Vol. 4 #2 (June 2021)

Vol. 4 #2 (June 2021)

___________________________________________________________________________________________________ Technical Advisory Board Prof. Dr. Hans Peter Nachtnebel, Professor Emeritus,

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Prof. Dr. Uygun Aksoy, Retired Professor, Faculty of Agriculture, Ege University, Turkey

Dr. Ahmad Mahdavi, Professor Emeritus, University of Tehran, Iran

Dr. Walter Fernandes, Director, North Eastern Social Research Centre, India

Prof. Dr. Gordana Đurić, Professor, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Editor-in-Chief Prof. Dr. G. Poyyamoli, Retired Professor,

Department of Ecology & Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry University, India & Adjunct Faculty, JSS Academy of Higher Education& Research, Mysuru, India

Executive Editor Dr. Hasrat Arjjumend, Senior Fellow, Centre for

International Sustainable Development Law, Canada & Founder President, The Grassroots Institute, Canada

Associate Editor Dr. Maja Manojlovic, Assistant Professor & Head,

Department of Ecology and Environmental Protection, University of Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina

___________________________________________________________________________________________________ Editorial Board Dr. Suren N. Kulshreshtha, Professor, Department of

Agricultural and Resource Economics, University of Saskatchewan & Adjunct Professor, Department of Natural Resources Sciences, McGill University, Canada

Dr. Simon J. Lambert, Associate Professor, Department of Indigenous Studies, University of Saskatchewan, Canada

Dr. Corrine Cash, Professor, Faculty of Climate and Environment, St. Francis Xavier University, Canada

Dr. Jason MacLean, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Law, University of New Brunswick, Canada

Charlie Greg Sark (Mi'kmaq-Settler), Assistant Professor, School of Climate Change & Adaptation, University of Prince Edward Island, Canada

Dr. Yuliya Rashchupkina, Assistant Professor, Political Science Department and the School of Climate Change, University of Prince Edward Island, Canada

Dr. Marcos Frommel, International Consultant, Oxfam (Canada)/ INNOVACT II (European Union), Uruguay/Argentina

Dr. Tetiana Fedoniuk, Professor & Head, Department of Forest Ecology and Life Safety, Polissia National University, Ukraine

Dr. Evgeniya Kopitsa, Associate Professor, Department of Environmental Law, Yaroslav Mudryi National Law University, Ukraine

Dr. Anastasiia Zymaroieva, Associate Professor, Educational and Research Center for Ecology and Environmental Protection, Polissia National University, Ukraine

Dr. Nadiia Yorkina, Associate Professor, Department of Ecology, General Biology & Environmental Management, Bogdan Khmelnitsky Melitopol State Pedagogical University, Ukraine

Dr. Marius Warg Næss, Research Professor, Norwegian Institute for Cultural Heritage Research, Norway

Dr. Mihaela Stet, Senior Lecturer, Department of Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering, Technical University of Cluj Napoca, Romania

Dr. Radoslaw Jjanusz Walkowiiak, Biologist, International Equisetological Association, Poland

Dr. Mahani Haji Hamdan, Senior Assistant Professor & Director, Institute of Policy Studies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei

Dr. G. Prabhakara Rao, Senior Scientist, Rubber Research Institute, India

Dr. Omprakash Madguni, Assistant Professor, Indian Institute of Forest management, India

Dr. Y. Vasudeva Rao, Assistant Professor, Department of Soil Science & Agricultural Chemistry, Visva-Bharati, India

Dr. Santosh Kumar, Professor of Public Policy & Dean, School of Liberal Arts & Management Studies, P.P. Savani University, India

Dr. Sanjay-Swami, Professor, School of Natural Resource Management, Central Agricultural University Imphal, India

Dr. Lun Yin, Professor & Director, Center for Biodiversity and Indigenous Knowledge, Southwest Forestry University, China

Dr. Md. Sirajul Islam, Professor, Department of Environmental Science and Resource Management, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University, Bangladesh

Dr. Syed Hafizur Rahman, Professor, Department of Environmental Sciences, Jahangirnagar University, Bangladesh

Grassroots Journal of Natural Resources ISSN 2581-6853 | CODEN GJNRA9

Dr. Muhammad Aslam Ali, Professor, Department of Environmental Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Bangladesh

Dr. Md. Mujibor Rahman, Professor, Environmental Science Discipline, Khulna University, Bangladesh

Dr. Shahidul Islam, Assistant Professor, Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, University of Chittagong, Bangladesh

Dr. Dragojla Golub, Associate Professor, Department of Biology and Department of Ecology and Environment Protection, University of Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Dr. Vesna Rajčević, Associate Professor, Department of Physical Geography and Geology, University of Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Dr. Muhamed Katica, Associate Professor, Department of Pathological Physiology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Dr. Grujica Vico, Associate Professor, Department of Agroeconomy and Rural Development, University of East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Dr. Vesna Tunguz, Associate Professor, Department of Plant Production, University of East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Dr. Nikola Boskovic, Associate Professor, Department of General Economics and Economic Development, University of Kragujevac, Serbia

Jiban Shrestha, Scientist, Nepal Agricultural Research Council, National Plant Breeding and Genetics Research Centre, Nepal

Dr. Prasanthi Gunawardena, Professor of Environmental Economics, Department of Forestry

and Environmental Science, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka

Dr. Nishan Sakalasooriya, Senior Lecturer of Geography and Development Studies, Department of Geography, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka

Dr. T. Mathiventhan, Senior Lecturer & Head, Department of Botany, Eastern University, Sri Lanka

Dr. A.G. Amarasinghe, Senior Lecturer & Head,

Department of Geography, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka

Dr. Mokbul Morshed Ahmad, Associate Professor, Department of Development and Sustainability, SERD, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand

Prof. Dr. Juan M. Pulhin, Professor & UP Scientist III, Department of Social Forestry & Forest Governance & UPLB Interdisciplinary Studies Center for Integrated Natural Resources & Environment Management, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Philippines

Prof. Dr. Anirudh Singh, Professor of Renewable Energy & Dean, School of Science & Technology, The University of Fiji, Fiji

Prof. Dr. Engin Nurlu, Professor & Head, Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Agriculture, Ege University, Turkey

Prof. Dr. Kürşat Demiryürek, Professor, Department of Agricultural Economics, Faculty of Agriculture, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey

Dr. Zornitsa Stoyanova, Associated Professor & Chairwoman of Business Faculty General Assembly

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ARTICLES INCLUDED IN

Volume 4 Issue 2 (June 2021)

M-00213 Spatial Organization of the Micromollusc Community under Recreational Load By: Nadiia Yorkina, Natalia Tarusova, Ava Umerova, Polina Telyuk, Yevheniia Cherniak

1-22

M-00214 Impact of Farmer Producer Companies on Marginal and Small Farmers: A Study of Osmanabad District of Maharashtra, India By: Challuri Babu, Sri Krishna Sudheer Patoju

23-33

M-00215 Agroecological Determinants of Potato Spatiotemporal Yield Variation at the Landscape Level in the Central and Northern Ukraine By: Anastasiia Zymaroieva, Tetiana Fedoniuk, Svitlana Matkovska, Olena Andreieva, Victor Pazych

34-47

M-00216 Appraisal of Heavy Metal Presence and Water Quality having Microbial Load and Associated Human Health Risk: A study on tube-well water in Nalitabari township of Sherpur district, Bangladesh By: Md. Rayhan Ali, Md. Omar Faruque, Md. Tarikul Islam, Md. Tarek Molla, Md. Shakir Ahammed, Shahin Mahmud, A.K.M. Mohiuddin

48-64

M-00217 Flood Development Process Forecasting Based on Water Resources Statistical Data By: Oleg Mandryk, Andriy Oliynyk, Roman Mykhailyuk, Lidiia Feshanych

65-76

M-00218 Assessment of Open Spaces Ensuring Socio-Environmental Quality in Bogura Town, Bangladesh By: Most. Lata Khatun, S.M. Farhan Sazzad, Nowara Tamanna Meghla

77-90

M-00219 Legal Problems in the Implementation of the Environmental Impact Assessment in Ukraine: A Critical Review By: Mariya Krasnova, Juliia Krasnova, Liudmyla Golovko, Tetiana Kondratiuk

91-102




M-00220 Human-Wolf (Canis lupus) Conflict in Upper Mustang of Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal By: Sagar Pahari, Rajeev Joshi, Bishow Poudel

103-119

M-00221 Psychological Aspects of Building Environmental Consciousness By: Olena Khrushch, Yuliya Karpiuk

120-135

M-00222 Integrated Management of Land, Water and Bioresources for Sustainable Agriculture in North-Eastern Region of India By: Sanjay-Swami

136-150

M-00223 Analysis of Medicinal Plants Cultivation in Ukraine on Sustainable Development Principles By: Tetiana Mirzoieva, Olga Tomashevska, Nataliia Gerasymchuk

151-164

M-00224 Estimation of Economic Loss of Agricultural Production and Livestock Population in Tamil Nadu due to Sago Industrial Pollution: A Case Study By: Palani Periyasamy

165-178

M-00225 Phytosociology and Regeneration Status in Different Permanent Preservation Plots across Different Forest Types in Madhya Pradesh, Central India By: Sanjay Singh, Harish Bahadur Chand, Pavan Kumar Khatri, Dheerendra Kumar, Anil Kumar Kewat, Abhishek Kumar, Kangujam Premkumar Singh

179-198




Spatial Organization of the Micromollusc Community under

Recreational Load Nadiia Yorkina*1, Natalia Tarusova2, Ava Umerova3, Polina Telyuk4, Yevheniia Cherniak5 1Department of Ecology, General Biology and Environmental Management, Bogdan Khmelnitsky Melitopol State

Pedagogical University, Hetmanska st., 20, 72318, Melitopol, Ukraine. Email: [email protected] 2Departament of Geoecology and Land Management, Dmytro Motorny Tavria State Agrotechnological University,

18 B. Khmelnytsky Ave, 72312, Melitopol, Ukraine. Email: [email protected] 3Department of Ecology, General Biology and Environmental Management, Bogdan Khmelnitsky Melitopol State

Pedagogical University, Hetmanska st., 20, 72318, Melitopol, Ukraine. Email: [email protected] 4Department of Ecology, General Biology and Environmental Management, Bogdan Khmelnitsky Melitopol State

Pedagogical University, Hetmanska st., 20, 72318, Melitopol, Ukraine. Email: [email protected] 5Department of Ecology, General Biology and Environmental Management, Bogdan Khmelnitsky Melitopol State

Pedagogical University, Hetmanska st., 20, 72318, Melitopol, Ukraine. Email: [email protected]

*Corresponding author | ORCID: 0000-0001-9996-195X

Abstract The recreational load is an important factor in transforming the living

conditions of living organisms in the urban environment. This article

examines the role of recreation as a driver of the changing habitat of

soil micromolluscs in the park environment in an urban landscape.

The hypothesis that recreational exposure changes the hierarchical

organization of the spatial distribution of the micromollusc

community was tested. An experimental polygon was located in

Novooleksandrivskiy Park (Melitopol, Ukraine) and represented 7

transects with 18 test points in each. The set of soil properties

explained 24.7% of the variation in the mollusc community. The

distance from trees was able to explain 6.8% of mollusc community

variation. The distance from recreational pathways was able to

explain 12.2% of the variation in the mollusc community. The spatial

eigenfunctions were able to explain 54.2% of mollusc community

variation. The spatial patterns of variation in the structure of the

assemblage of molluscs were found to be due to various causes.

Thus, the broad-scale component was due to the distance from trees

and the distance fro m the recreational pathways and was associated

with the variability of soil penetration resistance, aggregate structure,

electrical conductivity, soil moisture and density. The recreational

load is the cause of this pattern formation. In turn, the medium-scale

component reflected the influence of soil aggregate composition on

the mollusс community and components independent of soil

properties. The fine-scale component reflected the variability of the

mollusc community, which was independent of soil properties.

Keywords Urban ecology; Micromolluscs; Soil aggragates; Soil compaction;

Urban park

How to cite this paper: Yorkina, N., Tarusova,

N., Umerova, A., Telyuk, P. and Cherniak, Y.

(2021). Spatial Organization of the Micromollusc

Community under Recreational Load. Grassroots

Journal of Natural Resources, 4(2): 1-22. Doi:

https://doi.org/10.33002/nr2581.6853.040201

Received: 18 April 2021

Reviewed: 30 April 2021

Provisionally Accepted: 03 May 2021

Revised: 05 May 2021

Finally Accepted: 07 May 2021

Published: 05 June 2021

Copyright © 2021 by author(s)

This work is licensed under the Creative

Commons Attribution International

License (CC BY 4.0).


Grassroots Journal of Natural Resources, Vol. 4 No. 2 (June 2021) ISSN 2581-6853 | CODEN: GJNRA9 | Published by The Grassroots Institute

Website: http://grassrootsjournals.org/gjnr | Main Indexing: Web of Science

M – 00213 | Research Article

ISSN 2581-6853

mailto:[email protected]

https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9996-195X

Grassroots Journal of Natural Resources, Vol.4, No.2 (June 2021), pp.1-22 | ISSN 2581-6853 | CODEN GJNRA9

Doi: https://doi.org/10.33002/nr2581.6853.040201

2 Nadiia Yorkina, Natalia Tarusova, Ava Umerova, Polina Telyuk, Yevheniia Cherniak

Introduction

In the urban environment there is a significant transformation of various components of the landscape, which

worsens the modes of existence of biotic components of ecosystems and human living conditions. Urban

parks perform a number of the most important ecological services: carbon sequestration, seed dispersal,

erosion prevention, water purification, air purification and habitat quality (Kunakh et al., 2020; Mexia et

al., 2018). Functional efficiency of forest plantations in urban environment depends on sustainability and

diversity of ecosystems formed within them. The urban environment is stressed not only by pollution, but

also by heat and drought, creating arid conditions. Trees are passively exposed to the microclimate, but they

also actively modify it, and they perform important ecosystem services of the city (Lüttge and Buckeridge,

2020). The destruction of habitat occurs as the intensity of urbanization increases (Yorkina, 2016). The

growth of population and the expansion of built-up areas caused by urbanization can have a significant

impact on the supply and distribution of critical ecosystem services. A correlation between urbanization and

ecosystem services has been established. Urbanization causes a general decline in ecosystem services, where

urbanization and ecosystem services showed a negative spatial correlation (Wang et al., 2020). The hotspots

that retain biota become increasingly fragmented in urban environments and diminish as the gradient of

urbanization increases (Collins et al., 2000). Soil invertebrates in urban environments are taxonomically

and functionally diverse. This is contributed to by the specific features of the soil as a habitat. The soil has

protective properties, which facilitates the survival of pedobionts even under conditions of significant

anthropogenic impact (Byrne et al., 2008; Byrne and Bruns, 2004; Joimel et al., 2017; Rochefort et al.,

2006; Schrader and Böning, 2006). Nevertheless, the communities of invertebrates of urban soils are

sensitive to the variability of physical and chemical properties of urban soils and land-use practices (Bray

et al., 2019).

The soil invertebrates respond to many human activities (Yorkina et al., 2020). Recreation is a factor that

significantly transforms the living conditions of soil invertebrates. Recreation affects not only the vegetation

cover and soil properties, but also the condition of the complex of soil invertebrates. Recreation contributes

to soil compaction, the growth of a network of footpaths and the formation of a special structure of soil

cover, consisting of an alternation of dense footpaths and areas outside the footpaths. In the short term,

diversity and abundance of soil invertebrate communities will decline due to urbanization. In the long term,

the increasing tolerance of an increasing number of species may lead to changes in the structure and size of

communities (Salminen et al., 2001). The physical disturbance of the soil, heavy metal contamination,

pesticide contamination, the timing and magnitude of human exposure, and the history of land use affect

the soil animals (Jones and Leather, 2012; Mcintyre et al., 2000; Pavao-Zuckerman, 2008; Pavao-

Zuckerman and Coleman, 2007; Yorkina et al., 2019). The formed network of footpaths violates the

integrity of forest ecosystems, the spatial continuity of grass cover, litter, and soil, leading primarily to

changes in populations of soil invertebrates as a result of fragmentation of habitats of living organisms. In

recreational forests, soil invertebrates are directly impacted, which is mainly expressed in their mechanical

destruction and indirectly transforms their ecological niches (reduction of living space and food reserves).

In urban forest parks, with increasing recreational pressure, the number, biomass, and diversity of soil

invertebrates can differ many times from their original values (Kuznetsov et al., 2017; Kuznetsov and

Ryzhova, 2019). A variety of anthropogenic activities suppress the abundance and diversity of soil

invertebrate communities. The direction and magnitude of the response depends on the taxonomic group

(Nahmani and Lavelle, 2002; Pey et al., 2014; Pouyat et al., 2015; Santorufo et al., 2012). For example,

isopods in urban soils show a negative abundance response to heavy metal pollution (Pouyat et al., 2015).

Air pollutants and pesticides affect soil properties, which also negatively affects the abundance of

invertebrates (Byrne et al., 2008; Fedoniuk et al., 2020; Gan and Wickings, 2017; S. Joimel et al., 2016;

Joimel et al., 2017; Peck, 2009; Smetak et al., 2007).

The soil invertebrates respond sensitively to disturbance of soil regimes, so they are valuable biological

indicators of the level of anthropogenic transformation of ecosystems (Nahmani and Lavelle, 2002;

Santorufo et al., 2012).




Molluscs are an important component of terrestrial ecosystem communities (Kramarenko et al., 2016). Their

biological features allow maintaining high diversity and abundance under conditions of anthropogenic

impact. These animals are quite common in urban environments. However, hotspots of high abundance and

diversity of molluscs are extremely limited by the influence of a variety of environmental factors, a mosaic

of which is observed in the urban environment. The habitat preference of terrestrial molluscs depends on

vegetation, soil type, moisture level, and the degree of anthropogenic transformation of ecosystems. The

preferential importance of environmental factors varies at different levels of the spatial hierarchy. At the

broad spatial level, among the climatic factors, temperature and humidity have the greatest influence on

terrestrial molluscs. Other climatic factors affect molluscs much less or indirectly, but due to changes in

humidity and temperature (Kunakh et al., 2018; Martin and Sommer, 2004b; Millar and Waite, 1999;

Pakhomov et al., 2019). At the landscape level, calcium concentration and its dependent pH value are the

most significant soil parameters that affect snails (Hotopp, 2002; Schilthuizen et al., 2003). The soil

moisture was also found to be a significant factor in the diversity of the terrestrial snail fauna (Čejka and

Hamerlík, 2009; Martin and Sommer, 2004a; Silvan et al., 2000). The degree of anthropogenic

transformation of an ecosystem can be assessed by studying the diversity of land snail communities and the

response of individual species to environmental factors (Douglas et al., 2013). A number of models that

best explain the distribution of mollusc species abundance were shown to be species-specific and soil type-

specific and tended to be invariant over time (Kunakh et al., 2020; Pakhomov et al., 2019; Zhukov et al.,

2016a). Hutchinson's concept was shown to be useful for the simulation of the ecological niche of the

mollusc in the biotopes resulting from reclamation of degraded lands (Kunakh et al., 2020; Kunakh et al.,

2018; Teluk et al., 2020; Yorkina et al., 2018; Yorkina et al., 2019; Yorkina, 2016; Yorkina et al., 2019).

The aim of this study is to investigate the role of recreation as a factor in transforming the living conditions

of soil micromolluscs in a park environment in an urban landscape. The hypothesis is that recreational

exposure changes the hierarchical organization of the spatial distribution of micromolluscs.

Materials and Methods

Study area and mollusc sampling

An experimental polygon was laid down in Novooleksandrivskiy Park (Melitopol, Ukraine) that represented

7 transects with 18 test points in each (Figure 1). The interval between points in transect, as well as the

interval between transects, was 3 meters. The total area of the polygon was 1,134 m2. Sampling was

conducted in October 2020. In each sampling point, a soil sample of cylindrical shape (diameter – 9 cm,

height – 8 cm, volume ≈ 500 cm3) was taken from the surface to a depth of 8 cm. From this sample, 10 soil

sub-samples weighing 10 grams were taken. Each sample was examined with a dissecting needle to collect

micromolluscs (Yorkina et al., 2018).

Soil variables

Measurement of soil penetration resistance was carried out in the field using a hand penetrometer

Eijkelkamp, to a depth of 50 cm at intervals of 5 cm (Zhukov and Zadorozhnaya, 2016). The average error

of the measurement results of the device is ± 8%. The measurements were made by a cone with a cross-

sectional dimension of 2 cm2. Within each measurement point, the soil penetration resistance was made in

a single replication. To measure the electrical conductivity (EC) of the soil in situ, the sensor HI 76305 was

used (Hanna Instruments, Woonsocket, R. I.) (Scoggins and van Iersel, 2006). This sensor works in

conjunction with the portable device HI 993310. Soil water content was measured under field conditions

using a dielectric digital moisture meter MG-44 (vlagomer.com.ua). The aggregate structure was evaluated

in accordance with the ‘Soil Sampling and Methods of Analysis’ recommendations. The percentage content

of such fractions was established: <0.25, 0.25–0.5, 0.5–1, 1–2, 2–3, 3–5, 5–7, 7–10, >10 mm. The soil bulk

density estimated by the core method (Al-Shammary et al., 2018).




Figure 1: The experimental polygon within Novooleksandrivsky Park (Melitopol): crosses show sampling

points; circles show location of the trees and bushes within the polygon; x-axis and y-axis are the local

coordinates of the polygon.

Statistical analysis

The Redundancy Analysis (RDA) was applied to examine the variance in the species composition of molluscs

(Rao, 1964). The soil penetration resistance, soil electrical conductivity, soil moisture and soil bulk density

were logarithmically transformed before analysis. The significance of RDA global model was first tested. The

soil models were based on the forward selection and were built with double stopping rule (alpha significance

level and the R2adj calculated using all explanatory variables) (Blanchet et al., 2008). The variables were

retained only with a significant relationship to community composition (p < 0.05, 9999 permutations). The

models’ marginal effect was computed, in which each selected soil variable was used separately as a predictor

of community composition and the significance of all the models was tested and R2adj was extracted. The

geographic coordinates of sampling locations were used to generate a set of orthogonal eigenvector-based

spatial variables (dbMEMs), each of them representing a pattern of particular scale within the extent of the

sampling area (Borcard and Legendre, 2002). The forward-selection procedure on partial RDAs was applied

to the subset of spatial variables. The significance of soil models was tested by the Monte Carlo permutation

test (9999 permutations). In the next phase of the study, the dbMEMs were forward-selected directly on

community data to explore patterns in community variation by variance partitioning between environmental

and spatial influence. The significance of pure spatial and environmental fractions was tested by Monte Carlo

permutation tests with 9999. The scalogram approach was applied to inspect in detail the spatial scaling of

community variation. To do this, the two sets of RDA analyses were carried out with each of the dbMEM

variables as a predictor. As a response variable, the first set of RDA analyses used raw species data, while the

second set used residuals of the environmental model in which forward-selected environmental variables acted

as predictors (Chudomelová et al., 2017). From each RDA we extracted R2adj for individual dbMEMs and

plotted them into juxtaposed bar plots (Chang et al., 2013).

All statistical analyses were conducted in R (v. 3.5.0., R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, AT),

using the following packages: vegan (v. 2.5-2, https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=vegan) (Oksanen et

al., 2019), adespatial (v. 0.3-2. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=adespatial) for the forward selection

and for the generation of spatial filters (Dray et al., 2018).




Results

A total of 787 individuals of Vallonia pulchella (Muller 1774), 193 individuals of Cochlicopa lubrica

(Muller 1774), and 74 individuals of Acanthinula aculeata (Muller 1774) were collected. The samples with

Vallonia pulchella represented 88.9% of all samples, the samples with Cochlicopa lubrica represented

81.7% of all samples, and the samples with Acanthinula aculeata represented 42.1% of all samples (Figure

1). The maximum number of Vallonia pulchella individuals per sample was 24, Cochlicopa lubrica – had

7 individuals per sample, and Acanthinula aculeata – contained 3 individuals per sample (Figure 2). The

abundance of the mollusc was distributed unevenly over the studied area (Figure 3). The aggregation index

indicates an aggregated spatial distribution of Vallonia pulchella and Cochlicopa lubrica and a neutral

distribution of Acanthinula aculeata (Figure 4).

0 4 8 12 16 20 24

Vallonia pulchella

0

10

20

30

40

50

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Cochlicopa lubrica

0

20

40

60

0 1 2 3 4

Acanthinula aculeata

0

20

40

60

80

Figure 2: Histograms of mollusc abundance distribution. Abscissa axis – the number of individuals in the

soil sample, ordinate axis – the number of occurrences.

The set of soil properties explained 24.7% of the variation in the mollusc community (F = 2.87, p = 0.001).

After the forward selection procedure, such variables as the soil mechanical resistance at a depth of 5–10

cm, the proportion of aggregates of size 0.25–0.5, 2–3, and 3–5 mm were chosen as the most informative

for describing the structure of the mollusc community. These soil variables together were able to explain

18.4% of mollusc community variation (F = 8.12, p = 0.001). The distance from trees was able to explain

6.8% of mollusc community variation (F = 10.12, p = 0.001). The distance from recreational pathways was

able to explain 12.2% of the variation in the mollusc community (F = 18.4, p = 0.001).

The spatial patterns were modeled by 62 dbMEM spatial eigenfunctions. These dbMEM spatial

eigenfunctions were able to explain 54.2% of mollusc community variation (F = 3.39, p = 0.001). The




forward selection procedure allowed the identification of the 13 most informative dbMEM spatial

eigenfunctions, which were variables 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 10, 11, 14, 23, 26, 34, 53, and 61. Together they were

able to explain 27.9% of the variation in the mollusc community (F = 4.73, p = 0.001). All of the predictors

considered together can explain 65.4% of the variation in the mollusc community (Figure 5). The pure

influence of soil properties on molluscs is not significant (1.1%). The influence of soil is spatially structured

(11.9%) and also spatially structured by trees (10.9%). The pure influence of spatial factors is 30.1%. The

pure influence of trees is 1.5%. Also the influence of trees is manifested through the structuring of the soil

properties (2.3%).

Figure 3: Spatial distribution of molluscs: 1 – Vallonia pulchella, 2 – Cochlicopa lubrica, 3 – Acanthinula

aculeata. Axis of abscissa and ordinates are local coordinates.

d = 5

1

2.5 7.5 12.5 17.5 22.5

d = 5

2

1 3 5 7

d = 5

3

0.5 1.5 2.5




The role of recreational paths manifests itself through the influence on soil properties (6.4%), through the

spatial structuring of soil properties (4.5%) and through the spatial structuring of soil properties under the

influence of the tree stand (10.9%).

The dbMEM spatial eigenfunctions with different ordinal numbers (the larger the ordinal number, the

greater the characteristic frequency of the oscillatory process which the function models) made different

contributions to the variation of the mollusc community structure (Figure 6). Accordingly, broad-scale,

medium-scale, and fine-scale spatial components of community variation were distinguished. The

application of the soil properties as covariates did not significantly alter the nature of the spatial patterns.

The distance from recreational trails conditioned the large-scale component. The use of distance from the

recreational as a covariate revealed an additional spatial pattern of variability in mollusc community

structure. Paths indicated that recreational influence was a source of "disinformation" and its removal

allowed previously hidden patterns to be revealed predominantly at the fine-scale range.

A

B

0

5

10

15

0 10 20 30 40 50

x

y

Absoluteindex

0

2

4

6

Indexthreshold

> 1.5

Between -1.5and 1.5

< -1.5

0

5

10

15

0 10 20 30 40 50

x

y

Absoluteindex

0

1

2

3

4

5

Indexthreshold

> 1.5

Between -1.5and 1.5

< -1.5




C

Figure 4: Red–blue plots for detecting clusters in mollusc abundance data: A – Vallonia pulchella (Ia =

1.777, Pa < 0.001), B – Cochlicopa lubrica (Ia = 1.365, Pa = 0.05), C – Acanthinula aculeata (Ia = 1.068,

Pa = 0.28).

A similar argument can be made for the influence of trees, but this influence had a predominant

manifestation in the medium-scale range. The pure spatial pattern of variability in the mollusc community

structure had distinct broad-scale and fine-scale components.

The broad-scale pattern of variation in mollusc community structure was modeled using dbMEM spatial

eigenfunctions 1, 5, 6, 9, 10, 14, 16, 19. The broad-scale spatial pattern was able to describe 25.3% of the

variation in mollusc community structure (Table 1). The medium-scale pattern of variation in mollusc

community structure was modeled using dbMEM spatial eigenfunctions 23, 26, 32, 36, 37. The medium-

scale spatial pattern described 10.5% of clam community structure variation.

The detailed-scale pattern of variation in mollusc community structure was modeled using dbMEM spatial

eigenfunctions 46, 52, 61. The detailed spatial pattern described 4.7% of mollusc community structure

variation.

The spatial features of the broad-scale and partly medium-scale patterns were largely driven by soil

properties (Figure 7). The broad-scale component was driven by distance from trees and distance from

recreational paths. This pattern also reflected variability in soil penetration resistance, aggregate structure,

electrical conductivity, moisture, and soil density. The medium-scale pattern had a component that reflected

variability in soil aggregate composition and a component that was independent of soil properties. The

detailed-scale component reflected variability in the clam community, which was independent of soil

properties. The variability of the mollusc community was mainly due to the variability in the abundance of

Cochlicopa lubrica and Acanthinula aculeata (Figure 8).

0

5

10

15

0 10 20 30 40 50

x

y

Absoluteindex

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

Indexthreshold

> 1.5

Between -1.5and 1.5

< -1.5




Figure 5: Variance partitioning between spatial, soil, plant and tree distance explanatory variables

Notes: [a] – variation explained solely by soil variables; [b] – variation captured by spatial (dbMEM)

variables corresponds to pure space (residual spatial component); [c] – variation captured by distances from

tree stems; [d] – explained solely by distances from tree recreation pathways. The intersection of the ellipses

corresponds to the variations explained by the respective sources together. All the variance fractions shown

are significant (p <0.001).

Discussion

The ecological factors influencing the distribution of species are usually spatially structured, so the species

community also has a spatial structure (Andrushenko and Zhukov, 2016; Pinkina et al., 2019; Thuiller et

al., 2004; Zhukov et al., 2015). The micromollusc community in the park plantation in the city of Melitopol

is represented by three species, among which Vallonia pulchella significantly dominates, Cochlicopa

lubrica is significantly less abundant and Acanthinula aculeata almost 10 times less abundant. Factors such

as recreational pressure and spatial location of trees may be responsible for the aggregated distribution of

mollusc species (Kunakh et al., 2018). These factors influence patterns of the spatial variability of soil

properties, which, in turn, acts as a driver of the micromollusc community structure. An obvious

consequence of recreational load is soil compaction. The spatial heterogeneity of soil properties, which are

induced by the spatial distribution of plants, is a factor that organizes the spatial distribution of soil animals.

In this respect, the tree layer, the structure of the herbaceous and dead cover is important. This

transformation leads to a set of other changes in soil properties and regimes.

[a]

[b] [c]

[d]

Residuals = Unexplained

0.011

0.301 0.015

0.119

0.023

0.064

0.045

0.002

0.109

Residuals = 0.346

Values <0.001 not shown




Figure 6: Scalograms illustrating the scaling of spatial structured variation in community data (No variables

as covariates, blue bars) and soil models (red bars), residuals of the trail distance models (black bars), tree

distance models (green bars) and pure spatial effect (yellow bars). The value of R2adj is the variation

explained by individual dbMEM variables. The dbMEMs are ordered decreasingly according to the scale

of spatial patterns they represent (x-axis is the number of dbMEM; dbMEM 1 represents the broadest scale,

dbMEM 61 represents the finest scale).

Soil with increased density presents less space for both the storage of soil moisture and the storage of soil

air. The available soil water is an important environmental factor for the biota of anthropogenically

transformed lands. Obviously, a decrease in the amounts of these two most important soil parameters leads

0.0

00.0

20.0

40.0

6

No covariates

Soil properties as covariates

0.0

00.0

20.0

40.0

6

Trail distance as covariates

Tree distance as covariates

1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40 43 46 49 52 55 58 61

0.0

00.0

20.0

40.0

6

Pure spatial effect




to a deterioration of the living conditions of soil animals, including micromolluscs. The recreational

compaction of soil increases soil penetration resistance mainly in the upper soil horizons, which are

predominantly inhabited by soil animals. Soil penetration resistance depends on soil moisture, soil organic

matter content, the composition of accumulated cations, the ratio of structural aggregates, and, very

noticeably, on the granulometric composition (Bécel et al., 2012; Zhukov, 2015b). All this makes the use

of soil penetration resistance in both soil-genetic and agronomic studies promising. From the soil-physical

factors influencing soil penetration resistance, the water content of the soil and its energy state should come

first (Young et al., 2000). Next from the physical factors are the granulometric composition, density of the

composition, structural composition, pore size and the ratio of large and fine pores, and others (Bennie and

du Burger, 1988; Bennie and Krynauw, 1985; Quiroga et al., 1999). The factors listed have a decisive

influence on the cone strength index and the ability of the soil to compress. The correlation between the clay

and sand content of the soil and the change in the so-called cone index value (i.e., soil resistance) due to its

wetting was revealed (Arriaga et al., 2011). As one would expect, the soil resistance increases with

decreasing soil moisture regardless of the clay-sand ratio. However, such processes in the soil as

cementation and crust formation, and dynamics of density of the soil during tillage made adjustments to the

established dependencies. In particular, the data collected showed that the cone strength index in soils of

different genesis is not the same for the same values of density and moisture. Soils of light granulometric

composition as well as well humus-covered, structured, freshly ploughed soils with increasing clay particles

in the granulometric fraction have the least penetration resistance.

Increased soil density has a negative effect on the living conditions of higher plants because it limits the

development of plant root systems. Living conditions for lower plants, including algae, which are a trophic

target for micromolluscs, are also deteriorating (Maamar et al., 2018). Thus, recreation is an essential factor

that structures the spatial organization of the community of soil micromolluscs. Molluscs may also be the

cause of the spatial heterogeneity of environmental regimes. The substantial contribution of snails to the

nitrogen cycle was proved in nitrogen-limited ecosystem which can be a source of spatial heterogeneity of

the higher plant production (Jones et al., 1994; Jones and Shachak, 1990). Some terrestrial gastropod

communities cause of the changes in the content of the nitrogen and phosphorus in the soil. This result

reveals that the spatial and temporal dynamics of plant communities are dependent on the detritivore food

chain structure (Thompson et al., 1993).

The aggregates are the main component of the soil structure, which allows to measure its physical state as

an environment for living organisms (Kunah et al., 2019). Soil structure affects soil moisture content,

infiltration capacity, erodibility, circulation of nutrients, stabilization of organic matter, root penetration,

productivity of natural plant communities and crop yields (Bronick and Lal, 2005; Chaplot and Cooper,

2015; Chrenková et al., 2014). The aggregate stability is used as an indicator of the soil structure (Mustafa

et al., 2020). The structure and stability of soil aggregates is most important to consider as a condition for

increasing agronomic productivity and reducing soil erosion (Xu et al., 2016). Aggregation of soil was

studied mainly in agricultural context. The role of tillage, soil texture and the presence of carbon in the

agricultural land as factors that influence the aggregate structure was estimated (Wilpiszeski et al., 2019;

Zhang et al., 2012). In the process of land reclamation, it is important to select optimal management

strategies to create not only the desired vegetation cover, but also to promote the preservation of macro-

aggregate structure in soils to improve long-term nutrient supply and physical properties of the soil

(Klimkina et al., 2018; Wick et al., 2009, 2016). Aggregation processes in soil are the result of interaction

of a number of physical, chemical and biological factors with the complex feedback mechanisms (Oades

and Waters, 1991; Rivera and Bonilla, 2020; Sodhi et al., 2009). The soil aggregation is considered as a

process regulated by the biota (Duchicela et al., 2013; Rillig and Mummey, 2006; Tisdall and Oades, 1982).

In soils where organic matter is a major aggregate binding agent, a link can be established between aggregate

size distribution and soil’s biological functions. The role of biodiversity in soil aggregation is of particular

interest (Delgado-Baquerizo et al., 2017; Wagg et al., 2014). There are different mechanisms of soil biota

influencing the aggregation of soil (Lehmann and Kleber, 2015). Bacteria are known to be able to synthesize

a biopolymer that acts as a binder to form aggregates (Deng et al., 2015), and the mushroom mycelium can




entangle the soil particles to keep them together (Griffiths, 1965). The earthworms, insect larvae and other

large soil animals may stabilize the aggregate structure (Bertrand et al., 2015; Fonte et al., 2007; Mummey

et al., 2006; Zhukov et al., 2016b). Soil saprophages consume the soil and mix it with the intestinal contents

(Maraun et al., 2003; Ponge, 1991). After digestion, the resulting mixture takes the form of a highly

structured formation such as casts or coprolites (Tisdall and Oades, 1982).

Table 1: Descriptive statistics of the soil properties and distances from the trees and from the route trails

Variables Mean±

st.error

Broad-scale,

Radj2 = 0.25

Medium-scale,

Radj2 = 0.11

Fine-scale,

Radj2 = 0.05

CCA1

F =

39.3,

p =

0.001

CCA2

F = 15.1,

p = 0.024

CCA1

F = 18.0,

p = 0.001

CCA2

F = 2.1,

p = 0.818

CCA1

F = 8.8,

p = 0.003

CCA2

F = 0.38,

p = 0.943

Soil penetration resistance at a depth of, cm in MPa

0–5 2.97±0.09 0.35 0.22 – – – –

5–10 4.72±0.12 0.35 0.20 – – – –

10–15 6.10±0.14 0.35 0.21 – – – –

15–20 6.93±0.14 0.27 – – – – –

20–25 7.67±0.12 – 0.21 – – – –

25–30 8.19±0.11 – – – – – –

30–35 8.35±0.08 – – – – – –

35–40 8.66±0.08 – – – – – –

40–45 8.48±0.09 – – – – – –

45–50 8.17±0.09 – – – – – –

Aggregate fraction, in %

>10 mm 11.25±0.37 – – –0.38 – – –

7–10 mm 7.23±0.09 – – –0.41 – – –

5–7 mm 8.08±0.12 –0.30 –0.19 – – – –

3–5 mm 10.68±0.17 –0.40 – – – – –

2–3 mm 9.58±0.18 –0.32 – 0.21 – – –

1–2 mm 13.18±0.25 – – – – – –

0.5–1 mm 2.45±0.04 – – – – – –

0.25–0.5 mm 12.59±0.26 0.24 – – – – –

<0.25 mm 25.00±0.40 0.23 – 0.27 – – –

Other soil properties

Electrical

conductivity,

dSm/m

0.07±0.001 –0.19 – – – – –

Soil moisture,

% 9.31±0.10 –0.19 –0.18 – – – –

Soil bulk

density, g/cm3 1.10±0.01 0.34 0.19 – – – –

Distance, m

From the trees 2.54±0.15 0.24 0.24 – – – –

From the route

trails 3.25±0.22 –0.41 – – – – –




The spatial variation of soil aggregate structure can influence the organization of the soil macrofauna

community. The soil aggregates also help form the unique ecological isolation of the microbial community

in the soil (Rillig et al., 2017). Soil aggregates can serve as a refuge for the microbes from the predators

(Rillig et al., 2017). There are practically no research highlighting influence of the soil aggregate structures

on the functional features of the mollusc populations. It is possible, that the organic substances in the soils

indirectly impact on the molluscs, which requires the deep understanding of the structure and formation of

the aggregates. The aggregate composition of the soil also changes in accordance with the changes in the

soil density. More solid soils are represented either by relatively coarse aggregates larger than 10 mm or by

fine aggregates that effectively fill in the gaps between the coarse ones. An optimal water and air regime of

soils can be maintained with aggregates between 0.25 and 7 mm in size. The results of this study indicate a

positive effect on micromolluscs of increasing the proportion of aggregates of 0.25–5 mm size.

Trees are also an important factor that structures ecological conditions (Zhukov, 2015a; Zhukov et al.,

2016). The crown of trees regulates the inflow of solar energy to the soil surface, which determines the

temperature regime of the soil and the intensity of moisture evaporation from the soil surface. The root

system of trees has a significant capacity to change soil properties. It should be noted that trees and

recreational paths are antagonists: spontaneous paths are formed at some distance from the trunks of tree

plants. Thus, a structuring gradient is formed: recreational pathway-tree plants.

This gradient determines the broad-scale component of the spatial variability of the molluscan community.

The broad-scale nature implies a significant impact zone in the radial direction from the trees, which is quite

consistent, as commensurate with the spatial distribution of above-ground and below-ground phytomass of

the tree plant. Also widespread is the impact of recreational load, which is not trivial. This result indicates

that the effects of recreational load extend well beyond the geometric boundaries of recreational pathways.

In part, the widespread nature may be due to the antagonism of trees and walkways and may be a

consequence of the structuring influence of the park stand. Nevertheless, the direct impact of recreation is a

significant structuring factor that has a significant extent that extends well beyond the footpaths. There is a

consistent widespread pattern of recovery of normal values of soil density, moisture, and aggregate

composition as one moves away from the walkways. Such changes are also associated with the recovery of

micromollusc abundance; and sharp decrease was noted for all species near the walkway.

Medium-scale patterns of variation in the mollusc community are due to either soil conditions, which

primarily depend on soil aggregate composition, or to causes that do not depend on measured soil properties.

In turn, it may be due to either other soil properties that are not measured or to causes that are neutral in

nature. Medium-scale patterns that are dependent on soil properties may most likely result from natural

variability in soil properties, which is determined by mechanisms other than recreational load. Thus, natural

and anthropogenic patterns have different scale levels of manifestation. Anthropogenic patterns are broad-

scale, while natural patterns are both broad-scale and medium-scale. The fine-scale patterns are independent

of measured soil properties. The fine-scale patterns can either be caused by other soil properties that were

not measured in this study. The most attractive explanation is the structuring of the community as a result

of inter-species interactions. For this reason, the emergence of the structural organization of the community

may not have a significant extent in view of the local nature of inter-specific interactions, which probably

explains its detailed nature.




A

B

C

Figure 7: Variation of broad-scale (A), medium-scale (B), and fine-scale (C) components of spatial

variability in the mollusc community.

A B C

Figure 8: Species correlation with the broad-scale (A), medium-scale (B), and fine-scale (C) components of

spatial variability in the mollusc community.

d = 5

CCAbroad 1

-1 1 3 5

d = 5

CCAbroad 2

-7.5 -2.5 2.5 7.5

d = 5

CCAmed 1

-7 -5 -3 -1 1 3

d = 5

CCAmed 2

-15 -5 5 15

d = 5

CCAfine 1

-2.5 2.5 7.5

d = 5

CCAfine 2

-30 -10 10 30

-0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0

-1.0

-0.5

0.0

0.5

CCA1

CC

A2

V_pulchella

C_lubrica

A_aculeata

-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

CCA1

CC

A2

V_pulchella

C_lubrica

A_aculeata

-0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

CCA1

CC

A2

V_pulchellaC_lubrica

A_aculeata




Conclusion

In the soils of the urban park, micromolluscs are represented by three species with a relatively high

abundance. The micromolluscs are sensitive biological indicators of soil conditions and the direction of their

transformation under the influence of recreation. The spatial variability of the micromollusc community has

a hierarchical organization and is represented by the broad-scale, medium-scale, and fine-scale components.

The key drivers of the broad-scale component are spatial location of trees and recreational load. The

influence of recreation extends well beyond the geometric boundaries of recreational paths. The medium-

scale component correlates with the spatial organization of soil aggregate structure and reflects the natural

variability of soil properties. The fine-scale component of the spatial variation of the molluscan community

is independent of the measured soil properties and is most likely the result of the structuring influence of

inter-specific interactions.

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Impact of Farmer Producer Companies on Marginal and Small Farmers:

A Study of Osmanabad District of Maharashtra, India

Challuri Babu*1, Sri Krishna Sudheer Patoju2 1School of Rural Development, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Tuljapur Campus, Tuljapur – 413 601,

Maharashtra, India. E-Mail: [email protected] 2School of Rural Development, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Tuljapur Campus, Tuljapur – 413 601,

Maharashtra, India. E-Mail: [email protected]

*Corresponding author | ORCID: 0000-0001-6465-6592

Abstract The concept of a farmer producer company (FPC) has emerged

as an inclusive concept to address the issues of farmers,

especially, small, and marginal farmers. The present study is

to examine the impact of farmer producer companies on small

and marginal farmers. 150 small and marginal farmers were

chosen through multi-stage stratified random sampling in the

Osmanabad district of Maharashtra state, India to assess the

impact. It was found that the farmers organized under FPCs in

the study area are not getting adequate support from the FPCs.

It was also found that services provided by FPCs like

marketing, value addition, technological services and pre-

harvest services were satisfactory, while agricultural advisory

services, capacity building and credit access services were

poor. A model ACITM (Agriculture Advisory, Capacity

Building, Technological and Marketing Services) is suggested

to be executed by the FPCDN (Farmer Producer Companies

Development Network) – a development network consortium

for addressing FPCs problems and strengthening the FPCs.

Keywords Farmer producer companies; FPC impact; Marginal and small

farmers; Consortium

How to cite this paper: Babu, C. and Patoju,

S.K.S. (2021). Impact of Farmer Producer

Companies on Marginal and Small Farmers: A

Study of Osmanabad District of Maharashtra.

Grassroots Journal of Natural Resources, 4(2):

23-33. Doi:

https://doi.org/10.33002/nr2581.6853.040202

Received: 30 November 2020

Reviewed: 17 December 2020

Provisionally Accepted: 11 January 2021

Revised: 13 March 2021

Finally Accepted: 27 March 2021










ISSN 2581-6853





24 Challuri Babu, Sri Krishna Sudheer Patoju

Introduction

In India, agriculture contributes not only 15.0 per cent of GDP (GoI, 2018), but also a livelihood to a large

section of the population. It employs nearly 56.0 per cent of the working population (Census of India, 2011),

and not only accounts for the overall growth of the economy but also for the reduction of poverty by

providing food security to most of the population. Agriculture is pivotal not only from an economic

perspective but also from the social, political, and cultural perspectives. First prime minister of India,

Jawahar Lal Nehru, had said that “agriculture needed topmost priority because the government and the

nation would both fail to succeed if agriculture could not be successful” (GoI, 1951). However, this sector

has been plagued by multiple problems across the decades, resulting in low growth rates and increased

farmer distress causing farmer suicides. This situation is more evident in the post reform period (after 1990)

as agriculture showed a distinct fall in the average growth of crop production. There has been progress in

agriculture after independence of India, as the sector grew at just 1.0 per cent per annum before

independence and recorded an annual growth of 2.60 per cent in the post-independence period. However,

the decades past 1990 have been tough, with the decline in agricultural production since 1992. The decline

is predominantly attributed to the fall in the growth of non-food-grains, recording 2.50 per cent in the post-

liberalization period as against 4.80 per cent recorded during the 1980s (Gulati, 2009). This decline in

agricultural situation has led farmers, landowners, sharecroppers, tenants, women, Dalit1 and Adivasi2

cultivators or landless agricultural labourers bankrupt. Increased debt burden is accentuating farming as a

loss-making profession, with nearly 40 per cent of Indian farmers preferring to leave agriculture (Murray,

2008). According to official estimates, 328,544 farmers have committed suicide since 1995 (National Crime

Record Bureau, 2015; Sudheer and Swain, 2015). To elevate the farmers out of this debt trap, the

Government of India has introduced the concept of farmer producer company (FPC). The FPC is a novel

concept to resolve farmers’ issues by organizing farmers into collective units to improve their bargaining

strength. It is aimed to combine the efficiency of farmers with the `spirit' of traditional cooperatives, i.e.,

FPCs. FPCs integrate smallholders into modern supply networks that would minimize transaction and other

process related costs that ensure benefiting from economies of scale. Given that small and marginal farmers

face numerous constrains related to uneconomical size of their operations, FPCs focus primarily on them

(Hazell, 2011). These major constrains result in inability to create scale economies, low bargaining power

as a result of low quantities of marketable surplus, scarcity of capital, lack of market access, shortage of

knowledge, information, market imperfections and poor infrastructure and communications. In India, almost

62.00 per cent of the farmers are marginal farmers, thus attention needs to be paid to the small and marginal

farmers so that they can climb up the ladder and be on equal level with the big farmers. To save small

farmers from the ill effects of globalization, there is a need to integrate them into the modern competitive

markets (Small Farmers’ Agribusiness Consortium, 2016). A serious brainstorming is going on how the

FPCs are addressing the farmers’ problems, its regulatory framework, capital allocation, capacity building

and other administrative issues, and how to strengthen them. Increased focus of the Government of India on

these new institutions has resulted in 704,451 farmers being mobilized and 706 FPCs being formed, with

states like Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra taking the lead (NABARD, 2017). This paper

explores the impact of FPC services on marginal and small farmers.

The philosophy of cooperative is to facilitate all agriculture support such as inputs, credit, marketing to the

most vulnerable peasants in India. Cooperatives in India have served over 100 years and reached seminal

milestones, but the overall performance of the cooperatives is unsatisfactory in addressing the farmer issues.

The present conditions of farmers in various spheres are the testimony for that. The major factors involved

in delimiting the cooperative performance were influenced by political parties, hierarchical social structures,

strong caste identities, over-dependence on state assistance (subsidies, grants) and poor management.

However, permitting to register different types of cooperatives, lack of capacity building for the non-

agriculture cooperatives resulted in ignoring main philosophy such as the democratic approach becoming

1 Dalit is a name for people belonging to the lowest caste in India, characterised as "untouchable". 2 Adivasi is a member of any of the aboriginal peoples of India.




undemocratic and then becoming endangered in creating a support system (Abraham, 2015). Considering

all 100 years of experience, the policymakers have believed that “cooperatives failed but cooperation must

succeed” (Reserve Bank of India, 1954), so that they have developed a contemporary collective approach.

It was designed by eliminating all demerits of cooperatives. Farmers Producer Companies are called new

generation cooperatives. They had the values of cooperatives and efficiency of a corporate company. It

provides the flexibility, freedom, and efficiency of the private companies. Considering above thesis, it is

important to study the impact of FPCs on the farmers, especially marginal and small farmers.

Literature Review

Kumar, Thombare and Kale (2019) argued that collectivization of small farmers is an effective way to

improve access to technology, inputs, and markets. Integrating farmers with the value chain will provide

the net return to farmers. FPOs can organize and formalize the farmers of India by pooling the resources in

cooperation. This will leverage the bargaining power and collective strength. It will also increase the

opportunity in value addition (Nayak, 2016). In 2001, Y.K. Alagh committee (Alagh, 2000) recommended

that FPO be registered as Producer Organisation or Producer Company under the section IXA of the

Companies Act, 1956; this changed the legal status of FPOs with features of cooperatives. Intensive and

local technologies are cited as the basis of efficiency and sustainability in agriculture. According to

NABARD (2017), “producer company is composed of certain people who are dealing with the primary

produce and connecting with allied sectors, namely agriculture as well as, forest produce, horticulture,

floriculture, viticulture, forestry, revegetation, bee farming, animal husbandry and farming products, and

also the persons engaged in handicraft, handloom and other cottage industries and by-products of the

supplementary industry. The shareholders should be part of business operations in the collaborative mode

for the profit” (NABARD, 2017).

Salokhe (2016) explains about the farmer groups formed by the small and marginal farmers who are

predominantly facing several agricultural and related problems for many generations. The collective actions

concept is a remedy for eliminating intermediaries that are involved with agriculture and agribusiness.

Hence, it also helps in the process of pre-production to post-production activities. There are several issues

related to agriculture in the present world, so that the FPOs create social capital in the small and marginal

communities, at last, leading to better bargaining power to the primary producer and helping form their own

businesses. Such groups adopt technology in agriculture practices widely, as a result, leading to high

production in a lesser amount of time when they involve in the activities like commercialization, value

addition, branding, marketing thereby generating better condition in agriculture so that the agriculture will

be alive in the long run. Torero (2011) acknowledges that the FPCs are collective action-based

organizations. It helps farmers to access credit for agriculture and agro-practices. Hence, it also creates an

opportunity to improve varieties of crops by collective action. These organizations are small groups that

improve economies of small scale while practicing operations like production, processing, and marketing;

lastly, it creates incentives for small and marginal producers. The model creates healthy conditions for the

farmers who predominantly produce primary produce at the block level, supporting them with higher prices

for their products and lower prices for their agricultural inputs, and reduce transport costs. Furthermore, the

creation of on-site packaging and other value-added activities also addresses and encourages rural non-farm

economics. The broad definition emphasizes that the FPCs can play five important and potential roles that

strengthen markets for commodities produced by smallholders, reducing transport cost, a lesser amount of

risk by the collective process, building social capital, permitting cooperative action, and restoring markets

which are undiscoverable. Cooperatives initiate welfare to farmers via state intervention, while FPCs are

perceived to educate and empower farmers through collective bargaining along with introducing an

entrepreneurial quality to farming, particularly for the small and marginal farmers. These collectives clearly

offer ways for small and marginal farmers to participate in economic activities (Bachke, 2009). Capacity

building for the producer organizations is of utmost importance. Capacity building must be compulsory for

the producer organizations that apply innovative methods like PRA, latest agricultural methods, use of

technology, etc., which are majorly useful for collective action. This will also help the forward operations




like value addition and marketing. The farmers face several challenges such as lack of technology, storage,

post-harvest management, transportation, and marketing. FPCs help the farmers overcome these challenges

with the support of the government and other allied institutions. This will lead to sustainable development

in the agriculture sector through government support (Bijman and Tan, 2008). In developing countries

cooperatives serve only at the village level and inter-village level, but FPCs can function at the regional

level as nationwide platform (Onumah et al., 2007).

Methodology

To study the farmer producer companies exploratory research design was employed. Both primary and

secondary data were collected for the study. Secondary data is collected from various sources such as

Agriculture Technology Management Agency (ATMA) and District Agriculture Statistics of Osmanabad.

Primary data was collected at the farm level across Osmanabad district in Maharashtra. Multistage stratified

random sampling technique was employed to select the Farmer Producer Companies (FPCs). The multi-

stage criteria included: 1) In the first stage, the FPCs that were operational for the last 3 years; 2) FPCs

should have been providing various services e.g., a) pre-harvest services, b) capacity building, c) agriculture

advisory services, d) access to credit, e) technological services, f) value addition, and g) access to market;

and 3) the FPCs should have more than 75 per cent marginal and small farmers as members. A total of 56

FPCs were found operational in Osmanabad districts, which were formed by government and NGOs. Out

of 56, there were 21 FPCs that fulfilled the first criteria, and out of these 21 only 7 companies fulfilled the

second criteria. Out of 7, there were 2 companies that fulfilled the third criteria. These two companies named

as Jayalakshmi and Shivguru FPC were considered for the present study. The two companies have a total

of 425 farmers among whom 116 farmers are marginal and 96 are small farmers. A total of 150 farmers (75

marginal and 75 small farmers) were selected, making more than 30 per cent sample size. The study

employed a simple random sampling technique to select the sample farmer respondents. The primary data

was collected using a well-designed interview schedule. The interview schedule was divided into two parts.

Part I consists of questions that collected information regarding demographics and socio-economic data.

Part II was designed to measure the impact in frame of 7 thematic areas viz., pre-harvest services, capacity

building, agriculture advisory services, access to credit, technological services, value addition, and access

to market. The responses collected were scored on a five-point scale. The interpretation of the scores on a

five-point scale is 0.01 to 1.00 (Very Poor), 1.01 to 2.00 (Poor), 2.01 to 3.00 (Good), 3.01 to 4.00 (Very

Good), and 4.01 to 5.00 (Excellent). The data is interpreted using SPSS and MS Excel3.

Results and Discussion

Status of Farmer Producer Companies in India

Table 1 shows the registration wise status of farmer producer companies in India. Presently, 7,374 FPCs are

registered in India, whereas Maharashtra state comprises 26.0 per cent of them. As can be observed from

the data, the importance of FPCs is increasing among farmers over time.

Status of Farmer Producer Companies in Osmanabad

The Osmanabad block itself registered 50 per cent of the companies recorded in the district. In Osmanabad

district, 2 88,352 farmers have formed 236 Farmer Producer Companies (FPCs) whose cultivable area is

664,608.01 hectares. Under these FPCs, there are also a few successful FPCs like Padole and Ramwadi,

indicating that the farmers registered under the FPCs are scaling up better agriculture growth compared to

non-registered farmers. This is due to the FPCs maintaining collective action, collaboration, collective

services and communal harmony successfully (Swain and Sudheer, 2015).

3 A Likert Scale is a type of rating scale used to measure attitudes or opinions. With this scale, respondents are asked to rate items

on a level of agreement.




Table 1: Details of State Wise FPCs

S. No. State FPCs registered Percent of total

1. Maharashtra 1,940 (26.00)

2. Uttar Pradesh 750 (10.00)

3. Tamil Nadu 528 (7.00)

4. Madhya Pradesh 458 (6.00)

5. Telangana 420 (6.00)

6. Rajasthan 373 (5.00)

7. Karnataka 367 (5.00)

8. Odisha 363 (5.00)

9. Bihar 303 (4.00)

10. Haryana 300 (4.00)

11. Other states 1,571 (21.00)

12. Total 7,374 (100.00)

Source: NABARD, 2020

Impact of FPCs on Marginal and Small Farmers

To measure the impact of Farmer Producer Companies on marginal and small farmers in the study area, 38

services provided by FPCs are categorized into 7 thematic areas (see Table 2).

Table 2: Impact on services provided by the Farmer Producer Companies to the farmers

S. No.

(1)

Services

(2)

Scores:

Marginal

Farmers

(3)

Scores:

Small

Farmers

(4)

Scores:

All

Farmers

(5)

I Pre-Harvest Services provided by the Farmer Producer Companies to the Farmers

1. Community Irrigation Facility 1.08 1.00 1.04

2. Information on Selection of Crops 3.52 3.43 3.47

3. Crop Diversification 1.79 1.68 1.73

4. Soil Test Facility 1.00 1.00 1.00

5. Micronutrients 1.13 1.13 1.13

6. Seeds Distribution 3.08 2.96 3.02

7. Fertilizers 2.85 3.04 2.95

8. Pesticides 2.92 2.84 2.88

9. Overall 2.17 2.14 2.15

II Capacity Building Services provided by the Farmer Producer Companies to the Farmers

10. Awareness of Various Farming Practices 2.04 1.73 1.89

11. Training on Latest Agriculture Practices (Operations) 1.05 1.00 1.03

12. Training on Productivity/Production/Enhancement

Management

1.39 1.23 1.31

13. Training Programs on New Agricultural Methods 2.60 2.65 2.63

14. Interaction with Successful Farmers and Practitioners 1.00 1.00 1.00

15. Community Leadership Program 1.39 1.19 1.29

16. Overall 1.58 1.47 1.52

III Agricultural Advisory Services provided by the Farmer Producer Companies to the Farmers

17. Agriculture Extension Services 1.39 1.09 1.24

18. Extension Services on Requirement 1.67 1.47 1.57




S. No.

(1)

Services

(2)

Scores:

Marginal

Farmers

(3)

Scores:

Small

Farmers

(4)

Scores:

All

Farmers

(5)

19. Government Line Departments Services on Farming

Activities

1.67 1.47 1.57

20. Crop Insurance 2.01 1.97 1.99

21. Documentation Support for Availing Different

Government Schemes

3.33 3.35 3.34

22. Overall 2.01 1.87 1.94

IV Access to Credit Services provided by the Farmer Producer Companies to the Farmers

23. Awareness on (Formal Institutions) Credit Sources 2.40 2.44 2.42

24. Accessibility to Credit Facility from FPCs 1.12 1.16 1.14

25. Credit for Constructing Well 1.15 1.13 1.14

26. Credit for Constructing Borewell 1.16 1.20 1.18

27. Credit for the Farm Mechanization 1.15 1.17 1.16

28. Overall 1.39 1.42 1.41

V Technological Services provided by the Farmer Producer Companies to the Farmer

29. Technology Accessibility for Agriculture Practice 3.13 2.83 2.98

30. ICT Applications on Agricultural Practices 2.07 2.40 2.23

31. Community Mechanization

Services/Sowing/Harvesting/Rent machines

(Tractors/Sowing Machine/Pumps/Harvester)

2.85 2.96 2.91

32. Latest Agriculture Practices (NPM/Zero Budget

Agriculture/Other)

1.00 1.00 1.00

33. Overall 2.26 2.30 2.28

VI Value Addition Services provided by the Farmer Producer Companies to the Farmer

34. Cleaning Services 3.77 3.57 3.67

35. Drying Services 3.03 3.16 3.09

36. Grading Services 2.96 3.09 3.03

37. Packing Services 2.85 3.27 3.06

38. Storing Services 3.05 3.04 3.05

39. Branding 3.75 3.55 3.65

40. Overall 3.13 3.23 3.18

VII Market Access Services provided by the Farmer Producer Companies to the Farmers

41. Information on Market Price 2.16 2.34 2.25

42. Better Price for Produce by FPC 2.08 2.22 2.15

43. Overall 2.11 2.25 2.18

Interpretation of Scores: 0.01 to 1.00 (Very Poor), 1.01 to 2.00 (Poor), 2.01 to 3.00 (Good), 3.01 to 4.00

(Very Good), 4.01 to 5.00 (Excellent)

Table 2 explains the impact on services provided by the FPCs to the farmers. In the marginal farmers

category, pre-harvest services and value addition services are scored as good services, whereas agricultural

advisory services, technological services and access to market services indicate record of poor services. The

capacity building, access to credit scored ‘very poor’ services. In the marginal farmer category, none of the

services provided by the FPOs was ‘very good’ and ’excellent’. In the small farmer category, value addition

indicates ‘very good’ score, while pre-harvest services, technological services and accessing to market

services indicate ‘good’ score. In the same category, capacity building, agricultural advisory services, access

to credit and experiences indicate ‘poor’ scores. In the small farmer category, none of the services provided

by the FPOs was ’excellent’. In the all-farmer category, value addition indicates ‘very good’ score, and pre-

harvest services and accessing to marketing services indicate ‘good’ services. On the other hand, capacity




building, agricultural advisory services, technological services, and experiences indicate ‘poor’ services,

whereas access to credit indicates ‘very poor’ services. In the all-farmer category, none of the services

provided by the FPOs was ‘excellent’. It is concluded that the FPCs were performing low in the said

services, so there is an urgent need to address problems of farmers. The benefits of FPCs and farmer groups

are not reaching to the small and marginal farmers. Only the politically and socially connected farmers

benefited from the services.

Suggestions and Policy Implications

A study (Swain and Sudheer, 2015) has found that the benefits of the farming groups and FPCs are not

reaching marginal and small farmers completely. Most of the services is reaching only a few farmers who

are politically and socially influential and who can anyhow manage the situations. The present study found

that capacity building services, agricultural advisory services and technological services offered by FPCs

are inadequate. The FPCs need to ensure the quality of services to the farmers. The members of the Farmer

Producer Companies need capacity building services (Joglekar, 2016). A model ACITM to address farmers’

problems is proposed. In this model, ‘A’ stands for Agricultural Advisory Services, ‘C’ stands for Capacity

Building Services, ‘I’ stands for Institutional Support Services, ‘T’ stands for Technological Services, and

‘M’ stands for Marketing Services. The proposed model can be executed through a consortium of FPCs

named FPCDN (Farmer Producer Companies Development Network) where the FPCs will be the members

of the network. The consortium will have a specific purpose to deliver services and address FPCs problems

at the district level.

The consortium will work on specific objectives as follows:

● Integration of FPCs at the district level.

● Sharing of knowledge, products, and services among FPCs.

● To gain collective bargaining power for inputs and outputs.

● To avail government support and benefits.

● To create a peer pressure group on the government line departments for the benefits of the farmers.

How to execute the ACTIM model?

This consortium should organize meetings at the beginning and end of every season to discuss and finalize

the plan of action. In addition to this, FPCDN can call meetings as and when required. The main duty of the

consortium is to execute the model of ACITM. The proposed ACTIM functional flowchart can be observed

in Figure 1.

Under Agricultural Advisory Services, the FPCs need to improve the services like community irrigation

facility, soil test facility and micronutrients used for each crop and provide advice on cropping pattern. FPCs

should develop special communication channels using social media. The services provided by FPCs would

integrate the work of the government line departments.

Capacity Building Services:

Capacity Building Services are crucial to strengthen the capacities of members of FPCs. FPCs need to improve

awareness of various farming practices, training on the latest agriculture practices (operations), training on

productivity/production/enhancement/management, interaction with successful farmers and practitioners and

community leadership programs by allocating the external resources and government support.




Technological Services:

Technology plays an important role in improving the yields. The National Commission on Farmers also

indicates that there is a large knowledge gap between the yields in research stations and actual yields in

farmers’ fields (MoA, 2006). Technological Services of FPCs need to improvise the latest agriculture

practices (non-pesticidal management/zero budget agriculture/other) by linking with agricultural

technologies management agency and krushi vignana kendras (KVKs).

Figure 1: Farmers Producer Companies Development Network (FPCDN) Process Chart

Institutional Services:

Inaccessibility to credit markets or imperfect credit markets leads to suboptimal investment decisions or

input applications. Likewise, a poor human resource base and smaller access to suitable extension services

restrict suitable decisions regarding cultivation practices and technological know-how. Poorer access to

‘public goods’ such as public irrigation, command area development, electricity grids and greater negative

externalities from poor quality land and water management are found to impact outputs (Sarthak and Mishra,

2011). Under Institutional Services the FPCs are required to channelize to get credit from formal financial

institutions and on the convergence of other line departments like NABARD.

Access to Market Services:

Small farmers can benefit from the emerging supermarkets and value chains. The presence of supermarkets

as retail trade is rapidly expanding in the emerging economies. According to Reardon and Gulati (2008),

this process has developed at an astonishing speed. NCEUS (2008) says “some of the general issues that

confront marginal and small farmers as agriculturalists are imperfect markets for inputs/products leading to

smaller value on returns to farming”. Under Access to Market Services the FPCs are supposed to improvise

information on market price and better price for produce by integrating with various marketing channels.




Operationalization of FPCDN (Farmers Producer Companies Development Network)

In FPCDN, two types of members will be included viz., primary members and honorary executive members.

Primary Members: All FPCs members in Osmanabad district. Honorary Executive Members: Krishi Vigyan

Kendra (KVK), Tuljapur, Agriculture Technology and Extension Management Agency (ATMA),

Osmanabad, Department of Agriculture, Osmanabad and Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS), Tuljapur

representatives.

Procedure of Membership:

● Each FPC nominates one person to FPCDN.

● FPCDN is a group that can work on ACTIM based on members’ expertise.

● Government line departments like Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Agriculture Technology Management

Agency, Department of Agriculture and TISS will nominate one person from their organization to

FPCDN as an honorary member. These members provide suggestions on how to provide better

services to the members of FPCs in the district.

● The FPCDN will hold its meeting with all members twice in a year before the cropping season. In

addition, FPCDN can organize meetings as and when required.

Conclusion

In India, farming is becoming an exceedingly difficult job and most of the farmers are leaving under stressful

conditions. Government and civil society are fighting to address the problem with several schemes and other

innovative initiatives. The formation of FPCs is one such initiative that is trying to address farmers’

problems by bringing them to a collective forum. The present study found that the farmers of the Osmanabad

district have taken forward a step to reduce their problems by reintegrating themselves through FPCs. They

achieved certain goals in the direction of value addition and increased market opportunities. However, they

are still far away in addressing other issues like agricultural advisory services, capacity building services,

technological services, institutional services, and market access services, etc. Government and civil society

support are required to achieve the goal of inclusive growth and self-sustenance. The study proposes the

ACTIM model to help strengthen and sustain the FPCs.

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https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/25984/






Contribution Author 1 Author 2

Conceived and designed the research or analysis Yes Yes

Collected the data Yes Yes

Contributed to data analysis & interpretation Yes Yes

Wrote the article/paper Yes Yes

Critical revision of the article/paper Yes Yes

Editing of the article/paper Yes Yes

Supervision Yes Yes

Project Administration Yes Yes

Funding Acquisition No No

Overall Contribution Proportion (%) 50 50

Funding















this manuscript.











Agroecological Determinants of Potato Spatiotemporal Yield Variation

at the Landscape Level in the Central and Northern Ukraine

Anastasiia Zymaroieva*1, Tetiana Fedoniuk2, Svitlana Matkovska3, Olena Andreieva4, Victor Pazych5 1Department of Forestry and Ecology, Polissia National University, Zhytomyr, Ukraine.

Email: [email protected] 2Department of Forestry and Ecology, Polissia National University, Zhytomyr, Ukraine.

Email: [email protected] 3Department of Forestry and Ecology, Polissia National University, Zhytomyr, Ukraine. Email: [email protected] 4Department of Forestry and Ecology, Polissia National University, Zhytomyr, Ukraine.

Email: [email protected] 5Department of Forestry and Ecology, Polissia National University, Zhytomyr, Ukraine. Email: [email protected]


Abstract Global food security largely depends on the crop yield

increase, so the study of the yield-limiting factors of potato

(the second bread) is a pressing issue today. This study

determines the contribution of the agroecological factors,

namely, bioclimatic variables, soil indicators, and factors of

landscape diversity, to the variation in potato yields.

Conducted in Polissya and Forest-steppe zones of Ukraine

during 1991–2017, this study has not only addressed the

relationship between ecological determinants and potato

yields, but also considered crop yields as a dynamic system.

The dynamics of potato yields from the mid-1990s to the

present is described by a log-logistic model. There are

statistically significant regression dependencies between

potato yield parameters and agroecological factors. Potato

yield is dependent on the diversity of landscape cover. The

relationship between yield parameters and landscape-

ecological diversity is non-linear, which determines the

presence of optimal landscape structure for the highest potato

yields. Among climatic factors, the continental climate is of

the greatest importance for potato yield. The high sensitivity

of potato yield parameters to soil indices was found, and

mostly the soil texture components (silt content), which largely

determines the potato yield spatial variation.

Keywords Yield; Ecological factors; Spatiotemporal variation; Potato

How to cite this paper: Zymaroieva, A.,

Fedoniuk, T., Matkovska, S., Andreieva, O. and

Pazych, V. (2021). Agroecological Determinants

of Potato Spatiotemporal Yield Variation at the

Landscape Level in the Central and Northern

Ukraine. Grassroots Journal of Natural

Resources, 4(2): 34-47. Doi:

https://doi.org/10.33002/nr2581.6853.040203



Provisionally Accepted: 30 April 2021












ISSN 2581-6853




35 Anastasiia Zymaroieva, Tetiana Fedoniuk, Svitlana Matkovska, Olena Andreieva, Victor Pazych

Introduction

Potato production is the fourth largest in the world and the largest among non-grain crops since it is 'the

second bread’ in many countries, including Ukraine (FAO, 2019, Jennings et al., 2020). Potatoes have been

cultivated in Ukraine since the 18th century, but the crop was adapted slowly to the Ukrainian climate until

the end of the 19th century (Hamkalo, 2005). Although Ukraine is one of the world's top five potato

producers in terms of gross production, the average yield per hectare is lower than in developed countries

(FAO, 2019). This can be explained by the influence of economic and agrotechnological factors

(Zymaroieva et al., 2020; Zymaroieva and Zhukov, 2020). Nevertheless, there are ecological drivers of

potato yield dynamics (Haverkort and Struik, 2015; Stol et al., 1991), but their contribution to long-term

variation of potato yield within the country needs clarification.

The most influential environmental factors determining crop yields are climate and soil properties

(Schmidhuber and Tubiello, 2007; Ray et al., 2015; Feller et al., 2012; Lal, 2020). Climate drivers affect

crop yields on the physiological level by regulation of the transpiration, photosynthesis, and respiration

processes. The interaction of the meteorological factors with the crop responses is rather complex (Pereira

et al., 2008).

In the experiments conducted on potato, it was shown that environmental factors such as rainfall (soil

moisture) and temperature have a significant effect on its growth and yield (Diacono et al., 2012).

Fluctuations in potato yield are determined both by the influence of weather conditions on the

photosynthetic productivity of plants, and the influence of the same conditions on the spread of infectious

diseases and pest outbreaks (Quiroz et al., 2018; Lakshman et al., 2020). According to the study of Zhao et

al. (2016), the key climatic factors limiting potato yields in northern China over the past 30 years at a

regional scale were diurnal temperature range, precipitation, radiation, and evapotranspiration. Moreover,

the effects of climate change on potato yield are regionally diverse (Haverkort and Struik, 2015), this

determines the relevance of present research.

There is a strong correlation between potato yield and soil nutrient factors (Wang et al., 2019). The soil

structure, which defines water relations in agricultural systems, is also an important driver of potato yield

variation (Redulla et al., 2002). Although, the impact of soil indicators on crop yields is a well-studied issue,

yet the spatial aspect of yield variation depending on soil properties needs to be investigated. There is strong

evidence of a sustained impact of biodiversity on crop yields both in the natural ecosystems (Hooper et al.,

2005) and in agroecosystems (Picasso et al., 2008). Land-use diversity has an important role in ensuring

higher yields and, as a result, resilient agricultural returns (Abson et al., 2013). However, the relationship

between crop yields and biodiversity at the landscape level is insufficiently explored.

The aim of this study is to establish the contribution of the agroecological factors, namely, bioclimatic

variables, soil indicators and factors of landscape diversity in the variation of potato yield in the central and

northern Ukraine during 1991-2017.

Methodology

Yield data and study area

Potato yield data were obtained from the State Statistics Service of Ukraine1. The time series datasets include

averages of the crop annual yields in 206 administrative districts of 10 regions of Ukraine during the period

1991–2017. The data represent the mean values of the yields based on the spatial criterion without

differentiating soil water availability and fertility, irrigation management, cultivar, and crop cycle. The

research area is located in two environmental zones: the Central European Mixed Forests ecoregion

1 http://www.ukrstat.gov.ua/

http://www.ukrstat.gov.ua/




(Polissia) and East European Forest Steppe ecoregion (Forest-steppe zone). Twenty-seven years’ data series

of the potato yields were available for 10 administrative regions (Cherkasy, Chernihiv, Khmel'nyts'kyy,

Kyiv, L'viv, Rivne, Ternopil', Vinnytsya, Volyn andZhytomyr) (Figure 1) (Zymaroieva et al., 2020).

Figure 1: Map of 10 administrative region in Ukraine, Ecoregions and soil map.

Legends: Soil classification according World Reference Base for Soil Resources: ABgl –Albeluvisols

Gleyic; ABst – Albeluvisols Stagnic; ABum –Albeluvisols Umbric; CHch –Chernozems Chernic; CHlv –

Chernozems Luvic; CMdy – Cambisols Dystric; CMeu –Cambisols Eutric; CMgl – Cambisols Gleyic; FLdy

– Fluvisols Dystric; FLeu – Fluvisols Eutric; FLgl – Gleyic Fluvisols; FLhi – Fluvisols Histic; GLhi –

Gleysols Histic; GLhu – Gleysols Humic; GLso – Gleysols Sodic; HSfi – Histosols Fibric; HSsa – Histosols

Sapric; HSsz – Histosols Salic; LPrz – Leptosols Rendzic; LVha – Haplic Luvisols; PHab – Phaeozems

Albic; PHgl – Phaeozems Gleyic; PHha – Phaeozems Haplic; PHlv – Phaeozems Luvic; PHso – Phaeozems

Sodic; PZet – Podzols Entic; PZha – Podzols Haplic; PZle – Leptic Podzols; PZrs – Podzols Rustic




Yield dynamics model and its characteristic points

In this work, not just the relationship between ecological determinants and yield is studied, but crop yields

are also considered as a dynamic system, which is characterized by changes in time and space. The choice

of the model is explained by its statistical reliability and significant explanatory ability, which allows

meaningful interpretation of crop yield data. The symmetrical four-parameter log-logistic model was used

to describe the potato yield dynamics:

𝑌 = 𝑐 +𝑑−𝑐

1+𝑒𝑥𝑝(𝑏(log(𝑥)+log(𝐸𝐷50))), (1)

where x represents years (1 – 1991, 2 – 1992, …); y is the response (crop yield); c shows the lower response

limit (the lowest yield level); d is the upper limit (the plateau level of yields) when x approaches infinity; b is

a slope of the response curve near the inflection point when x acquires ED50 (the time it takes to reach a half

increase between the lower and upper limits). Hence, the log-logistic model has characteristic points that can

be used as parameters of the variation of the yield (Figure 2): Lower limit indicates the lowest level of yields

during the study period; slope – a slope of the trend curve, which shows the rate of yield change over time;

ED50 – the time that is required to achieve half of the maximum yield level and at the same time the point

with the highest rate of yield growth; upper limit – the highest level of productivity which, at the present level

of agricultural technology development, is determined precisely by the biotic potential of the territory.

Figure 2: Typical dynamics of the potato yields during 1991–2017 and its approximation by the logistic model.

The abscissa axis – years (1 – 1991, 2 – 1992, …, 2017), the ordinate axis is the potato yield, dt ha-1.

These characteristics of the potato yield dynamics were calculated for each administrative district and used

as an integral quantitative indicator of the crop yield variation at a given point in space over a certain period

of time (Kunah et al., 2018; Zhukov et al., 2018). The symmetrical four-parameter log-logistic model was

used calculated by means of the drm function from the drc package (Ritz et al., 2015) for a language and

environment for statistical computing R (R Core Team, 2020).




Climatic and soil characteristics

Bioclimatic data were applied according to the WorldClim version 2 database2 (Fick and Hijmans, 2017).

Climatic information is presented in the form of raster maps with a resolution of 1 km, which is sufficient

for the study purpose. The bioclimatic variables represent ecologically significant aspects of annual

temperature and precipitation changes. 19 bioclimatic variables were used for analysis (Zymaroieva et al.,

2021). The Box-Cox transformation to convert abnormal dependent variables to normal form was used

(Osman et al., 2014), which was implemented using the AID library for the statistical computing

environment R (R Core Team, 2020).

The principal components analysis was used to reduce the dimensionality of climate matrices and soil

properties. General linear models were used to test the significance of the influence of climate and soil

variables on yield parameters. The principal components analysis of climate variables allowed to identify

four main components, the eigenvalues of which are greater than one and which together explain 92.5% of

the variability of climate variables (Zymaroieva et al., 2021). Spatial variation of soil properties and soil

classification were obtained from the SoilGrids database3 (Hengl et al., 2017; Zhukov et al., 2017). To

analyze the impact of soil factors on potato yields, the indicators such as soil organic carbon (SOC), pH,

bulk density, sand, clay or silt content for different soil layers were used. As a result of the principal

components analysis of soil variables, 6 principal components were identified with eigenvalues higher than

one and which together explain 98.5% of the total variance of soil indicators (Zymaroieva et al., 2021).

Statistical analysis was performed using Statistica 10 software.

Landscape diversity indices

The 300 m GlobCover Landscape Type Map, based on the two-month MEdium Resolution Imaging

Spectrometer (MERIS) (Ottlé et al., 2013; Fritz et al., 2015; Tsendbazar et al., 2015; Pérez-Hoyos et al.,

2017), was used as a basis for creating a landscape diversity map. The landscape diversity was evaluated

using the Shannon diversity index (Dušek and Popelková, 2017; Kunah et al., 2018; Zhukov et al., 2015).

The diversity index was calculated for each focal pixel and the eight adjacent ones. Calculations were made

using the Corridor Designer toolbox works in ArcGIS 10.1 (Majka et al., 2007).

Along with landscape diversity, the distance between objects is important (McGarigal et al., 2002; McGarigal et

al., 2012; Koshelev et al., 2020). Natural protected areas (NPA) affect the productivity of the surrounding

landscapes. Therefore, the distance to NPA was considered as a measure that reflects this influence (Chape et al.,

2005; Fedonyuk et al., 2020). The distance between natural protected areas (NPA) and each pixel of the studied

area was calculated. The average value of this index within administrative areas was used as a marker of the

naturalness of the territory. Data about natural protected areas was obtained from

https://opengeo.intetics.com.ua/osm/pa/ in the form of a shape-file. The distance was calculated using ArcGIS 10.1.

Results and discussion

Statistically significant regression dependences (p <0.05) between agroecological predictors and potato

yield parameters in the studied region of Ukraine were established (Table 1).

Table 1: Regression dependence of potato yield parameters on climatic and soil variables, as well as

indicators of landscape diversity*

Predictors Slope.

Radj2= 0.26

Lower Limit.

Radj2= 0.57

Upper Limit.

Radj2= 0.54

ED50.

Radj2= 0.32

Shannon (H) – –0.79±0.27 –1.20±0.28 1.18±0.34

2 http://worldclim.org/version2 3 https://soilgrids.org

https://soilgrids.org/




Predictors Slope.

Radj2= 0.26

Lower Limit.

Radj2= 0.57

Upper Limit.

Radj2= 0.54

ED50.

Radj2= 0.32

H2 – 0.94±0.28 1.28±0.30 –0.98±0.36

Distance (D) –0.74±0.24 – – 1.10±0.23

D2 0.63±0.23 – – –1.14±0.22

Climate 1 – –0.85±0.13 –0.78±0.14 –

Climate 2 0.26±0.10 0.20±0.08 – –

Climate 3 – – – –

Climate 4 –0.26±0.08 – –0.13±0.06 –

Soil 1 – 0.23±0.10 – –

Soil 2 – –0.12±0.06 –0.19±0.06 –

Soil 3 0.28±0.09 – – –

Soil 4 –0.33±0.12 –0.65±0.09 –0.60±0.10 –

Soil 5 0.28±0.09 0.35±0.07 0.33±0.07 –

Soil 6 – – – –

*Note: Standardized regression coefficients are statistically significant for p <0.05

Figure 3: The dependence of the minimum level of potato yield on the average distance of the administrative

district from the nearest natural protected area (Distance) (A), the maximum level of yield from the landscape

diversity (Shannon) (B), and the dependence of ED50 on the landscape diversity and the distance NPA (C)




Notably, the level of landscape diversity plays an important role in varying potato yields (Table 1). Thus,

the growth rate of potato yield is characterized by a nonlinear dependence on the distance to the NPA (Figure

3, A). The maximum and minimum potato yields are significantly affected by the diversity of landscape

cover (Table 1, Figure 3, B). The lowest, highest yield levels and the slope of the trend model variate

regularly with the changes both in the landscape-ecological diversity marked by the Shannon index changes

and the distance to the nearest NPA. The pattern is non-linear, which indicates the presence of the optimal

ratio of diversity in which there is the smallest decrease in crop yield ("largest" lowest yield) and the highest

level of maximum yield. Similarly, there is an optimal value of the diversity and density of NPA for the

highest slope of the model (the highest rate of yield increasing over time).

It is obvious that crop yield positively correlated with landscape diversity and density of NPA within units

with a low level of these indicators. Nevertheless, under conditions of high landscape diversity and density

of NPA potato yield decreases due to the predominance of the landscape cover types that are unfavorable

for agriculture because of low soil fertility.

The value of the yield parameter ED50 by 32% is determined solely by landscape diversity (Table 1). The

influence of landscape-ecological diversity and distance to natural protected areas on ED50 is shown in

Figure 3, C. The symmetrical configuration of the figure indicates an independent influence of the landscape

diversity and NPA density at the time of reaching half of potato yield maximum level. The western regions

of the study area characterized by the largest values of ED50 (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Spatial variation of the inflection time parameter (ED50) of the log-logistic model of potato yield

dynamics

The study by Poveda et al. (2012) found a positive effect of landscape diversity on potato yields.

Conservation of natural habitats in agricultural landscapes has been shown to be beneficial in providing

“ecosystem services” such as reducing pest damage, increasing yields and increasing functional biodiversity

(Cardinale et al., 2003; Martin et al., 2016). The simplification of agricultural landscapes through the

increase in the cropped areas has caused the loss of habitats for many species that fulfill important ecosystem

services such as crop pest regulation and potato yield (Poveda et al., 2012). Even though the yield variation




caused by the landscape diversity is insignificant, it may be a sufficient condition for the conservation of

natural landscape elements within agricultural lands, due to their important ecological role.

The slope of the logarithmic curve, which determines the rate of yield growth is the parameter of the potato

yield model that least dependent on agroecological factors (Radj2= 0.26). Nevertheless, the slope dependent

on the soil principal components 3, 4, 5, and most correlates with the soil principal component 4 (R = –0.33

± 0.12; p <0.05), which is responsible for the content of the silt fraction in the granulometric composition

of the soil. That is, the lower the silt content in the soil. the faster the increase of potato yield. Potatoes are

known to grow best on non-gleyed grey and sod-podzolic soils of different mechanical compositions (Fiers

et al., 2012). Heavy clay soils are unfavorable for potatoes (Johansen et al., 2015). On such soils, especially

in wet years, there is a risk of yield loss due to the rapid spread of plant diseases (Liao et al., 2016; Shi et

al., 2019; Mugo et al., 2020). Territorial units, where the rate of increase is higher, are in accordance with

the predominance of light soils (Figure 1, Figure 5).

Figure 5: Spatial variation of the Slope parameter of the log-logistic model of potato yield dynamics

So, present study proves the fact that among the most influential factors driving potato yield variability

between fields are soil texture components (sand, silt, clay), which in some cases have an even stronger

impact on yield than the soil chemical properties (Redulla et al., 2002). The lower and upper limits are the

most sensitive potato yield parameters to ecological factors. The environmental factors determine 57% and

54% of the spatio-temporal variation of the lower and upper yield limit, respectively (Table 1). These potato

yield parameters mostly depend on the climatic principal component 1 (R = – 0.85 ± 0.13 and R = –0.78 ±

0.14, respectively), which determines the climate continentality. Continentality reflects the most important

climatic properties, such as the degree of variability of the annual temperature range. As continentality

increases, summer temperatures rise, and winter temperatures fall (Driscoll and Fong, 1992). The soil

principal component 4 is also a considerable determinant of lower and upper potato yield limits (R = –

0.65±0.09 and R = –0.60±0.10, respectively). The fact that these two parameters depend on the same

ecological predictors, determines their similar spatial distribution (Figure 6).




A

B

Figure 6: Spatial variation of the parameter of the lower limit (A) and upper limit (B) parameters of the log-

logistic model of potato yield dynamics

Most of the potato farms in Ukraine are located on the black soils in the forest-steppe zone in central

Ukraine, but the best yields are obtained in the Polissia wetlands of the north. The lowest potato yields both

in the 1990s and at the current time are observed in the south-eastern regions of the country (Figure 6),

which may be connected with the greater climate continentality of this area in particular. Analyses of

historical climate data show an obvious trend towards increasing temperatures in Ukraine, and climate

models predict further warming. especially regarding winter temperatures (IPCC, 2013). In other words, the

climate became more continental in the Polissia zone of Ukraine (Zymaroieva et al., 2021). The possible

risks of such a climate change scenario will be the further research to be recommended.




Conclusions

Potato yield is greatly determined by the diversity of landscape cover. The relationship between yield

parameters and landscape-ecological diversity is non-linear, which determines the presence of optimal

diversity of natural protected areas for the highest potato yields. Among climatic factors, the continental

climate is of the greatest importance for potato yield, and among soil factors, the content of silt in the soil

is the most influential factor, which obviously explains the higher potato yields in northern parts of Ukraine.

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Contribution Author 1 Author 2 Author 3 Author 4 Author 5

Conceived and designed the research or

analysis

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Collected the data Yes No No No No


interpretation

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Wrote the article/paper Yes No No No No

Critical revision of the article/paper Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Editing of the article/paper Yes No Yes No Yes

Supervision Yes Yes No No Yes

Project Administration No Yes No No No

Funding Acquisition No No No No No

Overall Contribution Proportion (%) 50 20 10 10 10

Funding















this manuscript.











Appraisal of Heavy Metal Presence and Water Quality having Microbial

Load and Associated Human Health Risk: A study on tube-well water in

Nalitabari township of Sherpur district, Bangladesh

Md. Rayhan Ali1, Md. Omar Faruque2, Md. Tarikul Islam3, Md. Tarek Molla4,

Md. Shakir Ahammed5, Shahin Mahmud6*, A.K.M. Mohiuddin7 1Department of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University,

Tangail-1902, Bangladesh. Email: [email protected] 2Department of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University,



Tangail-1902, Bangladesh. Email: [email protected] 5Department of Environmental Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh-2202, Bangladesh.

Email: [email protected] 6Department of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University,


Tangail-1902, Bangladesh. Email: [email protected]


Abstract This article is based on a study aimed to determine

physiochemical parameters, fecal coliform, total coliforms,

heterotrophic plate count, arsenic, iron and lead of water to

evaluate their effects on human health. Analysis was carried

out on tube-well water collected from Nalitabari township of

Sherpur District in Bangladesh. The dissolved oxygen (DO),

total dissolved solids (TDS), salinity and electrical

conductivity were in the ranges of 4.30 to 7.30 ppm, 350 to

792 mg/l, 0.2 to 0.5%, and 715 to 1,970 μS/cm. The pH values

were slightly lesser or more than permissible value. Due to the

vicinity to the latrines, 17 tube-wells’ water was contaminated

by fecal coliforms. The highest heterotrophic plate count was

7.5×103 cfu/ml in ward-8 of the town. Eschericia coli and

Vibrio cholerae were identified in ratio of 30.56% and 18.06%,

respectively, in the tube-well water, resulting into diarrhea

among children. About 6.94% of tube-well water was

contaminated with arsenic. 3.25% and 4.5% respondents were

suffering from skin diseases and headache, respectively. So, an

alternative source of drinking water should be arranged for a

better public health of present and next generations.

Keywords Tube-well water; Contamination; pH; Heavy metal; Arsenic;

Skin disease

How to cite this paper: Ali, M.R., Faruque,

M.O., Islam, M.T., Molla, M.T., Ahammed, M.S.,

Mahmud, S. and Mohiuddin, A.K.M. (2021).

Appraisal of Heavy Metal Presence and Water

Quality having Microbial Load and Associated

Human Health Risk: A study on tube-well water

in Nalitabari township of Sherpur district,

Bangladesh. Grassroots Journal of Natural


https://doi.org/10.33002/nr2581.6853.040204

Received: 05 January 2021

Reviewed: 25 January 2021

Provisionally Accepted: 25 March 2021

Revised: 30 April 2021











ISSN 2581-6853









49 Md. Rayhan Ali, Md. Omar Faruque, Md. Tarikul Islam, Md. Tarek Molla, Md. Shakir Ahammed, Shahin Mahmud, A.K.M. Mohiuddin

Introduction

Groundwater from quaternary to recent sediments is the principal source of water for domestic consumption

and utilization in industry and irrigation system in Bangladesh. The shallow alluvial aquifers receive water

through rainfall and flooding. The static water level in much of Bangladesh is due to its availability within

7 meter of the ground surface round the year. Simple suction hand pumps are the dominant water supply

technology in Bangladesh (Luby et al., 2008). More than 90% of households in Bangladesh generally use

tube-well water for domestic consumption such as drinking and cooking purposes. It is a matter of great

concern that the drinking water is getting polluted with various organic and inorganic matters (Rezania et

al., 2015). Depending on the availability and the level of groundwater, these tube-wells have been installed

in Bangladesh at various depths. It may be insufficient to avoid contamination of the tube-well water with

human-pathogenic bacteria due to unfavorable immediate environmental conditions (e.g., the distance of

tube-wells from latrines or sewage-contaminated ponds or tanks). Despite regular use of tube-well water for

drinking, Bangladesh has failed to protect the gastrointestinal diseases caused by water pollution (Islam et

al., 2001). Diarrheal diseases are still a leading cause of death of children under 6 years and about 5.2% of

all infant deaths occur in Bangladesh due to diarrheal diseases (Feachem and Koblinsky, 1983).

Underground water systems of Bangladesh are increasingly vulnerable due to both microbiological

contamination and heavy metal pollution, especially by arsenic and iron. Such problems have also been

arisen even in developed countries (Hartley, Edwards and Lepp, 2004).

It was found that 41% water of tube-wells was contaminated by total coliforms, 29% by thermo-tolerant

coliforms and 13% by fecal coliforms (Saha et al., 2018). About 40% water of shallow tube-wells in

Bangladesh were contaminated with human fecal organisms (Knappett et al., 2011; Malla et al., 2018).

Coliform bacteria indicate a pathway for more pathogenic bacteria, viruses and protozoans that can be

introduced by anthropogenic activities and poor sanitation. According to World Health Organization,

placing tube-wells at a safe distance from latrines, ensuring that the tube-well has a sound platform without

cracks, and that the hand pump is firmly attached, prevent the contamination of fecal coliforms. Every year

more than 3.4 million people die as a result of water related diseases, making it the leading cause of disease

morbidity and mortality around the world, especially in South-Asia (Souter et al., 2003). From this point of

public health, it is highly imperative that potable water supply system should be safe that prevents and

controls diarrheal diseases (Motarjemi and Käferstein, 1999; Yager et al., 2006). Drinking water quality

among the natural parameters, such as Fe, Mn and salinity, are matters of concern over large areas in deep

and shallow aquifers, and in both urban and rural areas of Bangladesh (Ahmed et al., 2019).

Arsenic exposure through groundwater has been a major public health problem in Taiwan, Mexico, USA,

Mongolia, Argentina, Chile, India and Bangladesh. Worldwide, more than 100 million people have been

estimated to be chronically exposed to arsenic from drinking water contamination of high levels of arsenic.

The situation is devastating in Bangladesh. From about 7-11 million hand pumped tube-wells,

approximately half of them have been estimated supplying groundwater with an arsenic concentration more

than 50 micrograms/l, which is the maximum level of arsenic allowed in a drinking water (Rahman et al.,

2018; Mukherjee et al., 2006). Up to 77 million people in Bangladesh have been exposed to toxic levels of

arsenic from drinking water and one in ten has the probability of developing cancer from the arsenic

poisoning (Smith, Lingas and Rahman, 2000). The iron contamination in groundwater is one of the most

discussed issues because iron (Fe) contamination in groundwater is now a vital problem in Bangladesh

(Hug, Leupin and Berg, 2008). It was estimated that about 80% of the diseases in developing countries are

attributed to contaminated water and resulting death toll is as much as 10 million per year (Mara and

Alabaster, 1995). The improvement of health is not possible without proper sanitation system. Sanitation is

one of the major problems in Bangladesh that threat the public health. In this regard, water supply and

sanitation facilities in terms of quality and quantity are utmost necessities for assessing the living condition

of the urban and semi-urban areas of Bangladesh. Due to poor sanitation and unawareness about personal

hygiene practices, drinking water is contaminated by some pathogenic bacteria and increases the risks of

water-borne diseases (Suthar, Chhimpa and Singh, 2009).




Besides, the presence of heavy metals in drinking water is a matter of great concern due to their impacts on

human life. Contamination of tube-well water with arsenic and heavy metal is hazardous for health. People

are suffering from headaches, abdominal pain, cancer, kidney damage, nerve damages and skeletal damages

due to the toxic effects of these metals (Rasool et al., 2016). Therefore, the present study was designed to

evaluate tube-well water quality and to identify the presence of heavy metal contaminations in tube-well

water. The objectives of this study were also to investigate the tube-well water’s physiochemical parameters

(such as dissolved oxygen (DO) electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS) and pH),

microbial load of tube-well water and their health impact on people of Nalitabari Township of Sherpur

District in Bangladesh.


Study Area

Nalitabari is an Upazila (sub-district) of Sherpur District under the Division of Mymensingh in Bangladesh.

It is located between 25°01' and 25°13' N latitudes and between 90°04' and 90°19' E longitudes. It is 174.9

kilometer away from Dhaka and situated on the bank of the river Bhogai in northern part of Bangladesh.

Nalitabari municipality is one of the oldest municipalities in Bangladesh, established on 1st April in 1869.

It has an area of 327.61 sq. km with 42,698 households. The study was carried out from June 2016 to April

2017.

Sampling

Total 72 water samples from 8 locations (9 samples from each ward) were randomly collected and analyzed.

The tube-well was continuously pumped for one minute to clear the way of opening and the water samples

were collected in a sterile container. All the samples were stored in ice box with proper aseptic technique

and immediately transported to the laboratory for experimental analysis. Samples were collected in sterilized

bottles and prior to filling, the sample bottles were rinsed two to three times with the water to be collected.

The bottles used for collecting samples for metal analysis were filled with acid to keep the pH of the water

samples low. Special caution was taken to restrict the overflow of sample water (with acid) from the bottle.

The samples were transferred to the laboratory within the six hours of collection (Jidauna et al., 2013).

Analysis of Physiochemical Parameters

The water quality parameter such as pH was determined by the digital pH meter (Model: pH Scan WP 1, 2

and made in Malaysia). Buffer solution containing pH 4.0 and 7.0 was used to calibrate the digital pH meter.

Digital Electrical Conductivity (EC) and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) meters (Model: HM digital and made

in Germany) were used to determine EC and TDS, respectively. Salinity was also measured by it. The

Dissolved Oxygen (DO) was determined by digital DO meter (Model: D.46974 and made in Taiwan) where

sodium thiosulphate (0.025N) was used as a reagent (Islam et al., 2014).

Determination of heavy metal

Arsenic, lead and iron were determined by test kit developed by HACH Company, USA (Reddy et al.,

2020).

Heterotrophic Plate Count (HPC)

For determination of heterotrophic plate count, 100 micro liters of a tenfold serial dilution of bottled water

and 100 micro liters of a tenfold serial dilution of tube-well water from samples were transferred and spread

onto a plate count agar medium using micro pipette for each dilution. The diluted samples were spread as

quickly as possible on the surface of plate with a sterile glass spreader. One sterile glass spreader was used




for each plate. The plates were then incubated at 37ºC for 24-48 hours. Following incubation, plates

exhibiting 30-300 colonies were counted. The heterotrophic plate count was calculated, and the result of

total bacterial count was expressed as the number of organism or colony forming units per milliliter

(CFU/ml) of water samples (Kabir et al., 2015).

Total Coliform Count

The most probable number (MPN) test for the presence of coliforms in water carried out according to the

procedures described by Harley and Prescott (2002). An estimate of the number of coliforms (MPN) can

also be done in the presumptive test. In this procedure, 15 lactose broth tubes were inoculated with the water

samples. Five tubes received 10 ml of water, another 5 tubes received 1 ml of water and rest 5 tubes received

0.1 ml of water. A count of the number of tubes showing gas production was then made, and the figure was

compared to a table developed by American Public Health Association. The number was the MPN of

coliforms per 100 ml of the water sample (Hassan et al., 2018).

Detection of Fecal Coliforms

The positive presumptive cultures were transferred to lactose broth, which is specific for fecal coliform

bacteria. Any presumptive tube which showed gas production after 24 (+/-2) hours incubation at 44.5°C

(+/-0.2°C) confirmed the presence of fecal coliform bacteria in that tube and was recorded as positive

(Manja, Maurya and Rao, 1982).

Isolation of Pathogenic Bacteria

To isolate specific pathogenic bacteria, the samples were enriched separately with alkaline peptone water

(APW) for plating in thiosulfate citrate bile salts sucrose agar (TCBS) medium, with GN (Gram-Negative)

broth for plating in Salmonella shigella (SS) agar, with Enterobacteria Enrichment broth - Mossel for plating

in MacConkey medium. From each sample, 1 ml of water was added with 3 ml of respective enrichment

media. All the samples were then incubated at 37°C for 24 hours. After overnight enrichment, the samples

were plated in MacConkey, TCBS and SS agar plate separately. All the plates were incubated at 37°C for

24 hours. After overnight incubation, the plates were observed for selective pathogens. For the confirmation

of Escherichia coli, red/pink colonies form MacConkey agar plates were plated in eosin methylene blue

(EMB) agar plates and for the confirmation of Vibrio cholerae standard biochemical tests were performed

from the yellow and green colonies in TCBS media, respectively (Pavlov et al., 2004).

Biochemical Test

Biochemical tests were performed to identify the bacterial flora from different water samples. In this study,

different Biochemical tests (such as KIA, MIU, CITRATE, VP, OXIDASE, CATALAE, MANNITOL,

STARCH, MR, GLUCOSE, LACTOSE, EMB) were performed according to Bergey’s Manual of

Determinative Bacteriology, 9th Edition, 1994 (Ewalt et al., 1994).

Antibiotic Sensitivity Test

Antibiotic susceptibility test was accomplished by disk diffusion method using the commercial antibiotic

disk and MHB on Mullar-Hinton agar to assess the susceptibility and resistance pattern of the isolates. For

this purpose, 13 different antibiotic discs were used from commercial sources (Oxoid Ltd., England). The

selected antibiotics used were Ampicillin, Amoxicillin, Chloramphenicol, Erythromycin, Tetracycline,

Gentamicin, Penicillin, Sulphomethoxazole, Kanamycin, Nalidixic Acid, Ciprofloxacin, Streptomycin,

Norfloxacin and Azithromycin. The interpretation on susceptibility was done according to the guidelines of

Clinical and Laboratory Standard Institute, formerly known as NCCLS (Liasi et al., 2009; Ali et al., 2020).




Assessment of Health Impact

A semi-structured questionnaire was prepared for field investigation to evaluate the health impact of the

people who used these tube-well waters. Total 400 (200 children and 200 adults, among them 50% were

male and 50% were female) respondents of the study area were interviewed to determine the health status

of people in the study area (Rakib et al., 2019; Ali et al. 2020).

Results and Discussions

Physiochemical Properties of Water

Amounts of pH, DO, EC, TDS and salinity contained in the tube-well water of 8 different locations collected

from Nalitabari Township of Sherpur district were summarized in Table 1. The pH value of all water

samples was in normal range from 6 to 8.5. pH value observed for all the water samples were slightly less

or more than 7 with the average value of 6.8. Lowest value of pH (6.01) was found in ward-8 at TW67 and

the highest value (7.92) found in ward-3 at TW25. In other study, it was reported that the pH of 60% water

samples collected from tube-wells in Matlab of Bangladesh was acidic and lower than recommended by the

World Health Organization (Robinson et al., 2011).

The DO, TDS, salinity, and conductivity of water samples were in the ranges of 4.30 to 7.30 ppm, 350 to

792 mg/l, 0.2 to 0.5%, and 715 to 1970 μS/cm, respectively. The mean DO content of all water samples was

5.78 mg/l. The maximum concentration of DO was 7.30 mg/l in the water collected from TW22 (ward-3),

whereas the minimum concentration was found 3.95 mg/l in TW15 belonging to ward-2. The value of DO

of all water samples was not satisfactory, as the standard value is 6.00 mg/l or more for Bangladesh drinking

water set by DoE (Alam et al., 2007).

According to International Organization for Standardization, the palatability of drinking water has been

rated to its TDS level as follows: excellent, less than 300 mg/liter; good, between 300 and 600 mg/liter; fair,

between 600 and 900 mg/liter; poor, between 900 and 1200 mg/liter; and unacceptable, greater than1200

mg/liter (Beyene, 2015). So, all the values of TDS were in an acceptable range. The result of the study

showed that the electrical conductivity (EC) of 50% water samples was within the standard value of drinking

water in Bangladesh. The maximum permissible limit of EC in Bangladesh is 1,200 μS/cm (Mebrahtu and

Zerabruk, 2011). It was reported that electrical conductivity (EC) of the drinking water coolers of different

teaching institutes in Lahore ranged from 185-362 μS/cm and was well within the permissible limit of 400

μS/cm as set by WHO guideline (Asif et al., 2015). All the tube-wells water of the study area was within

the acceptable salinity range where salinity of the freshwater is 0 to 0.5%. There was a significant

relationship among the salinity, TDS and EC. In this study, it was found when the salinity of tube-wells

water was 0.5% or more, the TDS and EC values were also high. Another study suggested that most of the

physicochemical parameters of groundwater in Rajshahi city were not at the alarming stage (Rasul and

Jahan, 2010).

Presence of Heavy Metals

This study revealed that there was a significant association with the arsenic contamination of tube-wells

water and deepness of the tube-wells. Among 72 tube-wells, all the tube-wells that contained excessive

amount of arsenic have the depth within 90 feet. Out of 72 tube-wells water, 16 contained more iron (Fe)

than the recommended limit set by Bangladesh; whereas in Bangladesh, permissible limit of Fe is 0.3-1.0

mg/l, while WHO standard level is 0.1 mg/l. About 93.75% of the tube-wells contaminated with excessive

iron in which deepness was within 90 feet (Roy et al., 2015). About 12% of the water samples contain

moderate sediment and 76% samples contain no sediment after centrifuge at 10,000 rpm. Table 1 showed

that there is no contamination of lead found in tube-wells water in the study area. A study reported that more

than 60% of the groundwater in Bangladesh contained naturally occurring arsenic with concentration levels




often significantly exceeding 10 µg/l (Bang, Viet and Kim, 2009). The National Drinking Water Quality

Survey Report (2009) used an estimated national population of 164 million to estimate that 22 million and

5.6 million people are drinking a water with arsenic concentrations more than 50 μg/l and 200μg/l (George

et al., 2012), respectively. Present study showed very little amount of arsenic contamination in the tube-

wells water in the study area. Only 6.94% of tube-wells water was contaminated with arsenic more than

50μg/l, which is the recommended limit set by DoE, Bangladesh. It was found that out of 330 tube-wells in

Rajshahi city, 72 were found having arsenic levels above the WHO guideline value (0.01 ppm), of which

30 exceeded the Bangladesh drinking water standard (0.05 ppm) (Rasul and Jahan, 2010).

Table 1: Physiochemical properties and presence of heavy metal in tube-well water Sample

site

Tube-

well

water

(TW)

Deepness

of the

Tube-well

(feet)

pH TDS

mg/l

Salinity

(%)

DO

mg/l

EC

μS/cm

Arsenic

(As)

Iron

(Fe)

Lead

(Pb)

Sediment

(After centrifuge

at 10,000 rpm)

War

d-1

TW1 45 6.58 544 0.50 4.30 1,460 -Ve -Ve -Ve Moderate

TW2 60 7.12 792 0.30 7.10 1,280 -Ve +Ve -Ve Mild

TW3 45 7.23 632 0.30 6.25 1,135 -Ve +Ve -Ve Moderate

TW4 75 7.74 556 0.20 5.50 920 -Ve -Ve -Ve No Sediment

TW5 90 7.19 782 0.20 6.25 975 +Ve -Ve -Ve No Sediment

TW6 90 6.42 624 0.30 6.65 1,070 -Ve +Ve -Ve No Sediment


TW8 135 6.41 669 0.40 5.15 1,135 -Ve -Ve -Ve No Sediment


War

d-

2

TW10 45 6.97 534 0.20 5.10 935 -Ve -Ve -Ve Mild

TW11 45 6.69 433 0.50 4.95 1,545 -Ve +Ve -Ve Moderate

TW12 45 7.05 355 0.50 6.20 1,960 +Ve +Ve -Ve Moderate







War

d-

3










War

d-

4

TW28 60 6.32 675 0.40 4.45 1,745 -Ve -Ve -Ve Mild


TW30 75 6.64 457 0.50 6.35 1,925 +Ve -Ve -Ve Moderate







War

d-

5 TW37 75 6.30 695 0.20 5.15 1,345 -Ve -Ve -Ve No Sediment



TW40 90 6.43 575 0.40 5.70 1,345 -Ve -Ve -Ve Mild




Sample

site

Tube-

well

water

(TW)

Deepness

of the

Tube-well

(feet)

pH TDS

mg/l

Salinity

(%)

DO

mg/l

EC

μS/cm

Arsenic

(As)

Iron

(Fe)

Lead

(Pb)

Sediment

(After centrifuge

at 10,000 rpm)






War

d-

6

TW46 75 6.64 385 0.40 6.55 1,905 +Ve +Ve -Ve No Sediment


TW48 75 6.78 567 0.30 7.10 1,290 -Ve +Ve -Ve Mild







War

d-

7


TW56 75 6.94 780 0.20 6.40 1,325 -Ve -Ve -Ve Mild

TW57 75 7.58 743 0.30 5.05 1,195 -Ve +Ve -Ve Mild







War

d-

8


TW65 60 6.27 659 0.30 5.50 1,230 +Ve -Ve -Ve Mild




TW69 90 6.97 732 0.30 5.60 1,125 -Ve +Ve -Ve Mild




Determination of Microbial Load

This study also showed that all the tube-well water samples contained a variety of microorganisms (Table

2). Out of 72 tube-wells, water of 17 contained more fecal coliforms than the recommended limit set by

WHO (23.61% of the samples) (Khan et al., 2013). There was a significant association found between tube-

well water contamination with fecal coliforms and distance of tube-well from the latrine. All the tube-well

waters that contained fecal coliforms were within 30 feet from the latrine with exception of TW69, which

was found at a distance of 41 feet from the latrine. According to the results in Table 2, it was clear that the

presence of fecal coliforms in the tube-well water was directly related to the surrounding latrine condition

and distance from the latrine. In a similar study on analysis of tube-well water from Fulbaria pourasava in

Mymensingh district of Bangladesh, it was reported that 32% water samples were contaminated by fecal

coliforms of which 30% of samples were contaminated with total coliforms (TC) than the recommended

limits (≤10 coliforms/100 ml water) (Islam et al., 2001). There was no significant relationship between

deepness of the tube-well with the contamination of fecal coliforms.

Amount of heterotrophic plate count (HPC) and total coliform count (TCC) contained in the tube-well water

samples of 8 different locations of Nalitabari township of Sherpur district were summarized in Table 3. It




showed that all water sources (100%) contained total coliforms (TC) ranging from ≤2 cfu/100 ml to 130

cfu/100 ml and HPC ranging from 1.0×103 cfu/ ml up to 7.5×103 cfu/ ml. Twenty-six water samples

contained more TCC than the permissible limit and 76.92% of these tube-wells were located within 30 feet

away from latrine. Among them TW13, TW15, TW50, TW66, and TW67 were highly polluted with TCC

which have 110 cfu/100 ml, 95 cfu/100 ml, 130 cfu/100 ml, 90 cfu/100 ml and 130 cfu/100 ml of TCC,

respectively, against permissible limit in Bangladesh of up-to 10 coliforms/100 ml water (Kabir et al., 2015).

Tube-well number TW13, TW15, TW50, TW66, and TW67 were only 11 feet, 6 feet, 15 feet, 26 feet and

8 feet away from the latrines, respectively. Highest TCC was found in the sample of TW67 in ward-8 and

TW50 in ward-6 and the highest value was 130 cfu/100 ml. There was a significant association between

tube-well water contamination with total coliforms or HPC and surrounding latrine condition. The highest

HPC count was found in tube-well water sample of TW67, which was 7.5×103cfu/ml. This tube-well was

only 8 feet away from latrine. Water samples TW3, TW4, TW16, TW27, TW35, TW42, TW51 and TW61

contained very lowest amount of HPC count and that was 1×103cfu/ml in each of the samples. The mean

HPC was observed 1.78×103 cfu/ml in ward-1, 2.66×103cfu/ml in ward-2, 2.83×103cfu/ml in ward-3,

2.20×103cfu/ml in ward-4, 2.99×103cfu/ml in ward-5, 2.76×103cfu/ml in ward-6, 3.01×103cfu/ml in ward-7

and 3.24×103 cfu/ml in ward-8. It has been generally believed in Bangladesh that groundwater is relatively

free of microorganisms and, therefore, suitable for human consumption without treatment. However, the

results of this study clearly showed that all samples of tube-well water in Bangladesh, that were examined,

contained different counts of bacteria, which are above permissible limit (Prosun et al., 2018).

Table 2: Microbiological analysis of tube-well water

Sample

site

Tube-

well

water

(TW)

Depth

of the

Tube-

well

(feet)

Latrine

Distance

(feet)

Surrounding

Latrine

Condition

HPC

(cfu/ml)

Mean

HPC

(cfu/ml)

Coli-

form

count

(TCC) /

(100ml)

Fecal

Coli-

forms

War

d-

1

TW1 45 5 Direct pit 4.5×103 1.78×103 72 +Ve

TW2 60 7 Offset 1.2×103 14 +Ve

TW3 45 3 Offset 1.0×103 27 +Ve

TW4 75 4 SWST 1.0×103 5 -Ve

TW5 90 12 Direct pit 1.1×103 7 -Ve

TW6 90 16 Direct pit 2.5×103 11 -Ve

TW7 120 30 Direct pit 1.5×103 ≤2 -Ve

TW8 135 21 Direct pit 2.0×103 22 -Ve

TW9 150 34 Direct pit 1.2×103 ≤2 -Ve

War

d-

2

TW10 45 55 Direct pit 1.5×103 2.66×103 23 -Ve

TW11 45 22 Offset 2.5×103 52 -Ve

TW12 45 16 Direct pit 1.5×103 12 -Ve

TW13 105 11 Direct pit 3.7×103 110 +Ve

TW14 75 34 Direct pit 4.2×103 ≤2 -Ve

TW15 90 6 Direct pit 5.6×103 95 +Ve

TW16 150 28 Direct pit 1.0×103 6 -Ve

TW17 135 47 SWST 2.5×103 ≤2 -Ve

TW18 150 40 Direct pit 1.5×103 ≤2 -Ve

War

d-

3

TW19 60 8 Direct pit 3.5×103 2.83×103 5 -Ve

TW20 60 13 Direct pit 1.5×103 7 -Ve

TW21 60 5 Direct pit 3.7×103 4 +Ve

TW22 90 56 Direct pit 1.5×103 ≤2 -Ve

TW23 90 54 SWST 1.5×103 ≤2 -Ve

TW24 105 45 Direct pit 4.5×103 32 -Ve

TW25 120 26 Offset 1.1×103 ≤2 -Ve




Sample

site

Tube-

well

water

(TW)

Depth

of the

Tube-

well

(feet)

Latrine

Distance

(feet)

Surrounding

Latrine

Condition

HPC

(cfu/ml)

Mean

HPC

(cfu/ml)

Coli-

form

count

(TCC) /

(100ml)

Fecal

Coli-

forms

TW26 120 28 Offset 2.0×103 ≤2 -Ve

TW27 120 35 Direct pit 1.0×103 ≤2 -Ve

War

d-

4

TW28 60 50 Offset 4.2×103 2.20×103 8 -Ve

TW29 60 24 Offset 1.5×104 55 -Ve

TW30 75 28 Direct pit 2.0×103 14 -Ve

TW31 105 38 Direct pit 1.5×103 ≤2 -Ve

TW32 90 27 Direct pit 1.1×103 ≤2 -Ve

TW33 105 43 Offset 1.5×103 5 -Ve

TW34 135 18 Direct pit 4.0×103 26 +Ve

TW35 120 12 Offset 1.0×103 20 -Ve

TW36 120 62 Offset 3.0×103 ≤2 -Ve

War

d-

5

TW37 75 55 Offset 4.2×103 2.99×103 29 -Ve

TW38 60 26 Direct pit 1.5×103 26 -Ve

TW39 75 16 Direct pit 3.5×103 8 +Ve

TW40 90 15 Direct pit 3.0×103 5 +Ve

TW41 105 34 Direct pit 1.5×103 ≤2 -Ve

TW42 90 44 Offset 1.0×103 5 -Ve

TW43 105 46 Direct pit 2.7×103 ≤2 -Ve

TW44 90 32 SWST 5.0×103 15 -Ve

TW45 120 21 Direct pit 4.5×103 37 +Ve

War

d -

6

TW46 75 60 Offset 2.5×103 2.76×103 20 -Ve

TW47 75 30 Offset 1.5×103 ≤2 -Ve

TW48 75 42 Offset 2.0×103 10 -Ve

TW49 105 21 Direct pit 1.1×103 5 -Ve

TW50 90 15 Direct pit 7.0×103 130 +Ve

TW51 90 10 Direct pit 1.0×103 7 -Ve

TW52 105 34 Direct pit 3.5×103 ≤2 -Ve

TW53 90 45 Offset 2.5×103 ≤2 -Ve

TW54 120 36 Direct pit 3.7×103 ≤2 -Ve

War

d-

7

TW55 45 18 Direct pit 5.5×103 3.01×103 67 -Ve

TW56 75 15 Offset 1.5×103 ≤2 +Ve

TW57 75 43 Offset 1.1×103 ≤2 -Ve

TW58 90 19 SWST 2.0×103 ≤2 +Ve

TW59 90 15 Direct pit 3.5×103 43 -Ve

TW60 105 23 Direct pit 2.5×103 9 -Ve

TW61 90 29 Direct pit 1.0×103 ≤2 -Ve

TW62 105 13 Direct pit 4.5×103 24 -Ve

TW63 120 9 Direct pit 5.5×103 ≤2 +Ve

War

d-

8

TW64 60 17 Offset 1.5×103 3.24×103 ≤2 +Ve

TW65 60 45 Offset 3.5×103 5 -Ve

TW66 75 26 Direct pit 5.5×103 90 -Ve

TW67 105 8 Direct pit 7.5×103 130 -Ve

TW68 105 39 Direct pit 1.0×103 16 -Ve

TW69 90 41 Direct pit 2.5×103 9 +Ve

TW70 105 25 Offset 1.5×103 ≤2 +Ve




Sample

site

Tube-

well

water

(TW)

Depth

of the

Tube-

well

(feet)

Latrine

Distance

(feet)

Surrounding

Latrine

Condition

HPC

(cfu/ml)

Mean

HPC

(cfu/ml)

Coli-

form

count

(TCC) /

(100ml)

Fecal

Coli-

forms

TW71 120 51 Direct pit 2.0×103 ≤2 -Ve

TW72 120 34 Direct pit 4.2×103 5 -Ve

SWST: Soak well with septic tank, HPC: Heterotrophic plate count

Biochemical Test for Bacterial Analysis

Among the isolates, two kinds of bacteria (E. coli and Vibrio cholerae) were confirmed based on

biochemical experiments. The results of biochemical tests for isolates from water samples were summarized

in table 3.

Table 3: Biochemical analysis of the isolated bacteria

Antibiotic Susceptibility Test

Nowadays antibiotic-resistant bacteria are a great threat to our health and environment as well as act as a

culprit in medical health care. These bacteria might have gained resistance property due to the indiscriminate

use of antibiotics. In this study, 20 Vibrio cholerae and 30 E. coli bacteria were taken under antibiogram

experiment. These antibiogram experiments revealed that Vibrio cholerae was resistant to Ampicillin

(91%), Nalidixic Acid (89%), Kanamycin (83%), and Amoxicillin (69%). Mobile genetic elements are

responsible for the spreading of drug resistance genes in V. cholerae strains in response to quorum sensing

signaling. Thus, tetracycline resistant strains of V. cholerae re-emerged in Bangladesh in 1991 (Fazil and

Singh, 2011). On the other hand, E. coli showed higher resistance to Chloramphenicol (89%), Kanamycin

(89%), Amoxicillin (83%), and Sulphomethoxazole (83%) (Figure 1). Other studies also showed that E. coli

isolates were established antibiotic resistance upon commercially used antibiotic like as Streptomycin,

Sulfamethoxazole, Tetracycline, Ampicillin, and so on (Singh et al., 2005; Tadesse et al., 2012).

Gra

m S

tain

ing

Biochemical reaction

Presumptive

Bacteria

EM

B p

late

KIA MIU

Sim

on’

s C

itra

te

VP

tes

t

Oxi

dase

Cata

lase

Mannit

ol

Sta

rch h

ydro

lysi

s

Met

hyl

Red

Glu

cose

Lact

ose

ferm

enta

tion t

est

Slu

nt

Bud

Gas

Moti

lity

Indole

Ure

ase

-Ve + A A + + + + + A + AG + E. coli

-Ve - A A - + + - + - + + + - + - - Vibrio

cholerae




Figure 1: Antibiogram profiles of E. coli and V. cholerae

Health Impact of Bacterial Contamination and Heavy Metal Toxicity

Survey analysis showed that some adults and children were affected by different diseases attributed to

microbial infection (Table 4). Out of 400 individuals, 1.75% were suffering from diarrhea and 0.5% were

suffering from dysentery for a long time (Table 4). Children were more frequently affected by diarrhea and

were prone to these diseases than adults. According to some other study, children under the age of five are

the more susceptible group accounting for major part in deaths due to diarrhea or diarrheal diseases (Thiam

et al., 2017; Black, Morris and Bryce, 2003). Among 200 adults, 6.5% individuals were rarely affected by

typhoid whereas 1% adults were affected within last month. 6% adults and 4.5% children were rarely or

sometime affected by Salmonellosis whereas within last month 2.5% adults and 0.5% children were

affected. No respondents were found in this study affected by Campylobacteriosis (Table 4).

Table 4: Diseases related to microbial contamination in drinking water

Diseases Suffering

for a long

time

Child (Total-200) Adult (Total-200)

Frequently Rare or

sometime

Affected

within last

month

Frequently Rare or

sometime

Affected

within last

month

Diarrhea 7 11 8 13 2 4 11

Dysentery 2 3 6 1 - 7 6

Cholera - 2 8 3 3 5 1

Typhoid - - 3 1 - 13 2

Hepatitis - - 3 1 - 9 2

Botulism - - 4 - - 6 3

Campylo-

bacteriosis

- - - - - - -

Salmonellosis - 2 9 1 7 12 5

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Nu

mb

er o

f b

acte

rial

iso

late

s (%

)

Name of the Antibiotics

E. coli (% Resistant) V. cholerae (% Resistant)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonellosis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campylobacteriosis



https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonellosis




Some respondents were also affected by diseases attributed to heavy metal toxicity such as scabies skin

diseases, neurological problems, bad headache and anemia (Table 5). About 3.25% and 4.5% respondents

were suffering from a long-time skin diseases and bad headache, respectively. Adults were more frequently

affected by skin diseases and bad headache than children, only 1% and 1.5% individual children out of 200

children were frequently affected by skin diseases and bad headache, respectively. On the other hand, out

of 200 adults 8.5% and 3% were frequently affected by skin diseases and bad headache, respectively. No

respondents were reported in this study to be affected by lead poisoning and arsenicosis because the water

of the study area was not contaminated by lead and rarely contaminated by arsenic (6.94%).

Table 5: Diseases related to heavy metal toxicity

Diseases Suffer

ing

for a

long

time

Child (Total-200) Adult (Total-200)

Frequently Rare or

sometime

Affected

within

last

month

Frequently Rare or

sometime

Affected

within

last

month

Lead poisoning - - - - - - -

Arsenicosis - - - - - - -

Scabies 2 - - - 3 1 1

Skin diseases 13 2 3 3 17 22 6

Skin cancer - - - - - - -

Liver cirrhosis - - - - - - -

Neurological

problems

3 - - - - - -

Bad headache 18 3 8 12 6 15 19

Kidney damage - - - - - - -

Anemia 1 - - - - - -

Multiple sclerosis _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Muscular

dystrophy

_ _ _ _ _ _ _

Parkinson's

disease

_ _ _ _ _ _ _

Alzheimer's

disease

_ _ _ _ _ _ _

Miscarriage - - - - - 2 -

Lung diseases 5 - - - - 3 -

Conclusion

In this study, it was found that the tube-wells, which were close to latrine, were more susceptible to

contamination with fecal coliform. When the surrounding area was more polluted, then there was more

chance of contamination. Heterotrophic plate count (HPC) was high in some tube-well water, which may

be due to polluted earth environment. Identification of E. coli and Vibrio cholerae in the tube-well water

indicated poor sanitation condition in the study area. Maximum tube-well water samples were negative to

arsenic, only a few, about 6.94%, had arsenic pollution. A proper sanitation and drainage network system

in the township must get a priority in municipal functioning. All tube-wells should be far away from polluted

earth environment and distance of tube-well from latrine should be minimum 40-50 feet. The tube-well

water of the studied area in Bangladesh cannot be considered safe for drinking unless properly treated. For

developing a modern township, drinking water must be free from hazards which are threatening the public

health.




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Contribution Author 1 Author 2 Author 3 Author 4 Author 5 Author 6 Author 7


or analysis

Yes No No No No Yes Yes

Collected the data and lab experiment Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No


interpretation

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Wrote the article/paper Yes No No No Yes Yes No

Critical revision of the article/paper No No No No No Yes Yes

Editing of the article/paper No No No No No Yes Yes

Supervision No No No No No Yes No

Project Administration No No No No No No Yes

Funding Acquisition No No No No No No No

Overall Contribution Proportion (%) 30 15 15 10 10 10 10

Funding















this manuscript.











Flood Development Process Forecasting Based on Water Resources

Statistical Data

Oleg Mandryk1, Andriy Oliynyk2, Roman Mykhailyuk3, Lidiia Feshanych*4 1Department of Ecology, Ivano-Frankivsk National Technical University of Oil and Gas, Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine.

Email: [email protected] 2Department of Applied Mathematics, Ivano-Frankivsk National Technical University of Oil and Gas, Ivano-

Frankivsk, Ukraine. Email: [email protected] 3Department of Ecology, Ivano-Frankivsk National Technical University of Oil and Gas, Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine.

Email: [email protected] 4Department of Automation and Computer Integrated Technologies, Ivano-Frankivsk National Technical University

of Oil and Gas, Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine. Email: [email protected]

*Corresponding Author | ORCID: 0000-0002-5156-2199

Abstract The Ukrainian Carpathians is the territory with a great threat

of floods. This is due to natural and climatic conditions of this

region, which is characterized by mountainous terrain, high

density of hydrological network and a significant amount of

precipitation. Amount of precipitation here ranges from 600

mm on plains to 1,600 mm on mountain tops. The main factors

of floods occurrence are excessive precipitation, low water

permeability of soil and a high proportion of low-permeability

rocks (flysch layers with a predominance of clay layers).

Therefore, catastrophic floods in the region were also observed

in previous centuries, when the anthropogenic impact on the

environment, including forest ecosystems, was not comparable

with the current one. Any flood is characterized by a period of

development, a period of its critical (maximum) intensity and

a period of decline. In the present paper, based on the use of

methods for approximating the curves and the results of

experimental studies of flood waters, a method of

mathematical description and forecasting of the flood

development is suggested. The recommended direction of

further research may be related to the development of

experimental means to determine the parameters that affect the

process of flood formation.

Keywords Floods; Forecasting; Mathematical description; Water

resources

How to cite this paper: Mandryk, O., Oliynyk,

A., Mykhailyuk, R. and Feshanych, L. (2021).

Flood Development Process Forecasting Based

on Water Resources Statistical Data. Grassroots


https://doi.org/10.33002/nr2581.6853.040205

Received: 02 May 2021














ISSN 2581-6853






66 Oleg Mandryk, Andriy Oliynyk, Roman Mykhailyuk, Lidiia Feshanych

Introduction

The Ukrainian Carpathians is the territory with a great threat of floods. This is due to natural and climatic

conditions of this region characterized by mountainous terrain, high density of hydrological network and a

significant amount of precipitation. Amount of precipitation here ranges from 600 mm on plains to 1600

mm on mountain tops. The main factors of flood occurrence are excessive amount of precipitation, low

water permeability of soil and a high proportion of low-permeability rocks (flysch layers with a

predominance of clay layers). Therefore, catastrophic floods in the region were also observed in previous

centuries, when the anthropogenic impact on the environment, including forest ecosystems, was not

comparable with the current one (Figure 1) (Mandryk et al., 2017; Arkhypova et al., 2019).

Figure 1: Flood in Ivano-Frankivsk region (June 2020). Courtesy: Photo from open sources

The rivers of the Carpathian which have flood hazard area belong to transboundary waters. In the basins of

Carpathian rivers, some part of which belong to neighboring countries, the European Union Water and Flood

Directives are implemented in accordance with the Association Agreement between Ukraine and the

European Union. These directives are implemented with the funding from European Union (Prykhodko et

al., 2020; Kinash et al., 2019).

The estimation of the level of flood waters is an urgent scientific and technical problem in the context of

complex geo-climatic processes, which lead to catastrophic floods, taking place in European countries (such

as the floods of Ukraine in 1927, 1941, 1969, 1974, 1980, 1998, 2001, 2008, 2010 and 2020, of Poland and

Slovakia in 2012, of the Czech Republic and Great Britain in 2013, and of Germany in 2002). The stated

problem is addressed by a wide range of scientists studying and solving the applied problems by using

precise models of filtrating flows (Oliynyk and Panchuk, 1992; Oliynyk and Steyer, 2012) and empirical

dependences (Mandryk, Pukish and Zelmanovych, 2017; Maslova and Susidko, 2006; Sosedko, 1980;

Leontiev, 2009), which are established on the basis of experimental data analysis (Zasidko et al.,2019;

https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=55886305000






Pietrzak et al., 2018). However, the above-mentioned works do not suggest the idea of the possibility to

build the express method for forecasting the phenomenon of flood development.

In the present paper, based on the use of methods for approximating the curves and the results of

experimental studies of flood waters, a method of mathematical description and forecasting of the flood

development is suggested. Presented method gives next possibility:

• to apply the mathematical methods for studying of real processes (floods, seasonal phenomena of

emergency water distribution;

• to offer the functional analytical structure based on the statistical information about the floods in

concrete region, which give the possibility to predict the flood’s duration and intensity;

• to restore the ordinary differential equation which describe the flood process development using the

information about one’s solution;

• to choose the factors that have the significant influence on the flood’s characteristics; and

Methodology

Mathematical modeling of the flood development process

When analyzing the real phenomena of flood situations, it is possible to depict schematically the relationship

between time ( t ) and the level of flood waters ( l ) (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Diagram of the relationship between time and the level of flood waters

Any flood is characterized by a period of development a), a period of its critical (maximum) intensity b)

and a period of decline c). The scheme shown in figure 2 does not consider cases when for a short period of

time the flood has several peaks. In this case the phenomenon shown in Figure 2 can be simulated by

application of several floods with one peak. It is necessary to reproduce the analytical structure of the

function shown in Figure 2. From a mathematical point of view, this function must be characterized by the

following conditions:

' ''

0 0

(0) 0;

: (0) 0; ( ) 0;

lim ( ) 0.→

= = =x

f

x f f x

f x

(1)

Obviously, many functions meet such conditions, and, therefore, the problem of constructing the flood

development model from a mathematical point of view is ill-defined (Leontiev, 2009) to regulate. It is





needed to develop certain algorithms using additional information about type of the function that would

satisfy the conditions (1) (Tikhonov and Arsenin, 1979; Zorich, 1981; Filippov, 2007).

The simplest of the known functions is the following one:

( ) e−= tf t t , (2)

the graph of which is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: The graph of the function ( ) e−= tf t t

Verified by means of direct check, it has been established that, for the function (2), all three following

conditions (1) are met:

1. 0(0) 0 0f e−= = ;

2. '

0 0( ) : ( ) 0 =f x f x ;

( e ) e e e 0 1− − − − = − + = → =t t t tt t t ;

''( ) e e e ( 2 ) e− − − −= − − + = − + t t t tf t t t ;

'' 1(1) e 0f −= − ;

3. 1

lim lim 0t tt t

t

e e→ →= = .

However, application of function (2) to describe flood phenomena is connected with some problems. It

cannot be changed, and its type cannot be selected according to certain results of experimental studies and

analysis of statistical data on floods. To solve this problem, the following function can be suggested:

(t) e , 0−= = aty f t a , (3)

which obviously also satisfies the stated conditions (Figure 4):

1. 0(0) 0 0

− = =

af e ;

2. '

0 0( ) : ( ) 0 =f x f x ;

'( e ) e e (1 ) e 0− − − − = − = − =at at at att a t a t ;

1

=ta

;

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 100

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4




'' 2( ) e (1 ) ( ) e e ( 2 ) 0− − −= − + − − = − + =at at atf t a a t a a a t ;

'' 1 11( ) e ( 2 ) e 0− −= − − + = − f a a aa

;

3. 1

lim lim 0→ →

= =at att t

t

e a e.

Figure 4: The graph of the function ( ) e , 0−= = aty f t t a

Dependence (3) has a parameter 0a that allows to obtain a whole range of curves, which, however, are

topologically (according to their spatial location) similar, and that does not allow to introduce many

parameters on which the level of flood water rising depends. That is why, the following two-parameter

model is proposed to determine the function of type (1) of the form (Figure 5).

e , 0, 0−= n aty t a n , (4)

for which all conditions (1) are determined:

1. ' 1 1 1( e ) e e ( e e ) e ( ) 0− − − − − − − − − = − = + = − = → =n at n at n at n at at n at nt n t a t t n a t t n a t t

a;

'' 1 2 1

2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2 2

( e ) e ( ) e ( 1) ( t) e ( )

e ( ) ( ) ( 1) ( ) e

( ) e

− − − − − − −

− − − −

− −

= − − + − − + − =

= − − + − − − = − + +

+ − − + − = − + + − −

n at at n at n at n

at n at n

at n

t a t n a t t n n a t a

t a t n a t n n a t a t t a t n a t

n n n a t a t a t t a t n a t n n n a t

2 2 2 2 2 2e 2 e ( )− − − −

=

= − + − = − − at n at nt a t a t n n n t a t n n

;

'' 2 2 2( ) e ( ) ( ) e ( ) 0− − − − = − − − = − n n n nn n n

f n n n na a a

;

2. (0) 0=f ;

3. lim 0→

=n

att

t

e according to the L'Hospital's Rule (Zasidko et al., 2019).

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 100

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.1

0.12

0.14

0.16

0.18

0.2




Figure 5: Family of graphs for the function e , 0, 0−= n aty t a n

By applying, for example, dependence (4), it is possible to restore the differential equation of the process

described by each of the functions (2) – (4).

To fulfill this, we can use the following property of linear systems: if the function 1( )y x satisfies the first-

order differential equation of the form '( , ) 0=f y y , then the following condition is met (Berestneva,

Marukhina and Shevelyoev, 2012): '

'

1 1

( ) ( )0

( ) ( )=

y x y x

y x y x. (5)

Then, by substituting in the determinant (5) of the function 1( )y x , according to the properties of

determinants, the equation (5) is satisfied identically. Applying similar values, it is possible to obtain

differential equations, the solutions of which are the corresponding functions: for the function (2), equation

(5) requires the form: '

0t t t

y y

e t e t e− − −=

−

or after summing up the similar addends: ' (1 ) 0 − − =y t t y , (6)

for the function of type (3), the form: '

0− − −

= − at at at

y y

t e e t a e

or: ' (1 ) 0 − − =y t t y , (7)

and for the function of type (4), the form: '

10

− − − −=

− n at n at n at

y y

t e n t e t a e,

where the following values are obtained:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 100

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35




' ( a) 0− − − − =n at n at ny t e t e y

t;

' = −

ny a y

t. (8)

For each of the equations (6) – (8), especially for equation (8), there can be set the initial conditions of the

form:

0 0( ) =y t y , (9)

setting the conditions in the form of (9) allows to take into account the initial level of flooding:

0 0

0

( )

0 0

0

− − −− − = =

n

at a t tat n n ty y e e t t y e

t

It is also important to establish the physical content of coefficients n and a , which may be functions of the

form:

( )

( )

1 2

1 2

... , ;

... , ,

=

=

k

k

n n x x x t

a a x x x t (10)

where the values are soil permeability, air humidity, water intake humidity, relief features, etc., and the

variable is time.

The question arises how to determine the numerical values of parameters (10) for different types of floods

and how to choose the variables related to (10), which most significantly influence these dependencies. It is

also necessary to define the components of the equation (8). Function ( )y t represents the level of flood

waters at some point of time, which varies in proportion to itself with an alternating-sign coefficient of the

form:

= −n

k at

, (11)

where n and a are empirically determined coefficients. When 0k , the intensity of the flood increases;

when 0k , it decreases.

Let the statistical data on its course ( ),i iy t are known for the chosen flood. According to these values

( ), 1,...,=i iy t i N , where N is the number of observations, which during intense floods can be quite

significant due to the fact that flood water levels are monitored regularly, estimation of parameters n and

a can be done by using a linear regression apparatus. For this purpose, function (4) can be written (applying

logarithm problem) as: ln ln ,

ln ln,

= −

= −

y n t at

y tn a

t t

(12)

introducing the notationln ln

; ; ;= = = = −% %%%y t

y t k n b at t

, we obtain:

= +% %%%y kt b , (13)

that is, the linear regression equation. Using the known formulas (Zamikhovskii et al., 2014) for linear

regression coefficients, we obtain ' (1 ) 0 − − =y t t y :

( )

( )

22;

1,

−=

−

= −

% %% %%

% %

% % %

i i i i

i i

i i

N y t y tk

N t t

b y k tN

(14)




from where, using communication formulas, is obtained the following:

; ,= = −% %n k b a (15)

that is, parameters n and a can be determined unambiguously, that allows us to talk about the constructed

regulable algorithm for the ill-defined problem of restoring the function under conditions (1). To determine

the factors influencing the process, the method of (Pietrzak et al., 2018) associative analysis is used, which

allows to identify variables and parameters that affect the process of increasing flood waters. Suppose,

according to the results of experimental research and analysis of statistical data, a quantitative characteristic

of some parameter ix has been established, the range of change of which can be divided into two segments

that correspond to approximately equally probable values ix . Simultaneously, the following table is

arranged:

c

i ix x c

i ix x

0f f A B

0f f C D

where f stands for the value of the level of flood waters, 0f stands for some average value that divides the

range of flood waters change into intervals in which the values f are distributed approximately equally in

number. , , ,A B C D are the numbers of comparison results that correspond to the specified values f and ix .

The following values are calculated:

1

2

3

4

;

;

;

.

+ =

+ =

+ =

+ =

A B n

C D n

A C n

B D n

Obviously, the total number of experiments is equal to either 1 2+n n or 3 4+n n . The contingency ratio is

calculated according to the formulas:

( )( )( )( )

−=

+ + + +

AD BC

A B C D A C B D . (16)

If 0,3 , then the relationship between the values is considered to be proved and significant; it should be

studied in more detail, but if 0,3 , then the relationship between the specified values can be considered

insignificant.

Results

Methods of forecasting

The following method of estimating the level of flood waters and forecasting their development has been

proposed. Suppose that by studying the floods that took place in the region under study with the help of

methods (12) – (15) the ratio:

e , 1,...,−

= =i in a t

if t i k , (17)

where k is the number of the studied floods that has been obtained.

The parameters 1 2, ,..., xmx x , that affect the formation and development of floods, are determined. They are

water and physical properties of soils (water permeability, water intensity), air humidity, wind direction and

speed, etc. It is considered that based on experimental studies, these values are known for each of the floods

1 2, ,..., xi i i

mx x . According to





the method (Pietrzak et al., 2018) of associative analysis (16), for each of the values , 1,..., M=sx s the

contingency ratio (16) is calculated and the level of connection between the corresponding sx and f is

determined. Thus, the number of values , i 1,..., M=ix that influence f , is reduced, and in the future only those

0, 1,...,=jx j M , 0 M M , that influence the process are considered. The presented results allow to optimize

the experimental research procedure – the number of parameters 0, 1,...,=jx j M , for which it is necessary to

develop methods of experimental evaluation and control, is reduced. When studying the possibility of

flooding in the given region, the values 0, 1,...,=p

jx j M are determined; after that the formula (17) and the

parameters 0, 1,...,=jx j M , determined for the floods if that influence the floods if , are found out.

The following value

2 *arg min (x x )− =i p

j ji

j , (18)

is determined in order to obtain more accurate forecast, the values *

0 0 0, 1,.... , ( 2)= =sj s N N N that are the

nearest to *j are determined. We choose those formulas (17) that correspond to the determined *

sj . Applying

the corresponding dependences if (17) determined for *

sj (in the simplest case *

sj is the only one and * *=sj j ,

determined based on (18)), along with corresponding graphs, we choose the possible level of

flooding and its intensity.

The scheme for estimating the level and duration of floods is estimated, for example, as shown in the graph

(Figure 6). The values %a and %n are determined on the basis of statistical analysis.

Figure 6: Scheme for estimating the flood level and duration [Explanation to figure 6: my stands for critical

increase in the level of flood waters, t for duration of a flood.]

Conclusion

The method of estimating the flood water level and forecasting of flood phenomena has been suggested.

Compared with the existing methods, the presented one is the method allows to offer the function analytical

structure based on the statistical information about the floods in concrete region, which give the possibility

to predict the flood’s duration and intensity, to restore the ordinary differential equation which describe the

flood process development using the information about one’s solution. It is possible to change the order of

differential equation to describe the processes more in detail, to apply the method of associative analysis for

the choosing the factors which have the significant influence on the flood’s characteristics. From the one

side it is the method with the strict mathematical justification but from the second side it is quite simply in





realization in correspondent institution which activity is devoted to the struggle with the floods in our region.

The direction of further research may be related to the development of experimental means to determine the

parameters that affect the process of flood formation.

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Contribution Author 1 Author 2 Author 3 Author 4

Conceived and designed the research or analysis Yes Yes No No

Collected the data Yes Yes Yes No

Contributed to data analysis & interpretation Yes Yes Yes Yes

Wrote the article/paper Yes Yes No No

Critical revision of the article/paper Yes Yes No Yes

Editing of the article/paper No Yes Yes Yes

Supervision No Yes No Yes

Project Administration Yes No No No

Funding Acquisition Yes No No No

Overall Contribution Proportion (%) 33 33 14 20

Funding







The research did not involve plant species.







this manuscript.











Assessment of Open Spaces Ensuring Socio-Environmental Quality

in Bogura Town, Bangladesh

Most. Lata Khatun1, S.M. Farhan Sazzad2, Nowara Tamanna Meghla*3 1Department of Environmental Science and Resource Management, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology

University, Tangail-1902, Bangladesh. Email: [email protected] 2Department of Environmental Science and Resource Management, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology

University, Tangail-1902, Bangladesh. Email: [email protected] 3Department of Environmental Science and Resource Management, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology

University, Tangail-1902, Bangladesh. Email: [email protected]

Corresponding author | ORCID: 0000-0001-7399-4446

Abstract The present article is the outcome of a study carried out to assess

the existing condition, spatio-temporal changes and socio-

environmental quality of four parks and six playgrounds in Bogura

town of Bangladesh from January to June 2018. A questionnaire

survey involving 150 respondents was carried out addressing

environment, management, pattern, amenity, welfare and people’s

reliability of the parks and playgrounds. The total area of parks and

playgrounds has decreased by 8.09% and 14.19%, respectively, in

last a decade. Qualitative assessment indicates that Kalitola Park is

in very bad condition, while Shibbati Children’s Park and Shaheed

Khokon Park are in good condition, and Pouro Edward Park is in

moderate condition. The Ulka and Brindabonpara Playgrounds are

in good condition, whereas MS Club and Altafunnessa

Playgrounds are in moderate condition, and Dhorompur and

Medical Playgrounds are in bad condition. The study has also

shown that environment, pattern, beauty, welfare and people’s

reliability indicators set the parks and playgrounds between

moderate and good condition; however, managerial and

institutional indicators and amenity indicator need improvement. It

is recommended that a proper planning, management and

accessibility of open spaces of Bogura town should be ensured.

Keywords Open space; Temporal change; Socio-environmental quality;

Bogura town

How to cite this paper: Khatun, M.L., Sazzad,

S.M.F. and Meghla, N.T. (2021). Assessment of

Open Spaces Ensuring Socio-Environmental

Quality in Bogura Town, Bangladesh. Grassroots


https://doi.org/10.33002/nr2581.6853.040206

Received: 04 February 2021

Reviewed: 21 February 2021



Finally Accepted: 29 April 2021










ISSN 2581-6853

mailto:%7C



78 Most. Lata Khatun, S.M. Farhan Sazzad, Nowara Tamanna Meghla

Introduction

The world's urban areas are ending up progressively into overcrowded and polluted places (Blanco et al.,

2009). Open spaces usually consider roads, school yards, outside game buildings, burial grounds, and open

squares (Hall and Ward, 1998). Urban parks and playgrounds are open spaces utilized usually by urban

dwellers and have an important role in increasing social quality by expanding social correspondence and

cooperation (Low, Taplin and Scheld, 2009; Aydin and Ter, 2008 and Wong, 2009). The arrangement and

the nature of open spaces have moved to the highest point of political and policy agendas in both developed

and developing countries (Carmona, 2010). Social analysts and planners, such as Francis (2003) and Giles-

Corti et al. (2005), focused on the impressive significance of flourishing space utilization. Saving and

keeping up open spaces in urban areas is now considered as a critical perspective to comply with the

requirements of natural quality and livable city (Lindgren, 2014). Open or green space may purify the air,

evacuate a contamination, limit the commotion, cool the temperatures, abstain the storm water, recharge the

groundwater, and provide the food (Groenewegen et al., 2006; Escobedo, Kroeger and Wagner, 2011). They

also contribute to sustain biodiversity and improve the urban natural surroundings (Kwak, Yoo and Han,

2003; Morancho, 2003). The green spaces or other natural spaces give satisfaction and enthusiastic

prosperity, reduce a pressure, and in particular conditions, upgrade prosperity of the citizens (Hetherington,

Daniel and Brown, 1993). The parks and playgrounds have great influence in reducing stress levels and

mental depression of urban dwellers (Nielsen and Hansen, 2007; Morita et al., 2007) and in creating walking

opportunities (Li et al., 2005). In addition, increased walking enhances physical and psychological health

(Fritz et al., 2006). The low quality of open spaces in urban areas can be a confinement for the prosperity

of the occupants, as it does not support healthy lifestyles, including spending time outdoors, walking,

playing, etc. (Holt et al., 2008; Mitchell and Popham, 2008). In other words, open spaces act as refreshment

zone for the urban dwellers.

Bogura is a fastest growing northern district of the Rajshahi Division of Bangladesh and acts as a dominant

commercial hub in the north Bengal. Bogura town, which is more than a hundred years old, has long been

praised by its inhabitants for its greenery and wonderful waterfront. But over last few decades, it has become

a noisy and busting town with more than 400,983 inhabitants (Bogura Paurashava, 2010). As incorporated

in Dhaka Structure Plan Standard 2016-2035 (Jafrin and Beza, 2018), there ought to be a 9 m2 (WHO, 2012)

or 3.5 m2 green space per city tenant for guaranteeing better life. But the provisions of open spaces are not

adequate in proportion with the population demand in Bogura town. The existing open spaces are congesting

day by day due to the unplanned urbanization. There is no uniformity in open space standard throughout the

whole town. The open spaces in Bogura town are also facing management related problems. Very little and

scanty research is done on open space management, especially of parks and playgrounds, in large cities like

Dhaka and Chattogram of Bangladesh. No systematic investigation on safeguarding and keeping up the

open spaces is carried out in Bogura town so far. Therefore, the present study focuses on the actual scenario

of the parks and playgrounds, their spatio-temporal changes and socio-environmental quality, and to find

out the possible way to strengthen the existing management practices.

Methodology

Study area

Bogura is a northern district of the Rajshahi Division of Bangladesh (Figure 1). It is called the gateway to

the north Bengal. Bogura became a zila (district) in 1821 (BBS, 2011) and Bogura Paurashava, earlier

Bogura municipality, in 1876 (Bogura Paurashava, 2010). It consists of 21 wards and 127 mohallas

(communes) after the extension of the Paurashava (municipality) area in 2006. Bogura town lies between

24o 47' and 24o 52' N latitude and between 89o 21' and 89o 24' E longitude and covers a total area of 69.56

km2 with 498,000 people (Bogura Paurashava, 2010). There are 21 parks and playgrounds (BBS, 2011) from

which 4 are public parks and 6 are public playgrounds providing refreshment facilities to the town dwellers.




These parks or playgrounds are not satisfactory in number to support healthy lifestyles, including spending

quality time in outdoors, walking, playing, etc.

Figure 1: Map showing the study area in Bogura town

Data collection

The study was undertaken covering 4 public parks and 6 public playgrounds in the year 2018. The selected

4 parks were Pouro Edward Park, Shaheed Khokon Park, Shibbati Children’s Park and Kalitola Park.

Among 6 playgrounds were Medical Playground, MS Club Playground, Ulka Playground, Altafunnessa

Playground, Dhorompur Playground and Brindabonpara Playground. The data related to spatio-temporal

changes were collected from records of Bogura Paurashava. Besides, a total 150 respondents were

interviewed to capture the people’s perception about the socio-environmental quality of open spaces i.e.,

parks and playgrounds. 20 respondents were chosen randomly from 3 public parks, whereas 15 respondents

were selected randomly from each of 6 public playgrounds. The 89.33% respondents were male and 10.67%

were female. Most of the respondents were students (41.33%) along with 18% businessmen, 14%

government servants, 11.33% private servants, 8% housewives and 7.33% unemployed people. Among the

respondents, 41.33% were graduate, and 38.67% were HSC passed. The sampling was carried using simple

random sampling.




Data analysis

The area map of Bogura Paurashava was digitized and processed in ARC Map 10.3.1. The ward boundary

of the Bogura Paurashava was also digitized and processed in ARC Map 10.3.1. The location of the parks

and playgrounds were recorded and marked by GPS survey. Current area and temporal changes that took

place in the parks and playgrounds were retrieved from 2009, 2012, 2015, 2018 Google Earth images and

then were processed in ARC Map software (using calculate geometry tool). The spatio-temporal changes of

parks and playgrounds were calculated in accordance with the formula given by Mostofa (2007).

Spatio-temporal change = Beginning year (area) – Desired year (area) …………. (ⅰ)

The spatio-temporal rate of change of the parks and playgrounds were calculated by using following

formula:

Spatio-temporal rate of change = Spatio-temporal change (area) ÷ Total Number of years …… (ⅱ)

The socio-environmental quality of Bogura town was assessed using five indicators namely: environmental

quality, managerial and institution, amenity, pattern and beauty, and welfare and reliability. Environmental

quality indicator was analyzed by using following parameters: air quality, odour, noise, crowdies, and

temperature, whereas managerial and institution indicator was assessed on the parameters like standard,

maintenance, cleanness standard, authority’s commitment, broken elements management, remaining

vegetation, nature sustainment, landscape appearance, management charge, internal management and

grievance redressal. Range of visitor opportunities, convenience provided especially to children and parents,

sitting plan, playing devices, physical exercise stuff, children amusement instruments, conveying, car

parking zone, footpath, streetlight, beverages and restroom facility etc. were taken into account as part of

amenity indicator. To reveal the pattern and beauty of the open spaces of Bogura town, attractiveness,

availability and linkage, distinct enterprise, intrigue appearance, refreshment options, signboard, topography

and vegetation, and pavement design were assessed. Besides, welfare and reliability indicator had the

parameters, such as begging, robbery, abuse, drug handling and inhalation, unsocial activity and presence

of floating vendors.

Table 1: The rating of the acceptance level of socio-environmental quality indicators

Indicators

Acceptance level with rating point

Very Bad

(1)

Bad

(2)

Moderate

(3)

Good

(4)

Very Good

(5)

Environmental quality

No

man

agem

ent

syst

em

Neg

ligib

le

man

agem

ent

syst

em

Av

erag

e

man

agem

ent

syst

em

Sat

isfy

ing

man

agem

ent

syst

em

Hig

hly

sati

sfy

ing

man

agem

ent

syst

em

Managerial and institution

Amenity

Pattern and beauty

Welfare and reliability

The mean value of each indicator had been calculated to find out the socio-environmental quality of Bogura

town by using the following formula given by Mostofa (2007) and Islam, Mahmud and Islam (2015):

Total point = Σ (Frequency × Weightage of acceptance level)……. (1)

Each parameter mean = Total point/Total frequency…….. (2)

Indicator mean = all parameter mean/ Total no. of parameters………. (3)





Spatio-temporal changes of parks and playgrounds

The total area of parks in Bogura town in 2009 was 38,272 m2, but it has decreased about 8.09% over a

decade and became 35,177 m2 in 2018 due to illegal possession and mismanagement by the authority. The

total area of all the playgrounds was 55,085 m2 in 2009, which tremendously decreased by 14.19% in 2018

(47,268 m2) due to the illegal possession of the people for their personal gains (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Map showing the spatio-temporal change of all parks in Bogura town

Within a period of 10 years from 2009 to 2018, the spatio-temporal change (Figure 2) of Pouro Edward Park

was -2,334 m2, of Shaheed Khokon Park was -336 m2, of Kalitola Park was -380 m2 and of Shibbati

Children’s Park was -45 m2 when calculated using the formula (i). The total area loss over 10 years in Pouro

Edward Park was 6.82%, whereas in Shaheed Khokon Park was 11.99%, in Kalitola Park was 46.51% and

in Shibbati Children’s Park was 11.06%.

The spatio-temporal changes of the playgrounds (Figure 3) of Bogura town within 10 years from 2009 to

2018 showed negative results, as the area has shrunk. The spatio-temporal change of MS Club Playground

was -1,504 m2, of Altafunnessa Playground was -356 m2, of Medical Playground was -2,438 m2, of Ulka

Playground was -282 m2, of Brindabonpara Playground was -246 m2 and of Dhorompur Playground was -

2,991 m2 when calculated using the formula (i). The total area loss over 10 years in MS Club Playground

was 14.78%, whereas in Altafunnessa Playground was 2.61%, in Medical Playground was 17.51%, in Ulka

Playground was 6.85%, in Brindabonpara Playground was 6.05%, and in Dhorompur Playground was

32.81%.




The rate of spatio-temporal change was -233.4 m2 for Pouro Edward Park, -33.6 m2 for Shaheed Khokon

Park, -38 m2 for Kalitola Park and -4.5 m2 for Shibbati Children’s Park over a period of 10 years when

calculated using the formula (ii). The rate of spatio-temporal change was -150.4 m2 for MS Club, -35.6 m2

for Altafunnessa, -243.8 m2 for Medical, -28.2 m2 for Ulka, -24.6 m2 for Brindabonpara and -299.1 m2 for

Dhorompur Playground over the period of 10 years. Pouro Edward Park is situated in the centre of the

Bogura town. A drastic change has happened in the park because it lost its area due to illegal possession

during the period of 2009-2012, whereas during 2012-2015 the change was comparatively low (-66 m2).

However, during the period of 2015-2018, the rate of change was higher because surrounding roads, total

fencing and a market were constructed on the front side of the park (Table 2).

Figure 3: Map showing the spatio-temporal change of all playgrounds in Bogura town

Shaheed Khokon Park has also lost some of its land for constructing road surrounding it and for a building

construction for Power Development Board, Bogura, during the period of 2009-12. Following that, the

development authority built a fencing wall that stabilized the rate of further change. Kalitola Park is adjacent

to a school and it lost some of its land to the school during the period of 2009-2012. On the other hand,

during 2012-2015 some of its land was used for widening the road, and finally, during 2015-2018 the local

people occupied some area of the park. Shibbati Children’s Park has no fencing, so the landowners

surrounding the park encroach upon its land for their own purposes. MS Club Playground lost its land for

widening the road during 2015-18, whereas Altafunnessa Playground lost a huge portion of its land to the




adjacent district court during 2012-15. Lastly, during the period of 2015-2018, it lost some of its land for

the construction of the fencing wall. The housing of Dalit1 community, who are the sweepers of Mohammad

Ali Hospital, occupied some areas of Medical Playground. Ulka Playground, Brindabonpara Playground

and Dhorompur Playground have no fencing and the respective urban authority has no records; that is why

the spatio-temporal rate of changes occurred drastically in these playgrounds (Table 2).

Table 2: Spatio-temporal rate of changes of all parks and playgrounds in Bogura town

Name

Period with Area (m2/3 years and m2/10 years)

2009-2012

(3 years)

2012-2015

(3 years)

2015-2018

(3 years)

2009-2018

(10 years)

Pouro Edward Park -257.67 -66 -454.33 -233.4

Shaheed Khokon Park -112 0 0 -33.6

Kalitola Park -73.67 -0.67 -52.33 -38

Shibbati Children’s Park -1 -1.33 -12.67 -4.5

MS Club Playground -501 0 -0.33 -150.4

Altafunnessa Playground -27.33 -90.33 -1 -35.6

Medical Playground -248.67 -124.67 -439.33 -243.8

Ulka Playground -65 -10 -19 -28.2

Brindabonpara Playground -17.67 -17.33 -47 -24.6

Dhorompur Playground -211 -746.33 -39.67 -299.1

Table 3: Comparison of open spaces of Bogura town with national and international standards for

playgrounds and parks

Type

Recommended space standard (acres/1,000 people)

Bangladesh India Pakistan USA Open Space in Bogura

Playground 0.50 1.5 1.3 1.5 0.03

Park 0.75 2 1.3 1.25 0.02

Source: Khan, 2006; Khan, 2014

Dhaka Structural Plan (2016-2035) recommends 0.86 acre/1,000 people for both parks and playground,

while Rajshahi Urban Area Functional Master Plan (2004-2024) considers 1.5 acre/1,000 people and

Barishal Master Plan (2010-2030) approves 1 acre/1,000 people (Khan, 2014). Chattogram Development

Authority recommends a standard of 0.12 acre/1,000 people for park and 0.08 acre/1,000 people for

playground (Jafrin and Beza, 2018). Bogura town has 0.03 acres of playground for 1,000 people (Table 3).

The recommended playground area for Bangladesh is 0.50 acres/1,000 people (Khan, 2006), compared to

1.5 acres/1,000 people for USA (Khan, 2014). So, it clearly indicates that the area of playgrounds is not

enough for the urban dwellers of Bogura. On the other hand, Bogura town has 0.02 acres of park for 1,000

people whereas the recommended park space for Bangladesh is 0.75 acres per 1,000 people and 1.25 acres

per 1,000 people for USA (Table 3). It is also an indication of insufficient parks for the urban dwellers.

There should be a management of some open spaces in Bogura town through evicting illegal occupation on

khas2 lands.

1 Dalit Community is a caste or a group of castes, population marginalized to the extreme by partly religious sanctions and partly

by social and economic deprivations. Dalits in Bangladesh are often forced to undertake specific types of labour as a consequence

of their assigned caste status and are most commonly associated with the profession of "Jat Sweepers" or “Horijon”. As a result of

their limited access to employment Dalit’s are almost exclusively working in ‘the service sector’ performing unclean jobs in urban

areas such as street sweeping, manual scavenging and burying dead bodies (Banglapedia, 2015; IDSN, BDERM and Nagorik

Uddyog, 2018). 2 Khas land means government owned fallow land, where nobody has property rights. It is land which is deemed to be owned by

government and available for allocation according to government priorities (Chancery Law Chronicles, 2011).




Socio-environmental quality of parks and playgrounds

The environmental indicators of Shibbati Children’s Park and Shaheed Khokon Park were found in between

very good and good conditions, which is attributed to the strict environmental maintenance by authority,

while Pouro Edward Park was found in a good condition. The respondents were satisfied on the existing air

quality, temperature and crowd of visitors in the parks, but were moderately satisfied on noise and odour

condition, as the parks are situated besides the road. The environmental quality of Altafunnessa Playground

was found between good and very good because the authority takes good care of it. MS Club was in good

condition as the local people look it after. Brindabonpara, Dhorompur and Ulka Playgrounds were in almost

good condition because they are maintained by authority and local people. The Medical Playground lied

between moderate and good environmental condition (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Comparison of environmental indicator of all parks and playgrounds

Figure 5: Comparison of managerial and institutional indicator of all parks and playgrounds

4.253.8 3.91

3.444 3.97

00.5

11.5

22.5

33.5

44.5

Ind

ica

tor

Mea

n

Playgrounds

4.16

3.98

4.6

3.63.73.83.9

44.14.24.34.44.54.64.7

Shaheed

Khokon

Park

Pouro

Edward

Park

Shibbati

Children’s

Park

Ind

ica

tor

Mea

n

Parks

2.963.17

1.7 1.59

3.173.33

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

Ind

ica

tor

Mea

n

Playgrounds

2.693.02

3.62

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

Shaheed

Khokon Park

Pouro Edward

ParkShibbati

Children’s

Park

Ind

eca

tor

Mea

n

Parks




The managerial and institutional indicator of Shibbati Children’s Park was in between moderate and good

condition, as there was involvement of local people in the management system. On the other hand, Pouro

Edward Park was in moderate and Shaheed Khokon Park was in between bad and moderate condition

because management systems were weak there. The managerial and institutional indicators of

Brindabonpara, MS Club and Ulka Playgrounds were found in between moderate and good condition, as

the authority takes good care of the playgrounds. Altafunnessa Playground was in almost moderate

condition, while Dhorompur and Medical Playgrounds were in between very bad and bad condition because

of the coordination problems between the concerned authorities (Figure 5).

Figure 6: Comparison of amenity indicator of all parks and playgrounds

The comparison of amenity indicator showed that Shibbati Children’s Park and Shaheed Khokon Park were

in between very bad and bad condition, as the parks open for one hour only in a day and there is not enough

space for sitting and walking. On the other hand, Pouro Edward Park and Shaheed Khokon Park were found

in between bad and moderate condition as the facilities provided are not good enough. The comparison of

the facilities of playgrounds indicated the facilities to be unsatisfactory at all i.e., the playgrounds were lying

in between very bad and bad condition due to the gross negligence of the authority (Figure 6).

Figure 7: Comparison of pattern and beauty indicator of all parks and playgrounds

1.76

1.421.29

1.771.88

1.53

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2

Ind

ica

tor

Mea

n

Playgrounds

1.91

2.43

1.43

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

Shaheed

Khokon Park

Pouro Edward

ParkShibbati

Children’s

Park

Ind

eca

tor

Mea

n

Parks

3.05

3.76

2.45

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

Shaheed

Khokon Park

Pouro Edward

ParkShibbati

Children’s

Park

Ind

eca

tor

Mea

n

Parks

3.333.03

2.773.03

3.33 3.25

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

Ind

ica

tor

Mea

n

Playgrounds




The pattern and beauty indicators of Pouro Edward Park was found in between moderate and good, as the

park was covered with trees and the layout design was also moderate. The Shaheed Khokon Park was found

in a moderate condition, as the park was well organized. Shibbati Children’s Park was in between bad and

moderate condition, as it was not well planned. The rating for pattern and beauty indicator for Altafunnessa

Playground was 3.33, Brindabonpara Playground was 3.03, Medical Playground was 3.03, MS club

Playground was 3.33, and Ulka Playground was 3.25. The pattern and beauty indicators of these

playgrounds were moderately satisfactory because of the authority and local people’s care. On the other

hand, the rating of Dhorompur Playground was 2.77, which was in between bad and moderate satisfaction

level (Figure 7).

Figure 8: Comparison of welfare and reliability indicator of all parks and playgrounds

The welfare and reliability indicators of Shibbati Children’s Park were found in almost very good condition,

and that of the Shaheed Khokon Park were in good condition. But the Pouro Edward Park was found in

moderate condition. The rating of Brindabonpara Playground was 3.97, of MS Club Playground was 3.79,

of Medical Playground was 3.51, and of Dhorompur Playground was 3.3. It means they were in between

moderate and good condition because only the local people use the playground. The rating of Ulka

Playground was 4.98 (very good) because the playground was managed by the authority in cooperation with

the local people. On the other hand, the rating of Altafunnessa Playground was 3.03, which was in moderate

condition, as many people come here for various purposes. The welfare and reliability measures were not

maintained by the authority (Figure 8).

The total area of parks and playgrounds in Bogura town has decreased over a period of 10 years. This spatial

decrease has no positive correlation with socio-environmental quality. It seems that only open space area

was reduced, and urban dwellers have neutral attitudes towards the common property resources. They

visited open spaces frequently, enjoyed fresh air, gossiped and played games. The 44% respondents visited

these parks and playgrounds in the afternoon and 28% visited in the morning for playing, walking and doing

exercise. The majority of the respondents (34%) spent 30 minutes to 60 minutes, 28.67% spent more than

60 minutes and 20.67% spent less than 30 minutes in these parks and playgrounds. That is why, all indicators

showed good results except amenity indicator. Inadequate bench for sitting, poor condition of pavements,

lack of amusement facility for children and adolescents, poor quality or no washroom and water supply,

improper lighting, etc. indicated poor quality of all parks and playgrounds in Bogura town. The 48%

respondents were satisfied, 40.67% were moderately satisfied and only 11.3% respondents were highly

dissatisfied on the existing condition of open spaces because they found lack of amenities in those open

spaces. When compared with adjacent Rajshahi town, Bogura has a poor record. A massive development

has occurred in Rajshahi town of Bangladesh. The roads are wide with trees amid the road divider,

3.03

3.973.3 3.51 3.79

4.98

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Ind

ica

tor

Mea

n

Playgrounds

4.16

3

4.92

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Shaheed

Khokon Park

Pouro Edward

ParkShibbati

Children’s

Park

Ind

eca

tor

Mea

n

Parks




pavements are adequate, planned open spaces with proper facilities satisfy urban dwellers to enjoy their free

time indicating increased socio-environmental quality of Rajshahi town (The Daily Star, 2021). The

provision for open spaces in Rajshahi town is 1.5 acre/1,000 people which is much better than the Bogura

town. The facilities in the open spaces of Bogura town were inadequate and urban dwellers showed

dissatisfaction with it.

Conclusion

The rapid growth of urban population in Bogura town has caused the massive encroachment of open spaces

due to increasing demand of land for housing and commercial activities. The main objective of the present

study was to investigate the spatio-temporal change and the socio-environmental quality of parks and

playgrounds. Through the investigation, it was observed that the area of the parks and playgrounds has

decreased over a decade and it is insufficient for the people living in Bogura town. The negligence in

maintaining socio-environmental quality, especially amenity of parks and playgrounds, was observed. The

socio-environmental quality of Ulka Playground (3.41) was much better than other studied playgrounds.

Shibbati Children’s Park showed the best results compared to other three parks. The descending order of

socio-environmental quality of playgrounds were Ulka followed by MS Club followed by Brindabonpara

followed by Altafunnessa followed by Medical followed by Dhorompur Playground. Similarly, quality of

parks was best in Shibbati Children’s Park followed by Pouro Edward Park followed by Shaheed Khokon

Park. By rectifying the past wrongs with proper planning and maintenance in future, the accessibility and

fruitful use of the parks and playgrounds can be enhanced.

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Authors’ Contributions (in accordance with ICMJE criteria for

authorship) Contribution

Author 1 Author 2 Author 3

Conceived and designed the research or analysis Yes Yes Yes

Collected the data Yes Yes Yes

Contributed to data analysis & interpretation Yes Yes Yes

Wrote the article/paper Yes Yes Yes

Critical revision of the article/paper Yes Yes Yes

Editing of the article/paper No No Yes

Supervision No No Yes

Project Administration Yes No No

Funding Acquisition No No No

Overall Contribution Proportion (%) 30 30 40

Funding















this manuscript.











Legal Problems in the Implementation of the Environmental Impact

Assessment in Ukraine: A Critical Review

Mariya Krasnova¹, Juliia Krasnova², Liudmyla Golovko*³, Tetiana Kondratiuk⁴ ¹Department of Agrarian Law, Faculty of Law, Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Kyiv,

Ukraine. Email: [email protected]

²Department of Agrarian, Land and Environmental Law, Faculty of Law, National University of Life and

Environmental Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine. Email: [email protected]

³Department of International Law and Comparative Law, Faculty of Law, National University of Life and


⁴Department of Agrarian, Land and Environmental Law, Faculty of Law, National University of Life and



Abstract By signing the Aarhus Convention and the Association

Agreement with the EU, Ukraine has committed itself to

adapting domestic legislation conforming European standards

concerning environmental impact assessment. To fulfill

international obligations, the Law “On Environmental Impact

Assessment” was adopted by Ukraine. However, under this

law of Ukraine, not all objects and activities having impact on

the environment are assessed for their environmental impact,

but only those having a significant impact on the environment

are assessed. The aim of this article is to analyse the legislation

of Ukraine on environmental impact assessment, and to

compare it with the EU legislation. Special attention is paid to

the judicial practice being adopted while implementing the

said law. With the help of a case study, the shortcomings of the

Ukrainian legislation are analysed and highlighted.

Keywords Environmental protection; Environmental management; EIA;

Ecological integrity; Right to a fair trial

How to cite this paper: Krasnova, M., Krasnova,

J., Golovko, L. and Kondratiuk, T. (2021). Legal

Problems in the Implementation of the

Environmental Impact Assessment in Ukraine: A

Critical Review. Grassroots Journal of Natural


https://doi.org/10.33002/nr2581.6853.040207















ISSN 2581-6853



92 Mariya Krasnova, Juliia Krasnova, Liudmyla Golovko, Tetiana Kondratiuk

Introduction

Environmental security and safety in Ukraine are ensured by implementing a wide range of interrelated

political, economic, technical, organizational and legal measures. But such measures are not homogeneous

in their content. In the environmental and legal literature, such measures are classified into several types

depending on their direction: organizational-preventive, regulatory-stimulating, prescribing-executive,

protection-restorative a nd interim. It is believed that they form a unified system of legal means aimed at

regulating activities that can enhance environmental safety, prevent the deterioration of the environment

and risks to the population and natural ecosystems, and minimize the manifestation of damage.

Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is a process aiming to mitigate the negative impacts of a

development activity. EIA was introduced in Ukraine in 2017 with the adoption of the Law of Ukraine “On

Environmental Impact Assessment”1 (Law on EIA). The main innovation of the law is the introduction of a

new permit, which is a kind of concluding statement on EIA (hereinafter termed as ‘EIA clearance’). The

Law of Ukraine on EIA is based on the European approach to EIA outlined in the Directive 2011/92/EU2

of the European Parliament (as passed by the Council on 13 December 2011). This EU law was required to

be adopted by Ukraine under the Association Agreement3 with the EU.

The strengths of the Law on EIA include public participation, including in the early stages, consideration of

alternatives to planned activities, transparency of the procedure, and integrating the economic and social

conditions of the region. In these provisions, broader sustainability approach to EIA is adopted. Such

characteristics of the law are subscribed from the EU legislature. In addition to environmental safety

mechanisms built in the law, the problematic aspects of the law are also highlighted in this analysis.

Problematic Aspects of EIA

One major problem of EIA in Ukraine is the imperfection of the adopted law regulating legal actions and

implications. This is confirmed by number of scientific studies (Kutsevych et al., 2020; Ladychenko and

Golovko, 2018; Shparyk, 2018; Yara et al., 2018) as well as the practice of application of this Law. One of

the key problems of this Law is related to exhaustive list of activities that are subjected to EIA. What does

this list contain? This Law on EIA covers the planned activities of an enterprise that are subject to

assessment. Article 1 of the Law on EIA articulates that planned activities of an enterprise mean the planned

economic activities, including construction, reconstruction, technical re-equipment, expansion,

redevelopment, liquidation (dismantling) of facilities, and other activities impacting the environment. The

planned activities having no significant impact on the environment are not subject to EIA. The Law on EIA

contains two lists of activities, which require an EIA before granting of permission to carry out an activity.

The first list includes planned activities and facilities that may have a significant impact on the environment

(part 2, article 3 of the Law on EIA). These activities belong to the production category: refineries;

installations for the production or enrichment of nuclear fuel; installations for the disposal of radioactive

waste; ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy; asbestos processing facilities; chemical production (including

production of basic chemicals, chemical-biological, biotechnical, pharmaceutical production using chemical

or biological processes; production of plant protection products, mineral fertilizers, polymers and polymer-

containing materials with a capacity of more than 10 tons per year), construction of airports, highways, and

so on. These activities are potentially more dangerous and, therefore, need more attention. The Ministry of

1 Law of Ukraine (1991). Pro ochoronu navkolysnoho pryrodnoho seredovysca (On Environmental Protection), Law of Ukraine

1264-XII of 1 January (1991), Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, 1991. Available online: https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/1264-

12#Text [Accessed 21 April 2021] 2 Directive 2011/92/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 December 2011 on the assessment of the effects of

certain public and private projects on the environment. Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-

content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32011L0092 [Accessed 21 April 2021] 3 Association Agreement between the European Union and its Member States, of the one part, and Ukraine, of the other part.

Available online: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A22014A0529%2801%29

https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/1264-12#Text





Environmental Protection and Natural Resources of Ukraine is responsible for EIA of the activities of

enterprises falling in the ambit of first list, and the Ministry provides an EIA clearance. All activities

mentioned in the first list must also be assessed for transboundary environmental impact in accordance with

Ukraine's international obligations.

The second list includes planned activities and facilities that may have a potential impact (not significant)

on the environment. Such activities are: deep drilling; mining industry; energy industry; production and

processing of metal; mineral processing, etc. (part 3, article 3 of the Law on EIA). Departments of Ecology

at the level of concerned regional state administration in the territory where planned activities are to take

place need to conduct EIA and provide an EIA clearance to the activities listed in second list.

In preparing the above lists, the legislator referred the Directive 2011/92/EU of the European Parliament

and the Council of the European Union. However, the practice of implementing such provisions of the Law

on EIA in Ukraine demonstrates the ineffectiveness of the legal regulation. Although the lists of activities

designated for environmental impact are exhaustive, yet these lists are not inclusive. If a planned activity is

absent in list 1 or list 2, then law does not need to conduct the EIA for that activity. On the contrary,

practically, there are still cases when excluded activities also have a significant impact on the environment.

Here, the Ukrainian legislation differs from the EU legislation in which all projects listed in Annex I of the

Directive 2011/92/EU are considered as having significant effects on the environment and, thus, require an

EIA; and for projects listed in Annex II, the national authorities are empowered to decide whether an EIA

is needed or not. This is done by the "screening procedure", which determines the effects of projects based

on a threshold/criterion or a case-to-case examination. However, while screening and deciding, the national

authorities must take into account the criteria laid down in Annex III (European Commission, 2021). As a

result, these provisions of EU law give a room for discretion. Nevertheless, there exist variations between

Member States having the criteria for EIA, meaning that a certain project could be subject to an EIA in one

Member State but not in another (Pinho, McCallum and Santos Cruz, 2010).

Another disadvantage of Ukrainian Law on EIA is the missing requirement for cumulative effects

assessment (CEA). The European Union and Canada have made significant progress in adopting CEA as

one of the requirements in the process of EIA. The basis of CEA is the impact the multiple projects or

activities create cumulatively; and a cumulative impact is greater than or different than that of each

individual project (Broderick, 2013). Therefore, the impact of projects on the environment should be

accounted cumulatively, not discretely. In Canada, several regional CEA and management iniatives have

been pursued. As Noble (2008) points out, regional CEA is inherently future oriented. This requires a

supporting strategic environmental assessment framework, structured scenario-based analysis, a multy-

scaled perspective, and an integrated approach to CEA, and regional plan development (Noble, 2008).

The Ministry of Energy and Environmental Protection of Ukraine has started to develop a National

Framework Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change. But this work has begun only recently, and, at this

stage, climate change mitigation does not fit into Ukrainian EIA law, which is also the weakness of the law.

On the positive side, the State has begun to understand the importance of prevention of climate change and

has begun to develop the first strategy in this context. No doubt, the climate change mitigation and

adaptation should also be taken into account during the process of EIA.

The Law of Ukraine on EIA came into force since December 2017 and during this period the relevant case

laws regarding EIA process have already been developed. According to the register of court decisions in

Ukraine, the following cases are considered by administrative courts:

• on declaring illegal and revoking the decision of public authorities (Department of Ecology and

Natural Resources of the Regional State Administration) refusing to issue a permit for an activity;

• on declaring illegal and revoking the EIA clearance; and

• on the temporary prohibition (suspension) of activities until EIA clearance.




A significant number of cases are initiated on the claims of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to

cancel the EIA clearances. As a rule, court decisions are taken not in favour of the plaintiff. The decision of

the Transcarpathian District Administrative Court (March 18, 2020) on construction of a wind farm

recognized, for the first time, an EIA clearance illegal on the claim of an NGO (Transcarpathian District

Administrative Court, 2020). The analysis of case law showed the absence of decisions that would otherwise

establish financial compensation for violation of EIA procedures. Notably, absence of penalties in the law

weakens the implementation and enforcement of EIA law in Ukraine.

A Case Study

A specific case is discussed here to demonstrate some of the problematic aspects that emerge during practice

of the law. Case № 1.380.2019.005795 is under judicial review currently. The litigant, “SILA VINNYK”, a

public organization, filed the suit against the Department of Ecology and Natural Resources of the Lviv

Regional State Administration and “EKRAN” LLC. The plaintiff sought cancellation of EIA clearance issued

to proposed planned activities (new construction of a hot-dip galvanizing plant) in the area of the Pidberiztsi

village council lying in Pustomyty district, Lviv oblast [№ 03.02-20181262351 of April 25, 2019].

The industrial activity was listed in list 2 category of activities having an impact on the environment. The

defendant enterprise started building a plant in the periphery of 300 meters from the village Podbereztsy,

violating the essential procedure of calling a public hearing on the EIA Report.

To perform a legal analysis of this case, the following documents were analysed:

• Notice notifying the planned activities of the “EKRAN” LLC subject to EIA (published on

December 12, 2018 by “EKRAN” LLC);

• EIA Report on planned activity “New construction of a hot-dip galvanizing plant on the territory of

Pidberiztsi village council, Pustomyty district, Lviv region” № 20181262351 (promulgated on

February 21, 2019);

• Announcement for a public discussion on the EIA Report (published on February 21, 2019);

• Comments and suggestions of the people on the planned activity (published on January 15, 2019);

• Report of public discussion on planned activity № 03.02-2018/262351/1 dated April 25, 2019

(hereinafter referred to as “public discussion”);

• EIA clearance for the planned activity “New construction of a hot-dip galvanizing plant on the

territory of Pidberiztsi village council, Pustomyty district, Lviv region № 20181262351/2 of

02.05.2019”;

• Expert recommendation basing the results of the forensic engineering and environmental

examination in administrative case № 1.380.2019.005795 of June 22, 2020 № 1956, drawn up by

the forensic expert V. Makarchuk (hereinafter referred to as “expert recommendation”).

All these documents were studied in order to analyse the decision on granting a construction permit for a

hot-dip galvanizing plant by “EKRAN” LLC on the territory of Pidberiztsi village council.

Description and Argumentation of the Case

Based on the legal analysis of the documents, current environmental legislation and the review of latest

literature, the following conclusions are drawn. Though only the projects or activities having a significant

impact on the environment are subjected to EIA, it is essential to classify the hazards of certain activities in

accordance with the lists of activities listed in article 3 of the Law on EIA. In Ukraine, besides the Law on

EIA, there are other legal frameworks that instruct how to determine the degree of environmental hazard of

an activity. In particular, the legislations that consist of procedures to determine risks posed by a planned




activity are: Code of Civil Protection of Ukraine4, Law of Ukraine “On High Risk Facilities”5, Resolution6

of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine of July 11, 2002 № 956 “On Identification and Declaration of Security

of High Risk Facilities”, Order7 of the Ministry of Emergencies and Cases of Protection of the Population

from the Consequences of the Chornobyl Catastrophe of February 23, 2006 № 98 “On approval of the

methodology for identification of potentially dangerous objects”, and so on.

In light of above legal frameworks, the structure of economic activities, nature of their operation and

presence or absence of potential environmental risks, which in certain circumstances may cause

emergencies, are identified and analysed. This identification analysis determines whether the enterprise or

its individual facilities are potentially dangerous or hazardous facilities. Both the internal and external

hazards need to be taken into account during the process of such identification exercise8. Internal hazards

originate from the operational parts of buildings, structures, equipment, technological processes of the

economic activity, and the substances manufactured, processed, stored or transported. External hazards are

not directly linked to the functioning of the economic activity, but they can induce an emergency from

outside the premises of economic activity and adversely affect its development (natural calamity and

accidents at nearby facilities)9.

Identification is carried out by a qualified person. The results of the identification process are shared with

the local bodies under official supervision and civil protection10. It then leads to preparation of appropriate

notification concerning the results of the identification. The identification process is carried out in the

following stages:

• selection of the codes of the emergencies, the occurrence of which is possible at the premise of

economic activity, by the classifier of emergencies as approved by the State Committee of Ukraine

on Technical Regulation and Consumer Policy, 2010;

• analysis of indicators of emergencies, and determination of their threshold values using the

classification indicators as approved by the Order № 1400 of the Ministry of Emergencies of

Ukraine of December 12, 2012;

• identification of the sources of risk, which under certain conditions (accidents, malfunctions, natural

hazards, etc.) can cause emergencies;

• identification of types of risks for each of the identified sources of risks;

4 Law of Ukraine (2012). Kodeks cyvilnoho zachystu Ukrajiny (Code of Civil Protection of Ukraine), Law of Ukraine 5403-VI of

2 October (2012). Available online: https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/5403-17#Text [Accessed 21 April 2021] 5 Law of Ukraine (2001). Pro objekty pidvyscenoji nebezpeky (On High-Risk Objects), Law of Ukraine 2245-III of 18 January

(2001), Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, 2001. Available online: https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/2245-14#Text [Accessed 21

April 2021] 6 Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine (2002). Pro identyfikaciu ta deklaruvanna bezpeky objektiv pidvyscenoji

nebezpeky (On Identification and Declaration of Safety of High-Risk Objects), Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine

956 of 11 July (2002), Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, 2002. Available online: https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/956-2002-

%D0%BF#Text [Accessed 21 April 2021] 7 Order of the Ministry of Emergencies and Protection of the Population from the Consequences of the Chornobyl Accident

(2006). Pro zatverdzenna metodyky identyfikacii potencijno nebezpecnych objektiv (On Approval of the Methodology for

Identification of Potentially Dangerous Objects), Order of the Ministry of Emergencies and Protection of the Population from the

Consequences of the Chornobyl Accident 98 of 23 February (2006), Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, 2002. Available online:

https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/z0286-06#Text [Accessed 21 April 2021] 8 State building norms of Ukraine (2008). State construction standards B.1.2-8-2008 “Basic requirements for buildings and

structures. Safety of human life and health and protection of the environment”. Available online: http://profidom.com.ua/v-1/v-1-

2/1274-dbn-v-1-2-8-2008-osnovni-vimogi-do-budivel-i-sporud-bezpeka-zhitta-i-zdorov-ja-ludini-ta-zahist-navkolishnogo-

prirodnogo-seredovishha [Accessed 21 April 2021] 9 State building norms of Ukraine (2008). State Standards of Ukraine 4500-3: 2008 “Dangerous goods. Classification”. Available

online: http://online.budstandart.com/en/catalog/doc-page?id_doc=59011 [Accessed 21 April 2021] 10 Supreme Council of Ukraine (2021). Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine of November 16, 2002 № 1788 “On

approval of the Procedure and rules for compulsory insurance of civil liability of economic entities for damage that may be caused

by fires and accidents at high-risk facilities, including fire and explosion facilities and objects on which economic activity can

lead to accidents of ecological and sanitary-epidemiological character”. Available online:

https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/1788-2002-%D0%BF#Text [Accessed 21 Apr. 2021].


https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/z0286-06#Text

http://profidom.com.ua/v-1/v-1-2/1274-dbn-v-1-2-8-2008-osnovni-vimogi-do-budivel-i-sporud-bezpeka-zhitta-i-zdorov-ja-ludini-ta-zahist-navkolishnogo-prirodnogo-seredovishha



http://online.budstandart.com/en/catalog/doc-page?id_doc=59011

https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/1788-2002-%D0%BF#Text




• determination of the list of hazardous substances used at the object of economic activity, their

quantities and class of risks;

• assessment of the emergency zone using the methodology meant for predicting the effects of

hazardous chemicals during accidents at industrial facilities and transport (as approved by the

Ministry of Emergencies, Ministry of Agrarian Policy, and Ministry of Energy and Natural

Resources on March 27, 2001 № 73/82/64/122);

• assessment of potential impacts of emergencies likely to happen from each source of risk (number

of casualties, injures, material damage) using the methodology intended to assess losses from

emergencies, man-made or natural (as approved by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine on 15

February 2002, p. № 175); and

• determination of state registers in which the object of economic activity is registered.

The examination of documents revealed that during the preparation of the EIA Report for “EKRAN” LLC’s

new project the abovementioned necessary steps were not taken into consideration and identification process

was not carried out. Let us understand hot-dip galvanizing of metal, which includes 4 stages of metal

processing: 1) degreasing (treatment of metal with a degreasing reagent being selected depending on its

impact on the environment); 2) washing (metal treatment after degreasing); 3) etching (cleaning the surface

of the metal and removing a layer of oxides that appear as a result of heat treatment); and 4) washing after

etching. The item 5 of the Notice (published on December 12, 2018 by “EKRAN” LLC) on a planned

activity reiterates that “the main materials for planned hot-dip galvanizing activity are metallic zinc,

technical hydrochloric acid, inhibitors, depressants, degreaser, flux and natural gas”. Unfortunately, neither

the said Notice nor the EIA Report nor other accompanying documents contain information on the degree

of risk of each of these substances. Albeit it is known that natural gas belongs to flammable and explosive

substances. Another substance is grade synthetic hydrochloric acid, which is classified as “dangerous

goods” in accordance with the State Construction Standards 4500-3: 2008. Classification contained in the

State Construction Standards 4500-3: 2008 puts hydrochloric acid into the 8th hazard class (sub-class 8.1 –

substances causing a necrotic effect on living tissues (necrosis)) (article 6.12.1 of the State Construction

Standards 4500-3: 2008). The Order11 № 1430 of November 25, 2008 of the Ministry of Transport and

Communications of Ukraine “On Approval of the Rules for the Carriage of Dangerous Goods” has assigned

code 8172 (flammable toxic substance) to hydrochloric acid.

The experiences of similar enterprises in Ukraine confirm the hazards of grade synthetic hydrochloric acid

on living organisms. In particular, after the hot-dip galvanizing plant came into operation in the city of

Sarny, local people began to complain en masse for rashes, redness of the skin, and nosebleeds (Rivne

Media, 2008). Given this, the Notice of planned activities and the EIA Report should contain information

on the procedure carried out by the company to identify high-risk objects. However, such information is

missing, although it is, among other things, an important factor in determining the size of the sanitary

protection zone.

Despite above mentioned violations, the “EKRAN” LLC is going to build a hot-dip galvanizing plant at a

distance of 300 meters from the village Pidberiztsi. According to article 6.13 of the State Building Norms

B.1.1-22: 2017 "Composition and Content of the Zoning Plan"12, the sanitary protection zone of the

enterprises falling in class II of harmfulness must be at least 500 m away from human habitation. It is

apprehended that planned activity of “EKRAN” LLC belongs to class II of harmfulness. Hence, there is a

need to study intensively the environmental effect of the substances used by the enterprise. In case, the said

11 Order of the Ministry of Transport and Communications of Ukraine (2008). Pro zatverdzenna pravyl perevezenna

nebezpecnych vantaziv (On Approval of the Rules of Transportation of Dangerous Goods), Order of the Ministry of Transport

and Communications of Ukraine 1430 of 25 November (2008). Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine. Available online:

https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/z0556-17#Text [Accessed 21 April 2021] 12 State Building Norms B.1.1-22: 2017 "Composition and content of the zoning plan". Available online:

https://dreamdim.ua/en/plan-zonuvannya-terytoriyi-zoning-dbn-b-1-1-22-2017/ [Accessed 21 April 2021]

https://dreamdim.ua/en/plan-zonuvannya-terytoriyi-zoning-dbn-b-1-1-22-2017/




planned activity belongs to the class I of harmfulness, then such zone should be not less than 1000 m away

from the human settlement (see State Building Norms B.1.1-22: 2017 "Composition and Content of the

Zoning Plan", 201713,14). Therefore, it is pretty clear that the sanitary protection zone around the enterprise

is established in violation of the current legislations. In addition, neither the Notice containing planned

activities of the “EKRAN” LLC subject to EIA nor the EIA Report contains information about planned

measures in the event of an emergency situation, as required by article 11 of the Law of Ukraine of

18.01.2001 “On High-Risk Objects” and the Order15 of the Ministry of Labor and Social Policy of Ukraine

of 04.12.2002 № 637 “On Approval of the Methodology for Identification of Potentially Dangerous

Objects”.

The abovementioned violations raise questions compelling the compliance (with current legislations) by the

Notice of the “EKRAN” LLC on planned activities, EIA Report and EIA clearance issued by the Department

of Ecology and Natural Resources of the Lviv Regional State Administration. The EIA clearance needs

modifications conforming the ground realities. Apparently and obviously, the algorithm of “superficial”

actions was laid down as spelled in article 3 of the Law on EIA, attracting to define and ascertain the two

categories of harmful activities.

Public Hearings in the Case

According to an announcement for the public discussion on EIA Report, a public hearings took place on

March 13, 2019 in the premises of the People's House in the village Pidberiztsi. Additionally, the EIA Report

with additional information was made accessible to the public on February 21, 2019 between 09.00 to 17.00

hours at the addresses: (1) “EKRAN” LLC, Lviv region, Stryy, Konovalets street 3; (2) Pidberiztsi village

council, Lviv region, Pustomyty district, village Pidberiztsi; and (3) Department of Ecology and Natural

Resources of the Lviv Regional State Administration, Stryjska street 98, Lviv. The announcement for the

public discussion on the EIA Report was also published in newspapers: (1) “Your Shop”, February 21, 2019

(this is the newspaper containing free advertisements with a distribution in Lviv and Lviv region); (2) “Voice

of the People”, February 23, 2019, №8 (11715) (distribution area of newspaper is Pustomyty district of Lviv

region). Noticeably, comments and suggestions of the public during the public discussion or during public

hearing were not found in the reports of the public discussion and public hearing.

In accordance with part 3 of article 4 of the Law on EIA, and the Notice of the “EKRAN” LLC of planned

activities subjected to EIA, announcements for the public discussion on EIA Report are to be published by

the business entity no later than three working days from the date of submission of the Notice to the

authorized territorial body (i.e., Department of Ecology and Natural Resources of the Lviv Regional State

Administration). As specified in parts 3 and 4 of article 5 of this Law on EIA, the authorized central body

(i.e., Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources) should publish the announcement in the print media (at

least two) specified by the business entity; and the territory of distribution of such print media shall cover

administrative-territorial units likely to be affected by the planned activity. The announcements also need

to be placed on bulletin boards of regional and central bodies of the local self-government or at other public

places in the territory where the activity is planned. Additionally, the announcements can be published in

alternate way, which guarantees bringing information to the attention of residents of the relevant

13 State Building Norms of Ukraine (2008). State construction standards B.1.2-8-2008 “Basic requirements for buildings and

structures. Safety of human life and health and protection of the environment”. Available online: http://profidom.com.ua/v-1/v-1-

2/1274-dbn-v-1-2-8-2008-osnovni-vimogi-do-budivel-i-sporud-bezpeka-zhitta-i-zdorov-ja-ludini-ta-zahist-navkolishnogo-

prirodnogo-seredovishha [Accessed 21 April 2021] 14 State building norms of Ukraine (2008). State Standards of Ukraine 4500-3: 2008 “Dangerous goods. Classification”. Available

online: http://online.budstandart.com/en/catalog/doc-page?id_doc=59011 [Accessed 21 April 2021] 15 Order of the Ministry of Labor and Social Policy of Ukraine (2002). Pro zatverdzenni metodyky vyznacenna ryzykiv ta jich

pryjniatnych rivniv dla deklaruvanna bezpeky objektiv pidvyscenoji nebezpeky (On Approval of the Methodology for

Determining Risks and their Acceptable Levels for Declaring the Safety of High-Risk Facilities), Order of the Ministry of Labor

and Social Policy of Ukraine 637 of 04 December (2002). Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine. Available online:

https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/rada/show/v0637203-02#Text. [Accessed 21 April 2021]




http://online.budstandart.com/en/catalog/doc-page?id_doc=59011

https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/rada/show/v0637203-02#Text




administrative unit where activity is planned, or to the relevant local community and other stakeholders

likely to be affected by the planned activities. In this particular case, the inhabitants of the settlements, such

as village Podberiztsi, village Pidbirtci, village Pidhirne and the village Lysynychi situated in Pustomyty

district of Lviv region, were informed about the planned activities in accordance with the requirements of

current legislation. On the other hand, residents of village Vynnyky, which lies in the Lychakiv district of

Lviv, were restricted in accessing information about the public discussion on the EIA Report, and they could

only obtain information from the newspaper “Your Shop”, February 21, 2019, which is not read by the

entire population.

Referring above analysis, there is a reason to believe that the procedure of announcing the public discussion

on the EIA Report and the discussion itself were conducted in violation of part 2 of article 50 of the

Constitution of Ukraine and article 9 of the Law of Ukraine of 1 January 1991 “On Environmental

Protection”, while restricting the right of access to environmental information, as well as the right to

participate in the discussion, to submit proposals to draft regulations, to file materials about the location,

construction and reconstruction of facilities that may negatively affect the environment, to make proposals

to public authorities and local governments, and to caution legal entities involved in decision-making on

such issues.

Results of the Forensic Engineering and Environmental Examination

In accordance with article 102 of the Code of Administrative Procedure of Ukraine, a court, on the request

of a party to the case or on its own initiative, appoints an expert in the case if special knowledge is required

to clarify the circumstances relevant to the case. Thus, in the case №1.380.2019.005795, the Lviv District

Administrative Court administered a forensic examination on February 07, 2020. The following issues were

raised by the court:

- Are the indicators measuring the environmental impact of the planned activities of “EKRAN” LLC

as mentioned in the EIA clearance for the planned activities “New construction of a hot-dip

galvanizing plant on the territory of Pidberiztsi village council, Pustomyty district, Lviv region №

03.02-20181262351 of April 25, 2019” devised correctly?

- Is the implementation of the planned activity permissible, taking into account the data provided in

the EIA Report?

- Do the data reflected in the EIA Report allow to investigate (assess) fully the environmental impact?

The examination conducted by the appointed expert did not provide any substantial scrutiny of planned

activities of “EKRAN” LLC, which may have an impact on the environment. In fact, the expert gave his

conclusion based on the data prepared by a private institution “Company Center Ltd.” on the order of

“EKRAN” LLC. The expert considered the data as indisputably true, thereby, evading his responsibility and

accountability. He was appointed by court to augment special knowledge and technical information to cross-

check the reliability of the facts supplied in the documents availed to him for investigation. The expert, on

his part, had to point out the impossibility of performing the examination given his lack of competency. On

the contrary, he concluded based on the data that the expert himself did not verify.

In addition, the expert did not examine the impact of planned activity on the environment, including the

consequences for the safety of human life and health, flora, fauna, biodiversity, soil, air, water, climate, etc.,

and the possible effects of raw materials, that “EKRAN” LLC would use in the operation of the hot-dip

galvanizing plant, such as metallic zinc, technical hydrochloric acid, inhibitors, depressants, degreaser, flux

and natural gas. These substances are hazardous, toxic and flammable; however, despite this, neither the

EIA Report nor EIA clearance contains information on the degree of risk from each of these substances and

the nature of their impact on the environment. An assessment of the impact of these substances on the

environment is also not provided in the expert report. The forensic expert of the Lviv Scientific Research

Institute of Forensic Expertise, who was entrusted to the forensic examination, determined that the planned




activity i.e., construction of a hot-dip galvanizing plant on the territory of the Pidberiztsi village council,

meets the requirements of the current environmental legislation.

As can be evidenced from the operative part of the Expert's Opinion, the results of the expert investigation

did not achieve the tasks delegated by the court. Thus, the expert expressed only the assumptions about the

admissibility of the planned activities of the hot-dip galvanizing plant by “EKRAN” LLC, while justifying

data and conclusions of the EIA Report, EIA clearance issued by the Department of Environmental

Resources of Lviv Regional State Administration, and an Expert report of December 17, 2018 № 14-2368-

18 compiled by the Branch of Ukrainian State Construction Specialist in Lviv region. At the same time, the

forensic expert had to examine the accuracy and sufficiency of the indicators of environmental impact of

the planned activities of “EKRAN” LLC reflected in the EIA clearance and EIA Report, and not to take for

granted the provisions of the above documents, as it contradicts the purpose of the examination and the

principles of forensic screening as defined by the Law of Ukraine of 25 February 1994 “On Forensic

Examination”. The plenum of the Supreme Court of Ukraine16, in its Resolution № 8 of May 30, 1997,

indicates, in particular, that it is inadmissible to consider expert conclusion as sources of evidence that take

precedence over other evidence without proper examination and evaluation or to overestimate the probative

value of probable conclusions. The expert's opinion, like any other piece of evidence, may be questionable

or even incorrect for a variety of reasons; so it, like any other evidence, must be carefully, comprehensively

and critically evaluated (Resolution of the Plenum of the Supreme Court of Ukraine “On Forensic

Examination in Criminal and Civil Cases” of May 30, 1997 № 8).

As V. Yurchyshyn and number of other scholars argue, while conducting a forensic examination, probable

conclusions are unacceptable, they do not have evidentiary value in the case (Yurchyshyn, 2013). A similar

view is held by other scholars who believe that probable conclusions contain assumptions about the facts,

and, therefore, they cannot be considered as sources of evidence (Thompson, 2018; Mudge, 2020; Allwood,

Fierer and Dunn, 2020; Morrison, 2000). It is worth quoting the work of A.I. Vinberg: “The expert's opinion

must always be expressed in a categorical form, because otherwise the expert must report the impossibility

of resolving the issue before him or the impossibility of giving an opinion” (Vinberg, 1956). By agreeing

with A.I. Vinberg on the fact that the probable conclusions need serious argumentation, a thorough analysis

of the factual material of the case should be undertaken.

In view of the above, it is believed that the opinion of the forensic expert is incomplete and contains internal

inconsistencies caused primarily by the methodology of the study. Under such conditions, none of the

documents mentioned in the study could be considered as such. On the basis of such documents, it was very

much possible to draw an unambiguous conclusion about the possibility or impossibility of constructing

planned facilities under the dispute. In this case, there is a logical conclusion about the need to exclude from

the Law on EIA classification of harmful activities into two classes of risks. Conducting a mandatory

procedure for identifying the level of risk of planned activities in each case is needed.

Conclusions

The analysis of case study demonstrates a need for further improvement in legislation on EIA in Ukraine,

including the definition of activities, lists of planned activities, and classification of hazardous materials,

which need assessement for environmental impact. More precisely, the abolition of the two categories of

16 Supreme Council of Ukraine (2021). Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine of November 16, 2002 № 1788 “On

approval of the Procedure and rules for compulsory insurance of civil liability of economic entities for damage that may be caused

by fires and accidents at high risk facilities, including fire and explosion facilities and objects on which economic activity can lead

to accidents of ecological and sanitary-epidemiological character”. Available online: https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/1788-

2002-%D0%BF#Text [Accessed 21 Apr. 2021].






activities defined in article 3 of the Law “On Environmental Impact Assessment”17 is required. Based on

documents analysed, there are reasonable doubts about the effectiveness of determining the risks of certain

activities only on the basis of the lists of activities enshrined in the law. The degree of risk from the planned

activities and facilities having a potential impact on the environment should be determined in each case

through the procedure of identification of the object of potential environmental hazards in accordance with

current legislation.

References

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Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 86(2): 1-9. DOI:

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Broderick, M. (2013). Cumulative Impact Assessment Guidelines Guiding Principles for Cumulative

Impact Assessment in Offshore Wind Farms. Available online:

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guidelines/ [Accessed 21 April 2021]

European Commission (2021). Environmental Impact Assessment. Available online:

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Golovko, L., Yara, O., Kutsevych, M. and Hubanova, T. (2019). Environmental Policy Integration in Ukraine

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2021]

Kutsevych, M., Yara, O., Golovko, L. and Terpeliuk, V. (2020). Sustainable Approaches to Waste

Management: Regulatory and Financial Instruments. European Journal of Sustainable

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[Accessed 21 April 2021]

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https://nerc.ukri.org/innovation/activities/energy/offshore/cumulative-impact-assessment-guidelines/

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440-452.






Authors’ Contributions (in accordance with ICMJE

criteria for authorship) Contribution

Author 1 Author 2 Author 3 Author 4

Conceived and designed the research or analysis Yes Yes Yes Yes

Collected the data Yes Yes Yes Yes

Contributed to data analysis & interpretation Yes Yes Yes Yes

Wrote the article/paper Yes Yes Yes Yes

Critical revision of the article/paper Yes Yes Yes No

Editing of the article/paper No No Yes No

Supervision No No Yes No

Project Administration Yes No No No

Funding Acquisition No No No Yes

Overall Contribution Proportion (%) 25 25 25 25

Funding















this manuscript.











Human-Wolf (Canis lupus) Conflict in Upper Mustang of Annapurna

Conservation Area, Nepal

Sagar Pahari1, Rajeev Joshi*2, Bishow Poudel3

1Institute of Forestry, Tribhuwan University, Pokhara, Nepal. Email: [email protected] 2Forest Research Institute (Deemed to be) University, Dehradun-248195, Uttarakhand, India; Faculty of Forestry,

Amity Global Education (Lord Buddha College), CTEVT, Tokha -11, Kathmandu-44600, Nepal.

Email: [email protected] 3Faculty of Forestry, Amity Global Education (Lord Buddha College), CTEVT, Tokha -11, Kathmandu-44600,

Nepal. Email: [email protected]


Abstract Human-wolf conflict has been one of the major issues in the

Himalayan region of Nepal. It has obstructed the sustainable

management initiatives in Annapurna Conservation Area. The

aim of this study is to assess the status of human-wolf conflict,

conservation threats to wolf and people’s perception towards this

endangered carnivore. Questionnaire survey was conducted in

different wards of three rural municipalities (RM) of the Upper

Mustang. Similarly, key informants were interviewed followed

by several discussions with stakeholders. The results indicate

“wolf’s preference for domestic livestock” as the most probable

cause of depredation with IRR value 0.91. The number of victims

was found highest in Lomanthang RM (ward number 2) where

90% of respondents reported to be victims. However, in terms of

the loss in monetary value, Lo-Ghekar Damodarkunda RM (ward

number 4) ranked highest with the loss of NRs. 55,880

(≈$479.1)/HH/year and Barhagaun Muktichhetra (ward number

3) is the least affected. Similarly, by number, mountain goat

casualties (172) were highest in last 5 years, but the maximum

economic loss was due to the horse depredation (NRs. 68,00,000

or $57,347.20) among sampled households. The results indicate

that the negative perception of local people is the major threat to

wolf. Active participation of local people in conservation and

awareness program can play a vital role to reduce and mitigate the

human-wolf conflict at community level.

Keywords Depredation; Economic loss; Perception; Threats; Victims

How to cite this paper: Pahari, S., Joshi, R. and

Poudel, B. (2021). Human-Wolf (Canis lupus)

Conflict in Upper Mustang of Annapurna

Conservation Area, Nepal. Grassroots Journal of

Natural Resources, 4(2): 103-119. Doi:

https://doi.org/10.33002/nr2581.6853.040208















ISSN 2581-6853


https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1106-9911



104 Sagar Pahari, Rajeev Joshi, Bishow Poudel

Introduction

Wolves, wild ancestors of domestic dogs, are one of the most widely distributed carnivores from Canidae

family (Mattioli et al., 1995). The trans-Himalayan region of Nepal and India has also been the home for

some specific wolf species, particularly Tibetan wolf (Hodgson, 1847). The status of wolves on the

Himalayas is difficult to comprehend as distinct species or sub-species; still, they perform an important role

in ecology of the trans-Himalaya (Shrotriya, 2012). In Nepal, it is sparsely distributed in the upper

Himalayan region of Mustang, Manang, Dolpa, Manasalu Conservation Area (CA), Kanchanjunga CA and

Dhorpatan CA (Jnawali et al., 2011). The species is protected under the National Parks and Wildlife

Conservation Act, 1973 of the Government of Nepal and listed as Critically Endangered in the National Red

List (Jnawali et al., 2011). These species are in proximity with human and livestock; so, the conflict between

pastoralists and wolves has been the primary cause for steep decline in their number and even their regional

extinction (Mech and Boitani, 2010). Not any concrete scientific study regarding its population status and

distribution has been done in recent years, but it can be predicted that only 30-50 individuals of wolf exist

in Nepal, and its population size is continuously reducing (Jnawali et al., 2011). The cause for the fall in

their number can be low abundance of wild ungulates as the availability of prey is the limiting factor for

carnivore density (Karanth et al., 2004). Human-wildlife conflict arises primarily because of competition

between humans and wildlife for shared, limited resources (Treves, 2007; Subedi et al., 2020). Beside this,

human-wolf conflict can be the cause for decrease in wolf population. Livestock depredation by large

carnivore is frequently reported in the Himalayan region (Oli et al., 1994; Jackson et al., 1996). In Upper

Mustang and Manang region of Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) too, human-wolf conflict has been

accounted due to the wolves’ attack on livestock. Thus, wolves are persecuted in retaliation for livestock

depredation (Chhetri, 2016). Though it is critically endangered species in Nepal, national concern for the

conservation of this species is very scarce (Jnawali et al., 2011). It is the least known carnivore in Nepal.

There is no national level conservation effort made for the conservation of this rare canid. The main

occupation of people dwelling in Himalayan region of Nepal is animal husbandry. There is a system of

grazing livestock in rangeland and pastures inside Protected Areas (PAs) and, thus, they often greatly

outnumber wild ungulates in many PAs. This disproportionate presence of wild and domestic ungulates

results in killing of livestock by wild predators and, therefore, a conflict between local communities and

wildlife occurs (Mishra, 1997). Low densities of wild prey also appear to promote livestock predation

(Meriggo and Lovari, 1996). The livestock act as a buffer species for the wild ungulates. Larger herds hold

larger risk from wolves (Ciucci and Boitani, 1998). Thus, these livestock get killed in the encounter with

wolves creating a situation of human-wolf conflict. Wildlife-human conflicts are acute when the endangered

species poses a serious threat to human welfare (Saberwal et al., 1994). As the wolves are critically

endangered, action for this conflict has to be taken promptly or the consequence of this conflict will be fatal.

But there is not enough knowledge about the degree of conflict, habitat loss and livestock depredation.

The wolves’ habitats are limited only to the rangelands, pasture lands and forests of northern Nepal that are

the common grazing destination for wild ungulates and livestock. Due to this disproportionate interaction

between wild and domestic ungulates, domestic livestock become easy prey to wolves (Mishra, 1997).

Human, in payback, tries to harm wolves and, thus, an obvious human-wolf conflict occurs. The actual

cause of this conflict, the landscape location of conflict and extent of the interaction between carnivore,

livestock and human activities have to be identified (Jackson et al., 1996; Stahl and Vandel, 2001) along

with the extent of habitat encroachment, illegal killing and livestock depredation to be logically interpreted

for the better management of this human-wolf conflict. When there is significant conflict between wolf (a

critically endangered species and a top carnivore in Himalayan ecosystem), livestock (a primary basis for

livelihood support) and human (who still lacks the awareness about the importance of this rare canid), its

conservation becomes more tedious and costly (Treves et al., 2009). This research will help build curiosity

in the wildlife managers towards the wolf species present in the Himalayas of Nepal. The information about

the status of wolves’ interaction with human and livestock, the serious damage and loss they are creating to

the herders and local people and their habitat condition will be useful to take better judgment about the

situation the wolves are facing. Human - wildlife conflict is common in Nepal, but the conflict mentioned




in this research has been least studied so far; neither the local people are compensated for the loss of their

property (livestock) nor the wolves are being paid serious attention. This study provides insight into the

existing scenario of human-wolf conflicts in Upper Mustang of Annapurna Conservation area and suggests

conservation and management strategies to reduce human-wolf conflict. Therefore, the present research will

try to unblock the information barrier and will significantly help the conservation area advocate for this

ignored canid. It can be valuable in making management plans in coming days. The specific objectives of

the current study mainly aim to predict and identify the degree of human-wolf conflict such as livestock

depredation and human loss, and to identify and understand the status, threat, perceptions and attitudes of

local communities towards wolf conservation and management.


Study Area

This study was conducted in Upper Mustang of Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA). The study was

carried out in the trans-Himalayan region of Annapurna Conservation Area. ACA, lying in a coordinate of

28°47′N and 83°58′E, is the largest protected area in Nepal extended to an area of 7,629 sq. km holding

1,226 species of flowering plants, 101 mammals, 474 birds, 39 reptiles and 22 amphibians (BCDP, 1994).

Ursus arctos (brown bear), Hemitragus jemlahicus (Himalayan tahr), Muntiacus muntjak (barking deer),

Moschus chrysogaster (musk deer), Pseudois mayaur (blue sheep), Ailurus fulgens (red panda), Uncia uncia

(snow leopard) and Canis lupus chanco (Tibetan wolf) are some of the important wildlife species found in

ACA. The area ranges from an altitude of 790 m (2,590 ft.) to 8,091 m, which is the peak of Annapurna-I

(26,545 ft.). Average annual rainfall ranges from 193 mm at trans-Himalayan region of Mustang to 2,987

mm at Ghandruk. The average population density is 13.82 per km2 (BCDP 1994).

Upper Mustang

The research was focused mainly in Upper Mustang region (Figure 1). The vegetation in Upper Mustang is

found between 2,850-3,500 m; grassland shrub is found between 3,500-4,900 m; and rocky terrain is found

above 4900 m. Some of the dominant tree species are Arecarogana bravifolia, Linicera obvata, Rosa spp.,

Artemisia spp., Epherdra gerardiana and Juniperus indica. The terrain in Upper Mustang is rocky, rough

and vast riverbeds. There are many isolated grasslands far from settlement. The major occupation of people

living in Upper Mustang is agriculture and animal husbandry. There are 3 rural municipalities (Barhagaun

Muktichhetra, Lo-Ghekar Damodarkunda and Lomanthang RM) in Upper Mustang that touches Nepal-

China border.

Data collection

The study combines data collection through questionnaire survey, key informant interviews, bilateral and

multilateral discussion with stakeholders and intense review of literatures. The data was analyzed using

different statistical tools. The research was started from a preliminary survey. Local people and protected

area officials were interviewed in a crude way in order to identify the probable wolf presence and conflict

sites. Then, primary (qualitative and quantitative) data and secondary data were collected. The primary data

were collected from the study area by using participatory techniques such as on-site observations,

questionnaire survey of households and key informant interview.

After taking information about the wards of Barhagaun Muktichhetra, Lo-Ghekar Damodarkunda and

Lomanthang rural municipality (RM) within the Upper Mustang of Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA),

depending upon the most conflict-prone areas, eleven wards were selected randomly, i.e., ward number 3

(Barhagaun Muktichhetra RM), ward number 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 (Lo-Ghekar Damodarkunda RM), and 1, 2, 3,

4 and 5 (Lomanthang RM). Purposive sampling with a sampling intensity (SI) of 10% was used for this

study (Table 1).




Figure 1: Map of the study area

Household Survey

Household (HH) survey was conducted in 11 wards of all 3 rural municipalities of Upper Mustang.

Altogether 115 households from all eleven wards of three rural municipalities were selected for the survey.

They could be the victims (who have suffered the damage from wolf), non-victims or the culprits (who have

caused damage to wolf) of human-wolf conflict. Questionnaire was prepared and was administered on the

local people. The questionnaire included the following items:

• Livelihood practice (occupation), status of animal husbandry and the feeding system.

• Grazing season and grazing site (pasture).

• Types and number of grazing and domesticated livestock.




• Encounter with wolves and the risk posed by them.

• Economic loss due to livestock depredation.

• Beliefs, cultures and social norms that may directly or indirectly harm wolves.

This survey collected the information regarding basic causes of human-wolf conflict. Besides, it gathered

the perception of people towards wolf.

Table 1: Total number of households and sampled households (HHs)

S.N. Rural Municipality Total HHs Ward Total HHs Sampled HHs SI (%)

1 Barhagaun Muktichhetra 753 3 103 10 10

2

Lo-Ghekar Damodarkunda 485

1 111 11 10

3 2 94 10 10

4 3 89 9 10

5 4 99 10 10

6 5 92 9 10

7

Lomanthang 556

1 98 10 10

8 2 128 13 10

9 3 102 10 10

10 4 115 12 10

11 5 113 11 10

Total 3 1794 11 1144 115 10

Key Informant Interview

Key informant survey was conducted to identify the extent and frequency of human-wolf interaction. Key

informants were ACA management committee personnel and government officials, ACAP authorities,

school teachers, local leaders, local elite groups, herders and tourist guides. Another questionnaire was

prepared, and details of the conflict were extracted using the interviews. The interview with herders,

pastoralists, local elites and farmers focused on following points:

• The best site for grazing their livestock;

• Their history about the observation and interaction with wolves;

• The most probable location where the wolves are encountered; and

• Their technique to avoid the depredation and harming the wolves.

Similarly, the interview with the conservation officials included the following points:

• The frequency of complains regarding the loss due to conflict;

• Magnitude of damage, economic loss, human injuries and death;

• Killing of wolves reported inside the CA and reason for the killing; and

• Attitude of local people towards the conservation of wolves.

This survey highlighted the gross loss due to the conflict and basic conservation threats to wolf.




Secondary Data Collection

Secondary data were collected from Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP), National Trust for

Nature Conservation (NTNC) regional office, district forest office, literature reviews, official documents,

relevant NGOs and GOs, Institute of Forestry (IOF) library and internet surfing.

Data Analysis

The collected data were compiled in Excel, analyzed in SPSS, and interpreted using various frequency

tabulation, Index of Relative Ranking (IRR) and graphical representation tools to draw conclusion.

Calculation of IRR (Miller, 1986):

IRR = (R1S1 + R2S2 + ….. + RnSn) / nr

R1 = rank of 1st order Rn = rank of last order

S1 = score of first order n = no of observations

Sn = score of last order r = total rank given to particular attribute.


Status of Human-Wolf Conflict

There are various causes for human-wolf conflict. The intensity of conflict is different in different wards of

rural municipality. When there is interaction of human livelihood with any of the conserved species

(carnivore), then the contrast between the objective of two group i.e., conservationist and local people,

creates conflict. Livestock graze and encounter with wolves in rangelands, thus, act as prey for wolves.

Status of conflict is studied on the basis of extent of loss, issues and causes of the conflict, whereas threats

and people’s perception are studied on the basis of locals as well as other stakeholders’ perceptions

regarding wolf and its conservation.

Figure 2: Causes of livestock depredation

Causes of Livestock Depredation

Respondents were said to rank the probable causes of livestock depredation. These ranking from all

respondents are analyzed as Index of Relative Ranking (IRR) using Miller’s formula (Figure 2). The result

in figure (2) shows the ranks of ‘wolf’s preference over domestic livestock’ on top followed by ‘insufficient

prey base’, ‘improper guarding’ and ‘poor shelter’. Wolf is one of the clever predators; thus, it hunts easy

prey (livestock) even if there are other wild ungulates (e.g., Himalayan thar) in rangeland. There is not

sufficient prey base, which can support the demand of these carnivores; thus, livestock are killed on regular

0.910.78

0.700.62

0.50

0.33

0.17

0.000.100.200.300.400.500.600.700.800.901.00

wolf's

preference

towards

domestic

livestock

insufficient

prey base

improper

guarding in

the grazing

range

poor

sheds/shelter

habitat

sharing by

wild and

domestic

ungulates

disturbance in

wolf habitat

other

IRR

Causes




basis in the ranges of Mustang. Awareness and proper guarding practice of herder to graze and shelter them

in shed still lacks that aids in livestock depredation. People do not think that grazing in ranges (habitat for

wolves) has disturbed and provoked carnivore to kill their animals. Wolf prefers mountain goat and horse

over blue sheep when all are grazing together in a rangeland. This finding is in close agreement with the

previous research findings of Meriggi and Lovari (1996).

Wolves mostly attack livestock in summer season, especially, during monsoon i.e., Ashar to Bhadra (June

to August) followed by winter season i.e., Poush to Falgun (December to February). The respondents

suffered least attack during Chaitra to Jestha (March to May) (Figure 3). Respondents stated that the main

reason for occurrence and attempts of wildlife to visit outside their habitat area may be due to the food

scarcity in their habitat (Bhatta and Joshi, 2020).

Figure 3: Livestock attack by wolves

Wolves become an active predator during foggy weather when the visibility of herder is low. This helps

wolf to attack the herd. According to majority of the respondents (65%), the wolves’ attack occurs in

daytime. There is comparatively less attack at night, evening and morning (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Time of attack

4%

57%

15%

24%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

March to May June to August September to

November

December to

February

Res

ponden

ts (

in %

)

Season (in months)

7%

65%

10%

18%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

Morning Afternoon Evening Night

Res

po

nd

ents

(%

)

-




Status of Victims

Most of the respondents in Lomanthang RM (ward number 2) are victims of livestock depredation from

wolf (90%), followed by Lomanthang RM (ward number 1) (88%), Lomanthang RM (ward number 4)

(80%) and Lo-Ghekar Damodarkunda RM (ward number 4) (80%), respectively. Here, the wolf’s victim

means those who have suffered depredation of their livestock from wolf only, not including other carnivores.

Similarly, Lomanthang RM (ward number 5) and Lo-Ghekar Damodarkunda RM (ward number 3) have

comparatively less victims of livestock depredation from wolf (Table 2).

Trans-boundary movement has influenced extent of the loss (Hodgson, 1847; Chetri et al., 2016). Those

rural municipalities, which are in Nepal-China border region, are more prone to wolves’ encounter rather

than other municipalities. Among those vulnerable rural municipalities, Lomanthang RM (ward number 4)

is the most victimized municipality because of its open border. Open border with Nepal-India and Nepal-

China is seen as the main constraint in controlling illegal trade and conflict (Lamichhane et al., 2020). The

border in Lomanthang RM (ward number 5) and Lo-Ghekar Damodarkunda (ward number 3) are sealed,

whereas the border in Lomanthang RM (ward number 4) is not sealed; thus, wolves’ movement in these

areas is significantly high.

Table 2: Respondents response on status of victims by wolf (%)

S.N. Rural Municipality Ward Status of Victims (%)

Non-Victim Victim by Wolf

1 Barhagaun Muktichhetra 3 40 60

2

Lo-Ghekar Damodarkunda

1 30 70

3 2 40 60

4 3 44 56

5 4 20 80

6 5 23 77

7

Lomanthang

1 12 88

8 2 10 90

9 3 25 75

10 4 20 80

11 5 45 55

Extent of Loss

The loss caused due to livestock depredation by wolf is high enough to drag attention. Lo-Ghekar

Damodarkunda RM (ward number 4) is the most victimized territory where people have suffered loss of

approximately NRs. 55,880 (≈US$ 479.1) per household per year, followed by Lo-Ghekar Damodarkunda

RM (ward number 5) with NRs. 48,919 (≈US$ 419.4), Lomanthang RM (ward number 4) with NRs. 45,612

(≈US$ 391) and Lomanthang RM (ward nmber 2) with NRs. 43,612 (US$ 373.9) loss per household per

year, respectively. Similarly, Lo-Ghekar Damodarkunda RM (ward number 2) and Lomanthang RM (ward

number 5) have suffered relatively less loss, but Barhagaun Muktichhetra RM (ward number 3) suffered the

least loss of around NRs. 3,280 (≈US$ 27.92) (Table 3). The loss because of wolves’ attack is around 41%

of total loss caused due to livestock depredation in last 5 years. Loss of NRs. 75,000 (≈US$ 634.60) per HH

per year is suffered due to livestock depredation by various carnivore of which 41% is contributed by wolf

that is proportionate to the economic loss due to same reason in Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary of India

(US$ 128/HH/year) (Mishra, 1997).




Not sufficient and satisfactory, ACAP has still managed to provide their institutional and technical support

to the rural municipalities, which has suffered the most loss. According to respondents, Lomanthang RM

(ward number 2) is the one which has received the most support from ACAP and other NGOs, whereas Lo-

Ghekar Damodarkunda RM (ward number 2) received the least. Barhagaun Muktichhetra RM (ward number

3) also has received various supports in the form of material, fund or training even though it is least

victimized ward of Barhagaun Muktichhetra rural municipality from wolf’s attack. This is because of its

accessibility to supporting organizations (Table 3).

Table 3: Extent of loss due to wolf per year (per household)

S.N. Rural Municipality Ward Loss due to wolf per year (per household)

NRs. ≈US $

1 Barhagaun Muktichhetra 3 3280 27.92

2


1 16872.7 143.6

3 2 27212 233.3

4 3 21341 183.0

5 4 55880 479.1

6 5 48919 419.4

7

Lomanthang

1 31245 267.9

8 2 43612 373.9

9 3 35619 305.4

10 4 45612 391.0

11 5 27363.6 234.6

Total 3 11 356956.3 3059.1

Table 4: Respondents’ response (in %) on institutional support

S.N. Rural Municipality Ward Received Institutional Support (%)

Yes No

1 Barhagaun Muktichhetra 3 60 40

2


1 36 64

3 2 20 80

4 3 23 77

5 4 40 60

6 5 38 62

7

Lomanthang

1 58 42

8 2 70 30

9 3 37 63

10 4 40 60

11 5 45 55

Wolves have killed mountain goat the most followed by horse. But economic loss due to horse depredation

(NRs. 6,800,000 or US$57,537) is higher than that of mountain goat depredation (NRs. 2,580,000 or

US$21,830.22) in last 5 years among the respondents (Figure 5).




Figure 5: Total number of livestock killed by wolf

Accessing the Threat to Wolf

Wolves in the rangelands of Upper Mustang are under protection of ACAP. The violent action to kill or

injure wolves has significantly decreased or nullified after the establishment of ACAP. Still wolves are in

threat from herders because herders suffer serious loss from depredation by wolves.

Figure 6: Retaliation action done

About 64% of respondents said that they have done some kind of retaliation action when they witnessed

wolves’ attack and 36% told they have not (Figure 6). The retaliation action includes only chasing them

away using a homemade instrument called Horto. No record of injury or killing of wolves is found. Thus,

herders do not possess serious threat to wolves, but the type and seriousness of retaliation action may

increase if the quantities of loss of herder’s property surpass the limit.

Another important threat to wolves is the abundance of their prey species. Firstly, wolves prefer domestic

livestock because they cannot easily kill moose (Alces americanus), Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus

jemlahicus) and Tibetan gazelle (Procapra picticaudata), and, secondly, these wild prey species are

insufficient to cover the demand of wild carnivore. This directly affects the distribution and population

density of wolves. Beside these, there are many other threats that were observed in Upper Mustang like:

1

172

12

4016

0

50

100

150

200

Sheep Mountain

goat

Yak Horse CowTota

l num

ber

of

liv

esto

ck

Total Kills

Livestock Type

No

36%

Yes

64%

No

Yes




• Human activities in the rangelands: herbs and stone extraction from the grassland and wolves habitat.

• ACAPs restricting actions that hamper the day-to-day activities of herders and local people to support

their livelihood.

• Development and expansion of roads.

The retaliation action done by local herders, even though not seeming too much intensive and intended

towards wolf’s persecution, still are serious threat. Human-wolf conflict is one of the important reasons for

wolf’s disappearance from Hugu-Kori region of ACA (Acharya and Ghimirey, 2012). Negative perception

towards wolf set due to livestock depredation in Upper Mustang is a serious conservation threat to wolf.

People’s Perception Towards Wolves

Whenever someone restricts the access, agitation is obvious. Wolves make local people suffer huge

economic loss every year, so to perceive their conservation negatively is an obvious reaction. People’s

perception towards wolf is negative, therefore (Figure 7).

Figure 7: Perception regarding wolf's population in future

Almost 31% of the respondents said that they will be happy if the government and ACAP nullify the wolf’s

population. There are 29% respondents who think decreasing wolf’s population is a better option than

conserving them. There are only collectively 27% respondents who said maintaining or increasing wolf

population is necessary in grassland of Upper Mustang. More than 50% of respondents think decreasing

wolf or removing wolf from rangeland would be the better management scheme, which is also similar to

the result of the same research in Hugu-Kori (Acharya and Ghimirey, 2013a) where the researcher

concluded that more than one third of the respondents think conservation of wolf is pointless and

impractical.

Only 29% of respondents think that they are ‘okay’ with the existence of wolves in their rangelands and

71% of them do not like the scenario of co-existence (Figure 8). Thus, most of the people are against their

conservation. Around three fourth of respondents do not accept the existence of wolf in their rangelands,

which goes quite similar to the result of Acharya and Ghimirey (2012) research in Hugu-Kori where he too

found that around 69% of respondents do not realize wolf’s importance in their neighboring rangeland or

forest.

14%13%

29%31%

14%

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

Increase Keep same Decrease Nullify No opinion

Res

ponden

ts (

in%

)

Status of wolf's population




Figure 8: Acceptance of wolves' existence in rangeland

Figure 9: Reason to accept wolves' existence

29% of respondents, who like wolves in their rangeland, think ‘biodiversity value’ is the main reason for

their acceptance. They also appreciate tourism/economic value and ecological importance as other reasons

why wolves should be in the rangelands. Besides, they take wolf as a beauty of their rangelands and they

perceive it positively from religious and cultural point of view (Figure 9).

About 71% of respondents do not accept wolves to co-exist with them in their rangelands because wolves

cause livestock and pet damage. In addition to this, wolf restricts people from using rangeland and products.

People (respondents) rarely think that wolf attacks them or damage their farmland (Figure 10).

Out of the total respondents, 67% know about the compensation scheme. Similarly, about 33% of the

respondents were not aware about compensation scheme (Figure 11).

no

71%

yes

29%

no

yes

biodiversity

value

tourism/econ

omic value

ecological

importance

in regulating

small wild

animals

beautiful

animal

religious

importance

if all living

creature

cultural

valueother

IRR 0.93 0.81 0.64 0.61 0.61 0.42 0.19

0.930.81

0.64 0.61 0.61

0.42

0.19

0.000.100.200.300.400.500.600.700.800.901.00




Figure 10: Reason not to accept wolves' existence

.

Figure 11: Information about compensation scheme

But among the total victims, only 10% of them have applied for the compensation. 90% have not applied

because the process is very complicated and is not victim-friendly (Figure 12). Those who have applied for

the compensation have received it as per the rate of ACAP for different animals. ACAP provides 10-25%

compensation differentiating the killed animals on the basis of what people do with the dead body. None of

the respondents is happy with this scheme of compensation because the loss due to depredation is not

overcomed on any way by this scheme.

People are actually not against wolves’ existence, they are against the trend of livestock depredation by

wolf. They are also against the ACAP’s approach of conservation neglecting the livelihood supports to

locals. That is the reason why 50% of respondents suggested “zoo” as the best place for wolves conservation

so that wolves won’t be under threat and their livestock too. Beside these, there are around 35% respondents

who suggest “grasslands of conservation area” the suitable place for wolf, if wolves’ territory remains

beyond the grazing land or if wolves’ don’t depredate on their animals (Figure 13).

0.97

0.490.56

0.78

0.45

0.18

0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

1.20

damage

livestock

attack to

people

threat to the

use of

rangeland

and products

damage to

pets

farmland

damage

other

negative

belief

IRR

Reasons

yes

67%

no

33%

yes

no




Figure 12: Applied for compensation scheme

Figure 13: Location where wolves should be conserved

Thus, the perception of people is negative towards wolves. ACAP has done praiseworthy effort to stop wolf

hunting, but it is unable to change the perception of local people. In short, action has changed but perception

has not. Wolf possesses threat to human and their livestock and wolves are equally in threat from the action

and perception of local people.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Upper Mustang is severely suffering from human-wolf conflict in recent years. Till date, ACAP has

controlled the action of people but there is no guarantee that the anger against wolf will not burst out and

scatter conservation acts into pieces. The perception of people towards wolf is not significantly differed in

relation to victim/non-victim or education level. But to some extent, people who are directly or indirectly

benefitted by conservation efforts of different GOs, NGOs and INGOs have positive perception. Wolves

are threatened by herder’s action and other natural processes (prey insufficiency). The result shows “wolf’s

preference towards domestic livestock” as the most probable cause of depredation with IRR value 0.91. The

35%

1%

50%

14%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

Only in conservation

areas

Everywhere Zoo No where

Res

po

nd

ents

(%

)

Location to conserve wolf

yes

10%

no

90%

yes

no




number of victims was highest in Lomanthang RM (ward number 2) where 90% of respondents were

victims. Since the damage done by wolf is quite high, wolf’s existence cannot be shadowed in any form.

They are equally important as other carnivores in upper Himalayas.

Hence, promoting awareness campaign and enhancement of Conservation Area budget allocation for

human-wolf conflict management activities and reasonable relief fund mechanism may help to minimize

the problem. It is recommended that a systematic review of current implementation of Conservation Area

Project to understand existing problems and design improved strategies and policies for compensation of

livestock depredation and economic loss to change perception and attitude of local people towards wolf.

Acknowledgement

The authors are grateful to the National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC)/Annapurna Conservation

Area Project (ACAP) for providing financial support to accomplish this research. The author also would

like to acknowledge Mr. Rishi Baral, Conservation Officer, ACAP and Mr. Prabin Bhusal, Assistant

Professor, Institute of Forestry, Pokhara for their untiring support and suggestions throughout the research.

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Contribution Author 1 Author 2 Author 3


Collected the data Yes No No



Critical revision of the article/paper Yes Yes Yes

Editing of the article/paper Yes Yes Yes

Supervision No Yes No

Project Administration Yes Yes Yes

Funding Acquisition Yes Yes Yes


Funding

A generous funding was made available for the research and for writing of this paper by the National Trust

for Nature Conservation (NTNC)/Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP), Nepal.














this manuscript.











Psychological Aspects of Building Environmental Consciousness

Olena Khrushch*1, Yuliya Karpiuk 2 1Department of General and Clinical Psychology, Vasyl Stefanyk Precarpathian National University, Ivano-

Frankivsk, Ukraine. Email: [email protected] 2Department of General and Clinical Psychology, Vasyl Stefanyk Precarpathian National University, Ivano-

Frankivsk, Ukraine. Email: [email protected]

*Corresponding Author ǀ ORCID: 0000-0002-5126-444X

Abstract This paper provides a theoretical analysis of environmental

consciousness in terms of its defining features, structural

dimensions and types. More specifically, it explores the

correlation between the anthropocentric/ecocentric

perspective and sustainable household practices and

interactions with the natural world. Another focus is the

underlying dimensions of environmental consciousness such

as environmental sensitivity, sustainable consumption,

environmental concern and commitment to act pro-

environmentally. Ecological crisis is examined through the

lens of spirituality, value orientations, attitudes, worldviews

and environmental consciousness. Among the other issues

addressed are effective environmental literacy programs

through school-family partnership and the driving forces of

pro-environmental behaviour.

Keywords Environmental consciousness; Environmental education;

Environmental culture; Spirituality; Morality; Values

How to cite this paper: Khrushch, O. and

Karpiuk, Y. (2021). Psychological Aspects of

Building Environmental Consciousness.


120-135. Doi:

https://doi.org/10.33002/nr2581.6853.040209


Reviewed: 21 May 2021













ISSN 2581-6853



121 Olena Khrushch, Yuliya Karpiuk

Introduction

The current ubiquity and magnitude of social and economic challenges, such as proliferation of conflicts,

increasing hostility and anti-social behavior, rapid globalization, environmental degradation and the

impending ecological catastrophe, have added new urgency to research that will help raise environmental

consciousness and shift value orientations towards sustainable consumption (Beck, 2009; Kiselov, 1990;

Liuri, 1997; Morris, 2002; O’Sullivan and Taylor, 2004; White, 2009). Ecology used to be a sub-field of

biology, which focused on exploring interactions among living beings and non-living objects in a particular

territory. Today, however, ecology encompasses all aspects of the human-nature relationship. Being global

in scope, environmental issues have not only gained prominent relevance in biology, medicine, sociology,

pedagogy, psychology, political science and economics but also in a comprehensive and interdisciplinary

perspective. For instance, Vernadsky (1967) examines a number of theoretical issues in ecology with

consideration of social and planetary evolution. Most ecological problems are attributed to populations

living in extreme climatic and geographical conditions. Hence, it is important to explore the effect of such

conditions on an individual’s health, livelihood and overall well-being. No less important is the need to

examine the magnitude of human impact on such natural environments and suggest ways of minimizing it.

The late 20th and early 21st century saw significant degradation of natural resources with the resultant need

to search for new ones. The globalization of environmental issues stems from the negative effects of

anthropogenic activity on the natural systems. More specifically, any type of livelihood and commercial

activity disrupts the ecological equilibrium constructed by nature, thereby, increasing the risk of another

anthropogenic catastrophe. There is a significant body of research attributing ecological crisis to self-

centered consciousness and a crisis of spirituality. Therefore, this article intends to examine the

psychological aspects of environmental consciousness, which underly a propensity for sustainable

consumption.

Methodology

This article provides a theoretical analysis of publications embodying environmental psychology with a

focus on environmental consciousness regarded as worldviews and behavior patterns that optimize the

positive outcomes of the human-nature relationship while minimizing its negative impacts. The papers

analyzed in this study were published in the last fifty years and retrieved from libraries and other databases

in print or digital form. The authors first examined the interacting effects among 10 types of environmental

attitudes and 4 forms of environmental consciousness, as well as their impact on livelihoods. Next, they

outlined the underpinnings of effective environmental education based on shaping the cognitive domain of

environmental consciousness. This is followed by a comprehensive summary of ideas about building

adequate environmental consciousness, with a particular emphasis on home and school influences. Finally

discussed are the environmental attitudes and value orientations of children living in high-altitude areas, as

well as ways of motivating them to regard nature as valuable and worthy of protection. In terms of research

methodology, this article relies on the prior studies conducted and published by Darenskyi (2006), Deriabo

and Yasvin (1996) and Losev (2010), who provided a comprehensive description of approaches to exploring

environmental consciousness. This research employs systematic and personal approaches. More

specifically, the personal approach takes into account an individual’s relationship with nature. Thus, the

authors identified character traits and personal qualities in individuals who had different types of

environmental consciousness. The systematic approach was used to explore the structure of environmental

consciousness, the development of its dimensions and formation mechanisms.





Environmental consciousness

There is widespread recognition among sociologists and experts dealing with the human-nature relationship

that human activity in natural settings is controlled by environmental consciousness (Darenskyi, 2006, p.29).

While processing information, environmental consciousness assesses human activity and predicts its

consequences for the natural world, thereby, optimizing the human-nature relationship. Serving as a

mediator between human and nature, environmental consciousness shapes judgments about the natural

environment through self-reflection and analysis of technological transformations, and social and cultural

contexts (Losev, 2010, p.11).

It should be noted in this regard that the perception and regulation of human behaviour depends on an

individual’s psychological make-up, which accounts for the rich variety of attributes characterizing the

environmental consciousness of different individuals. If viewed as a form of perceiving and reflecting the

ecological dimension of life from a social perspective, environmental consciousness can be defined as a

multidimensional conceptual domain for organizing the human-nature relationship. Thus, environmental

consciousness serves as both a form and a means of representing the content that encompasses the strong

connections between human and nature.

From the perspective of psychology, the dual nature of consciousness manifests itself as activity and

reflection. Unlike psyche, consciousness is composed of conceptual and semantic content reflected in

mental models (Rubinshtein, 2000, p.39). Having socio-historical roots, the semantic dimension of

consciousness is a social construct, which manifests itself in interactions with the surrounding world and

society represented by collective consciousness. Therefore, the link between the material, particularly

natural, world and consciousness is mediated by its social essence.

Vygotsky (1982) emphasizes the importance of regarding consciousness as a precondition for behavior.

Consciousness serves as an inherently human, higher-order mental representation, which enables the

cognition, reflection and awareness of the surrounding world. The manifestations of consciousness include

knowledge of the self; the external and internal world; as well as evaluative, theoretical and practical

attitudes to surrounding reality. More specifically, attitudes to nature play a mediating role in human

interactions with natural objects, the ecological system and the surrounding milieu.

The scope of environmental consciousness is currently a matter of ongoing debate. Sоme studies (Girusov,

1983; Kochergin et al., 1987) treat environmental consciousness as a set of views, theories, conceptions and

social emotions, which reflect interactions between society and the natural environment. Other studies

(Deriabo and Yasvin, 1996) define it as a complex system, which builds, stabilizes or alters the human-

nature relationship associated with the satisfaction of human basic needs.

Shagun (1994) views environmental consciousness as an aspect of psyche connected with knowledge and

ideas about values, behavioral and emotional convictions associated with environmental conservation. At

the same time, environmental values constitute the moral demension of consciousness, which is responsible

for selecting relevant activities and taking decisions. In turn, the most stable values build an individual’s

value orientations, which then mark the direction and essence of their activity. In addition, value orientations

determine an individual’s general vision of the world and themselves, serve as landmarks in life, motivate

opinions and behaviour. An individual shapes his/her relationships with nature by relying on the experience

of previous generations as well as on his/her own perceptions. Consequently, attitudes, value orientations

and worldviews underlie human interactions with natural objects. This is the basis for identifying the

intersection of individual and collective consciousness, which affects personal opinions, views and preferred

solutions to problems arising from interaction with the environment. The dynamics of such interaction




manifests itself as certain actions, acts, behaviour and personal ideas about the connections between humans

and natural ecosystems.

Deriabo and Yasvin (1996, p.6) view environmental consciousness as a system of attitudes. The researchers

define environmental consciousness as a set of individual and collective ideas about the interconnections in

the human-nature system, as well as in nature itself, about well-formed attitudes to nature, corresponding

strategies and interaction techniques.

Lihachev (1993) defines environmental consciousness as a system of safeguarding aspirations, and the

system is based on the principle of sustainability in the human-nature interactions. Additionally, the

ecological dimension includes a system of knowledge, skills and abilities, which are responsible for

sustainable domestic activities. It stems from the need to preserve natural resources on a countrywide scale.

Such a need belongs to the realm of personal characteristics that motivate behaviour; in addition, they impact

an individual’s moral, political and ideological views, value orientations, industriousness, and creativity –

all being in line with social expectations.

Zverev et al. (1994) and Suravegina (1999), inter alia, stress that environmental consciousness includes

knowledge of environmental laws, determinants of contradictions inside the human-nature relationship

system, with contradictions indicating the discrepancies between social laws and those of nature.

Types of environmental consciousness

Environmental consciousness has undergone continuous change, with its every stage marked by special

interactions between human and nature. This research has identified two main types of environmental

consciousness: the anthropocentric and the ecocentric perspectives. More specifically, “western”

environmental consciousness is anthropocentric”. In other words, its underlying feature is human

exceptionalism, which is perceived as freedom from the need to comply with objective ecological norms.

Summarizing the typological features of anthropocentric environmental consciousness, Deriabo and Yasvin

(1996) note that it regards human life as inherently valuable in contrast to non-human living beings; the

latter being perceived in terms of benefits from them. In this view, humans are the only beings who have

intrinsic value and, therefore, the right to dominate over the natural world, which only exists for their own

benefit. The pragmatic imperative views nature only in relation to what it can provide for humanity. Ethical

norms and rules hardly extend to the human-nature relationship. Sustainability is motivated exclusively by

pragmatic considerations. For instance, environmental stewardship is regarded as important only when it

comes to preserving natural resources for future generations.

The New Environmental Paradigm values the environment for its own sake. According to Deriabo and

Yasvin (1996) and Simonova (1999), this type of environmental consciousness is focused on ecological

relevance, which preserves balance between pragmatic and non-pragmatic human activity within the

boundaries of ecological systems. It is based on a comprehensive awareness of imminent global catastrophe

and the development of ecological crisis. In addition, it contains a moral dimension, which is responsible

for selecting purposeful activities. Decision-taking is based on the ecological imperative and of its

desirability.

Groups of environmental consciousness

In modern psychology, environmental consciousness is traditionally divided into four groups. Medvedev

and Aldasheva (2001) define collective environmental consciousness as shared views on attitudes to nature

determined by the level of awareness, as well as ideas about the unity of an individual, humanity and the

environment. Collective environmental consciousness includes general interpretations of the human-nature

relationship, which is characteristic of a certain social structure (professional group or population, ethos or

humanity as a whole). It is responsible for a systemic assessment of the human-nature relationship, its




organizational goals and impacts on natural objects and phenomena. Another feature is general acceptance

and commitment to all norms and laws pertaining to the human-nature relationship.

At the same time, individual environmental consciousness represents an individual’s concrete experience

with nature, and its outcomes. It encompasses a system of knowledge about the natural world that an

individual acquires through studies and socialization, while building awareness of the existing social

dimensions of environmental consciousness and ecological behaviour. An important aspect is the

assimilation of new experience by taking into account an individual’s personal psychological characteristics.

In this connection, mass media serve as an important tool for shaping a society’s consciousness. At the same

time, in modern society individual environmental consciousness is faced with a growing number of changes

caused by anthropogenic influence, which poses a real threat to human wellbeing. Thus, consciousness is

characterized by its openness to information, which allows for a possibility of understanding the causes of

change and estimate their extent and possible negative consequences. Medvedev and Aldasheva (2001)

identify routine environmental consciousness as a system of views shaped on the basis of immediate

contacts with natural objects, as well as controversial data obtained from various sources. Another

characteristic feature refers to shaping views from individual experience under the pressure from the

surroundings without any link with scientific substantiation of the data or purposeful environmental

education.

Scientifically substantiated environmental consciousness is shaped through scientific inquiry, which uses

objective relationships inside natural systems, plus interactions between human and nature, nature and

society. Furthermore, it takes into account urgent societal interests. Scientifically substantiated

environmental consciousness results from a critical analysis of ecological consequences as well as the

significance of predicted changes for an individual, a social group, or society as a whole. Scientifically

substantiated environmental consciousness is closely connected with scientific knowledge about natural

objects and their interrelations. They enable an individual to estimate their importance, the possibilities and

ways of using them in order to satisfy human needs and interests, as well as predict the outcomes of the

preferred type of interaction with a particular object in the environment, both for an individual and the object

itself.

Forms of environmental consciousness

Researchers identify four major forms of environmental consciousness. The consciousness of negation is

marked by disregard for information about the nature and content of ecological links that have no direct

bearing to a particular individual or social group with a mature collective environmental consciousness. In

this perspective, there is personal detachment from certain questions or issues. The phenomenon of negation

can be observed in conditions of very slow changes in the environment. There is a prevailing orientation

towards the current moment and current events. In consequence, individuals possessing this form of

environmental consciousness tend to perceive ecological problems as political, economic or nationalistic.

This breeds indifference to nature; disregard for existing and potential problems; light-mindedness about

environmental bans and restrictions.

Hyperbolized environmental consciousness is marked by unrealistic or inadequate assessment of ecological

problems, a tendency towards fatalism and catastrophism. At the same time, this perspective on

environmental consciousness fails to differentiate between what refers directly to a particular individual and

what does not… As a result, threatening situations are perceived with exaggeration, whereas favourable

changes are assessed inadequately or slightly pessimistically. Hyperbolized environmental consciousness

tends to be burdened with frustration arising from underestimated capabilities to control a situation.

Consequently, ecological behaviour is marked by reluctance to search for active creative solutions, as well

as automatic and stereotyped actions and disbelief in their success. Furthermore, there is an atrophied

capacity for prediction or an inclination towards pessimistic vision, which leads to passivity in performing

predefined algorithms (Deriabo and Yasvin, 1996, pp. 49-66).




Hyperbolization is based on information obtained through direct interaction with nature and through the

mass media. Hyperbolized environmental consciousness is steady. Yet, if there is a contradiction between

the original information, the predictions inferred from it and further events, this form of consciousness can

be replaced with that of negation.

Self-centered environmental consciousness stems from the human-nature relationship and human-society

interaction, which comply with existing regulations and moral restrictions. At the same time, in resolving

problematic ecological issues, subjective interest assumes priority. This form of ecological behaviour

pursues individual self-centered objectives closely connected with satisfying material needs. It is

noteworthy that an individual can be aware or know of the possible unfavourable consequences of their own

ecological behaviour in the present or future. However, individuals with self-centred environmental

consciousness are prone to justify their choice of illegal methods and ways to achieve personal goals.

Developing collective ecological self-centered consciousness is associated with the predominance of the

interests of a particular group over those of a whole society, and individual interests over those of a social

group. This process leads to decreased resilience and the emergence of contradictions between an

individual’s worldview, their aspirations, decisions and actions. If self-centred consciousness spreads to

individuals of a higher rank, it has a direct effect on political decision-taking concerning the human-nature

relationship. Self-centred consciousness underlies pragmatic inclinations aimed at conquering the world and

using natural resources in order to obtain short-lived benefit. Its characteristics include narrow-mindedness,

prevailing false ideas about “man being the master of nature”; and when an individual’s omnipotence and

exceptionalism are confirmed in practice, they resort to barbaric devastation of nature.

Rapid capitalization, desire to become rich “at any cost” and “by any means” lead to the dominance of

behaviour directed at transformation and depletion over the ability to enjoy natural beauty (Deriabo and

Yasvin, 1996, p. 59). Destruction is the most disgusting form of interaction with nature; it stems from self-

centred environmental consciousness. A practical manifestation of self-centred environmental

consciousness is statistics on deforestation that reflect daily transportation of timber in hundreds of train

cars from immature Carpathian forests, destruction of berry fields and rare animal species. Another instance

of self-centred environmental consciousness is profit-motivated mismanagement. More specifically, river-

bank slips are caused by extensive removal of gravel and sand and the resulting meander of mountainous

rivers and torrents.

The current pervasiveness of pragmatism and instrumentalism has a significant impact on the human-nature

interaction. Specifically, human desire for wellbeing knows no bounds; unrestrained overconsumption and

excessive comfort will inevitably lead to psychophysiological and moral degradation (Rohozha, 2006, p.

84). This breeds avarice and pathological consumerism, thus turning a person into a predator devoid of

common sense or morality, let alone spirituality. The complexity of developing personality and

environmental consciousness is that, in modern society, the rich and poor divide is widening. Extreme social

polarization and lack of middle-class households inhibit the natural development of a personality, especially

in high-altitude areas. Having become rich through ruthless exploitation of mountains (deforestation,

aggregate resources, etc.), the so-called “new Ukrainians” go unpunished for destroying the nature of the

Carpathians. Particularly harmful is the path to enrichment through environmentally unfriendly behaviour

rooted in self-centred environmental consciousness. A fear of industrial poverty and a strong disbelief in

the possibility of human existence without natural resources, which are being exhausted, are catching people

off guard and leaving them dazed in the face of the consequences of their own actions, thus shaping self-

indulgent exploitation of the natural world.

Ukrainians tend to be selfish, which is why their interaction with nature can be driven by personal benefits.

This self-centredness and disregard for others reflect lack of development, culture and manners. Distorted

perceptions of human needs and lack of common-sense manifest themselves in hunting endangered animals,

fishing during the spawn, water pollution, outdated manufacturing practices – all causing air pollution,




massive use of environmentally hazardous substances, absence of safe waste disposal technologies and so

on. Such activities are detrimental to both ecosystems and humans themselves. Thus, mere sufferings caused

by deteriorating health by air and water pollution, harmful substances in food urges an individual to think

about environmental sustainability and placing restrictions on their interaction with nature. It should be

noted that self-centred environmental consciousness and its characteristic behaviour leads to environmental

degradation.

Therefore, the mass media are becoming increasingly fixated on “the crisis of civilization”, “the death of

humanity and all life on the Earth”, “catastrophic consequences”, “effects of globalization”. As a result,

society has become subconsciously aware of pervasive tension, anxiety and unrest. At the same time, the

awareness that the danger is coming from self-centered ecological behaviour is the driving force for finding

out about the actual causes of crises, catastrophes, or any other cataclysms, which reflect a crisis of

spirituality in the ecological, economic, financial and anthropological dimensions. Konnov (2006, p. 67)

notes in this matter that activism has external limits: a person must not exceed the measure set by the Creator

or count exclusively on themselves; nature cannot be transformed without the mediation of the Spirit.

Scientific and technological progress, in the context of declining morality and distorted perceptions of the

good and the evil, causes number of difficulties in the development of personality, building environmental

consciousness and relationship with nature. Nature is not only an object of human impact but also a living

reflection of a human being in nature and a reflection of nature in the living being themselves. This

indivisible whole can be grasped only by an individual possessing a highly developed self-awareness and

spirituality (Dobronosova, 2006, p. 91). Grasping the essence and sense of nature in a human and the sense

of a human in nature means pointing the development of the human being themselves in the right direction.

For this reason, we believe that highly developed spirituality promotes a more environmentally conscious

behaviour and helps move beyond the boundaries of human selfishness. Most philosophers believe that a

person is more interested in preserving life on the Earth. Thus, it is only a person who is capable of

preventing a global ecological catastrophe. For this reason, scientists are convinced that a person has a

remarkable role to play in promoting the significance of nature with its resources. We partly agree with this

point. More specifically, we believe that only a developed person, who possesses a strong sense of self-

awareness, profound knowledge of the natural world and a willingness to assume responsibility for it, is

capable of sustaining the environment and its natural ecosystems. These are characteristics of adequate

environmental consciousness.

Adequate environmental consciousness is a scientifically substantiated consciousness, which considers the

natural environment as a higher intellect marked by spiritual grandeur. Nature is regarded as spiritual refuge

for a person to get away from the hustle and bustle of everyday life, thus focusing on the philosophical

problems of the origins of the universe. Adequate environmental consciousness urges sustainability,

thereby, minimizing the likelihood of environmental damage from rapid economic growth. Adequate

environmental consciousness is marked by activism and constructivism in looking for solutions to urgent

problems. Constructive solutions are based on compromise, which prohibits from setting certain goals in

the course of scientific and technological progress. The first activities to be limited or prohibited are the

ones provoking environmental damage, thus exceeding the benefit gained from them. The decision-taking

process and its outcome are affected by emotionally sensual and aesthetic factors. In addition, there is a

strong interconnection between individual and collective adequate environmental consciousness. Therefore,

the current ecological situation requires unity in viewing ecological issues, solutions and joint coordinated

actions.

Types of environmental attitude

Yasvin (2000), in his monograph on the psychology of the human-nature relationship, describes ten types

of environmental attitudes identified on the basis of differences between objective and subjective

perceptions of nature. The author considers objective pragmatic attitude to nature as perceived through the




prism of material benefits as a source of resources and as a tool for achieving goals. This type of attitude is

found in individuals with self-centred environmental consciousness. Subjective pragmatic attitude can be

observed in individuals with subjective perception of natural objects as agents and partners. Human activity

is motivated by pragmatism and is inherent in self-centred environmental consciousness.

Objective aesthetic attitude is characteristic of people with perceptive sensual and aesthetic perceptions of

the environment. Subjective aesthetic attitude is based on the aesthetic experience of contacting natural

objects serving as a sort of subjects. Therefore, individuals with this type of environmental attitude are

capable of giving an emotional response to nature, having feelings for it, interacting with it on a par. Both

types of attitudes are found in individuals with adequate environmental consciousness.

Objective cognitive attitude is marked by a characteristic dominance of the cognitive dimension of

environmental consciousness and view. Individuals displaying this type of environmental attitude perceive

nature as an object of examination from a rational perspective. Subjective cognitive attitude entails exploring

nature with complete awareness of its intrinsic value, self-sufficiency and uniqueness; recognizing its

unalienable right to existence and the possibility of an equal interaction on the basis of socially acceptable

norms and rules.

The defining feature of objective practical attitude is intensity and practical ecological views. In this case,

nature is perceived as an object and instrument for satisfying individual needs without any attempts to

establish a harmonious relationship with the natural environment. A person’s practical steps are directed at

the natural object per se; in other words, it is based on partnership. A person is sensitive towards the features

of a natural object, tending to interpret them from a subjective perspective and reacting to them. It is

noteworthy that the relationship with the environment is based on reflection and gets adjusted in line with

nature’s “interests”.

Objective safeguarding attitude to nature is marked by the dominance of the behavioural dimension of

environmental consciousness and a highly intense objective perception of nature. This type of attitude stems

from perceiving nature as belonging to the whole humanity, including future generations in whose interests

it is necessary to safeguard natural objects. It should be noted that the above-mentioned type of attitude to

nature is regarded as “conscious”, “responsible” “rational”, and is declared for purposes of environmental

education. It is characteristic of environmental activists who promote sustainable environmental movement,

as well as for school teachers (Yasvin, 2000).

The abovementioned types of attitudes to nature were identified on the basis of their reflection in certain

ideas, opinions, worldviews and value orientations. However, environmental consciousness encompasses

not only attitudes to nature but also to an individual’s activities in a natural environment, connections

between an individual and society and so on. It is necessary to consider these factors while fostering

adequate environmental consciousness in children and adults.

Psychological aspects of building environmental consciousness

The personality of an environmentally conscious individual manifests itself in behavioural norms and rules,

as well as environmental attitudes. The ability to identify and analyse environmental problems, assess their

urgency and suggest environmental solutions are the features of a well-formed adequate environmental

consciousness (Zverev et al., 1994). Because of the structural features of environmental consciousness, it

can be inferred that its formation is a long and complex process, which depends on a great number of factors.

Except for “adequate environmental consciousness” described in the literature, its other forms must not be

discussed in schools because their nature contradicts the goal of environmental education, which is

preparing young people for resolving ecological problems and adopting pro-environmental behaviour.

Therefore, shaping adequate environmental consciousness is the main goal of environmental education.




Building environmental consciousness requires a profound understanding of the danger of global ecological

catastrophe and local ecological crises. Achieving this goal is possible only through systematic, step-by-

step education at all stages of secondary school. Environmental education must focus on shaping a

safeguarding attitude to nature. Ecological competence is a cognitive constituent of environmental

consciousness, which reflects a body of knowledge about the natural world, the principles and models of

interacting with it. It is shaped during the formal education through a special system of educational activities

or through self-education as an independently organized activity.

Losev (2010, p.11) is of the opinion that environmental consciousness is built by socio-cultural factors,

which urge an individual to act according to their goals; such factors cannot be normal (they do not possess

features of crisis situations) since an absence of a problem cannot lead to a new understanding, a new attitude

to nature. It follows from this explanation that social and individual experiences arising from ecological

crisis motivate an individual to search for a new understanding of the natural world under the emergent

socio-cultural conditions. Therefore, socio-cultural circumstances reflect a crisis between society and

nature; and new social and personal experiences lead an individual to the development of a new

environmental consciousness capable of building a new relationship between nature and society, preventing

crisis, reducing tension, searching for environmental solutions. Therefore, the development of the cognitive

dimension of environmental consciousness relates to worldviews, which shape attitudes to nature and foster

environmental consciousness.

Furthermore, the development of environmental consciousness depends on the cognitive (knowledge and

constructive ecological reasoning) and emotive (emotional experiences and feelings associated with

environmental interaction) aspects of consciousness, which determine the perception and mental reflection

of this part of an individual’s life. There are two types of ecological consciousness shaped under the

influence of mental processes. One type is marked by automatic involvement of scientific knowledge of

ecology and personal ecological experience by analyzing situations, identifying their interconnections,

comparing primary information with newly acquired ecological knowledge, predictions, judgments,

analytical forecasts and models, and, finally, new environmental behaviour patterns. The other type is

characterized by emotional judgment, which arises from personal experiences, assumptions and judgments

based on “trusted sources” of environmental knowledge and personal intuitions about ecologically salient

events, sources of information, environmental resolutions made by governmental bodies and officials

(Chuikova, 2012a, 2012b Chuikova and Chuikov 2014a, 2014b).

Therefore, the selection of information in the course of building the cognitive aspects of environmental

consciousness must be based on a historical analysis of natural and social detrimental factors, which lead to

a shortage of food, territory, energy or any other vital resource, because they are representative of the effects

on the development of human population and human-nature relations, and they stimulate interest in finding

ways of building a harmonious ecological relationship. In addition, it is necessary to conduct an analysis of

social factors, which provoke environmental consumerism blurring humane attitudes to nature. The

development of critical ecological reasoning and adequate environmental judgments must be based on

analyzing academic publications and scientific popular literature, social aspects of using ecological

resources, environmental legislation, mass media reports (Chuikova, 2014).

Environmental education is intended to build adequate environmental consciousness on the basis of

knowledge and skills acquired in the course of environmental education. Specifically, it is important to

develop the ability to analyse one’s own impact on natural resources and choose environmentally sustainable

strategies. Hence, adequate environmental consciousness manifests itself in a pro-environmental lifestyle.

Additional determinants of adequate environmental consciousness include the well-formedness of self-

organization, self-control, self-restraint and self-motivation.

To prevent the aggravation of dangerous ecological situations, it is necessary to learn to treat nature on a

par with humans. There is an interdependence between adequate environmental consciousness and




environmental perception, environmental stewardship. Thus, attitudes and value orientations are the major

constituents of environmental consciousness, which determine attitudes to environmental issues. In building

adequate environmental consciousness, the key factor is a move away from anthropocentric to ecocentric

environmental consciousness. Building environmental consciousness is linked to socialization. Social well-

being and environmental value orientations are interdependent. Therefore, environmental education must

embrace all social institutions – from family through school to society as a whole. Dominant value

orientations determine decision-taking and behavioural patterns (Chuikova, 2013).

A child’s environmental consciousness takes its roots in the family and continues in primary school under

the guidance of teachers, with whom the child spends most of the day. Yet, a child’s exposure to the natural

world can have profound effects. Perception is associated with the emotional experience of the significance

of the human-nature interaction, comparison of one’s own ideas with societal ecological norms, followed

by the development of one’s own views. Building adequate environmental consciousness is facilitated by

observing ecological attitudes in the child’s family circle. During a lifetime, an individual will accumulate

environmental knowledge from schools, the mass media, family members and peer friends, outdoor

activities, other professional and personal experiences.

The environmental education of children living in mountainous areas

This research shows that the impact of high-altitude environments on the mental development of primary

school children is reflected in spirituality and local traditions associated with the human-nature relationship.

Thus, the human-nature relationship is traditionally viewed from two perspectives: the first one focuses on

the links between an individual’s psychophysiological development and his/her geographical and living

conditions; the other one explores the effect of mental maturity and national mentality on environmental

behaviour. While the first perspective is traditionally believed to have greater explanatory power, we will

contemplate all the above-mentioned factors as a single coherent whole. Therefore, personal growth and

mental development can be the key to the challenges of the natural environment.

The analysis of data shows that there is a significant body of literature exploring the impact of a child’s

family and school, peers and adults, as well as the mass media on their ecological conscience. However, the

interdependence between the geographical conditions, particularly those in mountainous areas, and

household activities, traditions, mode of life is scantily studied in national academia. According to Gumilov

(2001), differences in the human-nature relationship stem from different geographical living conditions;

therefore, the essence of an individual’s environmental consciousness is shaped by their experiences with

nature. Hrushevsky (2012) demonstrates that the culture and mentality of Ukrainians are inextricably

connected with their natural living conditions. Exploring the spiritual life and household activities of

Ukrainians, Kostomarov (1921) identifies their culture-specific characteristics such as individualism,

tolerance, unity of religious faith and the church, high spiritual development, and respect for a woman in

society. Chyzhevsky (1992) emphasizes the importance of the natural environment for the development of

Ukrainians. More specifically, the author regards landscape as the main contributing factor to the Ukrainian

psychic make-up; Ukrainians are described as emotional and sentimental, sensitive and lyrical,

individualistic and striving for freedom, which can sometimes lead to self-isolation, proneness to conflict,

and restlessness. Gachev (1999, pp.47-48) explores how an individual’s living conditions (terrain, climatic

conditions, weather patterns, flora and fauna) determine their choice of subsistence mode (foraging,

horticulture, pastoralism, agriculture) and shape their worldview. A person saturates the surrounding natural

environment, uses it to satisfy his/her needs for subsistence and, at the same time, the natural environment

saturates the person, his/her household, soul, body and mind. Kulchytsky (1993) notes that vast forest areas

associated with mystery and danger develop a tendency towards caution, suspiciousness, patience,

apprehension, fear and adaptability. According to Rybchyn (1996, pp.21-23), forest dwellers tend to be

romantic and to live in harmony with nature, which is vividly reflected in their folklore, patterns on their

craft objects, colours and sounds reminiscent of nature. Khrushch (1994, 2008) describes the Carpathians




as emotional, impulsive, dynamic, cheerful and passionate, which can be attributed to the geographic

diversity of a high-altitude area with its blooming vegetation and the vibrant interplay of light and shadow.

The character of a primary school child living in a high-altitude area is shaped under the influence of

landscape and climate, including the associated risks: squalls, wild rivers, landslides, atmospheric

instability, long winter and short summer, hypoxia, hypothermia and so on. The impact of such conditions

on a child’s character is unavoidable. This might explain the reasons for the commonly held opinion that

mountain dwellers are proud of, brave, resilient, independent, courageous, inventive, and so on. Similar

descriptions can be found in folklore, fiction, research papers in ethnology, history, ethnopsychology;

however, they tend to be unsubstantiated and lack generalizability (Khrushch, 2008, p.174).

The negative traits commonly attributed to mountain dwellers include “intolerance, disregard for authority,

grudge bordering on revengefulness, pointless persistence bordering on stubbornness, covert envy,

obsessive fear of being deprived of their land, irritability, psychological instability, neglect of familial

values, suspiciousness of strangers and so on” (Khrushch, 2007-2008a, p.174-175). In our opinion, it

depends on livelihood, mode of life, cultural and historical traditions.

If a person is capable of grasping the essence and significance of the natural world, he/she also understand

their dependence on it and try to live in harmony. The possibility of a harmonious co-existence between

human and nature depends on intellectual, moral, aesthetic, spiritual maturity. Narrow-mindedness,

ignorance, false beliefs in human exceptionalism and omnipotence lead to barbaric, ruthless destruction of

nature. Thus, a crisis of spirituality gives rise to environmental crisis because most of the problems we face

are inside of us. This is the reason why human has the key role in the human-nature relationship.

School age is the most sensitive period of shaping the perception of a human as exceptionally important,

perfect and unique due to having consciousness. Yet, a human continues to depend climate, flora and fauna,

landscapes, atmospheric phenomena and so on. Natural disasters expose a person’s limited power and the

importance to safeguard the environment.

We are strongly convinced that the changes happening in life, including those in the human-nature

relationship system, depend on a person’s level of development, orientation (towards the good or evil,

improvement or destruction, augmentation or wastage), morality, spirituality and environmental

consciousness (Khrushch, 2013, p.5).

Only a highly conscious and cultured person is capable of combining, on the one hand, the feeling of great

awe for the nature of mountains, the desire to preserve them for future generations and, on the other hand,

the need to use their resources for improving human life. Spiritual development (which is based on faith,

sympathy for others, concern for the consequences of own actions), enables a person to control their desires

and make rational choices, thus protecting themselves from being enslaved by comfort at the cost of

dominance over nature by using novel technologies.

Human and nature are closely intertwined, with the former being an important part of nature. At the same

time, conscious as human is, they do not always display sufficient development and culture. The

interdependence between cultural, moral, spiritual development and environmental protection has been

discussed by many thinkers. To illustrate, the Austrian scientist Lorenz (1974) describes the “deadly sins”

of a civilized person: overpopulation, devastation of the environment, man's race against himself, the

breaking with tradition, emotional entropy, indoctrinability, genetic decay and nuclear weapons. In this

regard, worthy of special mention is Pope John Paul II’s opinion that “the seriousness of the ecological issue




lays bare the depth of man's moral crisis” (John Paul II, 1990). Rohozha (2006) wrote about the issue1

thuswise:

“Ecological crisis is a systemic crisis of values, a crisis of our cultural existence …

[abridged] therefore, it is necessary that we activate our ability … [abridged] to resolve the

ecological crisis through overcoming the crisis of spirituality, a crisis of cultural

exploration of the world.” (Rohozha, 2006, p.123)

The spirituality of school age children is shaped through work: while working together with adults,

children acquire an understanding of the importance of labor in fighting poverty, create a sense of rightful

possession of forests, valleys, cultivated by their ancestors. While morality and spirituality based on

industriousness, care and thrift. Lomatsky (1960) writes that during the times of Dovbush2 there was no

place for poverty in the Carpathian Mountains. Dovbush himself considered poverty to be a sin committed

due to laziness. Hutsuls3, with their keen sense of dignity and industriousness, believe that a healthy, able-

bodied person must not be poor; this might only happen to the frail, lonely or elderly.

Studying the development of the relationship between nature and children inhabiting high-altitude areas

entails exploring their mental processes, worldviews, social perceptions, reactions, sensory images, verbal

and non-verbal communication, reasoning skills and so on. In addition, it is necessary to measure the depth

and stability of mental processes, memory, consciousness and self-awareness. Another dimension worthy

of investigation includes self-esteem, respect for spiritual and material heritage, a commitment to preserve

it and deter environmental destruction.

Conclusion

Considering the theoretical analysis of environmental consciousness above, it is important to fully grasp the

close bond between human and nature. Attitude to natural resources is indicative of environmental culture

and consciousness.

Environmental consciousness is an integrative construct that encompasses knowledge, values and behaviour

patterns, which manifest themselves in environmental stewardship and consumption. An individual’s

higher-order environmental consciousness is consistent with ecological wisdom; an individual is guided by

them in their ways of living and domestic activities. Adequate environmental consciousness underlies pro-

environmental behaviour.

The underlying dimension of adequate environmental consciousness includes environmental education

programs involving a combination of educational approaches that foster value orientations and worldviews

aimed at environmental stewardship, capacity to logically process environmental issues, develop strategies

of achieving sustainable ways of living though self-restrained consumerism.

A child’s environmental consciousness is largely shaped by their adult community, as well by hands-on

experiences with nature, a sense of connectedness to nature. Such sensorial engagement creates values.

Effective environmental education must enhance a child’s hands-on experience by involving child-parent

transmission of knowledge, skills and commitments that lead to environmental stewardship in different

circumstances and settings.

1 Криза довкілля - це системна криза цінностей, криза нашого культурного існування... тому потрібно активізувати

нашу здатність... вирішення кризи екологічної через подолання кризи духовної, кризи культурного освоєння світу. 2 The leader of the resistance group based in the Carpathian Mountains and composed of Ukrainian peasants who rebelled against

serfdom in the 18th century. They robbed the rich and distributed their property among the poor. 3 An ethnic group of Ukrainian pastoral highlanders inhabiting the South-Eastern part of the Carpathian Mountains.




Building adequate environmental consciousness must teach parents and educators the fundamentals of

understanding the intrinsic value of nature, with all its challenges such as squalls, blizzards, fast-flowing

mountain torrents, deep canyons, sharp changes in weather conditions in order to ensure that children

acquire true perceptions of the power of nature and the importance of environmental resilience. Building

attitudes of concern for the environment will boost children’s intention to safeguard nature in all its

diversity, thereby protecting it from mismanagement and mindless devastation.

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Contribution Author 1 Author 2

Conceived and designed the research or analysis Yes Yes

Collected the data Yes Yes

Contributed to data analysis & interpretation Yes Yes

Wrote the article/paper Yes Yes

Critical revision of the article/paper Yes Yes

Editing of the article/paper Yes No

Supervision No Yes

Project Administration Yes Yes

Funding Acquisition No No

Overall Contribution Proportion (%) 50 50

Funding







The research did not involve plant species.




Have authors complied with PRISMA standards? No



this manuscript.











Integrated Management of Land, Water and Bioresources for

Sustainable Agriculture in North Eastern Region of India

Sanjay-Swami School of Natural Resource Management, College of Postgraduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences,

Central Agricultural University Imphal, Umiam (Barapani) – 793103, Meghalaya, India.

Email: [email protected] | ORCID: 0000-0001-8961-4671

Abstract The ecosystem approach is a strategy for the integrated

management of land, water and living resources that promotes

conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way. There is

no single way to implement the ecosystem approach, as it

depends on local, provincial, national, regional or global

conditions. The North Eastern Region (NER) of India represents

three geographies (East Himalayas, Brahmaputra Valley, and

North East Hills) and covers about 7.7 percent of the total

geographic area of India. Around 56 percent of the cultivated

area of the NER is under low altitude (valley or lowland), 33

percent under mid-altitude (flat upland), and the rest under high

altitude (upland terrace). The environment, local conditions,

socio-economic and socio-cultural life of different tribal

communities and the rituals associated with agricultural

practices have developed many Indigenous farming systems,

which have in-built eco-friendly systems for conservation,

preservation and utilization of natural resources. However, with

the passage of time, some of these practices have been further

refined and modified to cater the location specific present day

needs for conservation of natural resources, particularly soil and

water resources. The present article is to discuss some important

ecosystem approaches/traditional practices followed in the

North Eastern Region with recent innovations to make

agriculture more efficient and more sustainable.

.

Keywords Ecosystem approach; Principles; Operational guidance; North

Eastern region; Sustainable agriculture

How to cite this paper: Sanjay-Swami (2021).

Integrated Management of Land, Water and

Bioresources for Sustainable Agriculture in North

Eastern Region of India. Grassroots Journal of

Natural Resources, 4(2): 136-150. Doi:

https://doi.org/10.33002/nr2581.6853.040210

Received: 02 November 2020

Reviewed: 15 December 2020

Provisionally Accepted: 11 January 2021












ISSN 2581-6853



137 Sanjay-Swami

Introduction

The challenges arising from global economic and population growth, pervasive rural poverty, degrading

natural resources in agricultural land use, and climate change are forcing ecological sustainability elements

to be integrated into agricultural production intensification. Chemo-centric technological advancement

during Green Revolution period boosted the production potential and provided food security to the nation.

However, over a period of time, this production system has started exhibiting its carrying capacity as

reflected by production plateau in green revolution belt (Sanjay-Swami, 2017). This version of agriculture

wherein the soil structure, soil life and organic matter are mechanically destroyed every season, and the soil

has no organic cover, is no longer adequate to meet the agricultural and rural resource management needs

and demands of the 21st century (Kassam and Friedrich, 2012). The future farming must be multifunctional,

and, at the same time, ecologically, economically and socially sustainable, so that it can deliver ecosystem

goods and services as well as livelihoods to producers and society. The farming needs to address effectively

the local, national and international challenges. These challenges include food, water and energy insecurity,

climate change, pervasive rural poverty, and degradation of natural resources. All these challenges can be

addressed by adopting integrated management of land, water and bioresources.

The ecosystem approach is a strategy for the integrated management of land, water and bioresources that

promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way. It is based on the application of appropriate

scientific methodologies focused on levels of biological organization, which encompasses the essential

structure, processes, functions and interactions among organisms and their environment. It recognizes that

humans, with their cultural diversity, are an integral component of many ecosystems. During its fourth

meeting of Conference of the Parties (COP4) in Bratislava in May 1998, the Convention on Biological

Diversity (CBD) acknowledged the need for a workable description and further elaboration of the ecosystem

approach, and requested the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice (SBSTTA)

to develop principles and other guidance on the ecosystem approach. Based on the work of SBSTTA, which

had a mandate of operationalizing the ecosystem approach, the fifth meeting of the members of the

Conference of the Parties (COP-MOP5) endorsed a description of the ecosystem approach and

recommended 12 principles for application of the ecosystem approach. It also suggested 5-points operational

guidance for the ecosystem approach (SCBD, 2004).

Methodology

Both primary and secondary data were used to document some important ecosystem approaches/traditional

practices followed in the North Eastern Region of India along with the recent innovative modifications to

make these practices more efficient in the present agricultural scenario. The primary data/observation/

pictures were collected during multiple field visits/survey, whereas the secondary data were collected from

relevant research papers published in various journals, articles, books and searching google search engine

with the appropriate key words like ecosystem approach, traditional practices, North Eastern Region of

India, etc.

North Eastern India’s Regional Perspective

India’s North Eastern Region (NER) represents three geographical entities (East Himalayas, Brahmaputra

Valley, and North East Hills) and covers about 7.7 percent of the total geographic area of India. Around 56

percent of the cultivated area of the NER is under low altitude (valley or lowland), 33 percent under mid-

altitude (flat upland), and the rest under high altitude (upland terrace) (Sanjay-Swami, 2019a). Nearly 22

percent land area is under crop cultivation in the region leaving 78 percent without cultivation. Majority of

the fields in the region are situated across the hilly slopes (Sanjay-Swami, 2019a). Traditionally, farmers in

both upland terrace and valleys practice mono-cropping under rainfed agriculture, where rice (Oryza sativa)

is the major crop occupying more than 80 percent of the cultivated area followed by maize (Zea mays). The

cropping intensity of the NER is 130 percent. The “slash and burn” agriculture (shifting cultivation or Jhum)



138 Sanjay-Swami

is practiced on about 0.88 million ha. Soil health/fertility is the most crucial factor in deciding the

agricultural productivity. Approximately, 84 per cent of the soils in the NER are acidic in nature, having

low available phosphorus and zinc with toxicity of iron and aluminum.

The region has several unique features: fertile land, abundant water resources, evergreen dense forests, high

and dependable rainfall, mega biodiversity and agriculture-friendly climate, yet it failed to convert its

strengths optimally into growth opportunities for the well-being of the people. It has diversity in cropping

pattern, livestock management and diversity in culture and socio-economic life. The size of land holdings

is small that varies with state to state within the region. The mainstay of livelihood is only the agriculture,

which is predominantly traditional and CDR (complex, diverse and risk prone), with a very backward

industrial sector. The environment, local conditions, socio-economic and socio-cultural life of different

tribal communities and the rituals associated with agricultural practices have developed many Indigenous

farming systems, which have in-built eco-friendly systems for conservation, preservation and utilization of

natural resources. However, with the passage of time, some of these practices have been further refined and

modified to cater the location specific present day needs for conservation of natural resources, particularly

soil and water resources (Sanjay-Swami, 2019a).

The following sections deal with some important ecosystem approaches/traditional practices followed in the

North Eastern Region along with recent innovations to make agriculture more efficient, more sustainable.

Shifting Cultivation

The agricultural system, which is characterized by a rotation of fields rather than of crops, by short period

of cropping (one to three years) alternating with long fallow periods (up to 20 or more years, but often as

short as 6-8 years) and clearing of forest by means of slash and burn is known as “slash and burn” agriculture

or shifting cultivation or jhum. This system involves cultivation of crops on steep slopes. Land is cleared by

cutting of forests, bushes, etc. up to the stump level during December-January months leaving the cut plant

materials for drying and final burning to make the land ready for sowing of seeds of different crops before

the onset of rains. Upland rice is the main crop grown in mixtures with maize, finger millet, foxtail millet,

beans, tapioca, yam, banana, sweet potato, ginger, chilies, sesame and vegetables. All these crops are grown

as rainfed without tilling the land. Harvesting starts from August onwards. Maize and cucurbits are first

available for consumption. Rice harvesting starts with maturity of panicles, which are picked up in time,

leaving behind stubbles in the jhum field to decompose. The jhum practice has an in-built mechanism of

sustenance, conservation and renewable system of resource management (Sanjay-Swami, 2018).

Traditionally, jhum cultivation was productive and sustainable. However, over the past four decades, due to

increasing human population, the jhuming cycle in the same land, which extended to 20-30 years in older

days, has now been reduced to 3-6 years (Sanjay-Swami, 2018). Deforestation and biomass burning in jhum

aggravate soil erosion and ecosystem degradation. Annual soil erosion on steep slopes (44-53%) under

shifting cultivation can be as much as 40.9 Mg/ha along with attendant losses (in kg/ha) of 702.9 of soil

organic carbon (SOC), 63.5 of phosphorus (P) and 5.9 of potassium (K). Soil erosion, during the 1st and 2nd

years on the abandoned land has been estimated at 147, 170, and 30 Mg/ha, respectively (Saha, Mishra and

Khan, 2011). Similar observation was also made by Ray et al. (2020) who reported that shifting cultivation

is the primary source of livelihood for farmers in the hilly tracts of North East India. However, the jhumias’

(farmers involved in shifting cultivation) livelihoods are at stake due to low productivity and low profit due

to detrimental effects of soil erosion, loss of soil nutrients and biodiversity. Steep slopes, cultivation along

the slope, with negligible nutrient replacement and high rainfall are among the major causes of land

degradation in Meghalaya state. The annual soil loss and carbon content in different land use systems are

presented in table 1.



139 Sanjay-Swami

Table 1: Soil loss and carbon content in different land use systems

S. No. Land use system Soil loss (ton/ha/yr) Organic carbon (%)

1. Shifting cultivation 30.20-170.20 1.24-2.54

2. Agriculture 5.10-68.20 1.96-2.70

3. Livestock based land use system 0.88-14.28 1.80-2.94

4. Natural fallow 0.37-1.83 2.84-3.25

5. Agri-horti-silvi-pastoral 0.38-1.22 2.01-3.22

6. Natural forest 0.04-0.52 2.92-3.05

Source: Saha, Mishra and Khan (2011)

Figure 1: Burning of hill side

for jhum cultivation

Source: Field trip, 2014

Figure 2: Making bunds to

reduce soil loss


Figure 3: View of jhum field

after germination


Modified Shifting Cultivation Ensuring Soil Conservation

Bun cultivation is a modification of shifting cultivation and is mostly followed in the Meghalaya plateau for

last four decades. In this system, the crops are grown on a series of raised beds of 0.15-0.30 m height having

0.75-1.0 m width with almost equal width under sunken area made along the slopes, locally referred to as

“Bun”. While preparing buns, biomass is burnt under the soil, and the land is abandoned after two or three

years. It provides an improved production system, helps conserve soil moisture, and prevents land

degradation and soil erosion. In this system, bench terraces are built on the hill slopes running across the

slopes. The gap between each bun is levelled using the cut and fill method. The vertical break between each

terrace is 1 meter. Such measures help in preventing erosion and retaining maximum rainwater within the

slopes. It also helps in safely disposing-off the additional runoff from the slopes to the lower areas.

Bamboo Drip Irrigation System

Meghalaya is well-known for having the highest rainfall in the world with about 11,500 mm rainfall

recorded annually (Sanjay-Swami, 2021). This makes Meghalaya the wettest places on Earth. Though, the

state gets plenty of rainfall during the monsoon season, a well-managed irrigation system is required during

the dry spell. Hill farming is subject to a number of serious constraints such as undulating topography, steep-

slopes, poor and shallow soils (prone to erosion). Majority of the fields in the region are situated across the

hilly slopes. Therefore, the water-retention capacity of the terrain is poor and bringing water from distant

water sources to the fields is a big challenge for the farmers in the rural areas. Ground channeling is also

impractical due to the harsh landscape. Confronted with such adverse conditions for irrigation, the

traditional farmers of Meghalaya have come up with an innovative way. The farmers of the Jaintia and

Khasi hills have developed unique bamboo drip irrigation system of trapping springs and stream water



140 Sanjay-Swami

normally to irrigate the betel leaf or black pepper crops planted in areca nut orchards or in mixed orchards

(Sanjay-Swami, 2021).

Figure 4: Buns ready for

sowing


Figure 5: Vegetable cultivation

on buns


Figure 6: Larger view of bun

cultivation


The bamboo drip irrigation system is based on gravity and the steep slopes that facilitate in implementing

it. Water from an uphill source is trapped and brought to the plantation by a main bamboo channel. Usually,

these water sources are far off from the plantations and the main bamboo channel runs hundreds of meters

- in some cases even few kilometers. The water is then regulated through a complex bamboo network of

secondary and tertiary channels to all the parts and corners of a plantation, right up to the bottom of the hill.

Bamboos of varying diameters are used to build the channels, support structures, diversion pipes and strips.

Channels are held above the ground by bamboo or wooden Y shaped sticks. About a third of the outer casing

in length and internodes of bamboo pieces have to be removed while fabricating the system. One stretch of

channel is lashed to another by thin bamboo strips. Indigenous tools like a dao, a type of local axe, and

chisels of various shapes and design are used to build the bamboo network. Two labourers can construct a

network covering 1 hectare of land in 15 days. They are built with such skill that water wastage by leakage

is minimal. The construction is based on a simple thumb rule that the ratio of diameter of primary channel

to tertiary channel determines the quantity of water which will reach the trees. It is a subtle skill that comes

with years of observation and experience. It is so perfect that about 18-20 litres of water entering the bamboo

pipe system per minute gets transported over several hundred metres and finally gets reduced to 20-80 drops

per minute at the site of the plant (Sanjay-Swami, 2021).

The cost involved in building the system is minimal. Bamboo is available freely in this region. Usually, the

farmer himself sets up the system in his plantation with some help from 1 or 2 labourers (Sanjay-Swami,

2021). The region gets heavy rain and, as a result, each installation lasts for about 2-3 years. After the rainy

season the undergrowth is cleared, and reinforcements are provided. Old bamboo is left to rot, which, over

the time, returns to the soil as humus. Cooperatives are formed and each farmer provides his skill and labour

to build and maintain the system. The distribution of water from one plantation to another is done by

diverting water at fixed timings. This avoids the occurrence of conflicts between various farmers. By this

method, the whole community works harmoniously sharing the limited resources judiciously (Sanjay-

Swami, 2019b).



141 Sanjay-Swami

Figure 7: Different stages of water distribution in bamboo drip irrigation system. Source: CSE (2021)



142 Sanjay-Swami

Modified Bamboo Drip Irrigation System

The bamboo drip irrigation system, traditionally used for irrigating plantation crops from stream water, has

been further refined and modified to increase water use efficiency and to irrigate field crops apart from

plantation crops. Since the region faces lot of water scarcity during dry period, and as most of the crops are

cultivated on upland topography, water harvesting tanks (Jalkunds) at the top of the hills can be the solution

for water scarcity (Sanjay-Swami, 2019b). During wet period, water can be collected by making small ponds

or tanks and can be saved for dry spell. Since water in bamboo drip irrigation is actually conveyed from

higher elevation to the downstream with the help of gravity up to plantation crops, water harvesting tank

should also be constructed at the top of the hills or above the cultivated crops so that water can easily be

transported through bamboo.

Bamboos are laid down from the water source, which is the mainline, and from there lateral line bamboos

are connected. Bamboos are laid just above the properly spaced crop plants. Bamboo has a hole above the

plant so that water can just drip on the particular plant only. The height of bamboo placed above the plant

should be enough for the farmers to move under it for inter-culture operations like manual weeding. The

end of the mainline should be closed. Holes in the mainline convey the water to the laterals. The laterals

also consist of small holes just above the individual plant to drip water. For efficient utilization of water,

tying of some woolen thread with the cap in the holes of the laterals is also recommended to manage the

speed of drip or to irrigate only the desired crop area. If the wetting is completed, it can be pulled down for

seizing the flow of water for its efficient utilization. In the mainline, holes can be either closed with the help

Figure 8: Modified bamboo drip irrigation system suitable for field crops. Source: ICAR Research

Complex for NEH Region (2018)



143 Sanjay-Swami

of mud or thread just like in the laterals for seizing the flow with respect to particular plant. It leads to better

utilization of rainwater which would have been washed out if not harvested during rainy season. It has also

been observed that about 25-30% water can be saved by modified bamboo drip irrigation followed by straw

mulching, although it is cost effective only for cash crops like potato, capsicum, tomato, strawberry, etc.,

which are grown with definite spacing (Sanjay-Swami, 2019b).

Rice-Fish System of Apatani Plateau

It is a multipurpose water management system, which integrates land, water and farming system by

protecting soil erosion, conserving water for irrigation and paddy-cum-fish culture. It has been practiced in

a flat land of about 30 km2 located at an altitude of about 1,525 m above m.s.l. in the humid tropic climate

of Lower Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh. Local tribe “Apatani” who developed this system

dominates the area; every stream rising from the hill is trapped soon after it emerges from forest, canalized

at the rim of valley and diverted by network of primary, secondary and tertiary channels. The first diversion

from the stream takes off at a short distance above the terraces. Central irrigation channel of 0.61 x 0.61 m

size and embankment of the same size in each of the paddy plots are constructed. The water into the plots

is drawn from irrigation channel and has a check gate made of bamboo splits (huburs) at the inlet for

regulation of entry and exit of water through the outlet. The farmers drawn off the water from the rice fields

twice, once during flowering and finally at maturity on an average 10 cm water level is maintained in the

plots by adjusting the height of outlet pipes. For fish culture, a vertical pit is dug in the middle of the plot,

so that the water remains in these pits even when it drains away from the surrounding fields. To prevent

trashes or migration of fish, a semicircular wooden/bamboo net is installed at the inlet to reduce beating

action of flowing water regulating in soil erosion; wooden strikes or planks are put at the outlet. The huburs

are installed about 15 cm x 25 cm above the bed level. They are made of plank or pine tree trunk or bamboo

stem of different diameters. The water from terraces is finally drained into the river, which flows in the

middle of valley.

Figure 9: Rice-fish system of Apatani plateau



144 Sanjay-Swami

ZABO System of Farming

“Zabo” is an Indigenous farming system of Nagaland state. This system has its origin in Kirkuma village of

Phek district of Nagaland, located at an altitude of 1,270 m above m.s.l. The word “Zabo” means

impounding of water. It has a combination of forest, agriculture and animal husbandry with well-founded

soil and water conservation base. It has protected forest land towards the top of hill, water harvesting tanks

in the middle and cattle yard and paddy fields for storage for the crops as well as for irrigation during the

crop period. Special techniques for seepage control in the paddy plots are followed. Paddy husk is used on

shoulder bunds and puddling is done thoroughly.

Alder Based Farming

In some pockets of Nagaland, the farmers use Alnus nepalensis (alder) tree for agriculture. In this system,

the alder seedlings are planted on the sloppy land intended for cultivation and the alder grows fast till it

attains 6-10 years age. At this stage, initially the trees are pollarded, the leaves and twigs are burnt, and ash

is mixed with soil to prepare it for raising crops. Subsequently, pollarding is done once every 4-6 years.

Under this process, coppice is cut except 5-6 on top of the main trunk and crop schedule is followed

including fallow period of 2-4 years. The bigger branches stripped of leaves are used for firewood, while

the root of the tree develops nodules (colonies of Frankia) increasing the fertility of soil. Spreading nature

of the roots helps in preventing soil erosion on slopes. Nitrogen fixation in Alnus nepalensis takes place

through a symbiotic relationship between Alnus with nitrogen fixing actinomycetes of the genus Frankia

and is, therefore, able to improve degraded jhum lands. The symbiotic microorganism Frankia

(actinomycetes) is located in specialized structures, or nodules, along the root system of the host plants. The

root nodules are analogous to those induced by Rhizobium in legumes, and they provide an environment

where Frankia can grow and prosper, while providing the host plant with fixed atmospheric nitrogen. Unlike

Figure 10: Land management under Zabo farming system. Source: Sanjay-Swami et al. (2021)



145 Sanjay-Swami

the Rhizobium-legume symbiosis, where most of the host plants belong to a single large family, Frankia

can form root nodules in symbiosis with actinorhizal plants. The ability of the alder trees to develop and

retain fertility of the soil has been fully utilized by farmers in Angami, Chakhesang, Chang, Yimchunger

and Konyak area in Nagaland at varying altitudes.

Organic Cultivation

The concept of organic cultivation/farming builds on the idea of efficient use of locally available resources

as well as the usage of adapted technologies e.g., soil fertility management, closing of nutrient cycles as far

as possible, control of pests and diseases through management and natural antagonists. It is based on a

system-oriented approach and can be a promising option for sustainable agricultural intensification, as it

may offer several potential benefits such as: (i) a greater yield stability, especially in risk-prone tropical

ecosystems, (ii) higher yields and incomes in traditional farming systems, once they are improved and the

adapted technologies are introduced, (iii) an improved soil fertility and long-term sustainability of farming

systems, (iv) a reduced dependence of farmers on external inputs, (v) the restoration of degraded or

abandoned land, (vi) the access to attractive markets through certified products, and (vii) new partnerships

within the whole value chain, as well as a strengthened self-confidence and autonomy of farmers.

Figure 11: Alder based

farming in Jhum land

Figure 12: Field after crop

harvest

Figure 13: Pollarding of alder

tree

The organic farming is based on following four basic principles:

Principle of Health: Organic agriculture should sustain and enhance the health of soil, plant, animal and

human as one and indivisible entity.

Principle of Ecology: Organic agriculture should be based on living ecological systems and cycles, work

with them, emulate them and help sustain them.

Principle of Fairness: Organic agriculture should build on relationships that ensure fairness regarding the

common environment and life opportunities.

Principle of Care: Organic agriculture should be managed in a precautionary and responsible manner to

protect the health and well-being of current and future generations and the environment.

These basic principles provide organic farming with a platform for ensuring the health of environment for

sustainable development, even though the sustainable development of mankind is not directly specified in

the principles (Sowmya, 2014).

The NER has much strength for organic farming. The region is home to many niche crops like large

cardamom, ginger, turmeric, Assam lemon, Joha rice, medicinal rice, Naga chilly (Bhoot Jolkiya), areca nut



146 Sanjay-Swami

and passion fruit with high market demands. Farmers can fetch premium prices for organic produce along

with conserving local crops, which are common for farmers in their localities as local crops are more

resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses (Sanjay-Swami, 2017). Sikkim has become the first state in India to

go fully organic in terms of production and consumption of food. The changeover is already apparent in

local markets where organic produce seems to be trumping non-organic. Approximately, 75,000 acres of

chemically fertilized farmland have been converted to organic farming in Sikkim state. NER is the fourth

largest producer of oranges in India. Best quality ginger (low fibre content) is produced in this region and

an Agri-Export Zone (AEZ) for ginger is established in Sikkim. Sikkim is the largest producer of large

cardamom (54 percent share) in the world.

Meghalaya, being organic by default, provides an ample scope for expanding and exploiting the potential

for this sector in right direction. The new policy of the state government also aims at building brand Organic

Meghalaya, which will produce organic certified food and products, link organic food to ecotourism, cleaner

and greener environment through lower carbon regime and build consumer awareness and demand for safe

and healthy food. Meghalaya Department of Agriculture has successfully initiated pilots during 2010, which

began with tea and, thereafter, cauliflower in Ri-Bhoi and East Khasi Hills district. “MEG” Tea

is presently marketed as Organic Certified Tea and is available in three variants - Green, Oolong and Black

Tea. All the organic tea variants are USDA and NPOP certified, which were certified by M/s Control Union

India. In Garo Hills, organic certification of pineapple and cashew nut are ongoing and are presently in C1

and C2 stage (Shabong, 2015).

Organic farming, without doubt, is one of the fastest growing sectors of agriculture production in

Meghalaya. The Meghalaya state aims to convert at least 200,000 hectares into organic farmland by 2020

(Shabong, 2015). The process to convert a portion of agricultural land to become fit for organic cultivation

takes at least three years. The agricultural land is being selected area wise to be converted into organic

farmland, and the land is put under observation for three years. After the third-year conversion period, the

land is certified as fit for organic farming or not. So far 1,410 hectares of agricultural land have been certified

for organic farming in the Meghalaya. The agricultural land, in which some crops have been organically

cultivated, includes 150 hectares for tea plantation, 380 hectares for cashew nut and 80 hectares for turmeric.

The process to convert around 16 hectares land under ginger cultivation has entered its second year (Sanjay-

Swami, 2019b).

Biochar for Soil Acidity Management

Approximately, 84 per cent of the soils in the North Eastern Hill (NEH) region of India are acidic having

low available phosphorus (P) and zinc (Zn) and toxicity of iron and aluminum (Lyngdoh and Sanjay-Swami,

2018). To overcome the problem of soil acidity, farmers adopt variety of soil amendments like ash, manures,

lime, compost and bio-sorbents. Although, liming is good practice to overcome the soil acidity problem, yet

the latest, cheap and good organic source is biochar as the availability of biomass is much more in NEH

region (Yadav and Sanjay-Swami, 2018). The usefulness of biochar increases when it is applied in

combination with organic manures like farm yard manure (FYM), vermicompost, poultry manure, pig

manure, etc. (Yadav and Sanjay-Swami, 2019).

Meghalaya is known for a large array of vegetables, both sub-tropical and temperate. Tomato (Lycopersicon

esculentum Mill.) is one of the most important vegetable crops supporting the livelihood of many vegetable

growers. Hence, for optimization of biochar dose with vermicompost and recommended dose of fertilizers

to maximize the yield of tomato in acid soil, a field experiment was conducted at School of Natural Resource

Management, College of Postgraduate Studies in Agricultural Sciences, Umiam, Meghalaya during winter

season of 2017. Tomato cv. Megha tomato-2 was used as test crop with three doses of biochar (B) @ 2, 3

and 4 t/ha, vermicompost (VC) @ 2.5 t/ha and two graded recommended doses of NPK fertilizers (RDF) @

75 and 100%. Sixteen combination of treatments as T1 - Control, T2 - B @ 2 t/ha, T3 - B @ 3 t/ha, T4 - B @

4 t/ha, T5 - 75% RDF + B @ 2 t/ha, T6 - 75% RDF + B @ 3 t/ha, T7 - 75% RDF + B @ 4 t/ha, T8 - 75%



147 Sanjay-Swami

RDF + B @ 2 t/ha + VC @ 2.5 t/ha, T9 - 75% RDF + B @ 3 t/ha + VC @ 2.5 t/ha, T10 -75% RDF + B @ 4

t/ha + VC @ 2.5 t/ha, T11 - 100% RDF + B @ 2 t/ha, T12 - 100% RDF + B @ 3 t/ha, T13 - 100% RDF + B

@ 4 t/ha, T14 - 100% RDF + B @ 2 t/ha + VC @ 2.5 t/ha, T15 - 100% RDF + B @ 3 t/ha + VC @ 2.5 t/ha,

T16 - 100% RDF + B @ 4 t/ha+ VC @ 2.5 t/ha were tested. The trial was laid out in RBD and replicated

thrice. The results indicated that plant height, number of fruits/plant, fruit size and fruit yield of tomato was

superior with the application of biochar @ 4 t/ha with vermicompost @ 2.5 t/ha and 100% RDF and the soil

pH also improved significantly over control. Hence, the combined application of biochar @ 4 t/ha with

vermicompost @ 2.5 t/ha and 100% RDF may be recommended for Meghalaya farmers to enhance tomato

productivity coupled with managing their acidic soils (Sanjay-Swami et al., 2018).

Figure 14: Biochar

Source: ICAR Research

Complex for NEH Region,

2017

Figure 15: Application of

biochar in experimental field

Source: Experimental Plot,

2017

Figure 16: Mixing of biochar in

soil for managing acidity problem

Source: Experimental Plot, 2017

Figure17: Experimental plots with different

treatments


Figure 18: Fruiting stage of tomato


Das et al. (2012) also attempted to document the various indigenous techniques of soil and water

conservation in the North-eastern region of India linked with traditional farming practices like Alder (Alnus

nepalensis) based farming system, Zabo farming, Panikheti in hills and pond based farming system in plains

of the region developed by local farmers using their ingenuity and skills over the centuries and reported that

some components of these farming systems have good scientific base for resource conservation like nutrient

cycling through in situ residue management, green leaf manuring, soil and water conservation and

maintenance of forestry whereas there are few components like burning of biomass in jhuming needs a

relook.



148 Sanjay-Swami

Conclusion

The future farming must be multifunctional and, at the same time, ecologically, economically and socially

sustainable so that it can deliver ecosystem goods and services as well as livelihoods to producers and

society. The environment, local conditions, socio-economic and socio-cultural life of different tribal

communities of the North Eastern Region of India, and their rituals associated with agricultural practices

have developed many Indigenous farming systems, which have in-built eco-friendly systems for

conservation, preservation and utilization of natural resources. Shifting cultivation or jhum, bun cultivation,

bamboo drip irrigation system, modified bamboo drip irrigation system, rice-fish system of Apatani tribe,

ZABO system of farming in Nagaland, alder-based farming, organic cultivation, and use of ash, manure,

composts, biochar, etc. for managing soil acidity are just some of the hundreds of traditional eco-friendly

practices performed by the farmers of North Eastern Region. The uniqueness of these practices is their

suitability to the local conditions, their economic feasibility and easy implementation.

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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340826171_Organic_farming_A_way_towards_maintaining_soil_health_improving_crop_productivity_and_livelihood_security_of_tribals_in_NE_India

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340826171_Organic_farming_A_way_towards_maintaining_soil_health_improving_crop_productivity_and_livelihood_security_of_tribals_in_NE_India

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https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2019.805.094



150 Sanjay-Swami

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This article is 100% contributed by the sole author. He conceived and designed the research or analysis,

collected the data, contributed to data analysis & interpretation, wrote the article, performed critical revision

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Analysis of Medicinal Plants Cultivation in Ukraine on Sustainable

Development Principles

Tetiana Mirzoieva1, Olga Tomashevska2, Nataliia Gerasymchuk*3 1Department of Economics, National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine.

Email: [email protected] 2Department of Economics, National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine.

Email: [email protected] 3Independent Expert, Ukraine. Email: [email protected]

*Corresponding author | ORCID:0000-0002-3931-5320

Abstract Medicinal plants have always served people, primarily for the

treatment of various diseases. In parallel with the development

of human civilization, medicinal herb growth is evolving

simultaneously. First of all, it involves the cultivation of

medicinal plants, which is socially significant, economically

viable, and export-oriented area of production world over.

However, in some countries, particularly in Ukraine, this

industry is in its infancy and needs consistent action for its

development. This article reveals the socio-economic

significance of medicinal plants being grown, some

advantages and disadvantages of cultivated medicinal plants

compared to wild relatives, the main restraining factors of its

development, and comparison of key problems and

opportunities for effective development of the industry in the

future in Ukraine through using SWOT analysis. In particular,

the article develops a scale for determining the levels of

strengths and weaknesses, and a scale for assessing the

importance of external opportunities and threats. It also

presents a strengths and weaknesses of medicinal plants in

Ukraine, and potential external opportunities and threats.

Keywords Medicinal herbs; Cultivation of medicinal plants; SWOT

analysis

How to cite this paper: Mirzoieva, T.,

Tomashevska, O. and Gerasymchuk, N. (2021).

Analysis of Medicinal Plants Cultivation in

Ukraine on Sustainable Development Principles.


151-164. Doi:

https://doi.org/10.33002/nr2581.6853.040211


Reviewed: 22 May 2021













ISSN 2581-6853




152 Tetiana Mirzoieva, Olga Tomashevska, Nataliia Gerasymchuk

Introduction

The use of the plants’ healing properties is associated with the development of human civilization, science

and industry. The study and development of medicinal plants have contributed to numerous expeditions of

researchers, the development of trade relations and travel, and exchange of plants between different

countries. A diversity of medicinal plants in different countries evolved in accordance with climatic

conditions, with the diverse composition of the local ethnography and ethnobotany. The arsenal of medicinal

plants in Europe has expanded significantly due to the acclimatization of valuable plants having tropical

and sub-tropical origin, the development of their production and breeding processes. The relevance of the

medicinal properties of plants will never vanish, and the demand for them will constantly grow.

It is worth mentioning that medicinal plants and raw materials originating from medicinal plants are used in

many sectors, such as:

▪ the pharmaceutical industry producing drugs and medicines.

▪ the veterinary medicine and zootechnics treating ailments of the animals and used to stimulate

physiological processes. Products from this sector increase milk yield if added to the animal feed,

obtain better quality fur from sheep and fur animals, and prevent diseases.

▪ the beekeeping wherein plants act as unique base to make varieties of honey having medicinal

properties.

▪ the fibre industry as the raw material is used in the textile industry.

▪ the food industry wherein plants act as spices, flavour enhancers, flavourings in both pure and

processed form.

▪ the production of perfumes and cosmetics (creams, gels, shampoos, perfumes, eau de toilette,

lotions, varnishes, balms, etc.).

▪ the pulp and paper industry use plants as a raw material in the production of paper, cardboard,

insulation boards.

▪ the fuel industry use plants as biomass for producing biofuel.

▪ the chemical industry use plants both in the production of household chemicals and as a source of

carbon for the production of sorbents.

▪ the vegetable cultivation and horticulture plantations use medicinal plants as means of increasing

yields and protecting plantations from pests, fungi and insects.

▪ the decorative segment of landscaping.

▪ the green tourism and recreational activities (herbal tea, etc. are offered to tourists and vacationers).

Although medicinal plants are used as raw materials in in many industries and agriculture, it is the

pharmaceutical industry that is the largest processor of medicinal plants. Therefore, medicinal plants are

placed at the juncture of agricultural and pharmaceutical production. In this article, the prerequisites of

sustainable herbs production are studied. In the agricultural sector, there is the cultivation of medicinal

plants and the production of raw materials, whereas processing of raw materials is largely done in the field

of pharmaceuticals to produce drugs. In Ukraine, more than 45% of drugs produced by the chemical and

pharmaceutical industry are made from herbal raw materials, and these drugs are used for the prevention

and treatment of cardiovascular diseases, liver diseases, gastrointestinal tract ailments. For the manufacture

of number of pharmaceuticals, the raw material is wild medicinal plants, which, in many cases, are used

without special processing (Zhelaga and Bezpala, 2011).

A vast potential of the pharmaceutical market all over the world makes it attractive for economic investment,

and the medicinal plant industry, which is part of the pharmaceutical industry, acts as a foundation for

pharmaceutical industry. There are more than 20 capable companies and enterprises in Ukrainian marketing

herbal medicines. Demand for medicinal plants, including essential oils and spices, in Ukraine has grown

rapidly during recent decades because of the increasing interests at the local, national and international

levels, especially through the pharmaceutical industry in Western Europe. Simultaneously, the integration




of Ukrainian economy into the world economy and the process of globalization strengthens the potential of

Ukrainian medicinal plants and opens its access to new markets.

The products of medicinal plants are heterogeneous in terms of ingredients, consumer qualities and pre-final

materials. These are green medicinal plants and herbs, medicinal plant raw materials, medicinal teas,

essential oils, hydrolats, etc. In addition, pharmaceutical companies produce a wide range of drugs based on

plant materials, including extracts, tinctures, syrups, powders, pills, solutions for injection, aerosols, drops,

granules, and substances. This study has found an interesting arena wherein herbal materials are used in the

production of pillows. The consumers are now actively buying pillows filled with juniper, mint, chamomile,

sage, etc.

In recent years, medicinal plant products are penetrating new market segments in the form of plant

components of healthy food and disease preventive measures. One of the trends in the modern market of

medicinal plants is having popular ready-made products made from medicinal raw materials. The products

like aroma candles, healing teas and various detox items for a healthy lifestyle are popular in different

countries. Existing data show that, in different regions of the world, the market of medicinal plant products

is growing on an average 3-4 times faster than the growth rate of national economies in the same regions.

Increase in trade, which in some cases reaches 20%, means that the market size of medicinal plant products

and its processing doubles every 4-5 years.

Review of Literature

Scientists from all continents have studied the production of medicinal plants. The vast majority of

publications related to the development of the market of medicinal plants reveal the trends in this field in

Asia and Africa. For example, Dzoyem, Tshikalange and Kuete (2013) in their study noted that the

cultivation of medicinal plants is an integral part of African civilization. Scientists focus on trends in the

production and sale of medicinal plants in African markets.

Review of the medicinal plants market in Asian countries shows that its development is accompanied by

problems identically inherent in Ukrainian medicinal plant cultivation. Thus, Astutik, Pretzsch and

Kimengsi (2019) noted that the technologies of medicinal plant production are quite diverse; knowledge in

this area is not systematized; and very little research is devoted to the problems of commercialization of

medicinal plants. In this regard, it is logical to analyze the supply chain of products based on medicinal

plants in India (Chhabra and Chain, 2018).

In Ukraine, little attention is paid to medicinal plant cultivation, although its development in theoretical and

practical dimensions is being studied by some scientists. For example, Nykytyuk (2016), in his study of the

medicinal plants market focuses on its characteristics found that Ukrainian market of medicinal plants at

this stage of development is not saturated and demand significantly exceeds supply. At the same time,

Ukraine has extremely favourable natural conditions for cultivation of medicinal plants and production is

gradually developing. Thus, Tkachova (2018) provides information that since 2012 a good practice of

cultivation and collection of medicinal plants (GACP) in Ukraine has been introduced. It can be considered

as a significant shift in the development of this field. Drebot and Solohub (2018), while analyzing the world

experience of medicinal plants, have concluded that the Ukrainian sphere of medicinal plants production

has significant prospects given global trends and the ever-growing demand for medicinal plants in the world.

In general, the significant socio-economic importance of medicinal plants in today's contexts is determined

by a number of factors, such as:

1) The industry produces not only products for end users, but also raw materials for other industries.

It follows that the development of number of other sectors of the national economy depends on how




developed medicinal crop production will be, how efficiently the enterprise-producers of medicinal

plant production will function.

2) In today's world, mankind has realized that a significant part of synthetic potent drugs has

undesirable dangerous side effects, while the chemical nature of medicinal plants allows drugs

based on them to easily integrate into human biochemical processes and rationally combine them

with each other and with synthetic drugs.

3) High profitability of medicinal plant products, primarily due to the constant demand of the

population for drugs and various products made from plant materials, encourage the entrepreneurs

to invest in this sector.

4) Affordability of medicines from medicinal raw materials is a positively factor.

5) The attitude of the Ukrainian population towards natural medicines is positive; thanks to the vast

experience of folk medicine and centuries-old traditions forming a favourable attitude of consumers

to the products of medicinal plants.

Although the market for medicinal plants in Ukraine is growing slowly with a upward momentum, more

and more farmers are cultivating medicinal plants and more and more intermediaries are procuring

medicinal plant raw materials, which are collected by the population (Mirzoieva, 2020). Favourable natural

and climatic conditions and fertile soils potentially allow Ukrainian farmers to grow medicinal plants with

a high content of active substances, which significantly increases the competitiveness of medicinal plants

of Ukrainian origin in foreign markets. Despite this and the significant socio-economic importance of

medicinal plants in contemporary world, as it was evidenced by previous studies by authors in Ukraine, this

segment is still in its infancy. The supply does not meet demand for medicinal plants; the range of producers

is narrow and fragmented; the activities of enterprises engaged in the cultivation of medicinal plants and its

processing are accompanied by a number of problems. In this reference, there is a need for in-depth research

on the development of medicinal plants, and to outline the prospects for its development, and to do a

systematic work to optimize the production of medicinal plants.


To outline the prospects for the development of medicinal plant cultivation in Ukraine, SWOT analysis has

been used as the main research method, which is often used within the framework of strategic planning. In

particular, in order to strengthen the business strategy, the most effective tool is SWOT analysis (Oles, 2015;

Mirzoieva and Vasylenko, 2018).

The result of the SWOT analysis may be a system of possible actions aimed at strengthening the competitive

position of the enterprise or industry in the market. Within the framework of this study, a SWOT analysis of

the field of medicinal plant cultivation in general has been carried out. First of all, a scale of influence, weight

and relevance of one or another factor on the development of the industry was developed (Tables 1, 2).

Thus, the elements with a score of three points are considered the most influential, and the elements with a

score of 1 the least significant.

Based on the developed scale for determining the level of relevance of strengths and weaknesses and a scale

for assessing the importance of external opportunities and threats, and by taking into account a number of

identified problems hindering the development of medicinal plants in Ukraine, a qualitative analysis of

internal and external factors affecting industry development was performed.




Table 1: Scale for determining the level of relevance of strengths and weaknesses

Score

(grade)

Level of relevance

Strengths Weaknesses

3

Significant advantage (unique

characteristics, specific to a particular

enterprise or industry)

Catastrophic trait (characteristic that can lead

to cessation of activity or development)

2

Strong (the characteristic contributes to the

activity of the enterprise or the

development of the industry, but there is

another enterprise or industry where this

side is stronger)

Weak (characteristic inhibits activity or

development, but there is another enterprise or

industry where this side is even weaker)

1 Quite strong (somewhat simplifies the

activity, but weaker than it can be)

Rather weak (somewhat complicated activity,

but to a greater extent than in other enterprises

or industries)

Table 2: Scale for assessing the importance of external opportunities and threats

Score

(grade)

Level of relevance

Opportunities Threats

3 Very strong, provides strategically

important support

Very strong, achieving goals is almost impossible

2 Moderately facilitates the achievement

of goals

Moderately hinders the achievement of goals

1 Almost does not affect Almost does not affect


Mankind has been using wild medicinal plants intensively for many years, as a result of which natural

resources on the planet are rapidly declining. For example, in Europe, North America and Asia, the demand

for wild medicinal plants has increased annually by 8-15% in recent decades, while there is a limit below

which the reproductive capacity of plants decreases irreversibly. According to a conservative estimate by a

number of scientists, the current loss of plant species is 100-1000 times higher than the expected rate of

natural extinction, and humanity is losing at least one potential herbal medicine every 2 years (Chen et al.,

2016). According to the World Conservation Union (IUCN) and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF),

50,000 to 80,000 species of flowering plants are used for medicinal purposes in the world (Chen et al.,

2016). At the same time, about 15,000 species are currently threatened with extinction due to overuse, and

20% of wild resources of medicinal herbs are almost depleted due to increasing consumption and population

growth. Accelerated loss of medicinal plant species and habitat destruction is taking place all over the world,

especially in China, India, Kenya, Nepal, Tanzania (Chen et al., 2016).

As the resources of wild ecosystems, in particular the wild medicinal plants, are reduced due to over-

harvesting, the price of plant raw materials increases accordingly. Thus, it is economically feasible to

stabilize prices and restore the resources of medicinal plants through their cultivation, which has a number

of advantages, some of which are summarized and presented in table 3.

In addition, when cultivating medicinal plants, there is a possibility:

a) of planned specified quality characteristics controlled by adjusting agronomic measures;

b) of optimal territorial location and planning of volume productions;

c) of impact on the ecological biodiversity of wild species (Shvets, 2012).




Table 3: Some advantages and disadvantages of cultivated medicinal plants, compared with wild ones

Characteristics

Advantages Disadvantages

Cultural

species

Their cultivation

- reduces the load on rare species and on

those that are endangered;

- allows to maintain standardization and

improve genotypes;

- allows to produce homogeneous raw

materials;

- guarantees constant deliveries of

medicinal plant raw materials;

- provides relatively stable volumes of

products and prices for a longer period.

Their cultivation

- requires significant investment before

and during cultivation;

- narrows the genetic diversity in the gene

pool of wild populations;

- may cause genetic contamination of

wild relatives, in the case of re-introduced

plants;

- is characterized by the lack of successful

methods of growing some species.

Wild

resources

- open access resource without initial

investments;

- natural resource that does not contain

pesticides;

- In many cases, the wild resource is

more efficient.

- resources of wild plants are becoming

increasingly scarce due to increased

harvesting, and uncontrolled harvesting

leads to the extinction of ecotypes and

species;

- there is a fairly high risk of falsification;

- there is no inventory of wild resources

and effective methods of their

management.

Source: Gubanyov (2008); Mirzoieva (2020); Nikityuk and Sologub (2016)

Thus, although the production of medicinal plant raw materials by collecting wildflowers is less expensive,

wild medicinal plants are an exhaustible resource; their procurement does not allow optimizing the use of

labour, fixed and working capital, characterized by uncontrolled quantitative and qualitative characteristics

(Orlov, 2021). The cultivation of medicinal plants on an industrial scale contributes to a more rational and

efficient use of all tangible and intangible production resources, given the basis of production of medicinal

plants − agricultural land. In addition, medicinal plants can be grown both on unproductive lands and in arid

climates owing to the drought resistance of a number of medicinal crops (e.g., sage, wormwood, lavender,

etc.) (Pochupailo, 2019).

Moreover, the cultivation of medicinal plants can help preserve the diversity of medicinal plants, allow

producing homogeneous raw materials from which we can get standardized products, identify species,

improve quality control, and increase the prospects for genetic improvement. It should be noted that,

recently in Ukraine, the authorities are beginning to pay attention to non-traditional and niche areas of

agricultural production, which include medicinal crops. In particular, the Ministry of Economic

Development, Trade and Agriculture presented a project of state support for agriculture for 2021-2023,

which plans new areas of support, such as crop insurance, development of beekeeping and organic

production (Ministry of Economy, 2020).

Nevertheless, analysis of the development of Ukrainian medicinal crop production revealed number of

major shortcomings, such as:

o shortage of quality certified medicinal plant raw materials that meet the requirements of the modern

pharmaceutical industry;

o low level of competitiveness of domestic producers of various types of medicinal plant raw

materials in both domestic and foreign markets;

o wear and tear of technological equipment and shortage of production capacity for some types of

processing of medicinal plant raw materials;




o undeveloped infrastructure for storage, transportation and logistics of products made from

medicinal raw materials;

o it is not always sufficient to comply with environmental and sanitary requirements in the industrial

zones of organizations engaged in the processing of medicinal raw materials;

o lack of production technologies for high-quality raw materials based on modern biotechnology;

o lack of steps by the state to register medicinal plant protection products and lack of state subsidies

for medicinal plant production, as is the case in other countries (Nykytyuk and Sologub, 2016).

The lack of state support for medicinal plant producers plays an extremely negative role. For example, in

neighboring Poland, prices for medicinal plants fluctuate less intensely, although production also depends

on weather conditions. But the Polish producers are protected by the State − in any case, they will receive

subsidies from the State (Mentel and Hajduk-Stelmachowicz, 2020).

In turn, the lack of a clear pricing policy also hinders the development of the Ukrainian medicinal plant

industry. Prices for medicinal raw materials and drugs based on them depend on weather conditions, on the

trends of processing enterprises, on the world market of medicinal plants. Restraining factor in the

development of medicinal plant cultivation is that the market for medicinal herbs is arranged in a

fundamentally different way comparing to the food crops market. Thus, this market is mostly chaotic. There

are only a limited number of crops with stable demand and relatively stable prices, and such crops are

valerian (Valeriana officinalis), mint (Mentha piperita), calendula (Calendula officinalis), linden (Tilia

platyphyllos), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna), motherwort (Leonurus cardiaca), chamomile (Matricaria

recutita, Chamaemelum nobile), lavender (Lavandula spica L.) and many others. For all other crops, the

prices and demand fluctuate greatly. One year, the demand for thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.), for example, can

be very high (for example, due to the fashion for thyme tea), and, the next year, the demand may fall at times.

Additionally, to the specific problems inherent in the field of medicinal plant cultivation, its development

is influenced by a number of general national problems. Thus, the impoverishment of the population, which

affects the development of most sectors of the Ukrainian economy, leads to a decrease in consumption of

medicinal plant raw materials by processing enterprises and entails a decrease in consumption of medicinal

plants. For example, giant factories such as the Zhytomyr plant “Liktravy”, part of the Martin Bauer

companies group (head office in Germany), recorded a threefold drop in raw material procurement in 2017

compared to 2014. This was due to the declining purchasing power of Ukrainian consumers, and, at the

same time, the price of final products has increased three times.

One of the main problems hindering the development of the medicinal plant industry is the fact that growing

medicinal plants is a very risky business. In addition to the risks of crop failure, medicinal plant producers

in Ukraine face a number of market risks: they lack in reliable market information on demand and prices;

in most cases there is no guaranteed market; intermediaries often transfer price risks to manufacturers. The

fact that this type of activity also causes certain risks and, therefore, reliable cultivation technologies are not

yet fully developed. In particular, in Ukraine, there is an obvious need for the development of technologies

related to cultivation, collection, storage, transportation and quality control. Similarly, the State lacks

organizations to provide marketing support to medicinal plant producers, insufficient cooperation between

various institutions, and a low level of coordination between market participants (Pysarenko et al., 2019).

Another significant problem is that most Ukrainian producers and harvesters of medicinal plants are not

aware of the strategy of sustainable development, its goals and the goals of regenerative agriculture. As a

rule, they are primarily interested in higher incomes in the short term (Dunets et al., 2020).

At the same time, despite the presence of a whole set of problems that is an obstacle to the development of

Ukrainian medicinal plant cultivation, positive changes in the industry have been revealed. Thus, Nykytyuk

(2016) highlights the main advantages of the medicinal plant industry:




1) Low market saturation in Ukraine, together with the fact that there is a great variety of medicinal

plants. The domestic entrepreneurs are not yet able to meet all consumer needs. This fact can be

considered as a significant potential for manufacturers.

2) Constantly growing demand for medicines and various products made from medicinal plants.

3) The possibility of highly profitable production, even without significant investment, if we focus on

the collection of wild medicinal plants.

4) Relatively high incomes, which provide opportunity to processing of natural raw materials.

The factors, such as favourable natural conditions for cultivation of medicinal plants also work for the

attractiveness of Ukrainian medicinal plant cultivation, the ability to produce environmentally friendly raw

materials of plant origin, availability of scientific potential focused on the development of innovative

pharmaceuticals based on plant raw materials, technologies for processing plant raw materials, and the

presence of modern high-tech pharmaceutical companies, are extremely important given the close

relationship between the pharmaceutical industry and medicinal plants (Nykytyuk, 2016).

Gubanyov (2008) singles out a set of potential advantages of the medicinal plant industry, which in the

future should include the availability of infrastructure with machinery, dryers, root washing equipment,

storage facilities, etc. that would provide optimal technological threshold to the plant cultivation and

postharvest processing. The gross output of medicinal raw materials depends on the proper capacity and

productivity of the equipment, and drying units are necessary due to the fact that drying of medicinal raw

materials under direct sunlight is not allowed. However, we cannot ignore the fact that drying medicinal raw

materials in dryers with liquid fuel dramatically increases the cost of products. Therefore, at the present

stage, there is a need to introduce equipment for drying medicinal raw materials more actively, which will

run on alternative fuels (straw, sawdust and other organic waste). Working on the development of a strategy

for the development of medicinal plant cultivation, one cannot ignore the need to create the infrastructure

of the industry with appropriate equipment, dryers, other equipment, and warehouses.

The identified problems of medicinal plant cultivation in Ukraine, the main problems and competitive

advantages of the industry, and their relevance in order to make an objective assessment are presented in

table 4.

Table 4a: Reflecting the relevance of the strengths and weaknesses of the medicinal plant industry in

Ukraine

Strengths Rele-

vance Weaknesses

Rele-

vance

Marketing

Availability of internal and external

consumers 3

Imperfect network of sale channels of

final products and raw materials;

instability of demand in terms of

individual crops

2

Constant growth of demand from

foreign consumers 3 Dominance of intermediary structures 2

A wide range of applications of

medicinal plant products 2 Dominance of intermediary structures 2

The possibility of expanding the

range and volume of production of

medicinal plant raw materials

Weak level of marketing organization in

most enterprises in the industry 2

Production

3 Lack of sufficient necessary specialized

equipment for growing, harvesting, 2




Launched a process to improve the

quality of medicinal plant raw

materials and the final product

primary and deep processing of

medicinal plants

Significant dependence of medicinal

plant production on weather and climatic

conditions

3

Significant complexity of production

processes 2

Lack of qualitative seed material 2

Lack of a list of pesticides that can be

used in the process of growing

medicinal plants

1

The possibility of producing

exclusive, branded products based on

medicinal plants of their own brands

3 Lack of the market or consumer interest 1

Industry image

Increasing competitiveness 2

Lack of full-scale positioning of the

medicinal crop industry as potentially

cost-effective, promising and export-

oriented

2

Scientific research work

The presence of scientific institutions

whose activities focus on the study of

medicinal plants

2 Relatively low level of innovative

implementations 2

Table 4b: Reflecting the relevance of the strengths and weaknesses of the medicinal plant industry in

Ukraine

Strengths Rele-

vance Weaknesses

Rele-

vance

Management organization

Availability of some successful

management systems for the

production of medicinal plants

2

Lack of industry development strategy,

insufficient attention to the development

of the industry by the state and society,

lack of association to promote the

specific interests of market participants

2

Integration of farms based on rural

communities 2

Imperfect legislation governing the

production and procurement of

medicinal plants

2

The existence of formal and informal

links between members of rural

communities

2 Shortage of qualified specialists and

specialized literature 3

The possibility of borrowing foreign

experience in the development of

medicinal plants in the world

2

Low level of practical training of

farmers to create integration formations

of cooperative and corporate types

1

Finances

Capital investment with a high level

of return 3

Dependence on creditors, high interest

rates on loans, lack of government

financial support programs

2




Relatively high level of profitability

of medicinal plant production, a

fairly high level of profitability in

terms of individual species

3 Lack of funds to finance innovations 2

Staff

The presence of fans of their business

and a significant number of

concerned

3

Insufficient level of professionalism of

managers and qualification of

employees to ensure proper product

quality

2

The potential willingness of villagers

to form informal associations 2

Lack of highly productive labor in rural

areas 3

The complexity of the organization of

wildlife collectors 2

Technologies

Reserves to increase production and

its efficiency through the use of

modern technologies

2 Significant technological backwardness

of production processes in most cases 2

Borrowing fairly simple technologies

of agricultural production and

adapting them to the requirements of

medicinal crops

3 Application in the production process of

obsolete technologies and equipment 2

High energy consumption of production

and processing processes, which is

primarily due to the need to dry

vegetable raw materials

2

Conclusion

Reflecting the relevance of the strengths and weaknesses of the medicinal plant industry in Ukraine (Tables

4a, 4b) allowed to draw the following conclusions. First, at the present stage of development, Ukrainian

field of medicinal plant cultivation has more weaknesses than strengths. However, the strengths, which the

authors found a little less than the weaknesses, are quite significant. In particular, within the framework of

this study, 18 main current strengths of Ukrainian medicinal plant cultivation, the total grade of which was

42 points, were identified and systematized. As for the weaknesses of medicinal plant cultivation at this

stage of development in Ukraine, it is believed that there are 23 with a total grade of 47 in accordance with

the developed scale for determining the level of relevance of strengths and weaknesses. Given the results

obtained, the Ukrainian branch of medicinal plant cultivation has more disadvantages than advantages. At

the same time, despite the existing obstacles and taking into account a number of significant strengths, it

has significant preconditions for effective development. This opinion was also confirmed by the analysis of

the potential of the Ukrainian medicinal plant industry and threats to it (Table 5). Even more, the long-term

analysis showed that in the future, under certain favourable conditions, medicinal plant cultivation in

Ukraine will have more opportunities than threats.

Table 5: Reflection of external opportunities urgency and threats of the medicinal plant growing field in

Ukraine for the future (compiled by the authors)

Opportunities Score Threats Score

Strengthening state support for the

industry

3 Deterioration of the macroeconomic

situation in the country

2




Further development of integration

associations

2 Possible restrictions on the export of

medicinal plant raw materials

2

Creation of public organizations on a

partnership basis

2 Increased competition from other

countries and further import dependence

in terms of a number of medicinal crops

2

Intensification of selection work in

research institutions

3 Further lack of state support for medicinal

plant producers

2

Improvement of cultivation

technologies

3 Deterioration of the ecological situation

in the state or its separate regions

2

Attracting of foreign capital 3

Introduction of advisory and consulting

activities

2

Assessing the importance of external opportunities and threats, the cultivation of medicinal plants is

characterized by the characteristic features of agricultural production. Thus, industrial production is mainly

influenced by internal economic factors that can be measured, taken into account and managed. In contrast

to industries, where the quality and quantity of products mainly depends on a number of internal economic

factors, e.g. structure of production, technologies and methods of production, agricultural production in

general and medicinal crops in particular, are significantly affected by external factors such as climatic,

environmental, and geopolitical, etc.

It is also important that the presented promising opportunities in the field of medicinal plant cultivation are

more significant than the possible threats. In this case, it is considered appropriate to highlight that:

• combination of identified and presented weaknesses and threats as existing limitations of strategic

development of the medicinal plant cultivation industry in Ukraine;

• combination of strengths and threats should be considered as potential strategic advantages; and

• combination of opportunities and weaknesses can be applied to internal transformations of the

industry.

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.






Contribution Author 1 Author 2 Author 3


Collected the data Yes Yes Yes



Editing of the article/paper Yes Yes Yes

Supervision Yes No No

Project Administration Yes No No

Funding Acquisition No No No


Funding















this manuscript.











Estimation of Economic Loss of Agricultural Production and Livestock

Population in Tamil Nadu due to Sago Industrial Pollution: A Case Study

Palani Periyasamy Department of Economics, Kristu Jayanti College, K.Narayanapura, Kothanur, Bengaluru – 560 077 Karnataka,

India. E-mail: [email protected] | ORCID: 0000-0002-7464-8729

Abstract The study focuses on the economic loss of agricultural

production and livestock population in Tamil Nadu due to sago

industrial pollution. Primary data was obtained from 413

households. A larger number of sago processing industries in

identified villages belonging to taluks, namely Salem, Mettur

and Attur, were sampled to estimate the loss of agricultural

production and livestock population. The outcome of the

research recommends improving the health of the ecosystem

and managing sago effluents.

.

Keywords Agricultural production; Livestock population; Sago

industries; Negative impact; Environmental degradation

How to cite this paper: Periyasamy, P. (2021).

Estimation of Economic Loss of Agricultural

Production and Livestock Population in Tamil

Nadu due to Sago Industrial Pollution: A Case

Study. Grassroots Journal of Natural Resources,

4(2): 165-178. Doi:

https://doi.org/10.33002/nr2581.6853.040212

Received: 28 January 2021

Reviewed: 19 February 2020



Finally Accepted: 19 April 2021










ISSN 2581-6853




166 Palani Periyasamy

Introduction

Tapioca or cassava (Manihot esculenta crantz) was introduced in India during the 17th century by the

Portuguese living in Kerala, South India (Sathya and Ravichandaran, 2010; Subashini et al., 2011; Monisha,

Rajakumar and Ayyasamy, 2013). Sago is commonly referred to “Tapioca” and is prepared from the “Tapioca

root” extract. Tapioca is valued for its starch content and is primarily used by the sago industry. It contains 30

to 35 % of starch, high carbohydrates, calcium and vitamin C (Rajendran et al. 2011; Subha and Muthukumar,

2012). Sago manufacturing is one of the major food processing companies in Southeast Asia. It is a close

alternative for wheat and rice in many areas, especially during the festival seasons in North India. The huge

consuming sectors of sago products include food industries, cattle feed manufacturing, adhesive

manufacturing, chemicals like dextrin manufacturing, and sizing units in the textile industry (Sathya and

Ravichandaran, 2010). There are 3,226 industries in Tamil Nadu alone, of these 1,522 are small, 388 medium

and 205 are of larger scale (Subha and Muthukumar, 2012). They provide job opportunities both directly and

indirectly, to around 500,000 people. The estimated total area under Tamil Nadu cassava cultivation is

approximately 110,000 hectares with an annual production of 7.74 million tonnes and 4,000,000 tonnes with

an average output of 60 tons per hectare, which is the highest in the world. Tamil Nadu accounts for 64% of

India’s total area under cassava production, Kerala contributes 32%, Andhra Pradesh contributes 1.5%,

Nagaland 1.2%, and Assam 0.5%. Industry meets about 80% of demand from these areas.

Sago effluents result in intangible costs that need to be accounted for and measured. Because the benefits

of environmental services and the monetary values of pollution are not efficiently priced and traded, they

may ignore the loss of agriculture production outcomes, livestock population and well-being. Estimating

economic value calculates a person is willing to pay the maximum price for certain goods and services to

receive some universal good, service or state. Therefore, the lost value from the degraded environment is

the maximum amount individuals are willing to pay to have it free of contamination. It is one of the key

reasons why the economic valuation of sago industrial pollution in agricultural losses and livestock

population is of paramount importance, particularly in the Salem district.

Many investigators found that the wastewater from sago causes water contamination. Tapioca processing

requires 30,000 to 40,000 litres of water for every tonne of sago produced. It yields an equivalent volume

of highly untreated, foul-smelling, acidic wastewater (Banu et al., 2006; Sathya and Ravichandaran, 2010).

These units release approximately 45,000-50,000 litres of sago effluent throughout the process and take

about 10 days to discharge water as effluent from the factory (Belliappa, 1991; Saravanan, Murthy and

Krishnaiah, 2001; Subha and Muthukumar, 2012). During processing releases high organic load content

along with the effluent results in unpleasant odours, disturbing colour, lower pH, and higher BOD and COD

(Ayyasamy et al., 2002; Ayyasamy et al., 2008; Jenol et al., 2019; Monisha, Rajakumar and Ayyasamy,

2013). When the effluent is released into the common land without adequate treatment, it will change the

ecosystem characteristics. Farmers use these effluents for irrigation, and they found yield increase and

reduced soil health (Nandy, Kaual and Sekhar, 1994; Daud et al., 2010; Wan, Sadhukhan and Ng, 2016;

Nash et al., 2020). Untreated effluent water is discharged from sago industries in the Panamarathupatti

lake’s overflow channel entering Ammapalyam Lake near Attur. The practice of releasing the untreated

water has worsened the issue of water contamination in over 100 wells in Attuputhur, Thippampatti,

Perangadu, and surrounding villages. In general, the wastewater is stored in the Power Tank. It percolates

through the soil, thereby, contaminating local wells. In several wells in the region, the water's colour

gradually transforms into greenish-black, depriving citizens of access to clean drinking water in many

villages, and untreated waste harms the crops grown in nearby agricultural lands. If the situation continues,

farming cannot be continued in this region (Ramesh, 2008).

The current study differs from previous studies with reference to the following particular aspects. Whereas other

studies mostly used various treatment methods to determine water quality and focused exclusively on the causes

of environmental degradation related to agricultural land and public health problems in general. However, they

did not focus on monetary valuation (loss of farm income and livestock population) in the research's current




issues. To understand why economic valuation might be essential to reduce industrial pollution, it is necessary

first to examine the role of valuation in decisions concerning the use of environmental resources in general and

water pollution in particular. This study focused on the fact that a significant reason for excessive depletion and

misuse of water sources is often the failure of planning decisions to compensate for their non-market

environmental values adequately. By providing a way to measure and compare the different benefits of water

availability, economic valuation can be a powerful tool to support and promote the wise use and selection of

global water supplies. The monetary accounting of environmental degradation is also a concept that must be

taken into account in the future. In this context, the present study will be a crucial lesson on various water

pollution affected economic activities.

Methodology

Theoretical Background of the Study

Environmental change has profound implications for the natural balance of the ecological system and the

stability of the economic and social networks as the environment plays a crucial role in the human

development process (Maxwell and Reuveny, 2000). Hence it is vital to understand the impact of the

development process on the environment and the extent to which the development process is affected by

the environmental change to plan for environmentally sustainable development. The negative externalities

arise when an action by an individual or group produces harmful effects on other systems. Pollution is a

negative externality. When a factory discharges its untreated effluents in a river, the river is polluted, and

consumers of the river water bear costs in the form of health costs or/and water purification costs. In an

activity generating positive externality, the social benefit is higher than private use; the social cost is higher

than the private cost. Thus, in the presence of externalities, social benefits (costs) and private benefits (costs)

differ. A negative externality is the uncompensated loss of welfare provoked by one economic agent (Pearce

and Turner, 1990). The sago industry is considered a primary polluter of the environment and has a strong

potential to cause soil and water pollution due to untreated effluent discharge (Sathya and Ravichandran,

2010).

Sampling Design and Method of Data Collection

Based on the pollution level, the sample villages were identified from Taluks1, namely Salem, Attur and

Mettur. From these sample villages, some were selected from the polluted area, and other set of villages

was free from pollution. Among the 413 selected respondents, 331 respondents belonged to the pollution-

affected area and 82 respondents were from non-polluted area (controlled villages). All these respondents

were selected by adopting a disproportionate stratified random sampling technique. The primary data

collected from households was verified with the sago industrial pollution statistics. The questionnaire was

designed for collecting primary data from the sampled households, and it included the questions related to

general information on the socio-economic, size of landholding, livestock population, number of death cases

and loss of farm income. The data have been tabulated and analysed using statistical tools such as cross

table, ‘t’ test, and multiple regression.


Impact on Agriculture Production and Livestock Population

The Salem district is primarily an agricultural area with a majority of its population involved in agriculture

activities. The food grain crops cultivated are paddy (Oryza sativa), cholam (Sorghum bicolor), ragi

(Eleusine coracana), red gram (Cajanus cajan), green gram (Vigna radiata), black gram (Vigna mungo)

and horse gram (Macrotyloma uniflorum), and the primary cash crops of this district include turmeric

1 For taxation purposes, a taluk or taluka is an administrative division in India that usually consists of a number of villages.




(Curcuma longa), sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum), tapioca (Manihot esculenta), mango (Mangifera

indica), banana (Musa acuminata). Salem is also one of the top producers of sago (cassava) in the state of

Tamil Nadu. Oilseeds that are cultivated include groundnut (Arachis hypogaea), coconut (Cocos nucifera),

sunflower (Helianthus annuus) and ginger (Zingiber officinale). The irrigation water quality has degraded

to the extent that crops no longer grow well when irrigated by this polluted water causing clogging of salts

in the roots. As a result, the yield from agriculture has reduced, and most of the farmers drive into the viscous

circle of poverty. During the field survey, farmers informed that, three decades ago, agriculture production

in this basin was based on surface and subsurface irrigation, but, as the groundwater turned very salty and

polluted, there is no safe irrigation-water available anymore. Farmers depend on the spartan rainfall for the

cultivation of crops. Pollution of ground water has led to reduced yields and crop pattern changes that

directly impact the agricultural income. Crops like paddy, sugarcane, and banana need a large volume of

good quality water and are now substituted by cotton and coconut plantations. The situation put farmers in

indebtedness, unemployment and poverty.

Table 1: Size of Landholding in Test Villages

Size of Land Holdings Name of the Area

Affected Villages Control Village Total

Marginal Farmers (Less than 1ha) 263

(63.7%)

61

(14.8%)

324

(78.5%)

Small Farmers (1.0 to 2.0 ha) 8

(1.9%)

4

(1.0%)

12

(2.9%)

Semi-Medium Farmers (2.0 to 4.0 ha) 9

(2.2%)

0

(0.0%)

9

(2.2%)

Medium Farmers (4 to 10 ha) 51

(12.3%)

17

(4.1%)

68

(16.5%)

Total 331

(80.1%)

82

(19.9%)

413

(100.0%)

Source: Department of Economics and Statistics (2017-2018, p. 123)

According to the Ministry of Agriculture classification, the size of landholding is described in table 1, which

shows the landholding pattern of households in the study area. Most of the respondents are agriculturalists

in both control and affected villages. In the control villages, 61 (14.8%) are marginal farmers, 4 (1%)

households have 1 to 2 hectares of land and 17 (4.1%) households have above 4 hectares of land (medium

farmers). In affected villages, where sago industrial pollution has affected the agricultural land, 263 (63.7%)

households are marginal landholders, and 51 (12.3%) have above 4 hectares of land (medium farmers).

Table 2: Sources of Irrigation Water in Test Villages

Sources of Irrigation Test Villages

Affected Villages Control Village Total

Well Irrigation 31

(7.5%)

8

(1.9%)

39

(9.4%)

Borewell Irrigation 37

(9.0%)

13

(3.1%)

50

(12.1%)

No 263

(63.7%)

61

(14.8%)

324

(78.5%)

Total 331

(80.1%)

82

(19.9%)

413

(100.0%)

Table 2 shows the sources of irrigation methods for land cultivation in control and affected areas. In control

village, 13 (3.1%) landholders have only bore well irrigation method and 8 (1.9%) have well irrigation, and




61 (14.8%) landholders rely on seasonal rainfall. Moreover, these areas exist near Mettur dam, but the

villagers are unable to use the dam water for irrigation purposes due to government restrictions. It is only

availed for drinking purposes. In affected areas, 37 (9%) households have borewell irrigation, 31 (7.5%)

have well irrigation and the remaining 263 (63.7%) land holders depend on seasonal rainfall.

Generally, the groundwater level in the Salem district also indicates a falling trend in a significant part of

the district. Based on the factors mentioned, it is inferred that a significant part of the district can be

considered vulnerable to various environmental impacts of groundwater level depletion such as drying up

of shallow wells, decrease in the yield of bore wells and increased expenditure and power consumption for

drawing water from progressively greater depths. Pollution of ground-water due to industrial effluents is

another major problem in the district. Many industrial units, including textile units, sugar mills and sago

factories, exist in the district, the effluents from which have caused local pollution of surface and ground-

water resources (CGWB, 2008).

Loss of Agriculture Production

In India, the supply of freshwater is almost constant, and agriculture sector demands a larger share of around

80 to 90 percent (Kumar et al., 2005; Gupta and Deshpande, 2004; Adams et al., 2004; Laminou, 2015).

Hence, with the growing demand/competition for water and its rising scarcity, the future demands of water

for agricultural use cannot be met by freshwater resources alone but will gradually depend on marginal

quality water or reuse water from domestic and industrial sectors (Bouwer, 2000; Gleick, 2000). However,

domestic sewage and industrial effluents contain various water pollutants, which needs to be treated before

using them for irrigation. Water quality is a critical environmental issue posed to the agricultural sector

today (Barreiras and Ribeiro, 2019). Meeting the right quantity and desirable quality of water for agriculture

is essential for food security and food safety.

An increase in agricultural productivity means an increase in production per unit of input, which raises the

farmer's income. The family/community's increased income paves the way for augmenting savings, which

can be used for further development of their agricultural land. On the other hand, a decrease in productivity

leads to a lowering of production. Agriculture productivity loss was estimated to comprehend the degrees

of loss caused by natural resource degradation like water and soil conditions due to industrial pollution. The

details of damage functions used for estimation are presented. The results of the model are reported below:

Y= α + β1 TLO - β2 TLASIP + β3 IWASIP + β4 YLT - β5 YLP + β6 YLFV + β7 YLOS + β8 YLM - β9 YLC -

β10 DISsago + μ

Y= 289.962 + 7065.147 TLO - 27026.732 TLASIP + 34665.640 IWASIP + 1.160 YLT - .594 YLP + 2.068

YLFV + .678 YLOS + .828 YLM – 2.474 YLC – 88.751 DISsago + μ

where,

Y = Dependent Variable

Y is the agriculture production

α is Constant

β1-β9 are coefficients to be estimated, and

μ is an error term.

The equation represents the determinants of agriculture production loss assessment as a function of

TLO = Total land owned

TLASIP = Total Land Affected by Sago Industrial Pollution

IWASIP = Irrigation Water Affected by Sago Industrial Pollution

YLT = Yield Loss Tapioca (Rs.)

YLP = Yield Loss Paddy (Rs.)

YLFV = Yield Loss Fruits & Vegetables (Rs.)

YLOS = Yield Loss Oil Seeds (Rs.)




YLM = Yield Loss Maize (Rs.)

YLC = Yield Loss Coconut (Rs.) and

DISsago = Distance Sago Industry to Agricultural Land (in km).

Table 3: Determinants and Loss of Agriculture Production

Sl. No. Independent Variables B SE t Sig.

1 α (Constant) 289.962 1160.971 .250 0.803

2 TLO 7065.147 1614.787 4.375 0.000**

3 TLASIP -27026.732 988.366 -27.345 0.000**

4 IWASIP 34665.640 5204.582 6.661 0.000**

5 YLT (Rs.) 1.160 0.105 11.082 0.000**

6 YLP (Rs.) -0.594 0.175 -3.393 0.001**

7 YLFV(Rs.) 2.068 0.135 15.363 0.000**

8 YLOS (Rs.) 0.678 0.203 3.340 0.001**

9 YLM (Rs.) 0.828 0.142 5.816 0.000**

10 YLC (Rs.) -2.474 0.217 -11.377 0.000**

11 DISsago (in km) -88.751 347.955 -0.255 0.799

N= 413, R2 = 0.851, F = 228.777

Note: **1% level significant.

The value of agriculture-related damages explains the agricultural value damage function due to some of

the parameters identified based on the household survey. The identified parameters of agricultural value

damage function for the entire pollution radius between proximity villages are presented in this model. It is

evident from the model that the farm level and village level agricultural damages were influenced

significantly by the effect of pollution on farmland. It is implicit that 1 percent effect on land fertility and

greater quality cause agricultural damage by 0.85 percent from the mean level. Theoretically, large number

of variables influence agricultural production. The agricultural damage cost function has shown that the

value of agricultural damage cost is a function of size of land owned in acre (1) Marginal farmers (less than

1 ha), (2) Small farmers (1.0 to 2.0 ha), (3) Semi-medium farmers (2.0 to 4.0 ha), (4) Medium Farmers (4

to 10 ha).2 It was evident that once the size of land owned increases, the damage cost also increases.

Considering agricultural land affected by industrial pollution (continuous variables) and the damage cost

correlation, it appears that these two variables are positively related with the independent variable. The

damage function links pollution to the yield. In this model, value damage functions were developed and

employed. While the agricultural damage function considered a loss in productivity of cropland and labour,

crop output, change in the quality of water, damaged soil quality, etc.

Impact on Livestock Population

Cows are considered as part and parcel of agriculture. The livestock in the study area was affected by sago

industrial effluents in the soil and water resources. The number of livestock is low in affected area compared

to the other areas. Chloride from sago industry makes its way into air, food, and water. The most common

forms of exposure are inhalation of dust or fumes and ingestion of or contact with contaminated water.

Chloride waste can also go deep into the soil and contaminate groundwater systems that provide drinking

water for nearby communities. Soil contaminated by chloride waste poses a health hazard, as both people

2 Directorate of Economics & Statistics (2007). Agricultural Statistics at a Glance. Department of Agriculture & Cooperation,

Government of Tamil Nadu.




and livestock can inhale toxic dust. In the field survey, households complained about the effluents

discharged by the Common Effluent Treatment Plant (CETPs) contained a high level of Total Dissolved

Solids (TDS), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) far exceeding the

norms of the Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board (TNPCB).

Table 4: Distribution of Affected Livestock in Selected Villages

Name of the village Total Number of Affected Livestock

0 1 2 4 5 6 Total

Control

Villages Kaveripuram

59

(14.3%)

5

(1.2%)

14

(3.4%)

3

(0.7%)

1

(0.2%)

0

(0.0%)

82

(19.9%)

Aff

ecte

d

Vil

lag

es

Ammampalayam 2

(0.5%)

44

(10.7%)

25

(6.1%)

3

(0.7%)

7

(1.7%)

5

(1.2%)

86

(20.8%)

Kattukkottai 77

(18.6%)

7

(1.7%)

27

(6.5%)

1

(0.2%)

5

(1.2%)

6

(1.5%)

123

(29.8%)

Mallur 67

(16.2%)

17

(4.1%)

29

(7.0%)

3

(0.7%)

1

(0.2%)

5

(1.2%)

122

(29.5%)

Total 205

(49.6%)

73

(17.7%)

95

(23.0%)

10

(2.4%)

14

(3.4%)

16

(3.9%)

413

(100.0%)

Table 4 shows that 205 (49.6%) of the 413 households did not have any livestock. Out of 82 households in

the control village of Kaveripuram, 59 (14.3%) reported having no livestock. Due to the fall in animal

populations, the remaining households have reported cow bane, cowpox and poor livestock management.

The high number of affected livestock in this area can be seen in localities like Ammampalayam is 44

(10.7%), Kattukottai is 27 (6.5%), Mallur 29 (7.0%). In this affected area, poor water quality, contaminated

pasture lands, and insufficient supplies of medication, vaccinations, and equipment have all been identified

as grounds for inefficiency in service delivery. Finally, the number of livestock in affected villages lower

than in control village, which has an obvious explanation.

Table 5: Distribution of Livestock Death in Selected Villages

Name of the village Total Number of Livestock Died

0 1 2 3 4 Total

Control

Villages Kaveripuram

71

(17.2%)

8

(1.9%)

1

(0.2%)

2

(0.5%)

0

(0.0%)

82

(19.9%)

Aff

ecte

d

Vil

lag

es

Ammampalayam 27

(6.5%)

43

(10.4%)

7

(1.7%)

7

(1.7%)

2

(0.5%)

86

(20.8%)

Kattukkottai 96

(23.2%)

20

(4.8%)

0

(0.0%)

6

(1.5%)

1

(0.2%)

123

(29.8%)

Mallur 89

(21.5%)

23

(5.6%)

2

(0.5%)

4

(1.0%)

4

(1.0%)

122

(29.5%)

Total 283

(68.5%)

94

(22.8%)

10

(2.4%)

19

(4.6%)

7

(1.7%)

413

(100.0%)

Table 5 shows the number of livestock died in the control and affected villages. According to the findings,

283 households (68.5%) recorded no livestock deaths. The percentages of households reporting dead

livestock were 43 (10.4%), 20 (4.8%), and 23 (5.6%), respectively. According to the results, the number of

livestock deaths in affected villages was higher than in control villages. It is caused by sago industrial

contamination, which has poisoned common grazing land, polluted river water, and resulted in high medical

costs.




Table 6: Difference in Total Number of Livestock Population between Test Villages

Total Number of

Livestock’s

Levene's Test for

Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means

F Sig. t df Sig.

(2-tailed)

Mean

Difference

Std. Error

Difference

Equal variances not

assumed 11.709 0.001 -4.207 186.407 0.000* -1.138 0.271

* Significant at 5 % level.

An independent "t" test was conducted to analyse the total livestock between control and affected villages.

The test table's result indicated a significant difference in the number of livestock between test villages t

(186.407) = - 4.207 p = .000. The result suggests that the number of livestock in control village (M = 1.11,

SD =1.950, N = 413) is lower in number than the number in affected villages is greater in number (M =

2.25, SD = 2.979, N = 413). The analysis has concluded that the livestock population is higher in

experimental villages than in control village. The unavailability of quality water is the primary reason for

death of livestock in affected villages and, hence, most of the respondents are not using livestock in

cultivation purposes.

The variation between control and affected villages in the number of dead livestock is significant. The ‘t’

test shows the significant difference between control and affected villages. Since agricultural production is

low in experimental village households, there are reasonable prices for meaty purposes. The other grazing

land problems have been used for other purposes such as building construction and deficiency of good

quality water because of pollution effluents. But in control villages the livestock is lower because of the

availability of quality water and other facilities.

Table 7: Distribution of Land Holdings and Livestock in Test Villages

Total Land Owned Do you have livestock

No Yes Total

Marginal Farmers (Less than 1ha) 201

(48.7%)

123

(29.8%)

324

(78.5%)

Small Farmers (1.0 to 2.0 ha) 1

(0.2%)

11

(2.7%)

12

(2.9%)

Semi-Medium Farmers (2.0 to 4.0 ha) 0

(0.0%)

9

(2.2%)

9

(2.2%)

Medium Farmers (4 to 10 ha) 3

(0.7%)

65

(15.7%)

68

(16.5%)

Total 205

(49.6%)

208

(50.4%)

413

(100.0%)

Table 7 explains the size of landholders and keeping livestock in selected villages where 205 (49.6 %)

landholders have livestock and 208 (50.4%) landholders do not have livestock. The results indicate that 123

(29.8%) marginal farmers (less than 1 ha) have one or two cattle and the medium farmers (4 to 10 ha) having

65 (15.7 %) is increased in more than four numbers of cattle or buffaloes. It is concluded that marginal

farmers and medium farmers depend upon agriculture and livestock earnings, but small and semi-medium

farmers adopted to industrial workers and other businesses.




Table 8: Types of Livestock in Sample Villages

Name of the Village Types of Livestock

Cow Buffalo Goat Others No Total

Aff

ecte

d

Vil

lag

es

Ammampalayam 33

(8.0%)

7

(1.7%)

6

(1.5%)

38

(9.2%)

2

(0.5%)

86

(20.8%)

Kattukkottai 46

(11.1%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

0

(0.0%)

77

(18.6%)

123

(29.8%)

Mallur 40

(9.7%)

2

(0.5%)

2

(0.5%)

11

(2.7%)

67

(16.2%)

122

(29.5%)

Control

Village Kaveripuram

20

(4.8%)

1

(0.2%)

2

(0.5%)

0

(0.0%)

59

(14.3%)

82

(19.9%)

Total 139

(33.7%)

10

(2.4%)

10

(2.4%)

49

(11.9%)

205

(49.6%)

413

(100.0%)

The table 8 shows the different types of livestock in selected villages. In the test villages, Kattukkottai is 46

(11.1%), Mallur is 40 (9.7%), Ammampalayam is 33 (8.0%), and Kaveripuram is 20 (4.8%) cows. Buffalos,

goats, and other animals make up the remaining livestock population. In control and affected areas, 205

(49.6%) households were not having livestock. The result has clearly indicated that affected villages have a

greater number of livestock as they do not migrate to other places and they depend on agriculture, local

employment opportunities and livestock earnings. In control village, people migrate to outside of Tamil

Nadu, i.e. Bangalore and Kerala state, for working as building construction labourers, lorry drivers etc. So,

the livestock population is less in number in control village compared to affected villages.

Table 9: Determinants of Expenditure on Livestock

Sl.No. Independent Variables Regression

Coefficient Std. Error t Sig.

1 α (Constant) 1085.427 605.112 1.794 0.074*

2 HEDU -156.866 132.969 -1.180 0.239*

3 FY -0.004 0.050 -0.072 0.943

4 TNAL 1929.942 496.768 3.885 0.000**

5 TNDL 2837.152 455.253 6.232 0.000**

6 MVL 0.115 0.026 4.493 0.000**

7 RFL 0.328 0.037 8.781 0.000**

8 VHD 445.750 70.008 6.367 0.000**

N=413, R2 = 0.846, F = 317.467

* 5 % level significant, ** 1 % level significant.

Y= α - β1 HEDU - β2 FY + β3 TNAL + β4 TNDL + β5 MVL + β6 RFL + β7 VHD + μ

Y= 1085.427 - 156.866 HEDU - 0.004 FY + 1929.942 TNAL + 2837.152 TNDL + 0.115 MVL + 0.328

RFL + 445.750 VHD + μ

where,

Y = Dependent Variable




Y is the medical expenditure for livestock impact due to sago contamination and bad quality of grazing

lands and μ is an error term, β1-β9 are coefficients to be estimated, α is a constant. Equation represents

the determinants of livestock impact assessment as a function of

HEDU = Level of Education of the Head

FY = Family Income

TNAL = Total Number of Affected Livestock

TNDL = Total Number of died Livestock

MLV = Market Value of Livestock (in Rs.)

RFL = Returns from Livestock (in Rs.)

VHD = Veterinary Hospital Distance

A particular set of variables may be dominant to determine cost of livestock damage. Table 9 clearly

indicates the livestock damage in the affected and control villages. The regression model was used for this

analysis. Variables including the total number of livestock population died, the market value of livestock

(in Rs.), returns from livestock (in Rs.), and the distance to the nearest veterinary hospital all have positively

significance at 1%. The respondents in the farm and non-farm categories had several and small ruminants,

respectively. Another serious problem is that some cows and buffaloes had lost their reproductive capacity

and low milk productivity. Due to fear of further incapacitation or death, people have started selling their

cattle on low prices. Because of the impact of pollution on livestock, there is a drastic change in the

composition and livestock holding in the affected area. Hence, either the livestock has died by drinking

polluted water or because the people would have sold their cattle due to fear of death.

Findings and Suggestions

Impact on Agriculture

The most important effect of sago industrial pollution was found on cropping pattern and agricultural

production in the area. As the area is agrarian in nature, the loss in agricultural production leads to a very

poor economic condition of the households. It was found that most of the respondents are agriculturalists in

both control and affected villages. In the control village, 61 (14.8%) are marginal farmers (less than 1ha),

17 (4.1%) households have above 4 hectares of land and 4 (1.0%) are small farmers (1.0 to 2.0 ha) of land

holding. In the affected villages, where sago industrial pollution affected the agricultural land, 263 (63.7%)

of households are marginal farmers, 51 (12.3%) are medium farmers (4 to 10 ha), 9 (2.2%) are semi-medium

farmers (2.0 to 4.0 ha) and 8 (1.9%) are small farmers (1.0 to 2.0 ha). Farmers are facing many problems of

reduced agricultural production.

The farmers are using either bore well or tank and well water for the irrigation purpose. In the control village

61 households (14.8%) depend on seasonal rain, 13 (3.1%) depend on bore well irrigation and 8 depend

(1.9%) on well irrigation. In the affected villages, 263 respondents (63.7%) are not actively engaged in

cultivation due to water contamination leading to low production, while remaining households are using

well irrigation [31 (7.5 %)] and bore well irrigation [37 (9.0%)]. The sago industrial effluents affect the crop

cultivation in the affected villages. The major cultivated crops are showing decreasing trend in the total

production.

The result concluded that, in the control village, the coconut cultivation is comparatively low, whereas most

of the households depend on coconut cultivation in affected villages. But the yield is very low in affected

villages due to sago industrial pollution in water, soil and environment. Pollution of ground water has led

to reduced yields and changes in crop pattern, impacting agricultural income directly. As the other water

resources are either unusable or became dry, groundwater is the major sources for irrigation. Crops like

turmeric, paddy, sugarcane, fruits and vegetables, which need large volume of good quality water, are now

substituted by maize, cotton and coconut plantations.




Impact on Livestock

The impact of sago industrial pollution on livestock populations in control and affected villages was

investigated. There were significantly fewer households with livestock. The livestock population had

decreased in both villages, according to the households. In affected villages, the gap in livestock population

is more important than in control villages. In the control village, 23 people claimed that the animal

population had decreased, while in the affected village, 187 people claimed that there was a significant

difference in the livestock population, citing sago industrial contamination as the primary cause of the

decrease in the livestock population.

Mostly, the households are not using cattle for agricultural purposes and they are now depending on the

tractor more because the cost and maintenance of tractor are comparatively less. Therefore, compared to

control village, number of livestock is reduced more in affected villages as a result of sago industrial

pollution. In affected villages, sago industries are situated near grazing lands and agricultural lands, and

waste waters are allowed to drain out into such lands. The households highlighted that the pollution affects

the soil quality, and dry land and grazing land are used for dumping of industrial wastes. Thus, sago

industries played major role in reducing the number of livestock in the affected villages.

Conclusion

Pollution is one of the major issues in the ecosystem. The effluents released by various industries create

external costs as well as environmental degradation (Banu et al., 2006; Rajendran et al., 2011; Monisha,

Rajakumar and Ayyasamy, 2013). Hence, the estimation of economic losses and environmental degradation

has been a great challenge and it is a serious concern in developing countries like India. Similarly, the sago

industrial effluents also a part of the impact on water and land pollution in Tamil Nadu. This is a challenge

for environmental economists as well as a need for approaching processes in reuse technology. The study

found that, the economic losses of agriculture production and livestock population are more prevalent in the

study area. Hence the loss of agriculture production in the region should be further reinforced to meet the

future demand. The study suggests new possibilities for the design of low-cost and compact onsite

wastewater treatment systems with very short retention periods and the pollution control laws must be

strictly enforced by the government to protect the environmental resources.

Acknowledgment

The author would like to thank the Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR), New Delhi, for

providing financial support for this research work. Thanks to the public and government officials for

providing data and co-operation during the field survey.

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Author’s Declarations and Essential Ethical Compliances

Author’s Contributions (in accordance with ICMJE criteria for authorship)

This article is 100% contributed by the sole author. He conceived and designed the research or analysis,

collected the data, contributed to data analysis & interpretation, wrote the article, performed critical revision

of the article/paper, edited the article, and supervised and administered the field work.

Funding

A funding from the Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR), New Delhi was received for

conducting the research.






During the research, the author followed the principles of the Convention on Biological Diversity and




PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses)

Has author complied with PRISMA standards? No


Author has no competing financial, professional, or personal interests from other parties or in publishing

this manuscript.











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Preservation Plots across Different Forest Types in Madhya Pradesh,

Central India

Sanjay Singh1, Harish Bahadur Chand*2, Pavan Kumar Khatri3, Dheerendra Kumar4,

Anil Kumar Kewat5, Abhishek Kumar6, Kangujam Premkumar Singh7 1Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, Dehradun, India. Email: [email protected] 2Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, India. Email: [email protected] 3Tropical Forest Research Institute, Madhya Pradesh, India. Email: [email protected] 4Botany Division, Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, India. Email: [email protected] 5Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, India. Email: [email protected] 6Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, India. Email: [email protected] 7Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, India. Email: [email protected]

*Corresponding author | ORCID: 0000-0002-3098-152X

Abstract Tropical forests are a global biodiversity centre providing enormous

ecosystem services to the humankind. The present study was

undertaken to examine and analyze the phytosociology and

regeneration status of tree species in 39 permanent preservation plots

spread across 22 different forest sub-types in Madhya Pradesh, India.

A total of 975 quadrats were laid with a sampling intensity of 2.42%

of the total area under study. 109 tree species were recorded. Density

range varied from 516 individuals/hectare (ind/ha) in southern

tropical dry deciduous forests to 3,412 ind/ha in dry grassland forests.

Most of the forest sub-types showed log normal distribution owing

to relatively high species richness, diversity and evenness, but a low

dominance. Out of 62,228 live stems recorded, 68.52% were poles

followed by saplings (26.39%), young trees (5.01%) and mature

trees (0.08%). The result also showed high seedling density in each

forest sub-type ranging from 1,040 ind/ha to 51,124 ind/ha,

indicating a healthy population of mature reproducing adults. The

diameter distribution in all the forest sub-types showed negative

slope and followed the classic inverse J-shaped curve frequently

observed in natural forests. Most of the forest sub-types in these

preservation plots are regenerating successfully owing to the

absolute protection given to the studied sites. It is recommended to

study carbon sequestration in these permanent preservation plots

over a time, which will inform climate policymakers about the true

potential of Indian tropical forests as carbon sink.

Keywords Tropical forests; Biodiversity; Log-normal distribution;

Carbon sequestration

How to cite this paper: Singh, S., Chand, H.B.,

Khatri, P.K., Kumar, D., Kewat, A.K., Kumar, A.

and Singh, K.P. (2021). Phytosociology and

Regeneration Status in Different Permanent

Preservation Plots across Different Forest Types

in Madhya Pradesh, Central India. Grassroots

Journal of Natural Resources, 4(2): 179-198.

Doi:

https://doi.org/10.33002/nr2581.6853.040213















ISSN 2581-6853



180 Sanjay Singh, Harish Bahadur Chand, Pavan Kumar Khatri, Dheerendra Kumar, Anil Kumar Kewat, Abhishek Kumar, Kangujam Premkumar Singh

Introduction

Tropical forests occupy 7% of the Earth’s surface and cater a significant proportion of world’s biodiversity

(Baraloto et al., 2013, Naidu and Kumar, 2016). These forests are centre of global biodiversity and are the

largest repository of global terrestrial carbon (Sullivan et al., 2017; Klein et al., 2015; Pan et al., 2011).

Tropical forests share distinct climatic parameters, floristic composition and forest structure even in a small

area (Gallery, 2014). The tropical ecosystems are among the world's most threatened ecosystems. Due to its

species richness, high species diversity and standing biomass (Sullivan et al., 2017) and greater productivity

(Joshi and Dhyani, 2018), much attention is being paid to tropical forests. In India, for conducting ecological

studies in different forests including tropical forests, permanent preservation plots were introduced.

Permanent preservation plots act as mi nature labs for observing and understanding the interaction of plant

species and communities with climatic variables. These preservation plots provide an opportunity to study

the temporal changes in the vegetation of different forest types and sub-types in response to changes in

climatic factors. According to the recommendations of the 3rd All India Silvicultural Conference (Anon,

1929), preservation plots of chief forest types in their representative areas were marked. As per Tewari

(2016), there are 309 preservation plots in India, of which 187 are located in natural forests and 122 in

plantations covering a total area of 8,500 ha. State Forest Department of Madhya Pradesh has established

39 preservation plots in representative forest types across the state, of which 26 are of recent origin (SFRI,

2020). These preservation plots are spread over 22 different forest types. These plots are being maintained

for ecological, silvicultural and other scientific studies. Due to a random distribution of tree species in

undulating terrains of Central India, tropical forests largely show irregular diversity of trees (Chaturvedi et

al., 2011). Floristic, phytosociological, and size class distribution (SCD) studies are necessary to understand

the development of a forest, especially where there is great diversity (Dos Santos et al., 2017).

The study of plant communities helps acquire information about habit, habitat, niche, and vegetation

structure as well as various interactions among them (Khan et al., 2017). A phytosociological survey is an

important tool for studies of successional stages since succession of forest species occurs in a continuity of

floristic and structural changes that occur in the ecosystem. Phytosociological studies in tropical forests of

India are common but often limited to the study of one forest type at a time (Sharma et al., 1986; Sukumar

et al., 1992; Krishnamurthy et al., 2010; Joshi and Dhyani, 2018; Naidu and Kumar, 2016). The present

study was undertaken to examine and analyze the phytosociology and regeneration status of tree species in

39 permanent preservation plots spread across 22 different forest sub-types of Madhya Pradesh, India.

Material and Methods

Profile of study area

The study was carried out in Madhya Pradesh, India, during 2013-14. Madhya Pradesh is India's second-

largest state, covering 308,252 km2 (or 9.38 percent of the country's total geographical area). It is situated

between the latitudes of 21°17' N and 26°52' N, and the longitudes of 74°08' E and 82°49' E. There are 4

distinct physiographical regions in the state i.e., the low-lying areas in the north and north-west of Gwalior,

Malwa Plateau, Satpuda, and Vindhyan Ranges. Most of the region has a sub-tropical climate having

average annual rainfall varying in the range of 800-1,800 mm and mean annual temperature ranging between

22-25°C (FSI, 2019).

According to the Census of India (2011), the state's total population is 72.63 million, or 6% of India's total

population, with a population density of 236 people per square kilometer. 72.37 percent of the population

lives in rural areas, while 27.63 percent lives in urban areas. The state's tribal population is significant,

accounting for more than one-fourth of the state's total population and 14.7 percent of India's total tribal

population (Bhanumurthy et al., 2016). The major occupation is agriculture followed by industry and

services. The 19th Livestock Census (2012) reported 36.33 million livestock population in the state. The per




capita income is around Rs. 91,000 (US$ 1250) which is lower than the per capita income of the country

i.e., Rs 126,000 (US$ 1731) (SRD, 2020).

Scenario of forest

Madhya Pradesh is biologically diverse state and has the largest forest area among all states of India. As per

the revised Champion and Seth (1968) classification of forest types, it has 5 forest type groups that are

further divided into 25 forest sub-types. The total forest area is 94,689 km2 of which 61,886 km2 (65.36%)

is Reserved Forests, 31,098 km2 (32.84%) is Protected Forests and 1,705 km2 (1.80%) is Unclassed Forests

(FSI, 2019). The state has 25.15% i.e., 77,482.49 km2 of the total geographical area under forest cover. In

terms of forest canopy density classes, the largest share is of open forest (47.06%) followed by moderate

dense forest (44.32%) and very dense forest (8.62%) (FSI, 2019). The forest cover map of the state is shown

in figure 1.

Figure 1: Forest Cover Map of Madhya Pradesh (FSI, 2019)

Preservation plots of study area

The study was undertaken in 39 preservation plots of Madhya Pradesh, 24 preservation plots were

established after year 2000, while 15 preservation plots were established before 1931. The details of each

preservation plots distributed over 22 different forest sub-types are presented in table 1.

Sampling

The total area under study is 394 ha, which is distributed in 39 preservation plots across 22 sub-forest types

of Madhya Pradesh. In this study, 975 quadrats were laid for the forest inventory. Using equal allocation

method, 25 quadrats were laid out in each preservation plot with a sampling intensity of 2.42 percent. Except

for preservation plots 1 and 39, the size of a quadrat in all the preservation plots was 100m2 (10m x 10m).




A smaller size of quadrat (5m x 5m) was used in the inventory of preservation plots 1 and 39 due to their

limited size.

Table 1: Details of Preservation Plots in Madhya Pradesh

Forest sub-type PP

no.

Forest

Division

Forest

Range

Compart-

ment no.

Year of

Formation

Area

(ha)

Slightly moist teak forest

(3B/C1C)

2 Hoshangabad Banapura 261 1931 10

Southern moist mixed

deciduous forest (3B/C2)

4 North Betul Amla 327(Old),

508 (New)

1947 10



5 Bori

Sanctuary

Bori 52 1947 37.6



6 Bori

Sanctuary

Bori 45 1947 31.6



7 Alirajpur Kathiwara 137(Old),

525 (New)

1953 10



13 South Seoni Kurai 181 1980 4.45

Moist peninsular Sal forest

(3C/C2)

14 Bandhavgarh

National Park

NA 324 1999 10

Riparian fringing forest

(4E/RS1)

19 North Betul Shahpur P 419 2002 10

Khair forest (5/1S1) 27 North Sagar Khurai RF 71 2004 10

Khair forest (5/1S1) 31 Shivpuri Pohri P75/P765 2004 10

Khair forest (5/1S1) 34 Guna Raghavgarh 458 2004 10

Khair forest (5/1S1) 35 Guna North Guna P473/P481 2004 10

Secondary dry deciduous

forest (5/2S1)

28 North Sagar Khurai P 69 2004 4

Dry deciduous scrub

(5/DS1)

37 Rajgarh Rajgarh 314 2004 10

Dry Savanah (5/DS2) 25 Indore Indore 256 2003 10

Dry grassland (5/DS4) 21 Sheopur Sheopur RF 229 2002 10

Dry grassland (5/DS4) 36 Raisen Raisen 387 2004 10

Anogeissus pendula forest

(5/E1)

20 Sheopur Karhal P528 2002 10

Anogeissus pendula forest

scrub (5/E1/DS1)

38 Datia Seonda 115 2004 10

Boswellia forest (5/E2) 24 South Sagar Garhakota 896 2003 10

Boswellia forest (5/E2) 26 Sheopur Badhar 213 2004 10

Boswellia forest (5/E2) 30 S. Shahdol Gopharu 295 2004 10

Hardwickia forest (5/E4) 12 West

Chhidwara

Jhirpa 35 1961 4

Dry bamboo brake (5/E9)

18 Panna

National Park

Madla 227 2001 10

Very dry teak forest

(5A/C1A)

33 Guna Guna 404 2004 10

Dry teak forest (5A/C1B) 3 North Betul Betul 248 1937 10

Southern tropical dry

deciduous forest (5A/C3)

8 Badwaha Badwaha 910/284 1955 10




Forest sub-type PP

no.

Forest

Division

Forest

Range

Compart-

ment no.

Year of

Formation

Area

(ha)



9 Dewas Udainagar 633 1955 10



10 West

Chhindwara

Delakhari P157 1961 4.5



11 West

Chhindwara

Delakhari P163 1961 4.5



16 Panna Hinouta 521 2001 10



39 West

Chhindwara

Delakhadi 89 A 2006 1

Dry peninsular Sal forest

(5B/C1C)

1 Narsinghpur Gadarwara 418/309 1931 2


(5B/C1C)

15 Satpura

National Park

Pachmarhi 302 1999 10


(5B/C1C)

23 Satpura

National Park

Pachmarhi 298 2002 10


(5B/C1C)

29 S. Shahdol Gopharu RF 281 2004 10

Northern dry mixed


17 Noradehi

Wildlife

Sanctuary

Mohli RF 107 2001 10

Ravine thorn forest

(6B/C2)

22 Datia Goraghat 202 2002 10

Ziziphus scrub (6B/DS1) 32 Shivpuri Pohri P 69 2004 10

(PP= Preservation Plot)

Phytosociology

Phytosociological survey was carried out during 2013-14 in all the preservation plots. The vegetation survey

was conducted using nested quadrat method (Cottam and Curtis, 1956). Data of species abundance, collar

diameter, and height were collected for each individual tree/plant having girth > 9cm in the quadrat of

10mx10m, and seedlings of tree species were counted in each 1m x 1m quadrat. To express the dominance

and ecological success of any species, the Important Value Index (IVI) was calculated by adding the relative

values of the three parameters: density, frequency, and basal area (Curtis and McIntosh, 1950, 1951; Mishra,

1968, Greig–Smith, 1964). Following indices indicating the phyto-diversity were calculated for each forest

sub-types.

Species richness: Species richness was simply taken as a count of the total number of species present in that

particular forest type.

Species diversity: Species diversity (H') was estimated using the Shannon - Wiener Index (Shannon and

Wiener, 1963). H' = -∑ (𝑛𝑖

𝑁) log(

𝑛i

𝑁) where, ni is the total number of species in forest type, and N is the

number of individuals of all species in that forest type.

Species dominance: Species dominance (D) was calculated following the equation by Simpson (1949).

D=∑ (𝑛𝑖

𝑁)2where, n is the number of individuals of a species and N is total number of species.

Species evenness: Equitability of evenness (J') was estimated using the formula given by Pielou (1966).




J'= H'/ lnS where, S = number of species in the particular forest type.

Size Class Distribution (SCD)

The data from each preservation plot was pooled to its respective forest sub-type. The data thus obtained

was tallied into eight stem diameter classes as follows: <10cm, 10-40, 40-70, 70-100, 100-130, 130-160,

160-190, 190-210 cm, since the number of individual decreases with increasing size class, the class interval

of the latter two classes was increased to balance the samples across size class (Condit et al., 1998; Lykke,

1998; Mwavu and Witkowski, 2009). The number of individuals in each size class is divided by the class-

width (Lykke, 1998). The number of individuals in each size class (Ni) was transformed by ln (Ni+1) because

some classes have zero individual (Lykke, 1998; Obiri et al., 2002; McLaren et al., 2005; Mwavu and

Witkowski, 2009). Density of seedling for each forest type was calculated by extrapolating the data collected

from 1m x 1m quadrat. For each forest type logarithmic regression was performed with the size class

midpoint as an independent variable and the mean number of individuals in that class (Ni) as the dependent

variable. The slope values were used to summarize the shape of size class distribution in a single value. The

interpretation of SCD slopes was based on the types of SCD.

Cluster analysis

A hierarchical cluster analysis using the Ward method (Ward, 1963) and squared Elucidian distance was

run on the studied stands responding to IVI of species in each stand (Gautam, 2007). The classification aims

to detect the relation between different forest sub-types by analysis of the groups formed by the cluster

analysis corresponding to IVI. The forest sub-types based on species composition were broadly classified

into two clusters, group 'A' that consisted of the forest sub-types where one species or a group of species

dominated the canopy while the group 'B' consisted of species-rich forest sub-type, with even distribution

of the species in the community. SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Science) was used to perform cluster

analysis.


Forest Structure

Species composition was one of the major criteria on which Champion and Seth (1968) classified the forests

of India. A total of 109 species having Girth at Breast Height (GBH) >9cm were recorded from 39

preservation plots, distributed in 22 different forest sub-types of Madhya Pradesh. Apart from the tree

species, two species of lianas i.e., Hiptage benghalensis and Ventilago maderspanata, were also recorded

from the preservation plots. The phytosociological parameters of different preservation plots under different

forest types are enlisted in table 2.

Table 2: Phytosociological parameters of the preservation plots in different forest sub-types

Forest

Types

PP

No

Species

richness

Total Density

(ind/ha)

Diversity

(H')

Dominance

(D)

Evenness

(J')

3B/C1C 2 14 1072 0.61 0.16 0.53

3B/C2 4 21 1364 2.50 0.11 0.82

3B/C2 5 26 808 2.91 0.08 0.90

3B/C2 6 28 1252 2.71 0.09 0.81

3B/C2 7 34 1012 3.12 0.07 0.89

3B/C2 13 15 1264 1.73 0.34 0.64

3C/C2 14 15 948 2.21 0.17 0.82

4E/RS1 19 23 1540 2.65 0.09 0.84

5/1S1 27 7 1192 1.57 0.27 0.81




Forest

Types

PP

No

Species

richness

Total Density

(ind/ha)

Diversity

(H')

Dominance

(D)

Evenness

(J')

5/1S1 31 28 2464 2.89 0.07 0.87

5/1S1 34 10 1392 1.58 0.28 0.69

5/1S1 35 22 2076 2.49 0.13 0.81

5/2S1 28 6 716 1.46 0.30 0.82

5/DS1 37 14 1308 1.72 0.14 0.65

5/DS2 25 7 808 1.28 0.38 0.66

5/DS4 21 5 516 1.41 0.27 0.88

5/DS4 36 6 536 1.48 0.27 0.82

5/E1 20 9 1924 1.47 0.35 0.67

5/E1/DS 1 38 6 1156 0.92 0.59 0.51

5/E2 26 14 1252 2.26 0.14 0.86

5/E2 30 11 1988 1.55 0.34 0.65

5/E4 12 17 1448 2.44 0.12 0.86

5/E5 24 5 520 1.21 0.36 0.75

5/E9 18 13 2128 1.59 0.29 0.62

5A/C1A 33 18 2496 2.06 0.24 0.71

5A/C1B 3 22 1268 2.85 0.09 0.92

5A/C3 8 14 3412 1.86 0.25 0.71

5A/C3 9 11 760 1.75 0.30 0.73

5A/C3 10 18 2708 2.44 0.13 0.84

5A/C3 11 20 2196 2.61 0.10 0.87

5A/C3 16 25 2996 2.71 0.12 0.84

5A/C3 39 28 1980 1.71 0.29 0.51

5B/C1C 1 20 2796 2.66 0.09 0.89

5B/C1C 15 14 1976 1.92 0.26 0.73

5B/C1C 23 12 2304 1.48 0.41 0.60

5B/C1C 29 11 900 1.71 0.29 0.71

5B/C2 17 17 2096 2.34 0.14 0.83

6B/C2 22 3 1028 0.83 0.49 0.75

6B/DS1 32 13 1676 1.81 0.28 0.71

The value for the stem density per hectare was found to be the highest in southern tropical dry deciduous

forest (5A/C3) recorded in 6 preservation plots and lowest in dry grassland forest (5/DS4) recorded in 2

preservation plots. The tree density ranged from 516 to 3412 ind/ha. Density values were found within the

range of the values (349-1875 ind/ha) recorded from tropical dry deciduous forests of India (Joshi and

Dhyani, 2018; Chaturvedi et al., 2011; Visalakshi, 1995; Krishnamurthy et al., 2010; Sukumar et al., 1992;

Singh and Singh, 1991), and the tropical forests of Mexico (Castellanos et al., 1991; Duran et al. 2006). The

tree density in the current study was found to be higher than that reported for moist tropical forests (Baishya

et al., 2009; Borah et al., 2013; 2015) and tropical evergreen forests (Chittibabu and Parthasarathy, 2000).

Similarly, the tree density in Himalayan forests (Bohara et al., 2018; Kumar and Bhatt, 2006; Sharma et al.,

2010) and tropical sal forests (Chand et al., 2018; Haripriya, 2000) was also found to be relatively low.

Higher density in the forest indicates higher proportion of individuals in lower diameter class. The

preservation plots mentioned in the study are protected by the Forest Department; that may be one of the

reasons for the high density of trees in the study sites.

Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index in different forest types under the study ranged from 0.61 to 3.12, which

is consistent with the diversity reported from different tropical forest types of Madhya Pradesh (0.32 to 3.76)

by Joshi and Dhyani (2018), and Prasad and Pandey (1992). High species diversity is an indication of




maturity in the ecosystem (Marglef, 1963; Odum, 1969), which in turn, indicates the stability of the

community (Khatri et al., 2004). In tropical forests, values of species diversity are generally high, between

5.06 and 5.40 (Knight, 1975; Simpson, 1949), as compared to overall Indian forests falling between 0.00

and 4.21 (Bisht and Sharma, 1987; Visalakshi, 1995; Pande, 1999, Agni et al., 2000; Chauhan, 2001;

Chauhan et al., 2001; Kumar et al., 2010; Khatri et al., 2004). The value of the Simpson index in different

forest types varied from 0.09 to 0.59, which is consistent with the average value of the concentration of

dominance in tropical forest presented by Knight (1975). However, the degree of dominance is lower than

that recorded in India's tropical dry deciduous forest (Joshi and Dhyani, 2018) and tropical evergreen forest

(Visalakshi, 1995), suggesting that the study sites are more diverse.

The relationship between species richness, diversity and evenness i.e., SHE analysis was determined as per

Magurran (1988). In the studied community it was observed that Shannon-Wieners Diversity Index (H') for

tree species was influenced by species richness i.e., with the increase in richness, the diversity also increased.

Contrary to the observations of Gautam (2007), there was negligible effect of evenness on the Shannon

diversity index. Plotting of SHE also showed that the diversity and species richness increased from Ziziphus

scrub forest (6B/DS1) to slightly moist teak forest (3B/C1C). The diversity and richness of species have

increased with the increasing moisture through the forest type as shown in figure 2.

Figure 2: Changes in SHE as we move from dry to moist forest types

Size Class Distribution

A total of 62,228 live stems (GBH > 9cm) were counted (excluding seedlings) in which 26.39% were

saplings, 68.52% were poles, 5.01% were young trees and 0.08% were mature trees. Forest type-wise size

class distribution is presented in the Table 4. Mature trees were recorded only in 3BC2, accounting for 0.6%

of the total stem count. Most of the stems recorded in the study were identified as pole. The percentage

distribution of poles in different forest sub-types ranged between 43.6% and 85.8%. The highest density of

pole was recorded for forest sub-type 5E2, while the lowest density of the pole was recorded for 6BC2. The

percentage distribution of saplings recorded from the preservation plot ranges from 1.53% to 56.42%, with

the highest value for 6BC2, and the lowest for 5E5. All the forest sub-types in the current study showed a

high density of seedlings ranging from 1,040 to 51,124 seedlings/ha. High density of seedlings indicates a

healthy population of mature reproducing adults in the population.

Regeneration in the community is often determined by many factors like canopy gap (Prakasham et al.,

2016), seed collection (Chandra et al., 2015), environmental condition during seed germination and

establishment (Prakasham et al., 2016), edaphic characters (Gupta, 1953), biotic disturbance (Chaubey and

Jamalludin, 1989), standing crop (Chaubey and Sharma, 2013), shrubby growth and ground flora. The poles,

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

lnS

lnJ

H




saplings, and seedlings in the forest mostly comprised few dominant species, and all the species were not

represented in all the size classes. The results of the current study are similar to that of Mwavu and

Witkowski (2009) and West et al. (2000) who reported a significant positive correlation in seedling and

adult density. High density of the adults of any species in the community ensures higher proportion of seeds

in the soil seed bank, and thus high seedlings (Mwavu and Witkowski, 2009).

Table 4: Size Class Distribution of stems in different forest sub-types (ind/ha)

Particulars 3B/C1C 3B/C2 3C/C2 4E/RS1 5/E1 5/E2 5/E4 5/E5 5/E9 5/1S1 5/2S1

Seedlings 1040 7448 5068 6740 7924 47240 5528 4720 47332 51124 5516

Sapling (<10) 320 3760 176 1872 1968 1504 1232 32 1952 12672 960

Pole (10-40) 2800 17248 2864 4048 5712 11120 4512 1472 6368 15600 1888

Young

(40-70) 1152 5056 720 240 16 320 48 576 192 224 16

young

(70-100) 16 368 32 0 0 0 0 0 16 0 0

Mature

(100-130) 0 64 0 0 0 16 0 0 0 0 0

Mature

(130-160) 0 64 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Mature

(160-190) 0 32 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Matrue

(190-220) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Particulars 5A/C1A 5A/C1B 5A/C3 5B/C1C 5B/C2 5/DS1 5/DS2 5/DS4 5/E1/DS1 6B/C2 6B/DS1

Seedlings 7296 6068 11252 48376 7296 6108 5048 4812 4756 4628 5676

Sapling (<10) 4384 224 18416 2640 1744 2752 480 1200 2432 2320 2640

Pole (10-40) 5584 4336 37056 27088 6640 2480 2752 2944 2192 1792 4064

Young

(40-70) 16 496 640 2144 0 0 0 48 0 0 0

young

(70-100) 0 16 64 32 0 0 0 16 0 0 0

Mature

(100-130) 0 0 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Mature

(130-160) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Mature

(160-190) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Mature

(190-220) 0 0 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

The SCD of all the forest sub-types showed a negative SCD slope (Figure 3) with high density in smaller

size classes. All the forest types showed a classic inverse J-shaped curve. The classic inverse J-shaped curve

is expected for populations that recruit fairly enough overtime (Mwavu and Witkowski, 2009; Sano, 1997,

Wanga et al., 2004), and hence have a stable size class structure (Silvertown, 1982). Size distribution of

long-lived tree populations growing under near optimum conditions often show a reverse 'J' shape due to

initial high mortality of juvenile trees in the smallest size class (Svensson and Jegulum, 2001; Pennuleas et

al., 2007). The proportional composition of the stems in different forest sub-types indicates that all the

stands under study have a fair number of recruits (seedlings and saplings) and are thus regenerating

successfully (Table 4).




Figure 3: Status of regeneration in different forest sub-types of Madhya Pradesh

Based on the density of seedlings, saplings, and poles, the forest sub-types were clustered in two groups

using the Ward method and squared Elucidian distance as per Singh (2012). Majority of forest sub-types

were clustered together in Group 'A', characterized by lower seedling density as compared to the forest sub-

types classified in Group 'B' (Figure 4). High density of reproducing individuals in the higher size class led

to a higher density of seedlings in the community. The pole stage was represented by a fair number of

individuals in all the forest sub-types, indicating favorable growing conditions. However, the distribution

of the species in different size class is not proportionate (Figure 4). One or the few dominant species in the

sapling and poles were in higher proportion, indicating the successful regeneration of these species in the

forest community. This trend was observed throughout the preservation plots in all forest sub-types. The

distribution of seeds and seedlings of a species is determined by the distributions of seed-producing parents,

the behavior of seed and seedlings feeding herbivores, and the spatial distribution of suitable germination

sites (Hutchings, 1997; Prakasham et al., 2016). Established plants of many species suppress seedlings in

the immediate vicinity by casting deep shade, competing vigorously for water and other nutrients in the

upper layer of the soil, and producing inhibitory chemicals (Hutchings, 1997). Successful establishment of

seedlings from seed requires gaps in the vegetation cover (Fenner, 1978; Swaine and Whitmore, 1988;

Fisher et al., 1991). Seedling recruitment process (i.e., growth survival and establishment) varies with

species, light intensity, and other habitat characteristics (Clark, 1990; Bazzaz, 1991; Teketay, 1996; Saha

and Howe, 2006; Corrado et al., 2007).

-2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

ln(1

+ N

um

ber

of

ind

ivid

ual

in d

iffe

rent

size

cla

ss

Size class

3B/C1C

3B/C2

3C/C2

4E/RS1

5/E1

5/E2

5/E4

5/E5

5/E9

5/1S1

5/2S1

5A/C1A

5A/C1B

5A/C3

5B/C1C

5B/C2

5/DS1

5/DS2

5/DS4




Figure 4: Hierarchal cluster analysis of forest sub-types responding to density of seedling saplings poles

young and mature trees type using wards method

Dominance Diversity Curve

The dominance-diversity curve of 16 forest sub-types showed log-normal distribution, while 6 forest sub-

types showed log-series distribution of the species in the community (Figure 5). Most of the forest sub-types

showed log-normal distribution owing to relatively high species richness, diversity, evenness, and low

dominance (Table 1). In these forest communities, more than one factor was responsible for determining

the distribution and dominance of the species (May, 1975). Random variation in these factors led to a normal

distribution of the species. The majority of large assemblage studied by ecologists appears to follow a log-

normal pattern of species abundance (May, 1975; Sugihara, 1980; Gaston and Blackburn, 2000; Longino

et. al., 2002; Singh, 2012).

Log-series distribution of species in the community is typical in old-growth forests of tropical regions

(Pitman et al., 1999; Huang et al., 2003). Log-series distribution is found in the communities having few

abundant species (Pande, 1999). Log series distribution in the current study was exhibited by 5/2S1, 5/DS4,

5/E5, 3B/C1C, 5A/C1A, and 6B/DS1 forest sub-types where the species richness varied from 5 to 18 (Table

1). The preservation plots in these forest sub-types showed a high concentration of dominance, one or group

of two to three species were dominant and had access to most of the resource. Other species were represented

in very few numbers. Most of these forests are dry forest with little moisture, species with adaptation for

such climatic conditions are found in abundance, while the others are restricted to the niche where conditions

are suitable for growth.

Rescaled Distance Cluster Combine

0 5 10 15 20 25

Number +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+

5E1DS1 ─┐

6BC2 ─┤

3CC2 ─┤

5DS2 ─┤

5DS4 ─┤

5/E5 ─┤

52S1 ─┤

5/E4 ─┤

6BDS1 ─┤

5AC1B ─┤

5DS1 ─┤

4ERS1 ─┤

5/E1 ─┤

5BC2 ─┤

5AC1A ─┤

3BC2 ─┼───────────────────────────────────────────────┐

3BC1c ─┤ │

5AC3 ─┘ │

5/E2 ─┐ │

5/E9 ─┤ │

5bc1c ─┼───────────────────────────────────────────────┘

51S1 ─┘




Figure 5: Dominance diversity curve of different forest sub-types (3BC1C, 3BC2, 3CC2, 4ERS1, 5E1,

5E2, 5E4, 5E5, 5E9, 51S1, 52S1, 5AC1A, 5AC1B, 5AC3, 5BC1C, 5BC2, 5DS1, 5D2S2, 5DS4, 5E1DS1,

6BC2 and 6BDS1)

Hierarchical Cluster Analysis

This classification aimed to detect the relationship between different forest sub-types by analysis of the

groups formed by the cluster analysis with respect to IVI of species recorded across different forest sub-

types. The forest sub-types based on species composition were broadly classified into two clusters; the

Group 'A' consisted of the forest sub-types where one species or a group of species dominated the canopy.

While the Group 'B' consisted of species-rich forest sub-type, with even distribution of the species in the

community (Figure 6). Group A was further divided into two sub-groups. Sub-group '1' consisted of teak

dominant preservation plots of forest sub-types (5/E5, 5/DS2, 5/E9, 5/2S1, 3B/C1C, 5A/C1A, and 5A/C1D).

Most of the Tectona grandis dominated forests showed similar community structure and composition.

Tectona grandis dominated the community, contributing the major proportion of IVI.

Sub-group '2' consisted of mixed forest which was further divided in 6 clusters based on dominant species

(Figure 6). 5/DS4 and 6B/C2 were found to be clustered separately. 5/DS4 (dry grassland forest) was

dominated by Diospyros melanoxylon and Butea monosperma, while 6B/C2 (ravine thorn forest) was

dominated by Prosopis juliflora and Acacia leucopholea. Group B was subdivided into two sub-groups i.e.,

sub-group 1, consisted of mixed forests where Tectona grandis dominated the forest community. However,

the forests were different from the teak forest of Group 'A" in terms of distribution of the species in the

forest community (Figure 6). The species dominated the forest type, but the distribution of the species in

the community was determined by more than one factor. Likewise, sub-group 2 consists of the mixed Sal-

forest with high species diversity.

Conclusion

Tropical forests exhibit rich biological diversity. These forests provide numerous environmental benefits

and supports regulation of biogeochemical cycles. The high species richness, diversity index, and evenness

in the studied sites are the characteristic of tropical forests, and the lower values for concentration of

dominance indicate sharing of dominance by more than one species. All the forest sub-types demonstrated

a classical inverse J-shaped curve indicating healthy regeneration status. Communities in the drier forest

mostly showed log-series distribution which was dominated by one or sometimes more than one dominant

species which determine the distribution of other species in the community. The results show that most of

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

ln (

IVI

of

spec

ies)

Rank of the species




the forest sub-types have been successfully regenerating owing to the absolute protection of the preservation

plots. Other ecological studies, such as carbon sequestration, should be carried out in these preservation

plots to assist policymakers and forest managers in understanding the true potential of the Indian tropical

forests as carbon sinks.

Figure 6: Hierarchal cluster of the forest sub-types responding to IVI of species using wards method

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Contribution Author 1 Author 2 Author 3 Author 4 Author 5 Author 6 Author 7


or analysis


Collected the data Yes No Yes No No No No


interpretation


Wrote the article/paper Yes Yes Yes No Yes No No

Critical revision of the article/paper Yes Yes No No Yes No No

Editing of the article/paper Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Supervision Yes Yes Yes No No No No

Project Administration Yes No Yes No No No No

Funding Acquisition No No No No No No No

Overall Contribution Proportion (%) 30 20 20 10 10 05 05

Funding















this manuscript.











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