indicators influenced the calculation of the overall performance since no same scores exist. Besides that, the weights of the main indicator and sub-indicator enhance the performance of the IKMs since their relative importance were considered in evaluating the performance of the institutions.

5. CONCLUSION

This study was a re-evaluation research of the secondary data of MARA Performance Analysis of KPIs for the year 2010 by using both weighted fuzzy and weighted non fuzzy approaches. The weights of the KPIs were computed and were considered in finding the overall performance of the selected institutions. Even though both methods gave about the same results especially in the ranking of the institutions, but the overall performance values of the institutions as well as the weights of the indicators were different. Fuzzy approach is recommended as the analysis method if the evaluator(s) are not certain with their evaluation, and the nonfuzzy approach is preferable in a definite condition. Furthermore, it is recommended that the analysis study on the performance evaluation is carried out every year so that important indicators are focussed as the main indicators. The authorities involved in identifying performance should be aware with weighted indicators. They may use this technique to evaluate achievement of technical institution. Each indicator is allocated different weights based on the importance of these indicators.

IKMa

Performance of Institutions

Existing method

Rank SWA (Crisp)

Rank FWA (Defuzzified)

Rank

IKM1 51 4 3.695 5 35.847 5 IKM2 Dropped IKM3 Dropped IKM4 46 6 3.405 7 32.523 7 IKM5 Dropped IKM6 52 2 3.844 3 37.375 3 IKM7 Dropped IKM8 51 4 3.765 4 36.431 4 IKM9 46 6 3.424 6 32.804 6 IKM10 55 1 3.984 1 39.539 1 IKM11 52 2 3.870 2 37.799 2 IKM12 45 8 3.334 8 31.925 8


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In the future, it is also recommended that the respondents should involve Directors and Deputy Directors of Students Affair (DDSAs) of the IKMs as well, so that the results could be generalized accurately and the potential researchers may also develop a decision support system for management team namely the Director, DDAA and DDSA of the IKMs, in order to solve the indicator selection problem. This system may be able to identify the best indicators, help to shorten the duration of selected indicators and at the same time determine the important weights of the indicators. This system also can be developed in every institution, can be extended for future project and can help to monitor the result consistently. Furthermore others MCDM methods such as Fuzzy TOPSIS (FTOPSIS) or New Fuzzy Weighted Average (NFWA) could be extended and explored as the suitable technique rather than a simple fuzzy approach.


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Appendix 4: Secondary Data of 2010 Crips Performance Rating of the Institution.

Appendix 5: Secondary Data of 2010 Fuzzy Numbers Performance Rating of the Institution.

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ISSN : 2289 – 2818, Volume 3, Issue 01(June 2014)

www.mara.org .gov.my/en/publication

Tool Wear when machining AlSi/AlN Metal Matrix Composite 10wt% reinforcement using TiN cutting tool

M.S.Said¹, J.A.Ghani2, M.A. Selamat3, M.M.Amzari4, N.N.Wan5 1,4,5Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Spanish Institute

2Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

3Structural Materials Programme, Advance Materials Research Centre (AMREC), SIRIM Berhad

E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Aluminum Silicon (AlSi) alloys Metal Matrix Composite (MMC) has been widely used in various industrial sectors such as transportation, domestic, aerospace, military, construction, etc. Aluminum silicon alloy is MMC reinforced with aluminum nitride (AlN) particle and becomes a new generation material for automotive and aerospace applications. The AlN material is one of the advanced materials with light weight, high strength, high hardness and stiffness qualities which have good future prospects. However, the high degree of ceramic particle reinforcement and the irregular nature of the particles along the matrix material that contributes to its low density are the main problems that lead to the machining difficulties. This paper examines tool wear when milling AlSi/10%AlN MMC material using a TiN-coated carbide cutting tool which is developed by SIRIM. The volume of the AlN-reinforced particle was 10%. The milling process was carried out under dry cutting condition. The TiN-coated carbide insert parameters used were the cutting speed of 230 to 370 m/min, while the feed rate and depth of cut were at 0.6 mm/tooth of 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5mm respectively. The Sometech SV-35 video microscope system was used for tool wear measurements. The results revealed that the tool wear increases with the cutting speed (230 m/min, feed rate 0.6 mm/tooth and depth of cut 0.3mm). This constituted the optimum condition for longer tool life which is 82.5 min. While at the medium cutting speed of 300m/min, the feed rate of 0.6 mm/tooth and the depth of cut of 0.5mm, the tool wear is 46.87min while the high cutting speed 13.66min. The small cutting speed gives the best parameter for cutting AlSi/10%AlN MMCs materials. This result shows the effect of temperature during the machining. The low cutting speed may cause the built up edge (B.U.E) to occur.

Keywords: AlSi/AlN Metal Matrix Composite miling process, tool wear, TiN-coated cemented carbide tool


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1. INTRODUCTION

Metal matrix composites (MMCs) have been increasingly used in industries because of their improved properties over those of the non-reinforced alloys (Metin Kok, 2010). The demand for the MMCs increased from 4.1 million kilograms of materials in 2007 to 4.4 million kilograms in 2008 and was expected to increase to 5.9 million in 2013, with the compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 5.9%. It is reflected following the increase in number for ground transportation, thermal management and aerospace due to the MMCs (BCCresearch, 2009), engineering applications such as cylinder block linears, vehicle drive shaft, automotive piston, bicycle frame etc (Metin Kok, 2010; BCCresearch, 2009; Kocazac et al., 1993). High hardness aluminum oxide (Al2O3) or silicon carbide (SiC) particle is commonly used to reinforce aluminum alloys, but the full application of such MMCs is, however, cost-sensitive because of the high machining cost (Metin Kok, 2010; Hung et al., 1995). In general, MMCs consist of two materials which are chemically and physically distinctive, and yet are suitably distributed to provide properties not obtainable with either of the individual phases, fibrous or particulate phase in the form of continuous, discontinuous fiber, whiskers, particles, distributed in a metallic matrix which includes light metal such as aluminum, magnesium, titanium, copper and their alloys (Chawla et al., 2006; Sahin & Sur, 2003; Patel & Patel, 2012). The main interesting features of the MMCs are high strength to weight ratio, excellent mechanical and thermal properties over the conventional material and alloy, improved fatigue and creep characteristics, and better wear resistance (Patel & Patel, 2012 ; Chawla et al., 2006).

A good matrix should process the ability to deform easily under applied load, transfer the load onto the fibers and evenly distribute stress concentrations (Patel & Patel, 2012; Autar, 2006). Aluminum alloy reinforced with alumina and silicon carbide and its reinforcement with aluminum nitride (Al/AlN) have been extensively investigated by the scientific community, as their integration shows some excellent mechanical properties and thermal properties (Wahab et al., 2009). Heat sink is an example of MMCs used in the electronic application, where the compound of Al2O3/ (Al/AlN) metal matrix composites is used. The aluminum composite is the most popular material, due to the fact that it provides higher strength, stiffness and fatigue. Heat sink is an example of MMCs used in the electronics application, where the compound of Al2O3 (Al/AlN) metal matrix composite is the most popular material, due to the fact that it provides higher strength, stiffness and fatigue resistance (Surappa, 2003).

Although a variety of reports on the use of AlN as the reinforcement for Al alloy composites have been published, the lack of knowledge concerning the characteristics of these new materials is quite well-established. The reason for this is the presence of hard Al2O3 particle in the aluminum matrix. Issues like the material fabrication or machinability and the development of these materials still remain to be unresolved dilemma to the manufacturers. Many of them claim that MMCs are harder and stiffer than the conventional materials, further causing the cutting tool to be easy to break and wear out (Venkatesh, 2003). Tool wear in machining is defined as the moment of volume loss of tool material on the contact surface due to the interaction between the tool and work piece. Tool wear is the most critical quality measurement in many mechanical products. Among the different forms of tool wear, flank wear is a significant measure because it affects the dimensional tolerance of the work piece (Tomadi et al., 2011). In the machining of MMCs, flank wears (VBmax) of the cutting tool increase with the increase in the cutting speed (Tomadi et al., 2011; Seeman et al., 2010). At lower cutting speed, tool wear is reduced, which can be attributed to the formation of larger sized, unstable built up edge (B.U.E) due to the high contact pressure and friction. The different abrasive wear grooves on the flank face can be seen while turning the Al/SiC metal matrix composite material at low cutting speed (50 m/min). In the meantime, when the cutting speed increased to 150 m/min, the abrasion and adherence of work material on the flank face were seen, mainly due to the generation of high contact pressure and temperature between the work and tool (Tomadi et al., 2011; Seeman et al., 2010). The measurement of tool wear is based on the ISO 8688-2 criteria for milling machine tool life is 0.3mm flank wear.


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On the other hand, dry machining is becoming important due to the awareness towards the environment and workers’ health (Jaharah et al., 2011; Gundlach & Janowak, 1985). Cutting fluid also adds another 16-20% of the manufacturing cost (Jaharah et al., 2011; Gundlach & Janowak, 1985) and associated cost with the cutting fluid, which sometimes exceeds the cost of labor and tooling. Carbide tool is important in its machining applications due to its availability and low cost as compared to other cutting tool materials such as the CBN (Jaharah et al., 2011). Ti-based hard coating is widely used in tools, dies and mechanical parts to enhance their lifetime and performance due to its special properties such as high hardness, high wear resistance and chemical stability (Mubarak & Hamzah, 2005).

This paper will present the machining factor affecting the machinability of 10wt% AlN reinforced with the AlSi alloy machined in the end-milling process and using TiN coated cemented carbide of the cutting insert. The machining characterization is evaluated in terms of the flank wear of the cutting tool.

2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

2.1 Materials and Milling Process

In the AlSi MMC, the composition of the matrix of the MMC was experimentally found to contain 11.1% Si, and 0.02% Zn apart from traces of other elements. The chemical composition of this AlSi alloy is shown in Table 1. The reinforcement was a particulate aluminum Nitride with the grain size ranging <10 µm and with the purity of >98%, and was fabricated using the stir casting method. To increase the mechanical properties of this AlSi MMC, heat treatment was conducted. Table 2 shows the mechanical properties of material AlSi/10%AlN MMC material.

Table 1. Chemical composition of the Material

Elements Fe Si Zn Mg Cu Sn Co Ti Cr Al

wt % 0.42 11.1 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.016 0.004 0.0085 0.008 Balance

Table 2. Mechanical properties

AlN (%) Hardness

(HV) Tensile Stress

(Mpa) Ductility

(%)

10 112 146±8 6.2

The experiment was carried out in a CNC Vertical Milling Center KONDIA B-640. A cutting insert was attached to the tool body diameter Ø20mm. The tool holder used was CoroMill R390-020C4-11L and the tool insert was TiN-coated cemented carbide developed by SIRIM technology using an uncoated insert ISO catalogue no: R390-11T08E-NL H13A. The machining was conducted at three different cutting speeds (230, 300 and 370 m/min) with constant feed rate (0.6 mm/tooth) and depth of cut (0.3, 0.4 and 0.5mm) under dry cutting condition.

The material being worked was fabricated in the form of block measuring 100mm length x 150mm width x 50mm thickness. The result of the flank wear of TiN-coated cemented carbide was measured using the Sometech SV-35 video microscope system.


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Figure 1. Experimental set up for the tool wear measure in the milling process

Figure 1 shows the experimental set up for measuring the tool wear until the tool life fulfills the tool life criteria of flank wear VBmax = 0.3 mm. Tool geometry of TiN insert is shown in Figure 2.

Tool type Titanium Nitride (TiN)

Manufacturer Sandvik

Rake Positive

Nose radius 0.2 mm

Wi 6.8 mm

BS 0.7 mm

LE 11.0 mm

S 3.59 mm

Lead angle 90°

Base Material EH520, fine-grained carbide, WC10%CO

Figure 2. Tool geometry of TiN insert

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1 Experimental Results Effect of Machining Parameter Flank Wear (VBmax)

The effect of time on wear can be seen in three stages: initial, steady state and worn-out regions (Tomadi et al., 2013). Figure 3 shows the result of the flank wear of TiN coated cemented carbide measured using the Sometech SV-35 video microscope system. The results show that the TiN coated cemented carbide cutting speed 370 m/min, takes 13.66 min to achieve 0.3mm VBmax and lower cutting speed 230 m/min take 82.5 min to wear. Based on the result we found, when the cutting speed increases, the wear rate will also increase and this will result in the shorter time for the machine to wear.


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The flank wear is caused by the abrasive nature of the hard AlN particle present in the work materials. When cutting MMCs with coated carbide, the coating was removed from the tools, and the dominating wear occurred on the flank face of the tool (Hung et al., 1995). The moment of volume loss of tool material on the contact surface is due to the interaction between the tool and work (Sathish Kannan, 2006) as shown in Figure 4.

(a)Two body wear (b) Three body wear

Figure 4. Abrasive wear mechanisms

The results have revealed that the tool wear increases with the cutting speed (230 m/min, feed rate 0.6 mm/tooth and depth of cut 0.3mm) and this constitutes an optimum condition for longer tool life which was 82.5 min. While at the medium cutting speed of 300m/min, the feed rate 0.6 mm/tooth and the depth of cut 0.5mm, the tool wear is only at the mean of 46.87min while the high cutting speed gives 13.66min of the mean tool wear. The small cutting speed gives the best parameter for cutting AlSi/10%AlN MMCs materials.

For the cutting speed of 370 m/min, the feed rate of 0.6 and the depth of cut 0.5, it was found that the time taken for the machine to wear was 58.52 min. It means that the high cutting speed does not affect the tool wear, because the medium cutting speeds as well as the low cutting speed.

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

1 20 40 60 80

Fla

nk

Wea

r (V

Bm

ax)

Time (min)

cutting speed 230m/min



Surface 1

Surface 2 Surface 2

Surface 1

Rolling particle

Figure 3. Flank Wear (VB max) Vs. Machining


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Figure 5. Cutting view of TiN-coated cemented carbide

Figure 5(a) shows the view of TiN coated cemented carbide developed by SIRIM before cutting. It was observed using Sometech SV-35 video microscope while Figure 5(b) and 5(c) show the built up edge (B.U.E) of 230 and 300 m/min cutting speed, feed rate 0.6 m/tooth and depth of cut 0.3 and 0.5mm.

The increasing feed rate may increase the tool wear due to the B.U.E formed on the flank face that changes the geometry of the tool (Tomadi et al., 2011). Most commonly it occurs at intermediate cutting speed – sliding may occur at extremely low speed, a built-up edge at intermediate speed and a flow zone at high speed (Sathish Kannan, 2006).

4. CONCLUSION

The machinability of the AlN-reinforced aluminum metal matrix composite (MMC) using TiN coated cemented carbide insert has been evaluated. The following observations have been made:

i. The flank wear occurs at a high cutting speed. It was exceed to VBmax 0.3mm at 13.66min. To compare the low cutting speed 230 m/min it was recorded to have taken 82.5 min.

ii. The results showed the effect of TiN coating in producing the B.U.E. This result shows the effect of temperature during the machining process. The low cutting speed may lead to the occurrence of the B.U.E.

a cb


33

REFERENCES

Metin Kok. (2010). Tool life modeling for evaluation the effects of cutting speed and reinforcements on the machining of particle reinforced metal matrix composites. International Journal of Minerals, Metallurgy and Materials, 17( 3), 353, doi: 10.1007/s12613-010-0318-4.

BCC Research. (Feb 2009). Metal matrix composites: The global market (Report code: AVM012D). Retrieved from http://www.bccresearch.com/market-research/advanced-materials/metal-matrix-composites-market-avm012d.html

Joshi, S. S., Ramakrishnan, N., Sarathy, D., & Ramakrishnan, P. (1995). Development of the technology for discontinuously reinforced aluminium composites. The First World Conference on Integrated Design and Process Technology, 297.

Kocazac, M. J., Khatri, S.C., Allision, J.E., & Bader, M.G. (1993). MMCs for ground vehicle, aerospace and industrial application, Fundamentals of Metal Matrix Composite. Guildford, UK, pp297.

Hung N. P., Boey F.Y.C., Khor K.A., et al. (1995). Machinability of cast and powder-formed aluminium alloys reinforce with SiC particle. Journal Material Process Technology, 48, 291.

Chawla N., & Chawla K.K.. (2006). Metal Matrix Composite in ground Transportation. Journal of Manufacturing, 67-70.

Sahin Y., & Sur G. (2003). The effect of Al2O3 TiN and Ti based CVD coating tool on wear in machining metal matrix composites, Surface and Coating Technology, 179, 349-355.

Patel, P. R., Patel, V. A. (2012). Study on machinability of metal matrix composite in turning: A Review. Journal of Information Knowledge and Research in Mechanical Engineering, 2(1).

Tomadi, S.H., Ghani, J.A., Che Hassan, C.H., & Daud A.R. (2013). Optimization of cutting parameter on tool life and surface roughness in end milling of AlSi/AlN MMC-Taguchi method and grey relational Analysis. 1st International Conference Robust Quality Engineering, UTM, pp. 6-10.

Autar Kaw K. (2006). Mechanics of composite material, Taylor & Francis Group.

Wahab, M. N., Daud, A.R., & Ghazali, M. J. (2009). Preparation and Characterization of Stir Cast – Aluminum Nitrade Reinforced Aluminum Metal Matrix Composites. Journal Int. of Mechanical and Material Engineering (IJMME), 4(2), 115-117.

Surappa, M.K.. (2003). Aluminum Matrix Composites: Challenges and Opportunities. 28, Part 1 & 2, 319-334.

Venkatesh, R., Hariharan, A.M., & Muthukrishnan, N. (2009). Machinability Studies of AlSic (20p) MMC by using PCD insert (1300 grade). Proceeding of the World Congress on Engineering. London, U.K.

Tomadi, S.H., Ghani, J.A., Che Hassan, C.H., & Daud, A.R. (2011). Effect of Machining Parameter On Tool Wear and Surface Roughness of Al-AlN Reinforce MMC In End Milling Machining. Journal Engineering E-transaction, Electronic Journal of University Malaya (EJUM).

Jaharah, A.G., Mohd Nor Azmi Mohd Rodzi, Abdul Rahman A., Mohd Nizam Ab.Rahman & Che Hassan, C.H. (2009). Machinability of FCD 500 ductile cast iron using coated carbide tool in dry machining condition. International Journal of Mechanical and Material Engineering (IJMME), 4(3), 279-284.

Gundlach, R.B, Janowak, J. (1985). Metal Progress, International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, 41, 1003-1014.

Komanduri, R., & Desai, J. (1983). Tool Master. Encyclopedia Chem. Technology, 23, 455- 642.


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Mubarak, A. & Hamzah, E. (2005). The effect of nitrogen gas flow rate on the properties of TiN-Coated high-speed steel (HSS) using cathodic ARC evaporation physical vapor deposition (PVD) technique. Surface Review and Letters, 12(4), 631-643.

Edward Trent, M., & Paul Wright K. (2000). Metal Cutting, 4th Ed.

Seeman, M. & Ganesan, G. & Karthikeyan, R. & Velayudham, A. (2010). Study on tool wear and surface roughness in machining of particulate aluminum metal matrix composite-response surface methodology approach, Int. Journal. Adv. Manuf. Technology, 48, 613–624.

Sathish Kannan. (2006). Machining of metal matrix composite: Force, tool wear and attainable surface. (Thesis of Doctor of Philosophy). The University of New Brunswick.

MARA Innovation Journal ISSN : 2289 – 2818, Volume 3, Issue 01(June 2014) www.mara.org .gov.my/en/publication

MENANGANI KEGELINCIRAN AKIDAH

DALAM KALANGAN PELAJAR MENERUSI

INTEGRASI SAINS DAN PRINSIP TAUHID

Shafiah Abdul Rashid1, AzmanYusof, Dr2, Zanaton Hj Iksan, Dr1

1Fakulti Pendidikan, UKM

2Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Malaysian Institute of Chemical and Bioengineering Technology

ABSTRAK

Pendidikan memainkan peranan yang penting dalam pembangunan sesebuah negara. Apa yang dirangka dalam sistem persekolahan menjadi penentu utama kejayaan masa hadapan generasi harapan bangsa. Melalui sistem pendidikan yang baik, individu berpeluang meningkatkan kualiti hidup, menjadi ahli masyarakat yang berjaya dan mencapai taraf hamba Allah yang diredhaiNya. Sebaliknya sistem pendidikan yang pincang akan melahirkan individu yang tidak berkualiti, anggota masyarakat yang tempang dan gagal mencapai keredhaan Allah. Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan Malaysia telah menegaskan keperluan prinsip bersepadu dalam melahirkan insan yang harmoni jasmaninya, emosinya, rohaninya dan inteleknya. Ia wajar dihayati dan diperkasakan memandangkan para sarjana pendidikan telah mengiktiraf falsafah ini sebagai bersifat holistik serta bertunjangkan al-Quran dan al-sunnah. Justeru artikel ini membincangkan peranan sekolah dalam mendidik pelajar, prinsip pendidikan bersepadu dan isu yang melingkarinya, diikuti dengan beberapa cadangan untuk menangani kegelinciran akidah menerusi mata pelajaran Sains. Seterusnya artikel ini diakhiri dengan contoh-contoh integrasi Sains dan prinsip tauhid dalam mata pelajaran Kimia. Dengan penulisan ini, prinsip bersepadu dalam Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan Malaysia menerusi integrasi sains dan prinsip tauhid diharap dapat dimartabatkan agar ia benar-benar mampu mengembangkan potensi pelajar secara seimbang dan menyeluruh sekali gus membasmi kegelinciran akidah dalam kalangan pelajar.

Kata kunci: Integrasi sains tauhid, pendidikan bersepadu, potensi pelajar.


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1.0 Pengenalan

Pendidikan adalah salah satu agenda besar yang mampu mengubah kualiti dan ketamadunan sesebuah bangsa di dunia. Manusia akan dianggap mundur sekiranya tiada pendidikan. Individu dan keluarga yang berpendidikan dan meletakkan ilmu sebagai cara hidup akan lebih mudah membuat satu keputusan yang tepat (Mohd. Khalid Nordin & Wan Hassan, 2007). Ikatan silaturahim dalam keluarga dan perpaduan dalam masyarakat juga akan menjadi lebih kukuh melalui sistem pendidikan.

Kesedaran terhadap perlunya sebuah falsafah yang dapat mendasari sistem pendidikan negara mula timbul berikutan terhasilnya Laporan Jawatankuasa Kabinet Mengkaji Dasar Pelajaran Kebangsaan (1979). Jawatankuasa ini mendapati kurikulum lama telah gagal membina warganegara yang bersemangat patriotik dan berakhlak mulia (Siti Alia Zaharuddin et al., 2012; Abdul Rahim Hamdan & Siti Norashikin Moin, 2007; Shahril @ Charil Marzuki & Habib Mat Som, 1999). Lantaran itu, rombakan besar-besaran telah dilakukan menerusi Kurikulum Baru Sekolah Rendah (KBSR) pada 1983 diikuti Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Menengah (KBSM) bagi memastikan modal insan yang bakal meneraju Negara kelak mempunyai keseimbangan antara aspek jasmani, emosi, rohani dan intelek (Yahaya Jusoh & Azhar Muhammad, 2010; Wan Mohd. Zahid Mohd. Nordin, 1988). Seterusnya FPK diisytiharkan secara rasmi pada 1987.

Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan (FPK) menukilkan bahawa;

Pendidikan di Malaysia adalah satu usaha berterusan ke arah memperkembangkan lagi potensi individu secara menyeluruh dan bersepadu untuk mewujudkan insan yang seimbang dan harmoni dari segi intelek, rohani, emosi, jasmani dan sosial berdasarkan kepercayaan dan kepatuhan kepada Tuhan. Usaha ini adalah bagi melahirkan rakyat Malaysia yang berilmu pengetahuan, berakhlak mulia, bertanggungjawab dan berkeupayaan mencapai kesejahteraan diri serta memberi sumbangan terhadap keharmonian dan kemakmuran masyarakat dan negara.

FPK dengan jelas dan nyatanya menekankan konsep pendidikan bersepadu berdasarkan kepercayaan dan kepatuhan kepada tuhan. Wujudnya unsur ketuhanan di dalam falsafah ini telah menyebabkan asas kepada sistem pendidikan di Malaysia menjadi berbeza daripada sistem pendidikan di Barat. Sistem pendidikan di Barat menggariskan bahawa ideologi intelek bersifat antroposenik, iaitu berpusat kepada manusia semata-mata malahan ideologi mereka jelas memutuskan hubungan individu dengan Tuhan (Maimun Aqsha Lubis et al., 2013; Khalijah Mohd. Salleh et al., 2011; Muhammad Naquib, 1989). Barat menggariskan intelek sebagai bersifat sekular yang terdiri daripada enam bahagian sahaja iaitu kognitif, mental, pemprosesan maklumat, berasaskan biologi, perkembagan kognitif dan interaksi sosial.

Sedangkan jika ditinjau daripada perspektif Islam, seseorang yang dikatakan intelektual perlu memiliki unsur hikmah iaitu ilmu yang sebenar. Ia berdasarkan daya pemikiran yang inovatif, logikal, analitis dan ilmu yang bermanfaat. Nik Aziz Nik Pa dan Noraini (2008) menjelaskan dalam perkembangan daya intelek, kita tidak harus mengetepikan unsur agama Islam dalam pendidikan. Ini disebabkan manusia adalah makhluk ciptaan Tuhan yang paling istimewa dan lahir dengan segala macam keistimewaan dan anugerah. Menurutnya, berdasarkan pendekatan tauhid, terdapat tujuh perkembangan intelek iaitu, hakikat teori kecerdasan, hakikat metafona kecerdasan, mitos tentang kecerdasan, hakikat insan, hakikat pintar cerdas, fungsi perkembagan individu, dan fungsi pembangunan keluarga.

Malangnya, daripada tinjauan yang dibuat, didapati wujudnya konflik dalam sistem persekolahan Malaysia kini. FPK telah menggariskan secara jelas keperluan pengembangan potensi pelajar secara menyeluruh dan bersepadu berdasarkan kepercayaan dan kepatuhan kepada Tuhan namun dari segi perlaksanaan, pendidikan di Malaysia masih lagi berkiblatkan sistem pendidikan barat yang bersifat sekular. Pengajaran ilmu dan agama diasingkan secara total dengan agama hanya diajar dalam matapelajaran Pendidikan Islam sedangkan dalam matapelajaran lain, perkataan Allah tidak pernah ditemui.


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Akibat pengasingan antara ilmu dan agama ini, jelas sekali senario pada hari ini memperlihatkan remaja sekolah tidak lagi mempunyai pegangan akidah yang mantap. Realiti ini dizahirkan oleh statistik keruntuhan akhlak dalam kalangan remaja sekolah yang semakin meningkat. Pendidikan di sekolah telah semata-mata menjadi satu cara yang hanya digunakan untuk mendapatkan ilmu yang boleh menghasilkan imbuhan material sahaja, sedangkan seharusnya sistem persekolahan mampu mendidik pelajar menjadi insan yang seimbang jasmani, emosi, rohani dan inteleknya (Yahaya Jusoh & Azhar Muhammad, 2010; Sidek Baba, 2010; Shaharir, 2009).

Di sebalik kebimbangan ini, tidak dinafikan bahawa sistem persekolahan Malaysia telah menempa beberapa kejayaan dalam melahirkan beberapa institusi dengan kemantapan jasmani, emosi, rohani dan intelek seperti MRSM Ulul Albab, Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama (SMKA), Kelas Aliran Agama (KAA), Sekolah Menengah Sains Integrasi, Sekolah Menengah Sains Agama, Maahad Tahfiz Kerajaan Negeri dan sebagainya. Namun begitu, sekolah-sekolah ini bersifat elit dengan hanya pelajar terbaik akademik dan kokurikulumnya sahaja diterima masuk. Maka bagaimanakah nasib jutaan lagi pelajar yang berada dalam sistem persekolahan arus perdana?

2.0 Peranan Sekolah Dalam Mendidik Pelajar

Sekolah merupakan organisasi pendidikan formal yang pertama dilalui oleh seseorang selepas melalui pendidikan tidak formal di rumah. Berlainan dari suasana rumah, sekolah memiliki budaya dan sosialnya yang tersendiri. Oleh itu kajian mengenai sahsiah pelajar di sekolah mestilah melihat sekolah sebagai suatu organisasi sosial yang mempunyai struktur pentadbiran yang tersendiri. Selain itu, meskipun sekolah adalah sebuah organisasi yang formal namun sekolah juga berperanan sebagai sebuah organisasi tidak formal yang wujud akibat daripada berlakunya interaksi sosial iaitu proses manusia bertindak atau bertindakbalas dengan orang lain sama ada antara individu atau kumpulan dalam organisasi itu.

Sistem interaksi di sekolah boleh dilihat sekurang-kurangnya daripada dua perspektif iaitu interaksi antara pelajar di dalam sekolah tersebut dengan pelajar sekolah lain atau interaksi antara pelajar di dalam sekolah yang sama. Interaksi di sekolah adalah penting kerana melalui kegiatan atau aktiviti ini, komunikasi dan kerjasama antara ahli-ahli akan dipupuk dan ini akan membantu pembentukan sahsiah dan emosi yang sihat di samping meningkatkan potensi intelek dan jasmani dalam organisasi sekolah tersebut.

Perkembangan jasmani, emosi, rohani dan emosi pelajar sekolah, sebenarnya merujuk kepada aspek perubahan pada diri pelajar itu sendiri sama ada perubahan itu positif atau ke arah negatif. Seandainya perubahan itu wujud ke arah positif maka ianya akan berusaha agar dapat berdikari dengan segala nilai positif yang murni (Mohd Khalid & Wan Hassan, 2007; Wan Azmi Ramli, 1992). Dengan itu sekolah berfungsi sebagai tempat untuk membentuk masyarakat pelajar yang sentiasa bersedia menghadapi perubahan dan pembaharuan.

Menurut Nik Aziz Nik Pa & Noraini (2008), kehidupan remaja banyak dipengaruhi oleh budaya sekolah dan amalan di bilik darjah. Budaya dan amalan yang melatari organisasi sekolah ini pula bergantung kepada kepimpinan sekolah sebagai pihak yang bertanggungjawab sepenuhnya dalam usaha untuk membentuk sekolah yang berdisiplin tinggi. Mohd. Nasir (2010) berpendapat bahawa faktor utama berlakunya kemerosotan akhlak dalam kalangan remaja adalah disebabkan kurang pengetahuan agama atau tiada didikan agama. Dengan kata lain, semakin tinggi kadar penghayatan Islam seseorang pelajar, semakin tinggi nilai akhlaknya dan begitulah sebaliknya.

Kaedah yang dianjurkan oleh para sarjana Islam ini sememangnya berbeza daripada saranan pengkaji Barat seperti Mark, Weber dan Maslow. Pemikir Barat ini berpendapat pembangunan manusia bermaksud perjuangan memenuhi keperluan jasmani manusia itu sendiri seperti memenuhi keperluan fizikal dan psikologi manusia, meningkatkan status kuasa dan agama di samping meningkatkan kelas sosial ekonomi yang menjadi tunjang dalam menentukan pembentukan dan perkembangan struktur sosial masyarakat manusia (Kamarul Azmi


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& Abdul Halim Tamuri, 2007). Aspek keagamaan tidak dilihat penting oleh barat dan tidak dimasukkan ke dalam kurikulum matapelajarannya. Natijahnya, masyarakat barat dilihat mengalami keruntuhan moral yang meruncing. Justeru bagi mengelakkan keadaan yang sama menimpa generasi muda negara ini, institusi sekolah dan amalan di dalam bilik darjahnya perlu menerapkan nilai-nilai keagamaan dengan penuh intensif ke dalam matapelajaran yang diajar.

3.0 Prinsip Pendidikan Bersepadu Dan Isu Yang Melingkarinya

Banyak pihak telah memberikan pelbagai takrifan berkenaan prinsip pendidikan bersepadu. Menurut Shaharir (2009), istilah Pendidikan Bersepadu atau Integrated Education atau Integrated Curriculum yang diamalkan di pelbagai negara di dunia membawa sekurang-kurangnya lapan maksud iaitu:

i) Pendidikan yang tidak memisahkan kaum-kaum dan kelompok misalnya antara kulit hitam dengan kulit putih, atau antara penganut Katholik dengan Protestan.

ii) Pendidikan yang tidak memisahkan subjek-subjek sains daripada pelajar misalnya Alam dan Manusia dalam KBSR Darjah 4-6 dan Sains Paduan.

iii) Pendidikan untuk pelajar kurang upaya (OKU).

iv) Pendidikan perubatan yang tidak memisahkan peringkat klinikal dengan bukan klinikal.

v) Pendidikan yang menyatukan ilmu dengan teknologi dan keperluan semasa.

vi) Pendidikan yang menggabungkan dua atau lebih bidang yang terpisah misalnya gabungan sains dengan sastera.

vii) Pendidikan sains yang berfokus kepada pelajar dan guru hanya bertindak sebagai pemudahcara.

viii) Pendidikan yang tidak mengabaikan nilai-nilai agama seperti Kristian dan Islam.

Dalam konteks Malaysia, prinsip pendidikan bersepadu yang dihasratkan dalam FPK ini adalah merujuk kepada maksud ke (viii) iaitu pendidikan yang mengangkat nilai-nilai agama yang dipilih mengikut kerangka ajaran Islam sebagai agama persekutuan sebagaimana yang termaktub dalam perlembagaan negara. Kenyataan ini diakui oleh sarjana-sarjana pendidikan di Malaysia misalnya;

“Pendidikan bersepadu ialah pendidikan yang bersumberkan, berpaksikan, dipimpin dan berlandaskan al-Quran dan as-Sunnah. Ia adalah sebuah konsep pendidikan yang diperkenalkan bagi mengatasi pengaruh sekularisme ke atas sistem pendidikan Islam.”

“Pendidikan bersepadu adalah pendidikan yang berteraskan ilmu wahyu, disepadukan ke arah disiplin-disiplin ilmu dan akal ke arah pembangunan komuniti ummah berteraskan aqidah.”

(Tajul Ariffin dan Noraini, 2006)

Rentetan dari Laporan Jawatankuasa Kabinet Mengkaji Pelaksanaan Dasar Pelajaran (1979) maka pada 1983, cubaan untuk mengaplikasikan prinsip bersepadu ini telah diutarakan menerusi strategi penerapan nilai-nilai murni. Konsep pendidikan bersepadu menerusi penerapan nilai-nilai murni ini dianggap penting kerana dengannya diharap peribadi dan sahsiah diri yang utuh, kental dan padu dapat dibentuk (Nik Zaharah, 2007; Lilia Halim, 2008).


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Malangnya, realiti yang berlaku memperlihatkan guru-guru hanya diminta menerapkan enam belas nilai murni yang merangkumi nilai baik hati, berdikari, hemah tinggi, hormat menghormati, kasih sayang, keadilan, kebebasan, keberanian, kebersihan fizikal dan mental, kejujuran, kerajinan, kerjasama, kesederhanaan, kesyukuran, rasional dan semangat bermasyarakat ke dalam aktiviti P&Pnya. Justeru timbul persoalan, “Adakah penerapan enam belas nilai murni ini benar-benar merupakan manifestasi kepada prinsip bersepadu mengikut takrifan sebenarnya?” Juga “Adakah guru selaku pihak pelaksana FPK memahami hasrat sebenar yang terkandung dalam prinsip bersepadu FPK tersebut?” Penerimaan guru dalam sesuatu inovasi pendidikan adalah penting, memandangkan guru memainkan peranan terpenting dalam menentukan kejayaannya. Dalam inovasi penerapan nilai murni, kejayaan tidak akan tercapai tanpa dokongan guru yang berwibawa dan berdedikasi (Tajul Ariffin Nordin, 2006).

Selain dari itu menurut Shaharir (2009), konsep asal sains bersepadu yang diperjuangkan oleh beliau dan rakan-rakannya sejak 1980an telah terpinggir disebabkan kurangnya kefahaman dalam kalangan penggubal kurikulum dan pelaksananya. Beliau menegaskan bahawa sorotan kepada pendidikan perlu dilakukan semula bagi memastikan pendidikan bersepadu berada di landasan yang betul mengikut prinsip dan gagasan yang asalnya iaitu sebelum KBSM diperkenalkan lagi. Ini disebabkan gagasan pendidikan bersepadu lahir hasil daripada gelombang kebangkitan semula Islam yang melanda seluruh dunia pada era 1970an. Al-Attas dalam Wan Mohd Nor Wan Daud (2005) telah pun mengingatkan bahawa kekeliruan dalam memahami konsep dan pengertian ilmu akan menjadikan proses penyampaian P & P tidak bermakna bahkan boleh membawa kepada kerosakan kepada keseluruhan sistem pendidikan Islam.

Seharusnya pelajar yang memiliki jasmani, emosi, rohani dan intelek yang seimbang adalah pelajar yang berpencapaian akademik yang cemerlang dan ditunjangi dengan pegangan akidah yang mantap. Pembangunan rohani dan intelek mereka perlu saling melengkapi antara satu sama lain bagi menjamin kualiti hidup yang cemerlang di dunia dan akhirat (Maimun Aqsha Lubis et al., 2008). Pembangunan rohani yang dimaksudkan di sini tidak terhad kepada enam belas nilai murni semata-mata dan tidak seharusnya diterapkan di dalam kelas matapelajaran Pendidikan Islam sahaja malahan perlu dizahirkan secara merentas kurikulum dalam semua matapelajaran di sekolah.

4.0 Menangani Kegelinciran Akidah Menerusi Matapelajaran Sains

Allah berfirman dalam surah al-Imran;

Sesungguhnya dalam penciptaan langit dan bumi, dan silih bergantinya malam dan siang terdapat tanda-tanda bagi orang yang berakal iaitu orang-orang yang mengingati Allah sambil berdiri atau duduk atau dalam keadaan berbaring dan mereka memikirkan tentang penciptaan langit dan bumi (sambil berkata): Ya Tuhan kami, tiadalah engkau menciptakan ini dengan sia-sia. Maha suci Engkau, maka peliharalah kami daripada seksa neraka.

(al-Imran: 190)

Ilmu sains merupakan alat untuk mencari jawapan kepada rahsia alam semesta. Al-Quran mengajar manusia untuk menggunakan akal fikirannya bagi mempelajari dan memerhatikan alam dan peraturannya supaya lebih mendekatkan diri dengan Tuhan selepas mengetahui dan memahami rahsia keagungannya. Hal ini disokong oleh kata-kata Einstein (1949) yang masyhur dalam bukunya World As I See iaitu;

“Agama tanpa sains itu buta, sains tanpa agama itu cacat.”


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Sains merupakan ilmu pengetahuan yang diperolehi daripada pengkajian dan penyelidikan terhadap alam tabi’i secara teratur dan bersistem (Wan Mohd. Aimran, 2012; Syed Naquib Al-Attas, 2007; Mohd. Sani Badron, 2006). Sedangkan alam yang teratur dan bersistem ini dimiliki oleh Allah yang Esa dan sifat Allah ini membayangkan ketunggalan Allah dan menafikan segala yang menyekutukannya (Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, 2007). Justeru seorang guru sains muslim seharusnya mampu memberi gambaran kepada pelajarnya bahawa pembelajaran sains merupakan suatu proses menyerap, memupuk dan menjelmakan adab sains yang berteraskan tauhid, iaitu sains adalah kajian alam tabi’i yang terpadu dengan konsep mengEsakan Allah.

Menurut Syed Naquib al-Attas dalam Wan Mohd Nor Daud Wan Daud (2005), Islam menggunakan kaedah tauhid dalam bidang pendidikan dengan semua pendekatan, strategi, kaedah dan teknik yang bersesuaian boleh digunakan tanpa membuat garis pemisah antara domain spiritual, intelektual dan saintifik seperti membaca, berdiskusi, melakukan eksperimen, berdoa, bercerita bermetafora dan lain-lain. Pendidikan sains berteraskan tauhid ini merupakan satu daripada strategi operasi yang mampu membekalkan ilmu dan membina keterampilan sains berteraskan konsep tauhid (Jawiah Dakir, 2012; Khalijah Mohd. Salleh, 2010; Lilia Halim, 2008; Nik Zaharah Nik Yaacob, 2007).

Oleh yang demikian, guru harus menyatukan prinsip tauhid dengan fakta-fakta saintifik dalam kelas dan makmal sains. Hal ini menuntut inisiatif dan kreativiti yang tinggi daripada pihak guru sendiri memandangkan pihak Kementerian Pendidikan tidak ada menyediakan modul, model atau bahan bantu mengajar yang melibatkan pendidikan sains berteraskan tauhid. Justeru, pelaksanaan hasrat ini menuntut kebijaksanaan seluruh barisan dan angkatan pendidikan untuk melakukan muhasabah terhadap pegangan dan amalan pendidikan yang digunakan selama ini bagi membolehkan potensi pelajar dikembangkan dengan lebih menyeluruh.

5.0 Contoh Integrasi Sains Dan Prinsip Tauhid Dalam Matapelajaran Kimia

Berikut ini disertakan contoh ringkas ayat-ayat al-Quran yang dapat digunakan oleh para guru dalam matapelajaran Kimia Tingkatan Empat berdasarkan dokumen Huraian Sukatan Pelajaran Kimia Tingkatan Empat (KPM, 2004). Sebahagian contoh penggunaan ayat-ayat al-Quran dipetik daripada kajian Nik Zaharah Yaacob (2007), Khalijah Salleh (2011) dan Mohd. Arip Kasmo (2001). Walau bagaimanapun ia hanyalah sebagai panduan sahaja kepada para guru. Kreativiti guru diperlukan bagi mengembangkan kaedah pengajarannya agar apa yang disampaikan dapat menyerap dengan baik dalam hati pelajar.

BAB 1: PENGENALAN KEPADA KIMIA

1. Pernyataan:

Kimia merupakan satu cabang ilmu sains yang mengkaji kepelbagaian bahan yang terdapat dalam alam semesta.

Ayat Quran yang relevan:

Allah telah menurunkan air (hujan) dari langit, maka mengalirlah ia (air) di lembah-lembah menurut ukurannya, maka arus itu membawa buih yang mengembang. Dan dari apa (logam) yang mereka lebur dalam api untuk membuat perhiasan atau alat-alat, ada (pula) buihnya seperti (buih arus) itu. Demikianlah Allah membuat perumpamaan tentang yang benar dan yang batil. Adapun buih, akan hilang sebagai sesuatu yang tidak ada gunanya; tetapi yang bermanfaat bagi manusia, akan tetap ada di bumi. Demikianlah Allah membuat perumpamaan.

Ar-Ra’d (17)


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2. Pernyataan:

Langkah-langkah penyelidikan saintifik adalah:

Membuat pemerhatian, membuat inferens, membuat hipotesis, mengenal pasti dan mengawal pembolehubah, merancang kaedah penyiasatan, mengumpul data, menganalisis dan mentafsir data, membuat kesimpulan dan menyediakan laporan.

Ayat al-Quran yang relevan:

Yang menciptakan tujuh langit berlapis-lapis. Tidak akan kamu lihat sesuatu yang tidak seimbang pada ciptaan Tuhan Yang Maha Pengasih. Maka lihatlah sekali lagi, adakah kamu lihat sesuatu yang cacat?

Al-Mulk (3)

Sesungguhnya dalam penciptaan langit dan bumi, dan silih bergantinya malam dan siang terdapat tanda-tanda bagi orang yang berakal iaitu orang-orang yang mengingati Allah sambil berdiri atau duduk atau dalam keadaan berbaring dan mereka memikirkan tentang penciptaan langit dan bumi (sambil berkata): Ya Tuhan kami, tiadalah engkau menciptakan ini dengan sia-sia. Maha suci Engkau, maka peliharalah kami daripada seksa neraka.

Al-Imran ( 190-191)

3. Pernyataan:

Seorang saintis mesti memiliki sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai murni.


Dan langit telah ditinggikanNya dan Dia ciptakan keseimbangan, agar kamu jangan merosak keseimbangan itu, dan tegakkanlah keseimbangan itu dengan adil dan janganlah kamu mengurangi keseimbangan itu.

Ar-Rahman (7-9)

BAB 2: STRUKTUR ATOM

1. Pernyataan:

Bahan terdiri daripada tiga rupabentuk jirim iaitu pepejal, cecair dan gas. Ketiga-tiga rupabentuk ini saling berubah menerusi proses pendidihan, pemelowapan, penyejatan, kondensasi dan pembekuan.

Ayat al-Quran yang relevan :

Tidakkah engkau melihat bahawa Allah menjadikan awan bergerak perlahan, kemudian mengumpulkannya, lalu Dia menjadikannya bertumpuk-tumpuk, lalu engkau lihat hujan keluar dari celah-celahnya, dan Dia (juga) menurunkan (butiran-butiran) ais dari langit, (iaitu) dari (gumpalan-gumpalan awan seperti ) gunung-gunung, maka ditimpakanNya (butiran-butiran ais) itu kepada siapa yang Dia kehendaki dan dihindarkanNya dari siapa yang Dia kehendaki. Kilauan kilatnya hampir-hampir menghilangkan penglihatan.

Annur (43).


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2. Pernyataan:

Teori zarah jirim menyatakan bahawa jirim terdiri daripada zarah yang halus dan diskrit.


Pada hari itu manusia keluar dari kuburnya dalam keadaan berkelompok-kelompok, untuk diperlihatkan kepada mereka (balasan) semua perbuatannya. Maka barang siapa mengerjakan kebaikan seberat zarah, nescaya dia akan melihatnya. Dan barang siapa mengerjakan kejahatan seberat zarah, nescaya dia akan melihatnya.

Al-Zalzalah (6-8)

3. Pernyataan:

Neil Bohr (1913) mencadangkan bahawa elektron-elektron bergerak mengelilingi nukleus dalam orbit tertentu. Pergerakan ini dapat dianalogikan seperti pergerakan bumi mengelilingi matahari atau bulan mengelilingi bumi.


Dan telah kami tetapkan tempat peredaran bagi bulan, sehingga (setelah ia sampai ke tempat peredaran yang terakhir) kembalilah ia seperti bentuk tandan yang tua. Tidaklah mungkin bagi matahari mengejar bulan dan malam pun tidak dapat mendahului siang. Masing-masing beredar pada garis edarnya.

Yaasin (39-40)

4. Pernyataan:

Elektron-elektron atom disusun di dalam petala mengikut urutan nombor tertentu, misalnya 2.8.8.2 atau 2.8.16.8.2 dan sebagainya. Setiap unsur mempunyai urutan nombornya yang tersendiri.


Maha suci Allah yang telah menurunkan al-Furqan (al-Quran) kepada hambaNya (Muhammad), agar dia menjadi pemberi peringatan kepada seluruh alam (jin dan manusia), yang memiliki kerajaan langit dan bumi, tidak mempunyai anak, tidak ada sekutu bagiNya dalam kekuasaan (Nya), dan Dia menciptakan segala sesuatu, lalu menetapkan ukuran-ukurannya dengan tepat.

Al-Furqan (1-2)

5. Pernyataan:

Ahli sains telah mengemukakan pelbagai teori atom. Banyak diantaranya telah dibuktikan sebagai tidak benar.


Katakanlah (Muhammad), sekiranya laut menjadi tinta untuk (menulis) kalimat-kalimat Tuhanku, maka pasti habislah lautan itu sebelum selesai (penulisan) kalimat-kalimat Tuhanku, meskipun Kami datangkan tambahan sebanyak itu (pula).

Al-Kahf (109)


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6.0 Penutup

Pelajar sekolah hari ini merupakan bakal pemimpin masa hadapan. Kejayaan atau kegagalan didikan guru hari ini hanya akan dapat dilihat kesannya beberapa tahun setelah mereka meninggalkan bangku persekolahan. Dalam keghairahan mengejar kemajuan sains dan teknologi, kita sudah tentu tidak ingin melihat generasi masa hadapan memiliki jiwa yang kosong terhadap Penciptanya. Justeru, kesedaran tentang Allah Yang Esa sebagai pencipta alam semesta harus sentiasa ditegaskan dan dinyatakan bukti-buktinya menerusi P & P sains. Oleh yang demikian guru sains harus bersikap proaktif dalam melengkapi diri dengan ilmu dan strategi bagi mengintegrasikan sains dengan prinsip tauhid. Adalah diharapkan dengan ini prinsip pendidikan bersepadu dalam FPK akan dapat diperkasakan dan impian melahirkan sebuah negara bangsa yang unggul akan berjaya dicapai.


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Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. (2001). Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan: Matlamat dan Misi. Kuala Lumpur: Pusat Perkembangan Kurikulum.

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Lilia Halim. (2008). Ilmu Pedagogi Kandungan Sains Untuk Pendidikan Bersepadu. Pendidikan Sains Berteraskan Tauhid, 149-166.

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Maimun Aqsha Lubis. (2008). The implimentation of Integrated Islamic Education. Bangi: National Universiti of Malaysia.

Mohd. Arip Kasmo. (2001). Pemantapan Akidah Menerusi Penghayatan Mu’jizat Sains Dalam al-Quran.Tesis PhD. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

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Shaharir Mohammad Zain.(2009). Kemajuan Pendidikan Sains Terkamir di Malaysia dengan Penekanan Khas Kepada Sains Matematik. Dlm Ahmad M.S & NasirM.M.T (2009). Pembudayaan Ilmu Membina Jatidiri Ketamadunan. Kolej Dar al-Hikmah, 206-243.

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Wan Mohd. Aimran. (2012). Beberapa Saranan Pengukuhan Bagi Kursus STPD 2143 Pengenalan Sains Tauhidik. Fakulti Sains Teknologi.Bangi: Universiti kebangsaan Malaysia.

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Yahaya Jusoh & Azhar Muhammad..( 2010). Kesepaduan Falsafah Sains al-Quran Dalam Kurikulum Sekolah Rendah Sebagai Asas Pembentukan Masyarakat Hadhari di Malaysia, Jurnal Hadhari (3).

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ISSN : 2289 – 2818, Volume 3, Issue 01(June 2014)

www.mara.org .gov.my/en/publication

CATHETER-RELATED BLOOD STREAM INFECTION IN PATIENTS WITH INTERNAL JUGULAR CATHETER

ADMITTED TO A TERTIARY HOSPITAL IN 2013

Imtinaan Zain Al-Aabideen1, Siti Nur Hajar Mohd Zain1, Hla Myint1, CL Loh2

1Universiti Kuala Lumpur Royal College of Medicine, Ipoh, Perak, Malaysia

2Nephrology Unit, Department of Medicine, Hospital Raja Permaisuri Bainun, Jalan Hospital, Ipoh, Perak, Malaysia

ABSTRACT

There is a growing number of patients in Malaysia who require haemodialysis, combined with an increasing number of patients who cannot use any vascular access other than a central venous catheter (CVC). Non-tunneled and tunneled catheters are commonly used for short-term as well as long-term venous access. Past research have shown that catheter-related bloodstream infections (CRBSIs) have an adverse effect on mortality in the haemodialysis population. This descriptive study is to highlight the infection rate and the most common causal microorganism as well as to evaluate the predictors for catheter survival related to device-related and host-related factors among patients who were admitted to Hospital Raja Permaisuri Bainun for CRBSI from internal jugular catheters (IJCs) from January to December 2013. One hundred and twelve patients fulfilling the criteria for CRBSI were chosen from the recorded data. The most common microorganism was Methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA) (23 cases with a rate of 20.54%). Prevention of CRBSIs is still difficult despite the use of rigorous infection-control techniques.

Keywords: Catheter-related bloodstream infections, central venous catheter, haemodialysis, non-tunneled and tunneled catheters, Methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus


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Introduction

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a major public health problem (Schieppati & Remuzzi, 2005). USA, Taiwan and Japan had the highest rate of prevalence of end stage renal disease ESRD (Collins, 2013). Renal replacement therapy which includes haemodialysis, peritoneal dialysis and transplantation is the definitive treatment for ESRD. Dialysis is the preferred treatment tool for ESRD in Malaysia. In 20th Report on Malaysian Dialysis and Transplant Registry, there were about 28,590 patients on dialysis in 2012 with the prevalence of 975 per million populations (Ngo, Meng, Leong, & Guat, 2013). Haemodialysis (HD) accounts for about 91% of dialysis patients and most of them were accepted to haemodialysis centres (Leong, Ngo, Meng, Ghazali, & Guat, 2013). However, not all patients enter HD with a native vascular access. Central venous catheters (CVCs) are used to commence and carry out HD in certain situations such as the elderly and diabetic patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) having poor vascular profile, medical emergencies arising as a result of unpredictable courses of chronic progressive renal disease and the ‘late referrals’, with little time left for the placement and/or maturation of a more secure permanent vascular access.

There are two types of central venous catheters (CVCs): non-tunneled (non-cuffed) and tunneled (cuffed) in HD. The percentage of patients on cuffed or non-cuffed CVCs has increased over the years but remained at 9% in the last 2 years (Choon, Sah, Abdullah, & Norleen, 2013).

Non-tunneled — Non-tunneled central catheters are placed percutaneously with the catheter exiting the skin in the vicinity of the venous cannulation sites. These catheters are the most common type of catheter used for temporary access to the central circulation.

Tunneled — Tunneled central venous catheters traverse a subcutaneous tunnel between the catheterized vein and the skin exit site.

Tunneled (or cuffed) haemodialysis catheters have been in use since 1987. Both non-tunneled, non-cuffed catheters and tunneled, cuffed catheters are associated with a number of complications, particularly catheter-related bacteremia. There are conflicting reports on what is a safe duration for the use of these catheters, and recommendations vary from 1 to few weeks (National Kidney Foundation (NKF) recommends <1 week and never >3 weeks). However, there are reports from certain parts of the world of much longer use and indeed using them for long-term dialysis (Rocco, & Levin, 2006). Despite these risks and international and national guidelines that recommend fistulas as the preferred form of dialysis access, the proportional use of tunneled catheters for dialysis access has steadily increased in many countries (Rayner & Pisoni, 2010). Because of improvements in design, the frequency of catheter-related bacteremia is now relatively less in patients with tunneled versus non-tunneled catheters. Two large, observational studies had found out that the frequency of catheter-related bacteremia was two to threefold lower in patients with tunneled dialysis catheters (Stevenson, Hannah, Lowder, Adcox, Davidson, Mallea,… Wagnild, 2002; Weijmer, Vervloet, & ter Wee, 2004).

There are multiple risk factors for CRBSIs ranging from patient’s factors (haemoglobin level, hypoalbuminaemia, previous episodes of bacteraemia, iron overload, recent surgery, peripheral atherosclerosis, immunosuppression, older age, hypertension and diabetes) to catheter’s factors (types of catheter and longer duration of catheter use) (Allon, 2004; Kozeny, Venezio, Bansal, Vertuno, & Hano, 1984; Tanriover, Carlton, Saddekni, Hamrick, Oser, Westfall, & Allon, 2000;Teehan, Bahdouch, Ruthazer, Balakrishnan, Snydman, & Jaber, 2004; Vats, 2012).

Tunneled, cuffed catheters are associated with a number of complications, mainly catheter-related bacteraemia. Several studies had been done on the clinical impact of catheter-related bacteremia in haemodialysis patients (Allon, 2004; Danese, Griffiths, Dylan, Yu, Dubois, & Nissenson, 2006). Infection of the CVCs was thought to cause an increase of >50% mortality in haemodialysis patients compared to patients on native fistulas and also causes significant morbidity in dialysis population (Astor, Eustace, Powe, Klag, Fink, & Coresh, 2005).


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Gram-positive organisms are responsible for most dialysis catheter-related infections. Coagulase-negative staphylococcal and S. aureus account for the majority of CRBSIs and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) infection is leading cause of mortality. Study conducted by Lok and Mokrzycki in 2011 stated that the causative agents that mostly account for CVC-related infection resulting from tunneled catheter were Gram-positive organisms (Lok, & Mokrzycki, 2011).

Many studies done on HD CRBSIs were rate of infection resulting from non-tunneled (non-cuffed) and/or tunneled (cuffed) catheters but little was done on comparative study of infection rate based on the site of insertion and types of catheters. The aim of this research is to study the risk factors for CVCs infection particularly of internal jugular catheter and its consequences among the HD population in Hospital Raja Permaisuri Bainun Ipoh.

Objectives

General Objective

To study the risk factors for internal jugular catheter infection in haemodialysis patients who were admitted to Hospital Raja Permaisuri Bainun (HRPB), Ipoh.

Specific Objectives

1. To assess the infection rate among haemodialysis patients with vascular access through internal jugular catheters from January to December 2013.

2. To identify the most common microorganism causing infection and mortality resulting from internal jugular catheter infection.

3. To evaluate the predictors of catheter survival relating to catheter-related and patient’s factors that contribute to better outcome or longevity of vascular access.


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Research Methodology

Study design

This is a descriptive study on risk factors in relation to the infection rate, the most common causal microorganism and predictors of catheter survival based on the hospital records among haemodialysis patients admitted for internal jugular vein catheter infection.

Study population and Sampling method

In this study, all samples of haemodialysis patients with internal jugular catheter who were admitted to Hospital Raja Permaisuri Bainun in January 2013 to December 2013 were chosen from the recorded data. The diagnosis was made based on the clinical presentation and semiquantitative laboratory confirmation. For catheter associated bloodstream infection (CABSI), some criteria must be specified.

Differential time to positivity. CRBSI is suggested when blood from the CVC demonstrates microbial growth at least 2 hours earlier than growth is detected in blood collected simultaneously from a peripheral vein. Most currently used automated blood culture systems can readily provide this information and it is likely that this will become a standard diagnostic test. (Bouza, Alvarado, Alcalá, Pérez, Rincón, & Muñoz, 2007; Ghazali, Rosnawati, Seng, Leong, Fairol, Shahnaz.,…Halijah, 2012).

All the patients on internal jugular vein catheter over a period of 1 year were included in the study by universal sampling.

Central Line Catheter-Related Bloodstream Infection (CRBSI) Rate per 1,000 Central-Line Days

For a particular time period, interest is in the total number of cases of CRBSIs. For example, if in February there were 12 cases of CR-BSIs, the number of cases would be 12 for that month. It should be able to understand that number as a proportion of the total number of days that patients had central lines. Thus, if 25 patients had central lines during the month and, for purposes of example, each kept their line for 3 days, the number of catheter days would be 25 x 3 = 75 for February. The CR-BSI Rate per 1,000 catheter days then would be 12/75 x 1000 = 160.

No. of CRBSI for X months

Total Catheter Days for X months

Case Definition

Catheter-related blood stream infection (CRBSI) (Ghazali, Rosnawati, Seng, Leong, Fairol, Shahnaz,… Halijah, 2012).

All patients who are currently receiving haemodialysis treatment via CVC in Ministry of Health facilities with CABSI

CABSI is defined as:

Clinical signs and symptoms of infection (fever, chills and/or hypotension) AND

A positive peripheral blood culture AND

No other apparent source of infection

X 1000Monthly CRBSI Rate:


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Sampling size

From the total number of patients admitted to the medical wards of HRPB for haemodialysis, 112 admissions with infected internal jugular catheter from all age groups were involved in this study.

Inclusion criteria

a) All haemodialysis patients with infected internal jugular catheter admitted to Hospital Raja Permaisuri Bainun in the year 2013

Exclusion criteria

a) Haemodialysis patients with current femoral or subclavian catheter insertion

b) Haemodialysis outpatients

c) Haemodialysis patients who were admitted from January to December 2013

Duration of study

The study was conducted from February 2014 until April 2014.

Ethical considerations

There is no ethical concern in this study. Patient’s data from the record will be kept strictly confidential. No data identifying the patient will be presented.

Results

Throughout year 2013, a total of 342 admissions with internal jugular catheter for haemodialysis were collected from all medical wards of HRPB. Of 112 admissions which were clinically diagnosed with infected internal jugular catheter, 85 (75.9%) cases were catheter-related blood stream infection (CRBSIs) with positive catheter and peripheral growth culture, while 27 (24.1%) cases showed negative growth or catheter growth without peripheral culture.

The total time to first infection rate is 14.9/1000 catheter-days with a mean of ±67 days (16.0/1000 catheter-days for non-cuff catheter, 11.8/1000 catheter-days for tunneled cuff catheter). These however counted for 55 admissions; 43 cases (38.4%) with less than 3 months of infection and 12 cases (10.7%) were equal or more than 3 months (missing data= 57 admissions). (Figure 1)

The mean for age group of the 112 admissions was 59.0 years ± 2.3 with a slight difference of the gender make-up; male gender (55.4%) and female (44.6%). More than three-quarters of the infected patients are Malays, followed by Indians (16.1%) while Chinese and foreigners are the least affected with both distributions are less than 10%. (Table 1).

96 of the admissions were patients with non-cuffed catheters and a majority of those admitted (62.5%) were dialysis patients in private haemodialysis centers. Most of the admissions had first catheter insertion to the right IJC (69.6%), which is in concordance to The National Kidney Foundation Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative (NKF KDOQI) guidelines for catheter site selection. The right side is preferred for its nearest access to the heart for blood circulation and exchange. (Table 2)


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A small percentage among the infected admissions had catheter insertion during emergency situation that required haemodialysis, without having underlying chronic kidney disease (5.4%). As the rest annotated CKD patients, the number of infected admissions with comorbid risk factors was also high in this study, with 75.9% diabetic, 87.5% hypertensive and 22.3% having cardiovascular disease. The lab findings for both serum haemoglobin and serum albumin recorded 65 admissions with ≤ 9.0g/dl and < 35g/dl respectively. (Table 3)

In this study, twelve microorganisms species were isolated as aetiologic agents for the IJC infection; five species were gram-positive microorganisms and seven species were gram-negative microorganisms (20.5%). 57 admissions (50.9%) had gram-positive infections and 23 (20.5%) had gram-negative infections. Polymicrobial microorganisms were found in five admissions (4.5%). The most commonly isolated microorganisms are Staphylococcus aureus (20.5%) and Methicillin resistant S. aureus (13.4%). Coagulase negative staphylococci also caused a high number of infections (15.2%) which methicillin-resistant type was dominant (Table 4).

17.1% (19 patients) died as a result of CRBSI. The mortality rate for gram negative organism was 13%. Despite the highest number of S. aureus isolated from the blood cultures, MRSA recorded the highest mortality rate (46.7%), which followed by coagulase-negative staphylococci (MRCNS) (23.5%) Two admissions with Acinetobacter baumannii infection ended with total mortality (100%). The negative growths also resulted in mortality, however, it is due to other sources of infection. (Figure 4)

Figure 1: HD Catheter Duration at the Time to First Infection

Catheter duration at time of infection

38.4%

10.7%

50.9%

< 3months

≥ 3months

Missing


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Table 1: Distribution of patients according to socio-demographic factors

Baseline

characteristics

No. of admissions (%)

n = 112

Age

<40 years old

40 – 64 years old

≥65 years old

Gender

Male

Female

Ethnicity

Malay

Chinese

Indian

Others

5 (4.5%)

66 (58.9%)

41 (36.6%)

62 (55.4%)

50 (44.6%)

79 (70.5%)

8 (7.1%)

18 (16.1%)

7 (6.3%)


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Table 2: Distribution of patients according to haemodialysis-related variants

* Unrecorded

ᴥ (Astor, Eustace, Powe, Klag, Fink, & Coresh, 2005; Napalkov, Felici, Chu, Jacobs, & Begelman, 2013)

PRN: pro re nata, as needed for one patient with acute renal injury

NGO: non-governmental organization

Baseline characteristics No. of admissions (%)

n = 112

Type of catheter

Cuff

Non‐cuff

Site of catheter insertion

Right

Left

Missing*

Frequency of haemodialysis

3 times per week

Twice per week

Once per week

PRN

Place of HD

MOH

Private

NGO

Catheter duration at time of

infection ᴥ

< 3months

≥ 3months

Missing*

16 (14.3%)

96 (85.7%)

78 (69.6%)

26 (23.2%)

8 (7.2%)

94 (83.9%)

4 (3.6%)

0 (0.0%)

14 (12.5%)

41 (36.6%)

70 (62.5%)

1 (0.9%)

43 (38.4%)

12 (10.7%)

57 (50.9%)


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Table 3: Distribution of patients according comorbid risk factors

ψIschaemic heart disease

φSystemic lupus erythematosus

*unrecorded

Comorbid risk factors No. of admissions (%)

n = 112

Risk Factors

Diabetes mellitus

Yes

No

Hypertension

Yes

No

Cardiovascular diseaseψ

Yes

No

Autoimmune disease φ

Yes

No

Laboratory Findings

Haemoglobin

< 9.0g/L

≥ 9.0g/L

Albumin

< 35g/L

≥ 35g/L

Missing*

85 (75.9%)

27 (24.1%)

98 (87.5%)

14 (12.5%)

25 (22.3%)

87 (77.7%)

2 (1.8%)

110 (98.2%)

65 (58.0%)

47 (42.0%)

65 (58.0%)

33 (29.5%)

14 (12.5%)


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Figure 2: Distribution of Admissions by Age and Gender

Figure 3: Distribution of Admissions by Ethnicity

Distribution of age and gender

3

36

23

2

30

18

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

<40 40 - 64 65 and above

Age group

Fre

qu

en

cy

Male

Female

Distribution by Ethnicity

71%

7%

16%

6%

Malay

Chinese

Indian

Others


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Table 3: Bacterial isolates from 112 blood cultures

Microorganisms n = 112

%

No Growth

Gram positive microorganisms

Methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA)

Coagulase-negative staphylococci

Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA)

Bacillus spp.

Enterococcus spp.

Gram negative microorganisms

Enterobacter spp.

Klebsiella spp.

P.aeruginosa

Stenotrophomonas spp.

Acinetobacter spp.

Corynebacterium spp.

Alcaligenes xylosoxidans

Polymicrobial growths

27

57

23

17

15

1

1

23

7

5

3

3

2

2

1

5

24.11

50.89

20.54

15.18

13.39

0.89

0.89

20.54

6.25

4.46

2.69

2.69

1.79

1.79

0.89

4.46


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Figure 2: Outcome of Patient with Infected IJC by Causative Agents

MRCN (S), methicillin-resistant coagulase-negative staphylococci

Discussion

The medical records of 112 admissions to Hospital Raja Permaisuri Bainun for CRBSI from internal jugular catheters (IJCs) were identified in 2013 for a descriptive study on the baseline characteristics (socio-demographic profiles, haemodialysis related and comorbid risk factors) and mortality rate.

The mean incidence of CRBSI for “temporary”- untunnelled catheters (UTCs) has been reported to be 5.0 episodes/1000 catheter-days (range, 3.8 – 6.5/1000 catheter days) and 3.5/1000 catheter-days (range, 1.6 – 5.5/1000 catheter-days) for “permanent”- tunneled cuffed catheters (TCCs) (Butterly, & Schwab, 2000; Saad, 1999). Klevens et al. had shown that vascular access associated bacteraemia rate was 4.6 per 100 patients-months for cuffed CVC and 7.3 per 100 patients-months for non-cuffed CVC (Astor, Eustace, Powe, Klag, Fink, & Coresh, 2005). Haddad NJ et al. stated that catheter-related bacteraemia (CRB) was 3.8 – 6.6 episodes/1000 days for acute non cuffed catheters and 1.6 – 5.5 episodes/1000 days in patients with tunneled dialysis catheter (TDC) (Haddad, Cleef, & Agarwa, 2012).

Our study shows higher total time to infection rate in 1000 catheter days. Hence, the infection rate was higher than those in other reports. There are still some infected IJC cases that were not included in this study due to under-reporting.

In this study, a high number of infected patients used UTCs, which had higher rate of CRBSIs compared to TCCs. The finding was similar to most studies of CRBSIs cases with catheter-related factor (Abdul, Ping, Anis, Muhammad, Yan, Siti.,… Periyasamy, 2014; Haddad, Cleef, & Agarwa, 2012; Jean, Charra, Chazot, Vanel, Terrat, Hurot, & Laurent, 2002; Katneni, & Hedayati, 2007; Lok, & Mokrzycki, 2011).

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Pe

rce

nta

ge

(%

)

No

grow

thS.

aure

us

MR

SA

MR

CN

Ent.

Faec

alis

Ente

roba

cter

spp

Kelb

siel

la s

ppP.

aeru

gino

saC

oryn

ebac

teriu

mAc

inet

obac

ter s

ppBa

cillu

s sp

pM

ixed

gro

wth

sSt

enot

roph

omon

as

Alca

ligen

es X

ylos

oxid

ans

Bacterial growth

Outcome of patient infection with causative microorganism

Treated

Death


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The cause of this high infection rate may also be attributed to the risk factors in patients. While this is a descriptive type of study that did not find the association between the risk factors and CRBSI, it was found out that more than half of the study population is diabetic and hypertensive. The findings are in concordance with the national HD patients’ profiles (Ngo, Meng, Leong, & Guat, 2013). A previous study by A Halim et al. and Jean et al. had shown that HD catheter infections were more common in patients with diabetes mellitus (Katneni, & Hedayati, 2007; Jean, Charra, Chazot, Vanel, Terrat, Hurot, & Laurent, 2002). The association between diabetic patients as predisposing factor to infections is due to the suppressed immunological state. According to an epidemiologic study of CRBSIs in chronic haemodialysis patient by Katneni et. al, several risk factors have been proposed to cause infection (Figure 5)(Katneni, & Hedayati, 2007). In addition to that, other risk factors can also increase rate of catheter infection (Allon, 2004; Kozeny, Venezio, Bansal, Vertuno, & Hano, 1984; Tanriover, Carlton, Saddekni, Hamrick, Oser, Westfall, & Allon, 2000; Teehan, Bahdouch, Ruthazer, Balakrishnan, Snydman, & Jaber, 2004; Vats, 2012).

Besides that, most of the infected patients are also anemic and/or have hypoalbuminemia. Most of chronic kidney disease patients have already establised anemia due to the chronic disease. For autoimmune associated disease, the patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) with renal involvement were included in this study. However, assessment of immune status of such patients was beyond the scope of this research.

Figure 3: Relationships between Factors associated with Hemodialysis Central Venous Catheter-related Blood Stream Infection

A study conducted by Lok and Mokrzycki in 2011 stated that the causative agents that mostly account for CVC-related infection resulting from tunneled catheter were gram-positive organisms (52 – 84%), with Staphylococcus aureus accounting for between 21% and 43% in most series, and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) reported in approximately 12 – 38% (Lok, & Mokrzycki, 2011). Qasaimah et al. had shown that the causative organisms in HD CRBSIs were predominantly gram-positive cocci, followed by gram-negative bacilli and polymicrobial infections (Marr, Sexton, Conlon, Corey, Schwab, & Kirkland, 1997). Katneni et al. reported that gram-positive organisms are responsible for two-third of CRBSIs cases, especially S. aureus and S. epidermidis (coagulase-negative staphylococci species) (Swartz, Messana, Boyer, Lunde, Weitzel, & Hartman, 1994). In addition to that, a study by Saxena also ranged 21.9 – 60% of catheter infections caused by single gram-positive organism, i.e. S. aureus (Allon, 2004).

Gram positive organisms are responsible for most dialysis catheter-related infections. Coagulase-negative staphylococcal and S. aureus together account for 40 to 80% of cases in most studies (Abdul, Ping, Anis, Muhammad, Yan, Siti,…Anita, 2014; Allon, 2004; Beathard, 1999; Cheesbrough, Finch, & Burden, 1986;


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Jean, Charra, Chazot, Vanel, Terrat, Hurot, & Laurent, 2002; Marr, Sexton, Conlon, Corey, Schwab, & Kirkland, 1997). In a study done by Inrig JK et al., the unadjusted 12-week mortality for dialysis catheter-related S. aureus bacteremia was 23% (Almirall, Gonzalez, Rello, Campistol, Montoliu, Puig de la Bellacasa J., …Gatell, 1989).

MRSA infection has also become an important pathogen in this study population (Collins, Forrest, Klevens, Patel, Arduino, Fosheim, … Lucero, 2005). Non-staphylococcal dialysis CRBSIs are due predominantly to enterococci and gram-negative rods (Allon, 2004; Beathard, 1999; Almirall, Gonzalez, Rello, Campistol, Montoliu, Puig de la Bellacasa, … Gatell, 1989; Cheesbrough, Finch, & Burden, 1986; Dryden, Samson, Ludlam, Wing, & Phillips, 1991; Inrig, Reed, Szczech, Engemann, Friedman, Corey, … Fowler, 2006; Marr, Sexton, Conlon, Corey, Schwab, & Kirkland, 1997; Poole C.V., Carlton D., Bimbo L., & Allon, 2004; Swartz, Messana, Boyer, Lunde, Weitzel, & Hartman, 1994). Gram-negative organisms accounted for 30 to 40% of all episodes of CRBSIs and 10 to 20% of episodes were polymicrobial in several case series (Cheesbrough, Finch, & Burden, 1986).

The best explanation for the high prevalence of gram-positive infection in our studied microorganisms was that the source of infection was mostly originated from the skin flora of the patient. The study of common causative microorganisms in catheter infection is very important as it is not only essential for further management but also for prevention. In a study by Jean et al., nasal carrier of S. aureus is an important risk factor for HD CRBSIs, not only for gram positive infections, but also for gram negatives and polymicrobial infections (Jean, Charra, Chazot, Vanel, Terrat, Hurot, & Laurent, 2002). Thus, screening patients for carrier status is important and must be a routine procedure before accepting a patient into the HD program.

While gram positive organisms dominating most of causative microorganisms in catheter infections of internal jugular and other CVC sites worldwide, a local study reported oppositely (Abdul, Ping, Anis, Muhammad, Yan, Siti,… Anita, 2014).

In this study, most of the infected patients were treated (82.9%). However, the prevalence of mortality among these infected IJC patients was also high (17.1%). This is not as stated in the national HD vascular access complications reports, which stated reduction of complication rate in recent 10 years. Especially for vascular access infection, the occurrence of complication reported is less than 1% in the whole HD population (Collins, 2013). Most of the death cases were contributed by MRSA and MRCN sepsis. All cases of Acinetobacter baumannii infection, although in small number, perished. Infection with these resistant bacteria has become more common in hospital settings. The increased risk of mortality increased with longer duration of catheterization.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this descriptive study shows that internal jugular catheter is associated with a high rate of infection and mortality. In order to decrease the rate of infection and its complications, a proper procedure compliance with infection control precautions, must be tailored with appropriate management. In view of the risk factors, most effective methods of prevention seem to be the promotion of the infection control precautions by emphasizing the education of patients on the hygienic aspect and baseline control, as well as training the health providers.

Suggestions For Further Research

This research is the study on the risk factors for CVCs infection particularly of internal jugular catheter among the HD patients. Based on our findings, it is suggested that future works are still needed not only in evaluating the risk factors and the predictors of catheter survival but also for improving the patient care in Hospital Raja Permaisuri Bainun, Ipoh as well as other hospitals. Although this is a small study, most of its results are consistent with the findings from major dialysis centers. It is mandatory for those working at the dialysis unit not only to acknowledge but also to follow the standard protocol detailing all aspects of preventive measures on catheter-related blood stream infection (CRBSI) strictly in the long run.


59

Due to the time constraints, a descriptive study based on the hospital record was carried out to detect risk factors. However, we would like to recommend a prospective study in order to cover a wide range of risk factors and complications in the field of catheter related bloodstream infections (CRBIs).

Acknowledgment

First and foremost, we are grateful to Allah, the Almighty for moving us to complete this research. We wish to express our sincere thanks to Professor Dr. Sinniah, who is the coordinator for the SSM module for providing us with all the necessary facilities and constant encouragement.

Next, we place our record, our sincere gratitude to both our supervisors, Assoc. Professor Dr. Hla Myint, senior lecturer in internal medicine, UniKL RCMP and Dr. Loh Chek Loong, Head of Nephrology Unit, Hospital Raja Permaisuri Bainun for their efforts in guiding us. We are extremely grateful and indebted to them for their expert, sincere and valuable guidance and encouragement extended to us. They both have been tremendous mentors.

Our most heartfelt thanks also go to our college statistician, Dr. Sandheep Suganthan, a senior lecturer, for his advice on this project. Thank you for giving us ideas and ways for successful achievement of this project. We also owe our sincere gratitude to the doctors, nurses and staffs in the Nephrology and Haemodialysis Unit, Hospital Raja Permaisuri Bainun for their help during our data collection.

The completion of this project could not have been accomplished without the support of our parents for their both mental and financial supports. The countless calls to keep us motivated will not be forgotten. Our heartfelt thanks!

Lastly, we place on record, our sense of gratitude to one and all who, directly or indirectly, have lent their helping hand in this venture.


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vol 3 issue 01 june 2014

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