Vol. XXXVII : No. 4 - Food and Agriculture Organization. XXXVII : No. 4 Featuring Vol. XXIV: No. 4...

Regional Quarterly Bulletin on Wildlife and National Parks Management

REGIONAL OFFICE FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC (RAP), BANGKOKFOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Vol. XXXVII : No. 4

Featuring

Vol. XXIV: No. 4

October-December 2010

REGIONAL OFFICEFOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

TIGERPAPER is a quarterly news bulletindedicated to the exchange of information

relating to wildlife and national parksmanagement for theAsia-Pacific Region.ISSN 1014 - 2789

Address.

TIGERPAPERFAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific

Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit RoadBangkok, 10200, Thailand

Tel: (662) 697-4000E-mail: [email protected]

Website: http://www.fao.org/world/regional/rap/tigerpaper/tigerpaper.htm

Editor: Janice NaewboonnienAdvisor: P. Durst

Contents

TIGERPAPER is dependent upon your free and voluntarycontributions in the form of articles, news items, and announcements inthe field of wildlife and nature conservation in the region. In order tobetter serve the n eeds of our readers please write to us and send in theinformation you have or let us know if there is any information that youneed. We appreciate receiving your letters and make all efforts torespond.

Front cover: A subadult Mishmi Takin (Budorcas taxicolor) in DibangValley. Photo: Anwaruddin Choudhury

The opinions expressed by thecontributing authors are notnecessarily those of FAO. Thedesignations employed and thepresentation of the material in theTIGERPAPER do not imply theexpression of any opinion on the partof FAO concerning the legal orconstitutional status of any country,territority or sea area, or thedelimitation of frontiers.

Mammals and birds in Dihang-Dibang Biosphere Reserve.... 1Trans-boundary movement of elephants in eastern Nepal......5Inventory of wetland fauna and sustainable resource utilization of Bahraiya Lake, Nepal: Issues and future prospects....................................................................... 10The eco-political perspective: Tiger conservation in Bangladesh as case study................................................ 20Distribution, demography and conservation status of Sarus Crane in Chittaurgarh District, India........................ 25Breeding vultures in the wild............................................... 30

Kids-to-Forests “For the future of the world!....................... 1Thai school children and FAO staff sweat together to reforest degraded area in Kanchanaburi ....................................... 3Kid-to-Forests - A kid’s-eye perspective............................... 4Tree planting ceremony, Nakhon Phanom University, Thailand......................................................................... 5FAO sees opportunity in Thailand’s biofuel plans, but questions remain............................................................. 6The role of forests and forestry in the prevention of landslides and rehabilitation of landslide affected areas in Asia............ 8Interactive sharing of knowledge and experience on restoring forest landscapes............................................................. 9Advancing strategic planning in Pacific forestry.....................10Pakistan to extend partnership with the National Forest Programme Facility..........................................................11Preparations for the 2nd Asia-Pacific Forestry Week top the agenda at the 7th APFC Executive Committee Meeting..12New RAP Forestry Publications.......................................... 13RAP Forestry Staff Movement............................................ 15Asia-Pacific Forestry Chips and Clips.................................. 16FAO Asia-Pacific Forestry Calendar………………............... 16

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MAMMALS AND BIRDS IN DIHANG-DIBANG BIOSPHERERESERVE, ARUNACHAL PRADESH

by Anwaruddin Choudhury

Introduction

Dihang-Dibang [notified as Dehang-Debang]Biosphere Reserve (28°26’-29°21’N, 94°21’-

96°31’E) is a poorly-known tract in easternArunachal Pradesh, India. It covers 5,111.5 km²(4,095 km² is Core Area; Fig. 1) in West Siang,Upper Siang and Dibang Valley districts. It wasnotified on 2 September 1998. Physiographically,the area consists of mountainous country, which ispart of the Eastern Himalaya up to the Siang orDihang River and beyond are the Mishmi Hills. Thelowest parts are about 500 m asl while the highestparts are over 5,000 m asl. Tropical wet evergreenforests occur mainly in the lower areas in Sianggorge. Tropical semi-evergreen forests occur in thesame general area where evergreen forest occurs.Normally such forests are found wherever humaninterference occurred in an evergreen area. Thehigher altitudes have subtropical forest with bothbroadleaf as well as conifers. Farther up themountains are the temperate forests, both broadleafand conifer. Alpine vegetation occurs between 4,000and 5,500 m elevation, above the timber line. Theseareas remain snow-covered for the greater part ofthe year and hence, no tall trees can grow.

Some available published works on the mammalsand birds relevant to the area include McClelland(1839), Thomas (1914), Choudhury (1986, 1996,2001, 2007), Chatterjee (1989), Borang (2002) andRingu (2002). Choudhury (2003) produced the firstbook on the mammals of Arunachal Pradesh.Regarding the birds, however, the information fromboth published and unpublished sources wasrelatively better. The earliest publications were thoseof Jerdon (1870), and Godwin-Austen (1876).Another earlier reference of significance is Ali &Ripley (1948). It was from 1989 onwards that a

sizeable amount of research work, includingbirdwatching, was carried out. Starting withChoudhury (1994), the flow of publications with vitaldata on Siang, Dibang and Lohit basins continued.The noteworthy publications and unpublished reportsconsulted were Choudhury (2005, 2009), Katti etal. (1992), Singh (1994), Kaul et al. (1995) andPawar & Birand (2001). In addition, there werevarious trip reports as well, some of which mayrequire a thorough review before being referred toin any research report. General information on birdsfound in Arunachal Pradesh (often referred to asAssam or NEFA) are found in some synoptic works,notably those of BirdLife International (2001) andHume & Marshall (1879 -1881). Islam & Rahmani(2004) listed the ‘Important Bird Areas’ of the statewith detailed site accounts. Like mammals, the firstbook on the birds of Arunachal Pradesh was alsoby Choudhury (2006). Field works were carried outin November-December 2002, February 2003 andMarch 2004. In November-December 2008, a finalvisit was made to update the earlier fieldobservations (Choudhury 2010).

Results

More than 76 species of mammals and 252 speciesof birds were recorded during this study. Withrecords by other workers, the numbers are 100 and312 respectively. The list includes two mammalsnew to science (Mechuka Giant Flying SquirrelPetaurista mechukaensis and Mishmi Giant FlyingSquirrel P. mishmiensis) and a bird new to India(Blue-and-white Flycatcher Cyanoupteracyanocephala). The Eastern Imperial EagleAquila heliaca, Upland Buzzard Buteo hemilasiusand Savanna Nightjar Caprimulgus affinis are new

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state records for Arunachal Pradesh. TheGongshan Muntjac Muntiacus gongshanensis,Leaf Muntjac Muntiacus putaoensis, and GaurBos gaurus have been recorded for the first timein or near the reserve. Some other noteworthyspecies recorded during this study were Red PandaAilurus fulgens, Asian Golden Cat Catopumatemminckii, Marbled Cat Pardofelis marmorata,Tiger Panthera tigris, Snow Leopard Unciauncia, Takin Budorcas taxicolor, Red GoralNaemorhedus baileyi, Golden Eagle Aquilachrysaetos, Tragopans (Tragopan blythii and T.temminckii), Himalayan Monal Lophophorusimpejanus, Sclater’s Monal L. sclateri and Rufous-necked Hornbill Aceros nipalensis. For somespecies such as Red Panda, Takin, Red Goral andSclater’s Monal, the Dihang-Dibang BiosphereReserve is a stronghold.

Conservation issues and recommendations

Poaching of Black bear for bile and gall bladder,Musk deer for musk pod and otter for the pelt arethe most serious conservation issues in and aroundthe reserve. All these items fetch high prices ininternational trade. While most foreign poacherstake the materials directly across the border, thelocal poachers sell them to middlemen, mostlytraders from Rajasthan located at Hayuliang, Tezu,Roing, Along and Pasighat in Arunachal Pradeshand Dibrugarh and Tinsukia in Assam. In additionto these items of international trade, some otheritems such as meat of Takin are also taken byforeign poachers for their consumption in Tibet.Some gypsies from Gujarat came to Dambuen andkilled at least 15 otters in 2005-06.

A large number of mammals and birds arepoached by local hunters for meat supplement.There are several types of crude snares used,which are destructive to mammals and birds. Someof the snares used to catch galliformes as observednear Mechuka were alarming. Each is about 40-50 metres in length and these virtually ‘fence off’certain areas with 4-5 openings where they putlassos of plastic thread or bamboo snare.

Threats from poaching gangs from across theborder were surprisingly more serious than theauthor thought. While these poachers are knownto operate on and off for Tiger, Black bear and

Musk deer, their effect on Takin and galliformeswas severe. During interactions with villagers andhunters in several villages of upper Dibang Valley,the author came to know that Tibetan poachersset up camps within Indian territory and kill largenumbers of Takins for meat. They dry the meatat their camps and wait for another group to eitherreplace them or take away the dry meat whilebringing provisions for the camp inmates. Thisexercise continues throughout the entire summermonths (due to snow fall it is not possible in winter).

Other issues are shifting cultivation, felling of trees,construction of roads and major hydro-electricprojects. These dams are going to have seriouslyadverse impacts on the biosphere reserve as wellas on local communities, the reasons being: a) largestretches of forest area will be submerged; b)construction of infrastructure and road networkswill further destroy forest habitat; c) more than50,000 (could be much more if the works progresssimultaneously) labourers from outside AunachalPradesh will be camping near the sites and will cuttrees for their use and also deposit waste in thearea; and d) many of these labourers will resort topoaching, mainly snaring by crude traps and illegalfelling as has been experienced elsewhere. Damsare required for generation of hydro-electricity aswell as overall development; however, in suchbiodiversity rich areas a careful approach isnecessary. A couple of big dams on the majortributaries such as Siyom and several medium tosmaller dams on other tributaries in a phasedmanner could have been a better alternative.

The biosphere reserve should be extended towardsthe east, west and north. Adequate enforcementof laws, stopping of poaching, review of megadams, restrictions on arms licenses, buildingawareness and motivation, and alternatives toshifting cultivation have been recommended. Manypeople have already started cultivating cardamom.A major problem faced by the villagers istransportation of their produce to the markets. Thefunding from various government programmescould be of help in providing market linkages.

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Acknowledgements

Ministry of Environment & Forests, Governmentof India (Man & Biosphere Programme). Thanksare due to R.K. Rai, S.S. Samant, the ForestDepartment of Arunachal Pradesh (especiallyS.N. Kalita, K. Namchoom, S.K. Raha, P. Ringu,R. Horo, B.B. Bhatt, Sanjay Singh, A. Borang),Sitem Borang, D. Tamuk, Bikul Goswami, FirozAhmed, S.C. Jenew, Nalong Maize, T.R. Taku, D.Tamuk, Empi Meya, Narayan Das, K.P. Gupta,Suresh Melo, Dr T. Rahman of Roing, LongayMiso, J.K. Dey, Hati Mipi, Chhoje Lama, MrsAnne Wright, Ratul Talukdar, Hakim and Hashimbesides many other villagers. I also acknowledgethe encouragement of Gegong Apang and MukutMithi; both were Chief Ministers. Special thanksto S. Ahmed, Radhe Appa, D.R. Ram, AmongeMili and Tape Moshing.

References

Ali, S. & S. D. Ripley. 1948. The birds of theMishmi Hills. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.48: 1–37.

BirdLife International. 2001. Threatened birdsof Asia. BirdLife International, Cambridge,UK.

Borang, A. 2002. Mammalian fauna . . . . . inDehang-Debang Biosphere Reserve areain Eastern Himalaya. Himalayan BiosphereReserves 4(1 & 2): 55-74.

Chatterjee, A. K. 1989. Survey of snow leopard. . . . in Mouling national park, East Siangdistrict, Arunachal Pradesh. ArunachalForest News 7(1 & 2): 10-15.

Choudhury, A. U. 1986. Wildlife in north-eastIndia. North- eastern Geographer 18 (1 &2): 92-101.

Choudhury, A. U. 1994. A new Crane-migrationroute discovered. Asian Wetland News7(1):18.

Choudhury, A. U. 1996. On the trail of Blyth’stragopan. WPA News 51:14-16.

Choudhury, A. U. 2001. An overview of thestatus and conservation of the red pandaAilurus fulgens in India, with referenceto its global status. Oryx 35(3):250-259.

Choudhury, A. U. 2003. The mammals ofArunachal Pradesh. Regency Publications,New Delhi.

Choudhury, A. U. 2005. Distribution, status andconservation of Galliformes in north-eastIndia. In: Fuller, R.A. and Browne, S.J. (eds.)2005. Galliformes 2004. Proc. 3rd

International Galliformes Symposium.WPA, Fordingbridge, U.K. Pp. 38-56

Choudhury, A. U. 2006. A pocket guide to thebirds of Arunachal Pradesh. Gibbon Books& The Rhino Foundation, Guwahati, India.

Choudhury, A. U. 2007. A new flying squirrelof the genus Petaurista Link fromArunachal Pradesh in north-east India.Newsletter & Journal of the RhinoFoundation for Nat. in NE India 7: 26-32.

Choudhury, A. U. 2009. One more new flyingsquirrel of the genus Petaurista Link,1795 from Arunachal Pradesh in north-east India. Newsletter & Journal of theRhino Foundation for Nat. in NE India 7:26-34.

Choudhury, A. U. 2010. Mammals and birds inDehang-Debang Biosphere Reserve,India. LAP Lambert Academic Pub.,Saarbrücken, Germany, 104pp.

Godwin-Austen, H.H. 1876. Fifth list of birds fromthe hill ranges of the North-East Frontierof India. J. Asiatic Soc. Bengal 45(2): 191-204.

Hume, A. O. & C. H. T. Marshall. 1879–1881.The game birds of India, Burmah andCeylon. Published by the authors, Calcutta.

Islam, Z. & A.R. Rahmani. (eds.) 2004.Important Bird Areas in India. BombayNatural History Society, Mumbai andBirdLife International, Cambridge, U.K.

Jerdon, T.C. 1870. Notes on some new speciesof birds from the North-Eastern Frontierof India. Proc. Asiatic Society of Bengal:59-61

Katti, M., Singh, P., Manjrekar, N., Sharma, D.& S. Mukherjee. 1992. An ornithologicalsurvey in eastern Arunachal Pradesh,India. Forktail 7: 75–89.

Kaul, R., Raza, R. & Kalsi, R. 1995. Pheasantsurveys in Arunachal Pradesh. In: D.Jenkins, ed. Ann. Rev. World PheasantAssoc. 1993/94. WPA, Reading, UK. Pp.28–34.

McClelland, J. 1839. List of mammalia and birdscollected in Assam. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.7: 146-167.

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Pawar, S. & A. Birand. 2001. A survey ofamphibians, reptiles and birds in NortheastIndia. CERC Tech. Report 6. Centre forEcological Research and Conservation,Mysore, India.

Ringu, P. 2002. General observations onDehang-Debang Biosphere Reserve.Himalayan Biosphere Reserves 4 (1 & 2):79-81.

Singh, P. 1994. Recent bird records fromArunachal Pradesh, India. Forktail 10: 65-104.

Thomas, O. 1914. A new Soriculus from theMishmi hills. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 22:683.

Dr Anwaruddin Choudhury, House No.7,Islampur Road, Guwahati 781 007 (India)Email: [email protected]

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TRANSBOUNDARY MOVEMENT OF ELEPHANTS INEASTERN NEPAL

by N.G. Baidya

Table 1: Forest cover in 1991 and 2001

District Forest cover in 1991 (area in ha.)

Forest cover in 2001 (area in ha.)

Change in forest cover (area in ha)

Change %

Sunsari 21659 21365 -294 -0.14

Morang 45718 45184 -534 -0.12

Jhapa 21274 21000 -274 -0.13

Source: DoF, 2005

Introduction

Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) occur infour places in Nepal. The seasonal migrating

elephants that move from West Bengal, India toBahundangi of Jhapa, i.e., the eastern population,numbers 50-70 individuals and there is a residentherd of 10-13 individuals (Elephant Action Plan,2007); the central population (40-50 individuals)is confined to Parsa Wildlife Reserve and recentlyhas moved outside the reserve; the mid-westpopulation of 70-80 individuals resides in BardiaNational Park (Pradhan, 2007), while the farwestern population of 2-18 elephants are found inthe Churia foothills (Velde, 1997).

Elephants from Assam, India, migrate to easternNepal, passing through the plains of Darjeelingdistrict of West Bengal, India, in search of foodand shelter. Thirty-four percent of the total forestarea falls in the protected areas of West Bengal,comprising 15 wildlife sanctuaries, 5 national parksand 2 tiger reserves. Darjeeling Wildlife DivisionOne, Kurseong Forest Division and MahanandaWildlife Sanctuary lie in the migration route of theelephants (http://westbengalforest.gov.in).Kurseong forest divisions are contiguous with theMechi-River on the eastern border of Nepal with

tropical broad leaf forest where the elephantsmigrate to Nepal.

Their nodal point of entry is Bahundangi, Jhapadistrict. During migration these elephants causemuch damage to property and life because themigration corridors are fragmented and used forhuman settlements and agricultural purposes. Asa result, elephants are killed, crops damaged andhuman lives lost.

Study area

The study area is located in the three administrativedistricts namely Sunsari, Morang and Jhapabetween 86o 53’ 48" to 88o 11’ 33" longitude and26o 20’ 33" to 26o 53’ 132" latitude. These threedistricts cover an area of 4,718 km2 (Jhapa: 1,606km2, Morang: 1,855 km2 and Sunsari: 1,257 km2)which is 3.20% of the total land coverage (147,181km2) of the country. These districts used to be acontiguous forest area and a free moving routefor wild elephants before malaria was eradicatedin the 1960s. Forest has been fragmented timeand again whenever there is political instability andthe settlement of emigrants from the hilly regionand population growth are the main factorsaccelerating human-elephant conflicts (HEC).

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Fig.1: Study area

Jhapa has the least forest cover area amongst all20 districts of the terai region, which is 12.9% ofthe total land area, whereas Morang and Sunsarihave 24.5% and 18.1% forest cover respectively.In all three districts forests have been decreasedand degraded from 1991-2001 (Table 1 ).According to the locals, deforestation andencroachment of forest area has continued to date,thus, figures mentioned in the table might havechanged significantly by now. In 2001, 4,670 haout of a total 21,000 ha of forest in Jhapa werecategorized as degraded forest. Similarly, 6,838ha and 2,288 ha of forest were categorized asdegraded forest in Morang and Sunsari districtsrespectively.

Present status

Though human-elephant conflicts in this area arequite a new phenomenon, every year 5-10 peopleand 3-4 elephants lose their lives to the conflict.Now, elephants must use a route fragmented byagricultural land and villages, thus aggravating theconflict. While migrating, elephants are in constantdanger and the possibility of crop raiding anddamage to life and property of marginalized peopleis also high.

Human-elephant conflicts in Jhapa district,especially in Bahundangi, were the highest.Agricultural lands were raided by elephants andcrops destroyed. It was found that the main cropraiding season is from December to January, asthis is the harvest time, and during the monsoon,i.e., June to July. In July 2009, a herd of elephantsentered Bahundangi and raided agricultural fields.While chasing away the elephants a few individuals,including two police personnel, were injured anda baby elephant was killed. The dead body of thecalf was taken to the District Forest Office,Chandragadi, for a post-mortem. Mitigationmeasures such as the installation of solar fencesand awareness programs conducted in the regionlessened the conflict during 2008-2009, butproblems still persist.

Although the solar fencing was a buffer to migratingelephants, human-elephant conflicts in the regionappear to arise from resident wild elephants. Threewild elephants have been seen in Jhapa and Morangdistrict, while 5 have been observed in Sunsaridistrict.

Most local farmers think that the existing conflictsshould be addressed through governmental bodies.In order to draw the attention of policy makers

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WCN conducted meetings with the Ministry ofForest and Soil Conservation and its concerneddepartments regarding a compensation scheme forvictims injured by wildlife and for crop damage. Aproper mechanism must be developed so thatcompensation to the victims would lessen theconflict and encourage people towards protectionand conservation. The government has endorsedthe compensation scheme to provide money tothose injured or killed by elephants.

Analysis

For the conservation of elephants in the long run,the identification of migration routes and developingcorridors encompassing the elephant migrationroute is the most important task. Routeidentification is done by recording GPS pointswhere primary and secondary evidence of human-elephant conflicts and the presence of elephants

are noticed. After collecting enough data in allthree districts, point maps were created andoverlaid on the district map and Lansat imageryof three districts using ARCVIEW 3.2 and Ilwis3.2 software gives the exact elephant migratingroute. When VDCs with recorded human-elephantconflict incidents were plotted against the migratingroute, it gave a clear picture that the conflict ishigher in the region where forests are fragmented.The highest number of human-elephant conflictsare in Jhapa district, followed by Sunsari district.Morang district has the least human-elephantconflicts as there is more forest coverage than inthe other districts (Table 1) although the coverageis decreasing. It is very crucial to protect theremaining forest, otherwise human-elephantconflicts will be on the rise and will have a negativeimpact on the conservation of wild elephants inthis region.

Fig 2: GPS data showing elephant route through 31 VDCs



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Awareness in communities to avoid human-elephant conflicts

Over a period of one year, WCN has beensuccessful in conducting different awarenessprograms at the community level by involving localyouths after they were provided with leadershiptraining. During outreach programs to communitiesand students, documentaries were screened andthe participants were involved in various hands-on activities. To reach out to a wide audience fromdifferent walks of life and to generate awarenessat the policy level for the conservation of wildelephant, public interaction meetings, seminars andworkshops were conducted. Waterholes were alsoconstructed in eight locations within the elephantmigration route to prevent wild elephants in theforest from coming out in search of water duringthe drought season. A story writing competitionwas also conducted in which more than 500students participated. The winning story waspublished in the form of a story book in partnershipwith INGO Room and will be distributed to morethan 150,000 students in the country. This storyhas been able to showcase the perception of localsthat live at the front line with human-elephantconflicts.

Final output and recommendation

This study shows that Bahundangi, Jhapa is themain entry point of the migrating elephant herds.It was found that wild herds enter through a villagein Bahundangi to reach the nearby forest (TelpaniCF) north-west to Bahundangi. Most of the herdswere checked at this point by locals usingcrackers, fires and drums, thus the highest numberof human-elephant conflicts have been recordedin Jhapa compared to the rest of the districts. Thisis the crucial time during which loss of life andproperty occurs. Only some solitary male elephantscross this VDC and move towards other districts.In Sunsari district human-elephant conflicts arehighest in Prakashpur VDC and Kushaha VDCas Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve is situated in thisVDC and is home to five female domesticelephants. These elephants are used for patrollingthe reserve by game scouts and enforcementofficers. They are also used to carry tourists andconservationists. Wild male elephants fromRamdhuni Community forest come to Kushaha

hattisar to mate with the domestic females. Morangdistrict faces the least amount of human-elephantconflict in the region.

Thirty-one VDCs fall under the migratory routeof the elephants and 15 VDCs have been identifiedwith high rates of human-elephant conflicts (Fig3). The elephant population in eastern Nepal isunder intense pressure for survival because thehabitat has shrunk. Deforestation and rampantencroachment are major causes of human-elephant conflicts. Elephant habitat fragmentationand crop depredations along with human andelephant deaths due to the conflict has resulted inan antagonistic view by communities towardselephant.

Such a detailed study has not been previouslycarried out in eastern Nepal.

An elephant corridor should be developedencompassing the elephant route and differentprograms promoting co-existence should belaunched in the region in order to conserve wildelephants in eastern Nepal.

The human-elephant conflicts have grabbed theattention of GOs and NGOs in the region. TheGovernment has allocated budgets for differentmeasures to mitigate the conflict, but unfortunatelywithout vision and proper study. The budget ismostly spent on the construction of roads and otherinfrastructure and the installation of solar fenceswhich attract more people from other regions tothe area, which in fact results in further habitatfragmentation and higher human-elephantconflicts. Solar fences have been installed in theregion without proper study. The solar fenceinstalled on the bank of Mechi River actuallyblocked the traditional migrating route of elephants.Such fences should be designed to protect villagesrather than blocking the migration route of theelephants.

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VDCs with recorded HEC

1 Bahundangi VDC, Jhapa

2 Shantinagar VDC, Jhapa

3 Dhaijan VDC, Jhapa 4 Budhabare VDC, Jhapa 5 Sanischare VDC, Jhapa 6 Anarmani VDC, Jhapa 7 Arjundhara VDC, Jhapa 8 Khudunabari VDC,

Jhapa 9 Surunga VDC, Jhapa 10 Satashidham VDC,

Jhapa 11 Damak Municipality,

Jhapa 12 Sanischare VDC,

Morang 13 Panchkanya VDC,

Sunsari 14 Prakashpur VDC,

Sunsari 15 Kushaha VDC, Sunsari

Fig 3 : VDCs that lies in elephant migrating routes and with recorded HEC

References

Government of Nepal. 2007. Draft report on“The Elephant Conservation Action Planfor Nepal.” Ministry of Forest and SoilConservation.

http://westbengalforest.gov.inPradhan, N.M.B. 2007. An ecological study of

a re-colonizing population of AsianElephants (Elephas maximus) in lowlandNepal.

Velde, P.F. 1997. A status report of Nepal’s wildelephant population. WWF Nepal Program,Kathmandu

Government of Nepal. 2005. Forest cover changeanalysis of the terai districts (1990/91-2000/01). Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation,Department of Forest.

Author’s address: Wildlife Conservation Nepal,Bafal, Kathmandu, Nepal; [email protected],[email protected]



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INVENTORY OF WETLAND FAUNA AND SUSTAINABLERESOURCE UTILIZATION OF BAHRAIYA LAKE, BARDIYA,MID-WESTERN NEPAL: ISSUES AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

by Prem Bahadur Budha

Introduction

The term ‘wetland’ is defined differently by dif-ferent people. There are about 50 definitions

of wetlands in the world in current usage (Dugan1990). Wetlands are areas where a water table isat, near, or just above the surface and where soilsare water-saturated for a sufficient length of time.National Wetlands Policy (2003) of Nepal defineswetland as follows:

“Wetlands denote perennial waterbodies that originate fromunderground sources of water or rains.It means swampy areas with flowing orstagnant fresh or salt water that arenatural or man-made, or permanent ortemporary. Wetlands also mean marshylands, riverine floodplains, lakes,ponds, water storage areas andagricultural lands”.

Altogether, 163 wetlands have been reported fromthe Tarai region of Nepal. Wetlands in the Taraiare represented by lakes and ponds (48%),followed by riverine floodplain (33%) andreservoirs and swamps (3%) (Bhandari, 1998). TheFar-western Development Region (FWDR) is therichest area for maintaining wetlands (38%),followed by the Central Development Region(CDR) (23%) and the Western DevelopmentRegion (WDR) (21%). The Mid-WesternDevelopment Region (MWDR) comprises 7% ofthe Tarai wetlands of Nepal. Almost two-thirdsof the wetlands of MWDR are located in Bardiadistrict. Wetlands in Bardia comprise three lakes(Bahraiya-105 ha, Tara tal-3 ha and Bhagaraiyatal-12 ha); four river floodplains (Karnali-15,625ha, Babai-12,812 ha, Aurahi-2,188 ha and Kaurahi-375 ha); and one Ghol (Bathuwa-25 ha).

Bahraiya tal is a monsoon flood-fed and highlyexploited lake of Bardia district. The lake has been

utilized for irrigation, fishing and extraction ofwetland resources by local people. In the 1980s,Bardia District in Panchayat officially handed overthe lake to local contractors for fish farming. Theentire lake area and associated khetland wasconverted into a commercial fish production regionof the district. However, the contract system wasstopped during the insurgency period and the lakeremained under control of the local Maoist leaderfor about three years (from 2003-2005).Overexploitation and encroachment of the lakearea reached a climax afterwards and conservationissues were also raised simultaneously about thewetland habitat, biodiversity conservation andsustainable utilization. United Youth Community(UNYC), a local NGO, initiated sustainableconservation of this wetland with financial aid fromthe Global Environment Fund (GEF) incoordination with the Bardia District DevelopmentCommittee (DDC), government line agencies andsurrounding Village Development Committees(VDC). But the conservation plan was not fullyimplemented and remained unsuccessful due tothe bad decision of the Bardia DDC to hand overthe lake to local fish contractors to exploit it. Thelake is in a strategic geographic location forproviding habitat to globally significant migratorybird species in the Mid Western and Far WesternDevelopment Regions of the lowland Tarai ofNepal.

Wetlands are very important areas for biodiversity,but detailed surveys of the flora and fauna of manyNepalese wetlands of global significance arelacking and updated information for monitoringwetland biodiversity and sustainable managementis urgently needed. The present work attempts todocument the wetland fauna of Bahraiya lake andits surrounding environment to fill the informationgaps as well as disseminate current issues andfuture perspectives for its conservation andsustainable utilization.

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Materials and methods

Study area

Bahraiya is the largest lake in Bardia district. Itlies in Sorhawa VDC (Ward Nos. 1 and 2) andMainapokhar VDC (Ward No. 3). The exact areaof the lake varies in different reports, ranging from100-105 ha, but the lake area has not yet beendelineated and verified by the District SurveyDepartment, Bardia and a large area has beenencroached on.

Data collection

A literature review about Nepal’s wetlands wascarried out. Secondary information from differentsources in published journals, books, and articles,government and non-government reports wereexamined.

Field observations were carried out to observe thewetland fauna of the lake in October 2007. Duringthe field survey the lake area was visited at nightto find reptiles and amphibians. Vernacular namesof herpetofauna were noted in the field and verifiedfrom literatures (Shah 1998; Shah and Tiwari,2004). Birds were observed with binoculars earlyin the morning and at other times during the dayand identified using Grimmet et al. (2000). Fisheswere sampled with the help of local fishermen byusing drag nets. All caught fishes werephotographed and identified using Shrestha (1994).Many species of fishes remained unidentifiedwhich were not collected during the samplingperiods. However, their names were included in

the Tharu language. Freshwater molluscs werecollected, photographed and identified inKathmandu using Subba Rao (1989) andNesemann et al. (2007).

Local fishermen, women and knowledgeablepersons of Bahraiya village were interviewed. Astructured questionnaire was used to discuss faunadiversity. Local leaders of Bardia, the DistrictDevelopment Committee (DDC) personnel andofficers of other line agencies were alsointerviewed.

Results

Bahraiya lake is rich in wetland fauna. During thefield inventory seven species of molluscs, 35species of fishes (20 species were sampled and15 other species were reported by local Tharufishermen to be present), 13 species ofherpetofauna (4 species of frogs, 1 toad, 3 snakes,2 lizards, 1 skink, 1 turtle and 1 species ofcrocodile) and 40 species of birds were reportedfrom the lake. Some of the mammals such asjackal and wild cat were said to visit the lakeoccasionally during the monsoon period.

Molluscs

Altogether 8 species of freshwater snails andmussels were identified from the lake, i.e., Pilaglobosa, Bellamya bengalensis, Indoplanorbisexustus, Melanoides tuberculatus, Lymnaeaacuminata, Gyraulus sp., Segmentina sp. andLamellidens marginalis (Table 1 and Figure 1).

Table 1. Freshwater mollusc species of Bahraiya Lake, Bardia Tharu name Scientific name Abundance Ghonghi Bellamya bengalensis High Lamba ghongi Melanoides tuberculatus Rare Sippi Lamelliens marginalis Low Ghongha Pila globosa Medium Chaparka ghonghi Indoplanorbis exustus Medium Chhotki Chaparka ghonghi Gyraulus sp. Medium Chaparka ghonghi Segmentina sp. Low Ghonghi Lymnaeae acuminata Rare

Note: Abundance was measured on the basis of numbers collected within the study period. High- More than 20 specimens, Medium- 10 to 20 specimens, Low- 5 to 9 specimens, Rare- Less than 5 specimens.

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Figure 1. Freshwater Molluscs of Bahraiya lake

Zoological name Nepali name/ Tharu name Remarks 1. Amphipnous cuchia Bam/Andhara Uncommon 2. Barilius sp. Fageta/ Namsehara Common 3. Botia lohachatta Baghe/ Baghuwa Rare 4. Chanda nama Nata channa/ Chandrabijua Common 5. Channa punctatus Bhote, Garai/ Charangi Common 6. Chela labuca Deduwa/ Diruwa Common 7. Clarias batrachus Mungri/ Mangura Local and introduced 8. Ctenopharyngdon idella Silver carp Introduced 9. Cyprinus carpio Common carp Introduced 10. Heteropneustes fossilis Singhi/ Singhiya Rare 11. Hypothalmychthys molitrix Grass carp Introduced 12. Labeo rohita Rohu/ Rohu Common 13. Macrognathus aculeatus Gainchi/ Bamli Common 14. Mystus cavasius Tengra, Junge/ Tangna Common 15. Mystus seenghala Kanti/ Prayash Rare 16. Mystus tengara Tengri/ Tangana Common 17. Ompok sp. Pabhta/ Ghuktaharia Rare 18. Puntius chola Pothi/Sidhara Common 19. Wallago attu Bohari/ Padhni Uncommon 20. Unidentified / Bolna Rare

Table 2. Fish diversity of Bahraiya lake

Source: Field survey October, 2007.

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The diversity and abundance of freshwatermolluscs in the lake was comparatively low. Asingle individual of Lymnaea acuminata wascollected during the study. Similarly, only shells ofMelanoides tuberculata and Lamellidensmarginalis were collected.

Fishes

A group discussion with local fishermen andwomen who are generally involved in traditional

fishing provided the list of thirty-five fish speciesnames in the Tharu language. Altogether 20species of local and introduced fishes weresampled from the lake during the field survey. Thisnumber indicates that Bahraiya Lake probably hasthe highest number of fish species among thenatural lakes in Nepal. The sampled fish faunaare given in Table 2 and Figure 2.

Figure 2. Fishes of Bahraiya Lake, Bardia1. Macrognathus aculeatus 2. Channa punctatus 3. Heteropneustes fossilis4. Mystus seenghala 5. Wallago attu 6. Barilius sp. 7. Labeo sp.8. Ctenopharyngdon idella 9. Clarias batrachus 10. Cyprinus carpio11. Labeo rohita 12. Botia lohachatta . 13. Chanda nama 14. Unidentified sp


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The above list represents only the sampled fishspecies found during the survey period. Otherfishes identified by local fishermen in their localTharu language were Bhansariya, Bichhula,Pattharchatti, Mailuwa, Suity, Gheuri, Chitaina,Keuncha, Kursa, Sauri, Kauwa, Bistengra, Moi,Ghorachhuwa, Rawa, and Sujaha.

Herpetofauna (Reptiles and Amphibians)

Thirteen species of reptiles and amphibians werereported from the lake area including thethreatened Golden monitor lizard Varanus

flaviscens. The present survey identified threespecies of snakes (Xenochrophis piscator,Bungarus caeruleus, Ptyas mucosa), one speciesof skink (Mabuya carinata), one common gardenlizard (Calotes versicolar), one turtle (Lissemyspunctata), four species of frogs (Hoplobatrachuscrassus, H. tigerinus, Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis,Euphlyctis sp.) and one species of toad (Bufomelanostictus) (Figure 3). One individual of Marshmugger (Crocodylus palustris) was reported a fewyears back in the associated fish pond which wassaid to have been accidentally flooded from theBabai river.

Figure 3. Herpetofauna of Bahraiya Tal1. Xenochrophis piscator 2. Hoplobatrachus crassus 3. Euphlyctis sp.4. Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis 5. Lissemys punctata 6. Mabuya carinata

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Birds

The Bahraiya is an important lake for manymigratory bird species of global importance. Wintermigratory birds such Cotton pygmy goose(Nettapus coromandelianus), Lesser whistlingduck (Dendrocygna javanica), Eurasian spoonbill(Platelea leucorodia), Ruddy shelduck (Tadornaferruginea), Eurasian wigeon (Anas Penelope),Northern pintail (Anas acuta), Northern shoveler(Anas clypeata), Common snipe (Gallinagogallinago), Pintail snipe (G. stenura), Commonredshank (Tringa tetanus), Marsh sandpiper (T.stagnatilis), Wood sandpiper (T. glareola) andCommon coot (Fulica atra) were reported fromthe lake. Similarly, Sarus crane (Grus antigone),a species protected by the government, was alsoreported from the lake. Forty bird species wereobserved during the survey period, which couldpossibly increase by 4-5 fold using proper surveytechniques during the peak migration periods inthe summer and winter seasons.

Freshwater biodiversity conservation issues

Bahraiya lake is an important source of irrigationduring the dry season. In addition, water from thelake is also used to fill the private fish ponds locatedaround Bahraiya tal. Presently, the lake has beenexploited for commercial fish farming bycontractors. Local people use the barren land forlivestock grazing. During the dry season the waterlevel drops and grasses grow above the water level,which is suitable for grazing cattle. Cattle also usethe lake water for drinking and bathing. Theperipheral area includes abundant I. fistulosa,which is collected by the local people for fuelwoodand other household purposes such as for fencingvegetable gardens, roofs for houses, etc.

Existing problems

Disturbance to birds

Fishing, grazing and peripheral farming practicesaround the lake are major disturbances to migratoryand residential bird species. Commercial fishfarming in the lake has disturbed the entire naturalecosystem of the lake. Due to open fields and thelack of large trees around the lake, most of thevisitor birds cannot stay freely in the lake. Many

large flocks of wetland bird species were observedabove the lake and trying to land near the lake fora long time, but unable to land easily due to humanactivities. Attempts to kill birds by children or otherpeople were also observed in the lake area.

Use of fertilizer and pesticides

Fertilizers and pesticides commonly used in thesurrounding agricultural land are ultimately flushedinto the lake. These activities are responsible forchanges in the water chemistry of the lake, whichhas negative impacts on the aquatic fauna.

Encroachment of the lake area

Encroachment on the lake has been very high inBahraiya wetland and still continues. Many privatefish ponds have been constructed on the westernand northern sides of the lake. As the water leveldecreases the rate of use of barren land hasproportionately increased. Thus, the demarcationof the entire lake area for proper management isurgently needed.

Introduced fish species

The introduction of improved varieties of the fishfor commercial purposes has reduced the numberof local fish species. The local people reportedabout 35 species of local fishes believed to bepresent in the lake, but nearly half of the specieswere not sampled during the present survey.

Soil erosion

Heavy monsoon rains and flooding are responsiblefor erosion from the surrounding embankment andsiltation respectively. The lake is situated in theflat land and has not experienced much problemwith sedimentation like other natural lakes in Nepal,but the monsoon floods carry soil, sand and otherdebris from surrounding hills and fill the lake eachyear during flooding season. The inlets and outletsare not properly constructed. Direct inflow of waterfrom the irrigation canal of Babai river and floodsduring the monsoon feed into the lake, depositingdebris in the lake during the flood season. Wideningof the outlet canal was observed in the northernside due to soil erosion by the water current. Theoutlet joins the Mankhola river, which is gradually


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approaching the lake by cutting along the lakeoutlet. This is one of the big future threats todraining the entire lake.

Future perspectives

Delineation of the lake area

Due to regular encroachment of the lake area, thelake size has been shrinking and its area is notexactly known. Various data were found about thelake area in different reports. Therefore, the firstprerequisite is to delineate the area for furtherconservation management and public participationto restore the entire lake. All illegal private fishponds need to be merged within the lake and privateland associated with the lake also needs to bemanaged by providing compensation to the owneror by purchasing such land.

Management of water level

Preventing overflow in the rainy season and keepingthe lake from drying up in the dry season aremanagement priorities for Bahraiya lake. A certainwater level needs to be maintained in all seasons.The direct water inflow from the Babai irrigationcanal from the north-west corner of the lake needsto be blocked. It is recommended to feed the lakefrom the south where the newly planned Babaiirrigation canal will pass through. Since the Babaiirrigation project has extended its irrigation projectin the area, the lake water will not be needed as inthe past. Thus, the water level of the lake can bemaintained in all seasons.

Habitat restoration for birds

Bahraiya village is located at the southern part ofthe lake and there is not much area left to bemanaged due to associated private lands. Most ofthe encroached part of the lake area is located inthe east, west and north. Much of barren land isfrom north-east to north-west, which needs to bedelineated for plantation. This area is the mostsuitable for resting migratory birds and other aquaticbiodiversity, i.e., fish, molluscs (mussels andsnails), birds and aquatic plants. The marginal areaof these sites contains the I. fistulosa plant wheremany aquatic birds live. Local varieties of plantsare recommended for the restoration of the wetland

habitat. The list of recommended plants for therestoration of bird habitats and economic benefitfor the local people includes:

Economically important plants: BambooBambusa spp., Munj Saccharum munja, BetCalamus acanthospathus, Babiyo or BankasEulaliopsis binata, Kush Desmostachyabipinnata, Kurilo Asparagus racemosus andSarpagandha Raulvolfia serpentina.Religious plants: Bar Ficus bengalensis andPipal Ficus religiosa.Fruits: Mango Magnifera indica, BarroTerminalia bellirica and Bayar Zizyphusmauritiana.Other plants beneficial for birds: SimalBombax ceiba, Kusum Carthamus tinctirius,Jamun Syzygium cumini, Gular or DumriFicus racemosa and Timilo Ficus auriculata.Fencing plants: Mehandi Lawsonia inermis,etc. These are recommended to be plantedparallel to the road above the water level.

Locating seed bank areas for fish and molluscs

Freshwater molluscs are the most threatenedaquatic animals and populations are declining dueto the destruction of aquatic habitats, use offertilizers and pesticides, fish poisoning andencroachment of wetlands. Freshwater mussels andfishes have a close relationship for their survival.Freshwater mussels usually need local fishes todevelop their larval stages. Mussels need host fishesin the lake in order to survive. Thus, to establishlocal populations of fishes and mussels, a specialconservation area is recommended for a molluscconservation zone in the lake. No humandisturbances would be allowed in the conservationzone, including fishing, harvesting aquatic plantsand livestock bathing. This area will be importantfor not only the conservation of molluscs, but itwill be an example in conservation and restorationof wetland biodiversity and to attract tourists.

Establish community management practices

The commercial farming practices in the lake donot promote wetland biodiversity conservation. Butthe Bardia District Development Committee hasissued licenses to local contractors for commercialfish farming in the lake. This activity is causingdeterioration of the lake and affecting migratory

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birds. Without the active participation of the localpeople it is almost impossible to manage wetlandsfor sustainable use and wetland biodiversityconservation.

Prevention of invasive water plants

Jalakumbhi Eichornia crassipes is a seriousinvasive aquatic plant species which has not yetbeen introduced in Bahraiya lake, but has beenobserved in many parts of Bardia, Banke andKailali districts. There is a high probability that itwill arrive in the lake soon unless preventivemeasures are taken.

Discussion

The wetland fauna of Bahraiya Lake is poorlyinvestigated. The only existing faunal inventoryof the lake exists in BPP (1995) and Bhandari(1998). According to the BPP report the lake issaid to support 3 mammalian species (Commonotter Lutra lutra, Spotted deer Axis axis andSamber deer Cervus unicolor), 23 species ofbirds, 8 species of herpetofauna and 7 species offish. Bhandari (1998) reported one mammalianspecies (Smooth otter Lutrogale perspicillata),26 species of birds, 4 species of fishes, and oneSoftshell turtle (Aspidertes gangeticus). Thepresent study did not find any evidence of thepresence of wild ungulates in the lake and itssurrounding habitats. Because the lake area issurrounded by villages there is not suitable habitatfor wild ungulates, even several kilometers fromthe lake. However, jackals and wild cats are saidto occasionally visit the lake area during the rainyseason. Similarly, earlier documents reported thepresence of small populations of two otter species– L. lutra (BPP, 1995) and L. perspicillata(Bhandari 1998). There might be some accidentalchances of their visiting the lake during the floodseason, but neither of these two species could staythere for any length of time due to the highdisturbance in the lake and the presence of twootter species in the lake is doubtful. The presentstudy reported one species of North IndianFlapshell Turtle Lissemys punctata; theidentification of Aspidertes gangeticus by Bhandariis doubtful because this species is found in therunning water of deep rivers (Shah and Tiwari,2004).

The present study tried to include a comprehensiveinventory of aquatic fauna of the lake, includingfreshwater molluscs, fish, herpetofauna and birds.However, aquatic insects and other arthropodswere outside the scope of the study. Seven speciesof freshwater molluscs, 35 species of fishes, 13species of herpetofauna and 40 species of birdswere reported. This is the highest fish speciesdiversity in any lake in the Tarai region afterJagdishpur reservoir (39 species) (http://www.ramsar.org/pdf/danone_ecoles_ne-pal_commrpt.pdf). Likewise, the number ofexpected bird species in the lake might be 4-5 foldhigher than found in the present study, which waslimited in time.

Sedimentation, habitat loss, discharge of industrialand agricultural runoff, unsustainable harvestingof resources, alteration of species composition dueto heavy grazing and colonization of alien invasiveplant species are some of the reported threats toNepalese wetlands (Siwakoti and Karki, 2009).These activities are causing even higher threatsto lakes which are not included in the Ramsar list.There is an urgent need for proper documentationof wetland biodiversity, including vertebrate andinvertebrate fauna, and the participation of localpeople in biodiversity conservation and sustainableresource utilization. The present study proves thatthe lake holds rich aquatic fauna and is a key spotfor wetland biodiversity conservation in Nepal. Aconsiderable number of fish species (20) weresampled even after the complete drying up of thelake in the previous season. Thus, the lake not onlycontains a fish stock of river and streams of Bardiadistrict, but also supports molluscs, an importantdiet of internationally important migratory birdspecies. A low mollusc diversity in the lake wasattributed to disturbance in the wetland ecosystemdue to unsustainable fish harvesting. Freshwatermussels are dependent on native fish fauna tocomplete their life cycle from larval stage toglochidia to adult. The larvae must attachparasitically to a fish host and obtain nutrition fromthe fish blood, which enables it to transform into ajuvenile mussel (Neves, 1991). Oncemetamorphosis has occurred, juvenile mussels dropfrom the host fish and begin the benthic phase oflife in the substrate. Reproductive maturity isreached in three to five years. The mussel-hostfish relationship is species-specific, with a particular

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species of mussel only able to develop on certainspecies of fish. Anthropogenic influence is anotherkey factor for the juvenile survival. They aresusceptible to water contamination. Wetlandecosystem disturbances reduce the habitat qualityfor globally significant migratory bird speciesbecause molluscs supply one of the major dietsfor many wetland bird species.

The present study proposes to develop a key zonefor freshwater mollusc and fish conservation torestore the natural wetland ecosystem andestablish a model for wetland biodiversityconservation in Nepal. The proposed wetlandbiodiversity conservation plan is given in Figure4. The most difficult part of this conservation planwould be proper implementation. The BardiaDistrict Development Committee hascommercialized the lake by giving licenses to fishcontractors who have introduced exotic fishspecies and exploit the lake to grow them.Although local NGOs and local communities arein favour of wetland management, the full supportof local governance to poor beneficiaries is stillrequired. Political will seems to be the primaryneed to solve the conservation problem ofBahraiya lake. At the present moment, the lake isunder the hold of fish contractors and the actualpoor beneficiaries are left out of participatorywetland management practices and do not sharebenefits from the lake income. But communityparticipation is required for the future conservationprogram and sustainable management practices.The benefits from the lake need to be given to thelocal people to educate the surrounding poorcommunities and save the Tharu culture.Conservation and monitoring committees need tobe established for the long term conservationefforts. At the local level biodiversity monitoringyouth groups will be very effective in monitoringbiodiversity of the lake.

Acknowledgements

The project was funded by a small GEF grant. Iwould like to thank Mr. Dev Man Chaudhary,Chairman of UNYC, Bardia, and Mr. GopalDahit, Project coordinator of Baharaiya WetlandConservation and Sustainable UtilizationProgramme, for providing me the opportunity towork on the wetland biodiversity of Bahraiya Tal,

and Mr. Rajesh Chaudhary (ProgramCoordinator) for assisting me in my field work.

I would also like to express my heartfelt thanks toMr. Dev Rana (former DDC chairman) and Mr.Govind Pandey (Former Mayor of GulariyaMunicipality) for providing me with relevantinformation related to the lake and pastconservation efforts. Likewise, I also acknowledgeMr. Kamaleswor Chaudhary and Mr. ChhayaDatta Bhusal (Fish contractor) for providinginformation about the local fauna and fishfarming practices in the lake. I also thank Mr.Janak Lal Chaudhary for helping me in my fieldwork and managing logistic support and Mr. TopBahadur Budha for helping in all the field works.Last but not least, special credit for all the localpeople, fishermen and women for helping in thefish sampling and for participating in interestinggroup discussions.

References

Bhandari B. 1998. An Inventory of Nepal’s TaraiWetlands. Kathmandu: IUCN

BPP. 1995. Biodiversity Assessment of TaraiWetlands. His Majesty’s Government ofNepal and Government of the Netherlands,Technical Publication No.1., Kathmandu,Nepal.

Dugan, P.J. (ed) 1990. Wetland conservation:a review of current issues and requiredaction. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

Grimmett, R., Inskipp, C. and T. Inskipp. 2000.Birds of Nepal. Helm Field Guide. PrakashBooks. New Delhi.

Nesemann, H., Sharma, S., Sharma, G., Khanal,S.N., Pradhan, B., Shah, D.N. and R.D.Tachamo. 2007. Aquatic invertebrates ofthe Ganga river system. Vol. 1 Molluca,Annelida, Crustacea (in Part). Chandi MediaPvt. Ltd. 263p.

Neves, R.J. 1991. Mollusks. Virginia’sendangered species. McDonald andWoodward Publishing Co., Blacksburg,Virginia.

Ramsar Convention Secretariat. 2007. Wetlandinventory: A Ramsar framework forwetland inventory. Ramsar handbooks forthe wise use of wetlands, 3rd edition, vol.


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12. Ramsar Convention Secretariat, Gland,Switzerland.

Shah, K.B. 1998. Checklist of theHerpetofauna of Nepal with English andVernacular names. NAHSON Bulletin.Natural History Society of Nepal 8(1-4):26-30.

Shah, K.B. and S. Tiwari. 2004. Herpetofaunaof Nepal: A conservation companion.IUCN-Nepal VIII+237 pp.

Shrestha, J. 1994. Fish, fishing implements andmethods of Nepal. Craftsman Press,Bangkok.

Siwakoti, M. and J. Karki. 2009. Conservationstatus of Ramsar sites of Nepal Tarai: anoverview. Botanical Orientalis 6: 76-84.

Subba Rao, N.V. 1989. Freshwater mollusks ofIndia. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta,289p.

Author’s address: Central Department of Zoology,Tribhuvan University; [email protected]

THE ECO-POLITICAL PERSPECTIVE: TIGERCONSERVATION IN BANGLADESH AS CASE STUDY

by Mohammed A. Ashraf

Wild tigers are the largest terrestrial carni-vores in the felid guild and are facing

extinction due to various anthropogenic impactsin the tropical belt. This obligate mega-faunaremains endangered despite the large-scale globalconservation efforts for the past several decadesto revive its dwindling populations, which arescattered across 10-11 countries in South andSouth-East Asia and Russia’s Amur region. Tigersnow live in an increasingly human-dominatedheterogeneous landscape mosaic that has becomefragmented or too small to support viable breedingpopulations for long-term survival. The exceptionappears to occur in the case of the Sundarbansmangrove ecosystem, which is the last strongholdfor the wild tiger subspecies Panthera tigris tigris,commonly known as Bengal tiger in Bangladesh.This is a unique, relatively unfragmentedecosystem and has significant socio-economicaland ecological values, thus receiving considerableconservation attention from government andnongovernmental organizations (NGOs) for thepast few decades. This paper primarily focuses

on the political dimension surrounding tigerconservation in the Sundarbans and its long-termimplications on society, culture, sustainability andthe biodiversity of Bangladesh.

Tigers evolved from the genus Pantheraapproximately two million years ago during theCenozoic era and were widely distributed in Chinaand Southeast Asia. They then expanded theirrange northwards into Russia, Japan and Korea,and south and westwards into the Indiansubcontinent and Caspian regions about one millionyears ago. Tigers branched off as a distinct speciesunder the Panthera genus long before lionPanthera leo, leopard Panthera pardus, andjaguar Panthera onca. Tiger is essentially anAsian species and the fossil evidence suggeststhat it has never been found on any othercontinents, primarily due to the geo-climatic factorsthat shaped its ecological niche, along with itsobligate mode of adaptation which is primarilybased on preying on large ungulate mammals fromtropical and sub-tropical monsoonal forests and

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riparian grassland ecosystems in South Asia.Empirical evidence suggests that in the 19th centurythere were over 100,000 tigers living in Asia, butby the turn of the mid 20th century, tiger numbershad astronomically plummeted to less than 10,000across its range nations – due to the large scaleBritish colonial hunting regime administeredfashionably and ruthlessly to systematically killtigers and other charismatic species in the Indiansubcontinent. Current estimations suggest thatthere are less than 4,000 extant subspecies of wildtigers living in scattered pockets of forested areasacross its range nations and facing stochastic anddeterministic threats in disproportionate level. Wildtiger numbers are now twenty-five times less thanits historical population size and, more importantly,the population now lives under a chronic human-induced disturbance gradient in landscapes that aretoo small to support long-term breeding populationsizes and are becoming too fragmented forpotential breeding females to disperse. Long termconservation initiatives at the national level mustfocus on politically justifiable policy formulationsthat embrace the science of conservation biologyand integrate the national scholars in thedevelopment of a biodiversity conservationframework. In the context of Bangladesh, thispolitically challenging modern conservationparadigm is much needed to help preserve the tigerecosystem of the Sundarbans.

Sundarbans biodiversity conservation approachesand action frameworks have long-standingreputations for sustainable resource managementand so far the Bangladesh government hasundertaken a number of projects to ensure theecological, social and economical sustainability ofthe Sundarbans. However, there are eco-politicalcomponents associated with the tigers of theSundarbans that are not adequately addressed bothfrom ecological and socio-economical standpoints,despite the fact that tigers are now recognized asa keystone-umbrella species under which all otherdiversity of life forms and the evolutionaryprocesses can have a fair chance for sustainablefunctionality over the long term. In other words,tigers of the Sundarbans act as an ecological litmuspaper – also known as indicator species – to helpdetect any changes of the ecosystem. This conceptis vitally important in the context of conservationpriority settings under the broader eco-political

rubric surrounding Sundarbans and tigers ofBangladesh. Resource and land managers oftenneed prompt and clear-cut managementprescriptions based on the solid science of wildlifeand conservation biology. The complexity of thematter and the funding crisis often pose significantchallenges, hence the delay for the conservationbiologists to provide quick and straightforwardanswers pertaining to species or ecosystemmanagement frameworks to policy makers andnatural resource managers. Therefore, one of thefundamental conservation components nowfocuses on establishing keystone species or thebiome concept in order to make a scientificallyjustifiable, but relatively short-cut, approach forprioritizing available resources that are atresource managers’ disposal under the prevailingsocio-political and bureaucratic setbacks whichare particularly pronounced in highly populateddeveloping nations as such Bangladesh. The lastdecade of the 20th century witnessed somesignificant advancements in wildlife science withthe remarkable shift of the conservation paradigmfrom a putative subspecies classification-basedapproach to an eco-regional-based conservation(ERBC) portfolio, which has now become thestandard framework for conservationmanagement of wild tigers across its rangenations. The 20th century also witnessed theinternational recognition of the Sundarbans as oneof the most important biodiversity hotspots onearth. It is a Ramsar site (Convention onInternational Wetlands for Waterfowl andMigratory Birds) cited for its global importanceas a potential breeding site for waterfowl andmigratory avifauna. In 1997, UNESCO (UnitedNations Education, Social and CulturalOrganization) declared a portion (approximately25%) of the Sundarbans ecosystem as a WorldHeritage Site, and most importantly, the WorldWild Fund for Nature (WWF) and the WildlifeConservation Society (WCS), USA – two of theworld’s most influential and prestigiousconservation research organizations –scientifically delineated the Sundarbans as a globalpriority Tiger Conservation Landscape (TCL),which holds a high probability for the long-termsurvival of free-ranging Bengal tigers.

These international recognitions have seriousunderpinnings in the eco-political framework

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relating to the tiger conservation approach in theBangladesh Sundarbans. At present, theincorporation of science-based tiger conservationaction programs and the all-out integration ofnational scholars are dishearteningly conservativeby the Forest Department (FD), which is thecentral government body for preserving andconserving the biodiversity of the Bangladesh. Inspite of the fact that almost all of the internationallyaccredited public and private universities inBangladesh offer undergraduate and graduatedegrees in natural science-related disciplines,notably environmental science and biology withspecializations in wildlife ecology, nonetheless, thesad reality is that large numbers of potential biologygraduates with solid conservation sciencebackgrounds remain unemployed partly due to theinherent bureaucratic barriers to joining the forestdepartment.

Forest officials of Bangladesh regularly conducttiger census through tiger paw-print-based surveysand count tiger numbers of the Sundarbans. Thepopulation size is always reported to remainbetween 400-500. However, Bangladeshi biologistMonirul Khan, under potential funding supportfrom the Save the Tiger Fund, USA, conducted astatistically valid and conceptually unifiedpopulation survey to understand tiger and its preydistribution, population density and other associatedparameters. Khan’s pioneering camera-trap‘capture-recapture’ statistical model suggeststhere are approximately 200 tigers left inBangladesh Sundarbans, where they live with adensity of 3.7 per 100 hundred km2.

Bengal tiger is the national animal of Bangladeshand is often been referred to as a flagship speciesto bring about wildlife conservation advocacy andeducation among grassroots communities and thegeneral public. National and international non-governmental organizations both have named thetiger as a keystone species in the tropical belt.Apart from the pure scientific implications toclassify tiger as flagship keystone carnivore in thefelid guild, this concept has major impact at thesocio-political and cultural levels in South Asiancountries and Bangladesh is no exception. Themajority of people in Bangladesh inherently respectand to some degree revere tigers, although theunderstanding or motivation to preserve tigers is

not reflected evenly among people, especiallyamong the poor and disadvantaged. Education andeconomic development can greatly reduce povertyand improve the people’s acceptance ofbiodiversity conservation, or more precisely thetiger conservation ethic in the Bangladesh context.A good example of the non-utilitarian conservationethic inherently present among most Bangladeshican be illustrated by observing the relationshipbetween natural resources and the populationdensity of Bangladesh in the context of theSundarbans. The Sundarbans in Bangladesh is thelargest deltaic ecosystem on earth, situated in adensely populated nation (over 800 people perkm2). These large numbers of highly impoverishedand severely malnourished people have no accessto a clean water supply, basic sanitation, standardhousing facilities and the regular intake of nutritionto maintain healthy life, yet they possess a highdegree of intrinsic and spiritual values and therebycare enough to spare the productive Sundarbansforest from the kind of large-scale exploitationwhich is found in the Amazon basin in Brazil, intiger reserves in India, and in the virgin primaryrainforest in Indonesia. The corollary is that a fairand just eco-political framework that incorporatesa holistic conservation approach integrating genderequity, equitable distribution of rural income,access to education that has strong component ofbasic ecological understanding, and mostimportantly the development of rural economiesthat are not based on the exploitation of naturalresources, will significantly improve Bangladeshis’standard of living and thus be able to put theirconservation ethic in the form of eco-stewardshipinto better practice.

The challenge Bangladesh faces in the 21st centuryto conserve the Sundarbans, its national heritageand its magnificent treasure – the tiger – mayappear enormous, but purely from the eco-politicalstandpoint, some small adjustments candramatically step up the process of tigerconservation. There is a strong mindset amonggovernment departments of Bangladesh thatconservation of species or biodiversity can onlybe achieved by recruiting western biologists.Therefore, there is an urgent need to change thiswestern-dependent biodiversity conservationmindset/practice in the direction of creating

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conservation research opportunities for Bangladeshibiologists and encouraging national talents to workwithin government departments to save the tiger.Conservation biology is a multidisciplinary sciencedrawing ethics, philosophy, tools and principles fromsuch wide disciplines as anthropology, sociology,ethnicity and cultural diversity, linguistics, theology,political science and of course evolutionary biologyand mathematics. The conservation success for asympatric charismatic mega-carnivore as such tigersurely demands international cooperation, but it alsodemands that any international conservationinitiatives must follow political, socio-cultural, andphilosophically justified pathways and provisions forresearch and explorations. A good example is thededicated conservation research work by WWF& WCS, USA. These organizations, along with theSmithsonian Institution USA, and other US graduateschools, have very strong reputations for workingwith the national governments of tiger rangecountries (Nepal and India are groundbreakingexamples for Bangladesh) to develop tigerconservation frameworks based on the solidscience of conservation biology. There arenumerous examples where potential graduates fromtiger range nations have collaborated with USorganizations and have developed significantacademic and technical capacity to indulge in insitu conservation and management withgovernments and NGOs in their respective homecountries and within WWF & WCS networkbranches across the globe. These kinds of inter-social and inter-cultural graduate and researchexchange and collaboration programs have strongelements of ecological, political and economicallyjustified mission statements and thus need to bepromoted in an eco-political conservationperspective in the Bangladesh context. TheBangladesh government must decide what kind ofconservation paradigm and mindset-shift bestbenefits the tiger and the Sundarbans ecosystemin the long run against the backdrop of creatingscholarly opportunities for potential wildlifebiologists from Bangladesh and abroad.

Bangladesh has come a long way towardsmaintaining a healthy breeding population of wildtigers and has become one of the top nations forsecuring long-term prosperity for tigers, despitechronic population and poverty-related setbacks.With a population of over 130 million, every

Bangladeshi citizen has the right to participate intiger conservation action programs, not onlybecause tigers are their national pride, but alsobecause of the high resiliency of these largenumbers of landless socially destitute people whostill protect the Sundarbans for tigers to safelybreed and sustain an ecologically healthy life. Thisrealization should help the Bangladesh governmentto develop an eco-politically justified andscientifically-based conservation perspective at thelocal, regional and national levels.

Finally, a successful conservation strategy for thetigers and the overall biodiversity of theSundarbans can only be achieved by emphasizingconservation science-based research, grassrootscommunity participation in multiple dimensions,conservation education both in formal andinformal settings, graduate opportunities forBangladeshi biologists and effective conservationpartnerships with international organizations assuch WWF & WCS that have strong multi-cultural and multi-ethnic open-door research andcapacity building policy frameworks embracingthe best available cutting-edge scientificconservation tools (GIS, Remote Sensing, RadioTelemetry) for delineating the best available tigerconservation landscapes on earth.

References

Agyeman, J. 1990. Black people in a whitelandscape: social and environmentaljustice. Built Environment, Vol. 16, No. 3,pp 232-236.

Agyeman, J. 2001. Ethnic minorities inBritain: short change, systematicindifference and sustainabledevelopment. Journal of EnvironmentalPolicy and Planning. Vol. 3 No. 1, pp 15-30.

Agyeman, J. 2005. People, Plants andPrejudice. In: Smith, V. (ed) Down theGarden Path: The Artist’s Garden afterModernism. New York. Queen’s Museumof Art.

Agyeman, J. 2006. Action, Experience,Behaviour and Technology: Why It’sJust Not the Same? Environmental

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Education Research, Vol. 12 No. ¾, pp513-522.

Agyeman, J. and B. Evans. 1996. Black onGreen: Race, Ethnicity and theEnvironment. In: B. Evans and S.Buckingham-Hatfield (eds) EnvironmentalPlanning and Sustainability. London, Wiley.

Chowdhury, Q.M. 2004. Present Conservationand Management Status of ProtectedAreas in Bangladesh. Tigerpaper 31(3):11-16.

Groom, M., Meffe, G. and R. Carroll. 2006.Principles of Conservation Biology,Sinauer Associates Inc., Massachusetts,USA. 793 pp.

Kollmuss, A. and J. Agyeman. 2002. Mind theGap: Why do people act environmentallyand what are the barriers to pro-environmental behavior? EnvironmentalEducation Research Vol. 8, pp239-260.

Karanth, K.U. and M.E. Sunquist. 1992.Population structure, density andbiomass of large herbivores in thetropical forest of Nagarahole, India.Journal of Tropical Ecology, 8, 21-35.

Karanth, K.U. and M.E. Sunquist. 1995. Preyselection by Tiger, Leopard and Dholein Tropical Forests. Journal of AnimalEcology, 64, 439-450.

Karanth, K.U. and J. Nichols. 2000. Ecologicalstatus and conservation of tigers in India.Final Technical Report to the US Fish andWildlife Service, Washington, DC and Centerfor Wildlife Studies, India.

Karanth, K.U. 2002. Monitoring Tigers andTheir Prey: A Manual for Researchers,Managers and Conservationist inTropical Asia. Center for Wildlife Studies,Bangalore, India.

Karanth, K.U. 2003. Tiger Ecology &Conservation in the Indian Subcontinent.Journal of Bombay Natural History, 100,169-189.

Khan, M.H. 2007. Project Sundarbans Tiger:Tiger density and Tiger-HumanConflict. Final Technical Report, Save theTiger Fund-National Fish & WildlifeFoundation, USA.

Neal, S. and J. Agyeman. 2006. RemakingEnglish Ruralities: Processes ofBelonging and Becoming, Continuity and

Change in Racialised Space. In: S. Nealand J. Agyeman (eds) The New Countryside?Ethnicity, Nation and Exclusion inContemporary Rural Britain’. Bristol, ThePolicy Press.

Neal, S. and J. Agyeman (eds). 2006. The NewCountryside? Ethnicity, Nation andExclusion in Contemporary RuralBritain. The Policy Press.

Roberge, J.M. and P. Angelstam. 2004.Usefulness of umbrella species conceptas conservation tool. ConservationBiology, 18, 76-85.

Sarat, B. 1999. Hotspots of Biodiversity.Environmental News India, 3. 3-6.

Schaller. G.B. 1967. The Deer and the Tiger.University of Chicago Press, Chicago, USA,370 pp.

Seidensticker, J. 1997. Save the Tiger. WildlifeSociety Bulletin, 25, 6-17.

Smith, J.L.D. 1993. The role of dispersal instructuring the Chitwan tigerpopulation. Behavior, 124, 165-195.

Sunquist, M.E. 1981. Social organization oftigers (Panthera tigris) in ChitwanNational Park, Nepal. SmithsonianContributions to Zoology, 336, 1-98.

Wikramanayake, E., McKnight, M., Dinerstein, E.,Joshi, A. and D. Smith. 2004. DesigningConservation Landscape for Tigers inHuman-Dominated Environments.Conservation Biology, 18. 839-844.

Wikramanayake, E. 1998. An ecology-basedmethod for defining priorities for largemammal conservation: The Tiger asCase Study. Conservation Biology, 12,865-878.

WWF & WCS Report. 1997. A Framework forIdentifying High Priority Areas andActions for the Conservation of Tigerin the Wild.

About the author: Mohammed Ashraf is awildlife biologist with academic interestsfocusing on wildlife population managementapproaches both from scientific and socio-political dimensions integrating a holisticparadigm based on the modern science ofconservation biology. E-mail: [email protected]

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DISTRIBUTION, DEMOGRAPHY AND CONSERVATIONSTATUS OF SARUS CRANE (Grus antigone antigone) INCHITTAURGARH DISTRICT, RAJASTHAN, INDIA

by Mohammed Yaseen and Rashmi Saxena

Introduction

Sarus crane (Grus antigone antigone) hasbeen listed as a Vulnerable species by IUCN

(2010) with criteria A2cde+3cde+4cde. Thecriteria reflects the threat to the species throughvarious means like decline in habitat quality,exploitation, pollution, competitors and parasites.

Sarus crane (Grus antigone antigone), theworld’s tallest flying bird (Archibald et al., 2003),is the only resident breeding crane in India andsoutheast Asia and has suffered a rapid populationdecline within a few decades (Choudhary et al.,1999).

It is obvious that anthropogenic activities, land usechanges and degradation of wetlands due toagricultural expansion and industrial developmenthave been found to be the most serious threats tothe cranes (Gole, 1989; Parasharya et al., 1989;

Meine et al., 1996; Kaur and Choudhary, 2003).The present study was carried out in light of theabove background. Monthly surveys of thewetlands and agricultural fields were conductedto observe the population in its natural habitat inChittaurgarh District of Rajasthan (India). Manyperennial water bodies are present in the studyarea which support this endangered bird in goodnumbers. During the study the distribution,population, breeding and seasonal movements ofSarus crane were recorded in the years 2007 to2009.

Materials and methods

For observations, 20 wetlands of ChittaurgarhDistrict were visited monthly. Out of these, sevenlarge water bodies are perennial. For studying andrecording, 8 x 40 binoculars and digital videocamera (40 x zoom) were used. To determine theabundance and distribution the ‘line transect’method was used.

The encounter rate was calculated by the simple relationship: Number of cranes counted (abundance) Encounter rate = Total length of transect (in km)

Other demographic parameters studied were, thepercentage of breeding pairs, non-breeding pairs,percentage of successful hatching, juvenile-adultratio, percentage of families with one chick andpercentage of families with two chicks. Here, thepercentage of breeding pairs means “percentageof Sarus crane pairs seen with eggs or youngones”; and juvenile-adult ratio means ratio ofjuveniles, i.e., chicks, juveniles and sub adults (asdefined by Ali and Ripley, 1980) clubbed togetherand adults.

Results and discussion

During the year 2007-08, the total number of Saruscranes found was 242, while this numberincreased to 257 in 2008-09 (Table 1). Out ofthese, in 2007-08 73.2 % (n = 177) cranes and in2008-09 76.7 % (n = 197) cranes were observedin the seven perennial wetlands of the district. Theencounter rate was 0.85 in 2007-08 and 0.82 in2008-09, while Sunder et al. (2000) found theencounter rate to be 0.2 and 0.32 in the summer

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Figure 1: Demographic parameters of Sarus Crane in percentage during study period

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and winter of the same year in Chittaurgarh district.The number of adults increased in 2008-09 butthe number of breeding pairs was only 22, while itwas 31 in 2007-08. This may be due to the shrinkingof water bodies because of less rainfall during2008-09. Similarly, egg laying was greater in 2007-08 (n = 58) and less (n = 44) in 2008-09.

The hatching success was 55.17% in 2007-08 and54.55% in 2008-09 (Figure 1). The percentage ofbreeding pairs with two chicks was 9.67% and9.09% respectively in the two years studied. Thesepairs were found to breed successfully in naturalwetlands, which are also rich in food sources. Ahigh juvenile to adult ratio (0.18:1) was found in2007-08, which dropped (0.14:1) in 2008-09. Dur-ing this study period 3 eggs and 2 chicks wereeaten by stray dogs. No adult mortality was ob-served. Cranes were observed to breed twice ayear depending upon the availability of water and

Table 1:- Abundance and demographic characteristics of Sarus Crane population in

Chittaurgarh District, Rajasthan.

Demographic Characteristic

2007-08

(June 07 to May 08)

2008-09

(June 08 to May 09)

Kilometers traveled 284 312

Total Number of Cranes 242 257

Number of adults 211 227

Non breeding pairs 35 28

Breeding pairs 31 22

Juveniles 39 33

Family with one chick 28 20

Family with two chicks 3 2

Number of nests observed 31 22

Number of eggs 58 44

Number of eggs hatched 32 24

Juvenile adult ratio 0.18:1 0.14:1

Encounter rate 0.85 0.82

suitable nesting sites. They were observed to breedduring July-August and February-March. Similarobservations have been recorded by (Ali, 1958;Ali and Ripley, 1980). According to Gole (1991):“though Sarus is a monsoon breeder but in someareas of Kota, Sarus breeds even in the driestmonths of the year (i.e., May and June). This be-havior of the bird is not seen anywhere in thestate”.

However, the availability of water throughout theyear plays a vital role in sustaining the crane popu-lation. The presence of seven perennial waterbodies in the district viz. Gousunda dam,Mangalwad talab, Talou, Bassi Dam, Ori dam,Modia Mahadev and Pangarh provides very suit-able habitat and support for increasing populationsof Sarus crane. According to Ramachandran andVijayan (1994) “The quantity of water plays amajor role in determining the breeding population

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IUCN 2010. 2010 IUCN Red List of ThreatenedSpecies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.http://www.iucnredlist.org

Kaur, J. and B.C. Choudhary. 2003. Stealing ofSarus Crane eggs. Current Science. 85(11): 1515-16.

Meine, C.D. and G.D. Archibald. 1996. TheCranes: Status survey and conservationaction plan. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland andCambridge, U.K, pp. 294.

Parasharya, B.M., Mathew, K.L. and D.N.Yadav. 1989. Status and habitatpreference of Indian Sarus Crane inGujarat, India. Paper presented in theAsian Crane Congress at Rajkot, Gujarat.

Ramachandran, K. and V.S. Vijayan. 1994.Distribution and general ecology of theSarus Crane (Grus antigone) inKeoladeo National Park, Bharatpur,Rajasthan. J. Bombay Nat Hist. Soc.91(2); 21 1-223.

Sundar, K.S.G.; Kaur, J. and B.C. Choduhary.1999. Distribution, general ecology andconservation status of the Indian SarusCrane (Grus antigone antigone) in India.Report of an all India survey 1998-99.Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun, pp. 122.

Walkinshan, L.W. 1973. Cranes of the World.Winchester Press, New York.

Authors’ address: Dept. of Zoology, B.N.P.G.College, Udaipur, Rajasthan (India)-313001;For correspondence: Dr.Rashmi Saxena,‘Sopan’, 71, Madhav Vihar, Shobhagpura,Udaipur-313001; Tel: +91-294-2803421; E-mail: [email protected]

of the species” and according to Walkinshaw (1973)“more substantial movements of the crane occuronly in response to monsoons and droughts”. Butit is disheartening to observe that the increase inpopulation did not contribute much increase in thebreeding population. It was about 29.38 % in 2007-08, which dropped to 19.38 % the next year. Deg-radation of wetlands, poaching, nest destruction,changes in agricultural practices and conflict withfarmers in the catchments of the wetlands havebeen the main factors behind this decline.

Acknowledgements

The authors are highly grateful for the support andfacilities provided by Dr.Y.S.Jhala, Principal,B.N.P.G. College and Sh. N.L.Sharma, H.O.D.Zoology. We thank the Department of Forest,Rajasthan, India, for giving us permission to doresearch work on this bird. We are most gratefulto Dr. R. Tehsin, Dr. S. K. Sharma, S. Dubey, Dr.K. Saxena and Dr. A. S. Rathore for their con-stant inspiration and critical analysis of work dur-ing the study period. We are also thankful to DilipMali and Vijay Koli for their help during the sur-vey.

References

Ali, S. 1958. Notes on the Sarus Crane. Early‘imprinting’ of vital commands. J. BombayNat. Hist. Soc. 55: 166-169.

Ali, S. and S.D. Ripley. 1980. Hand book of theBirds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 2: MegaPodes to Crab Plovers. J. Oxford UniversityPress, Delhi.

Archibald, G.W., Sunder, K.S.G. and J. Barzen.2003. A review of three species of SarusCrane (Grus antigone). Journal ofEcological Society, 16 : 5-15.

Choudhary, B.C., Kaur, J. and K.S.G. Sundar.1999. Sarus Crane Count 1999. WildlifeInstitute of India, Dehradun, India. pp 23.

Gole, P. 1989. The status and ecologicalrequirements of Sarus Crane. Phase I.Jr. of Ecological Society of India, Pune.pp. 45.

Goel, P. 1991. Welfare of the Tallest Flying Birdin the World. Journal of EcologicalSociety, vol. 4, 29-42.

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BREEDING OF VULTURES IN THE WILD

by Devinder Singh Dhadwal

The situation is grim, but it is not all over yet.The master flier is in danger and the danger

is not from Nature but from Man. The populationof some gyps vultures in South Asia fell by morethan 95% in just a few years in the 1990s andthree of them are classified as criticallyendangered: G. bengalensis, G. tenuirostris andG. indicus. All three species have been decliningat an alarming rate across the Indian sub-continent. IUCN has listed them as criticallyendangered and indicates that they will becomeextinct in the near future. Initially, scientistsweren’t able to identify the reason for this crisis.The breakthrough came in the year 2004 whennew research identified a veterinary drug as thereason behind this debacle. Hopefully, the bird nowcan be saved if some other cause does not attackit, as there is no conclusive evidence that any othercause is involved. The veterinary drug “diclofenac”has been banned recently by the government toreduce the impact on this bird. But in spite of theban on this lethal drug, it is still easily available inthe market is still in use.

Vultures have helped in disposing of carcasses andreducing the risk of diseases. With the decrease inthe population of vultures, the carcasses are takingmore time to decay and as such, the sanitation

problems are on the rise and feral dogs areincreasing in number, subsequently increasing therisk to human health. Vultures are very importantbirds and their decline will have an adverse effectupon other wildlife and domestic animals andultimately affect the existence of human beings.

The doomsday for this master bird has not yetarrived as the breeding of the bird in the wild hascreated new hopes for the survival of this species.

Total nesting of gyps since October 2006 = 40.Total successful breeding = 38. Mortality = 5%.The successful survival percentage of these birdsin the wild is 95%, which is a ray of hope in thedark. The mortality of 5% is recorded in the caseof white rumped vultures and the mortality ofHimalyan griffin and Egyptian vultures is nil.

Distt. Kangra, Himachal Pradesh, India, is blessedwith the breeding of these birds in the wild. Varioussites have been recorded in the district wherevultures are breeding without any kind of mortality.

Table 1 records the species that have been undersupervision since October 2006:

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Table 1: Nesting populations under supervision since October 2006 No. Name of

forest Location Altitude

(in ft) Name of vulture spp.

Name of nesting tree spp

No. of nests

Fledgelings

1 P-14kc2c1 Pandhbar, Lapiana range

N-32-9.937, E-076-08.476 & surrounding 10 ha area

2,100 White rumped vulture

Pinus roxburgii Class-1-d

10 10

2 U.p-45k & 46k Upper Pandu

About 1.50 km from location (1)

2,500 White rumped vulture


02 2

3 Salol N32-07.493 to n32-07.577, e-076-10.818 to e-076-10.972

About 2,000

White rumped vulture


06 06

4 U-26 Barla,c3

N 32-01.721, e-075-56.500

About 1,470


1)Pinus roxburgii Class-1-d 2)Ficus religiosa

1) 03 2) 01

1) 01 2) 01

5 U-15 Dhameta c3

N 32-01.758, e-075-56.937

About 1,550


..do.. 01 01

6

U-13 Junath c8&c9

N 32-01.123, e-075-56.206

About 1,635


1)Pinus roxburgii 2) Ficus religiosa

1) 01 2) 01

1) 01 2) 01

7 R-29d, Loh jung,c2b

N 32-00.395, e-075-56.801

About 1,550

1)White rumped vulture 2)Egyp-tian vulture

1)Pinus roxburgii 2) Rocks

1) 05 2) 02

1) 05 2) 02

8

U 40 Katrah, C2

N 31-59.565, e-075-57.842

About 1,470

1)Hima-layan griffin 2)White rumped vulture 3)Egyp-tian vulture

1)Ficus bengalensis 2)Pinus roxburgii 3)Rocks

1) 01 2) 04 3) 02

1) 01 2) 04 3) 02

9 U 40 Katrah

N 31-58.986, e-075-58.190

About 1,440


Pinus roxburgii 01 01

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It was observed that sometimes the young areleft unattended during the nights as their parentsremain out for one reason or another. The nestsin this case are made with leafs and branches ofthe chil tree. The bird is breeding species-wise incolonies of about 3 to 10 nests. They are breedingin the branched old conifer trees and thereforesuch trees need special care to protect the existinghabitat.

Conclusion

Man himself is responsible for themismanagement. For long term sustainability ofthe fragile ecosystem it is now essential formankind to reconsider, redefine and replan someof the vulnerable global issues for its ownexistence. Giving protection to the vulture is oneof such steps that man has taken for the ecologicalbalance and subsequently, to reduce theaftereffects on mankind. There is a ray of hope ifsuch breeding grounds that exist in the wild aretaken care of in the future, as it is difficult to re-introduce gyps in the forest after captive breedingas is being tried in different parts of the world.

Recommendations

Nesting areas have to be identified in differentforest divisions for basic future planning.

The felling of trees in potential nesting areashas to be stopped at once, keeping in viewthe importance of the issue. Even the driedtrees from such areas should not be felled asthe vultures use such trees for roosting. Themother plants need special care as all thebreeding is recorded in the old mother plantsThe local public should be involved in theprotection of the bird and its breeding grounds.The unaffected animals which were nevergiven drugs like declofenac in the surroundingareas should be identified so that the animalsafter natural death could be supplied to thebreeding ground so that the mortality chancesof the birds can be reduced.Sensitivity and co-ordination of variousgovernment sectors, NGOs and the public atlocal and global levels is required to reducethe cruelty to the vultures and to help protectthe habitat of the birds.Education and awareness campaigns areneeded to highlight the contribution of this skybird to the overall importance of mankind.

The author is Forest Range Officer, PongLake (International RAMSAR site); e-mail:[email protected]

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Vol. XXIV: No.4 October-December 2010

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FOREST NEWSFOREST NEWS

Vol. XXIV: No. 4 Oct-Dec 2010

KIDS TO FORESTS“FOR THE FUTURE OF THE WORLD!”

Sometimes we’re so concerned about giving our children what we never had growing up, we neglectto give them what we did have growing up.

- James C. Dobson

The FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacificand the National Forest Programme Facility recentlylaunched a new youth education program, aimed atenhancing learning and understanding of issues relatedto trees and forests, forest management and soundutilization of forest resources. The “Kids-to-Forests”initiative seeks to introduce students to the wondersof the world’s trees and forests, and expose them tothe multiple benefits of forests through hands-onlearning aimed at better understanding of sustainableforest management.

“We hope to instill a sense of appreciation amongstudents by taking them to working forests,introducing them to local people who use anddepend on forests, and helping them to understandthe environmental benefits of managing forests inan active manner,” explained Patrick Durst, FAO’ssenior forestry officer for Asia-Pacific and architectof the Kids-to-Forests initiative.

While many schools and NGOs organizeenvironmental and forest-related educationalactivities for children, most existing programs stressforest protection and ecology while paying little orno attention to forest management and utilization.“The Kids-to-Forest initiative grew out my personalfrustration with environmental programs that myown daughter was participating in, which continuallystressed that cutting trees was bad and logging wasevil,” Durst elaborated.

“Students are regularly bombarded with messagesabout the need for forest protection – which isimportant, of course – but kids are rarely taught

about the potential for sustainable managementand use of forests,” according to Durst. “TheKids-to-Forests” program aims to build greaterappreciation among students for the multiplebenefits of forests and the potential to manageand use forest resources sustainably.”

The new initiative targets primary and secondaryschool students and teachers. Education isparticularly effective when it involves hands-on learning experiences with younger schoolstudents, some of whom have never previouslyset foot inside a real forest.

One of the main reasons that environmentaleducation programs fail to address managementand sustainable use of forests is that teachersgenerally lack relevant educational materials.The Kids-to-Forests initiative therefore is alsoemphasizing the development and localadaptation of balanced and creative forestry-related educational materials to be madeavailable to schools and teachers.

The NFP Facility is supporting seven countries(Cambodia, China, Fiji, Lao PDR, Mongoliaand the Philippines) to pilot the Kids-to-Forestsprogram. Partner NGOs and forestry agenciesare currently testing a wide range of innovativeeducational activities for students and youth,with a view toward identifying the mostpromising approaches. Earlier efforts werepiloted in Thailand, where support for expandingthe program is currently being sought from othersources.

Vol. XXIV: No. 4 October-December 2010

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Activities

Phase I: Designing and implementing countryprograms

The NFP Facility will provide selected implementinginstitutions in each participating country withUS$10,000 for Kids-to-Forests activities. Eachcountry is expected to conduct Kids-to-Forestsactivities in at least two schools, with each educationprogram focusing on how sustainably managed forestscontribute to economic growth, improved livelihoods,and environmental services.

The two primary components of country programsare:1. Engaging students with hands-on learning

experiences such as interactive field visits,games, activities and discussions.

2. Developing appropriate educational materialsby working with teachers and school officialsto adapt materials to local needs, and makethem more interesting and engaging.

Possible Kids-to-Forests learning modules include:Harvesting forest products;Community forestry;Diversity and value of forest-based products;Regenerating and enriching natural forests; andWilderness and ecosystem services.

Expected outputs:Students of at least two schools in eachselected country participate in activities tailoredto enhance sustainable forest managementeducation and gain associated knowledge,values, attitudes and skills.

Teachers become more knowledgeable aboutsustainable forest management and better ableto convey information on its underlyingprinciples.Teachers and education officials in eachparticipating country understand currentsustainable forest management educationmaterials and methodologies and suggest howthey can be improved.

Phase II: Sharing of experiences and lessonslearned

Two representatives from each country will beinvited to share their experiences at a workshopheld during the 2nd Asia-Pacific Forest Week inNovember 2011 in Beijing, China.

The workshop during Forestry Week is expectedto focus on the following:Expected outputs:

Synthesize lessons learned to assess whetherKids-to-Forest should be scaled-up into a largerproject in Asia and the Pacific.Evaluate lessons learned to determineadditional opportunities and approaches forincluding environmental and forestry issues inprimary school education programs, such assubmitting lessons learned to the Ministries ofEducation and Culture.Establish a network of educators and forestmanagers, strengthening the individual capacityof institutions to undertake sustainable forestmanagement educational activities.

Determine if benefits, opportunities andfunding prospects exist to scale up “Kids-to-Forests” activities.

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THAI SCHOOL CHILDREN AND FAO STAFF SWEATTOGETHER TO REFOREST DEGRADED AREA INKANCHANABURI

On a hot Saturday in September 2010, a degradedforest in Kanchanaburi province in Thailand was“invaded” by rag-tag groups dressed in green T-shirts. These active and environmentally-mindedpeople were local schoolchildren and staff fromFAO. The one-day tree planting excursion kickedoff a larger initiative on forestry education foryouth called “Kids-to-Forests.”

In the early morning of 11 September, about 25FAO staff and associated family membersembarked on a 3-hour bus ride to Kanchanaburiprovince. Students from several classes of acollaborating school waited for them. The mainobjective of the day was very clear: plant treeseedlings in the adjacent degraded forest – and doso in an interactive way. Special green t-shirts wereproduced for the occasion. Participating youthsfrom the International School Bangkok organizedice-breaking games to foster friendship from thevery beginning. The Thai school children on theirside, most aged between 5 and 14 years, werevery enthusiastic. During the tree-planting activity

itself, 2-children teams were linked with an FAOstaff, who guided the work and highlighted theimportance of trees and forests. Altogetherapproximately 1,200 trees were planted within afew hours. The trip also included a visit to thestudents’ school, and the beautiful greensurroundings.

The FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific,in collaboration with the National ForestProgramme Facility, is developing the new “Kids-to-Forests” initiative, which seeks to strengthenand modernize school education on forestry-relatedmatters. A core philosophy in this endeavor is thatforestry education activities need to go beyondmere recognition of forests as a beautiful andhealthy place, and to also focus on the merits ofsustainable management and utilization of forestresources it represents. A central pillar of the Kids-to-Forests initiative is to take a fresh look ateducation materials and teaching methods appliedin forestry education – with the aim of makingboth more interactive and exciting for the students.

Prepared by Sverre Tvinnereim (Associate Professional Officer), FAO Regional Office of Asia and thePacific


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KIDS-TO-FORESTS - A KID’S-EYE PERSPECTIVE

Contributed by Regina Durst

The first Thailand Kids-to-Forests program wasone of great success, aside from getting up beforedawn for the departure. As we got on the bus, Iwondered who had chosen such an early hour toleave and marveled at everyone else’s ability to beso perky that early in the morning. Falling asleep,I didn’t really notice the length of the bus ride, butit still managed to feel like ages before we got tothe remote village in Kanchanaburi, Thailand.

When we got to the village, the school kids sat inrows to hear the introductory speeches. It was anecessary step of the day, but definitely not themost exciting one. Finally, the formalities were overand we began to make nametags for everyone.After everyone had gotten their nametags, wegathered up the seedlings and headed up themountain.

As we walked up, I examined the young tree Iwas holding. It wasn’t particularly strong-looking;as a matter of fact, it seemed as though I couldsnap it if I wasn’t careful! Still, I had high hopesfor this seedling. With proper care, and a little bitof luck, it would grow wonderfully.

Before long, I found a hole to put my seedling in.The villagers had set up hundreds of holes for usin advance. Pulling off the plastic that held the

tree’s roots together, I laid it in the hole, and usedmy hands to push the dirt back into the hole to fillit. Carefully, but firmly, I packed down the soilaround my tree. Already feeling the sun beatingdown upon my neck, I wondered why I hadn’tthought of bringing a hat.

Two hours and many, many trees later, everyonewas sweaty and dirt-covered. Despite being mildlyexhausted, everyone had big smiles on their faces,congratulating themselves and each other for a jobwell done as we looked out over the fields ofseedlings.

The local people were wonderful in preparing lunchfor us. Their cooking was so delicious, I was sorelytempted to go back for thirds, but myembarrassment decided for me. Besides, I had yetto try their dessert!

After everything else was done, we took a big sheetof paper and each person drew a picture of whatthey’d like to see in forests in the future. Most ofus added a plant or an animal, but one child drewa person. It didn’t seem out of place or awkward,and in my eyes, it summed up everything that thisday was about. It was a drawing of a future inwhich people understood how to manage the forestproperly and felt at home in one.

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TREE PLANTING CEREMONY, NAKHON PHANOMUNIVERSITY, THAILAND

Prepared by S. Appanah, NFP Advisor (Asia-Pacific)

In Thailand, imbued with a rich Buddhist culture,ceremonies are common scenes. FAO continuedthe tradition with its tree planting ceremony in asmall corner of the world that is lapped by themighty Mekong River. In conjunction with theWorld Food Day event, a Tree Planting Ceremonywas organized on 22 October in the grounds ofNakhon Phanom University. It was organizedjointly by FAO/RAP, the Royal Forest Department(RFD) and Nakhon Phanom University. The mainobjective was to promote the planting ofindigenous long-rotation tree species in Thailand.

Over 100 participants, including school children,staff of the University, RFD and FAO/RAPgathered in the university auditorium. Mr. AdulratTongtawee, Director of Forest Planning andInformation (RFD), delivered the welcome addresswhere he thanked FAO/RAP for supporting thisimportant initiative in Thailand. Mr. HiroyukiKonuma, Assistant Director-General/RegionalRepresentative (FAO/RAP), addressed theparticipants about the cooperation achievedbetween FAO and RFD, the world’s concern withhunger and food security, and how the situation isfurther exacerbated by climate change and naturaldisasters being observed increasingly worldwide.

In this regard, tree planting and forest conservationare becoming valuable tools for reducing globalcarbon emissions and reversing the impact ofclimate change. Additional values of tree plantingwere also pointed out.

Following the addresses, the tree plantingceremony was conducted. One hundred saplingsof mostly timber species (Shorea roxburghii,Shorea siamensis, Dipterocarpus spp., Swieteniamacrophylla, Fagraea fragrans, etc.) were planted.RFD staff assisted with the planting, and each plantwas tagged with its name and that of the personwho planted it. T-shirts were also distributed tothe school children to mark the occasion. The treeplanting ceremony was partially supported by the“Participation of tree plantation farmers insustainable forest management” project (TCP/THA/3203 (D)). The project is working to increaseparticipation of farmers in planting long-rotationindigenous species in the country. Existinggovernment programmes have been desultory, andthe project is currently looking at some of the policyand regulatory frameworks which constrain theparticipation of farmers in planting long-rotationindigenous species.


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FAO SEES OPPORTUNITY IN THAILAND’S BIOFUELPLANS, BUT QUESTIONS REMAIN

Prepared by Beau Damen

Improvements in agricultural productivity and theresponsible management of natural resources insupport of the biofuel sector will unlock additionalbenefits for farmers, industry and the environmentin Thailand. This was one of the key findings toemerge from FAO’s year-long Bioenergy and FoodSecurity (BEFS) Project.

Thailand has ambitious plans to develop its biofuelindustry. The Thai Government’s AlternativeEnergy Development Plan (AEDP) aims to expandthe production of biofuels six-fold to 5 billion litersby 2022 (Figure 1). Using the BEFS analyticalframework and tools specially developed by FAO,a research team consisting of Thai and internationalexperts was assembled to look at these plans indetail.

Opportunities to raise farm output andproductivity

While Thailand is one of the world’s largestexporters of agricultural commodities, farmproductivity is, in some cases, well below worldbenchmarks. As a result, the BEFS research teamfound that meeting the government’s biofuel targetswill provide a number of opportunities to drivefresh agricultural development in Thailand.

Government expects that this growth will not beaccompanied by significant changes in crop andland use. As a result, substantial growth in theproductivity of Thai farmers is required. It ishoped that this will draw fresh attention to theplight of many in Thailand’s poorer farmingregions and attract new assistance to improvefarming systems and lift yields.

In fact, the research suggests that better yieldswill deliver multiple benefits beyond the farm.While biofuels production in Thailand wasalready found to be economically competitiveand offer measurable greenhouse gas mitigationadvantages over fossil transport fuels, improvingthe productivity of feedstock producers would

To meet the requirements of the biofuel targetsand domestic demand, production of key biofuelfeedstock will need to grow substantially overthe next decade. FAO projections indicate thatproduction of sugar cane molasses and palm oilis anticipated to double by 2018, while cassavaproduction is expected to grow by 50 percent.

Due to government policies designed to controlland allocations for certain crops, the Thai

Figure 1: Actual and planned biofuel production under AEDP

Source: Thailand Ministry of Energy

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stabilize feedstock costs and reduce greenhousegas emissions per unit of fuel produced.

Questions remain

But the findings also raise a number of questions.Even with predictions of substantial yield growth,the BEFS research team found that it will beunlikely to account for all of the growth inproduction. As a result, expansion in biofuel cropplantings are predicted despite the government’spreventative polices (Figure 2). In addition, theexpected growth in production will not be able tomeet the country’s additional demand for biofuelfeedstock crops and sustain existing domestic andexport markets. Consequently declines in the exportof some commodities are also anticipated. Thisoutlook presents a number of potential problems.

FAO’s projections suggest that the increase inbiofuel crop plantings will come at the expense ofrice cultivation. Meanwhile, the productivity of ricegrowers is expected to stagnate. While thesedevelopments are projected to lead to a relativelysmall decline in rice production, increasingdomestic consumption of rice to meet the demandsof Thailand’s growing population will halve thecountry’s rice exports by 2018. Given that rice isa key staple food crop in the region and Thailandis one of the world’s largest rice exporters, this

The anticipated drop in exports indicate that thesuccessful achievement of the Thai Government’sbiofuel targets is underpinned by an assumptionthat the potential returns farmers will receive fuelingthe domestic biofuel sector will be greater thanthose on world export markets. There is growingreason to believe that this assumption may not hold.

Rising prices could upset plans

Prices for many traded biofuel feedstockcommodities including sugar, cassava and vegetable

oils have been climbing. In Asia and the Pacific,increasingly robust demand from China, not onlyfor food but also for biofuel feedstock, is likely toensure prices remain high for some time.

In the case of cassava, the situation in Thailandhas been complicated by a recent pest infestation.After ten years of growth, Thailand’s cassavaoutput in 2010 is expected to decline by around25 percent from 2009 levels and a further fourpercent in 2011. The confluence of growingdemand, limited supply and, ultimately, higher

could lead to escalation of regional food prices.This situation will be further complicated by theexpectation that the decline in Thailand’s riceexports will be matched by similar declines in the

Figure 2: Projected changes in area for key agricultural crops Source: FAO


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prices, will translate into wafer thin margins forThai cassava ethanol producers and increasinglyunacceptable opportunity costs for cassava farmerssupplying the domestic biofuel industry. If thissituation persists it will jeopardize the ThaiGovernment’s timetable for achieving its biofueltargets and perhaps its resolve to stick by them inthe long run.

Policy commitment will be pivotal

But faltering on policy, in general, should beavoided. Strong commitment to the plan shouldattract necessary investment and support toThailand’s agriculture sector. Better extensionservices and training regarding crop managementand the effects of land use change will foster moresustainable, productive and profitable farmingenterprises. The expansion of regional demand forbiofuel feedstock and other agriculturalcommodities fuelled by robust regional growth andexpanding markets in China and India could alsohave spillover benefits for other developing

agricultural communities in the neighboringMekong region.

FAO’s findings were presented to government andprivate sector representatives at two publicconsultations held in March and June 2010. Thefinal Thailand reports are now available from theBEFS website (http://www.fao.org/bioenergy/foodsecurity/befs/en/). FAO hopes that thecapacity this exercise has developed within publicand private institutions in Thailand will enableregular, similar assessments of the biofuel sectorover the life of the AEDP.

In the meantime, FAO is looking to better quantifyand assess the regional impacts of developingbiofuel and forms of bioenergy on food securityand the environment. A regional assessment iscurrently underway in South Asia, with potentialfor similar regional assessments to be undertakenin South East Asia. FAO believes this work will beessential in helping governments in the regionassess the many, sometimes unforeseen, trade-offsassociated with bioenergy development.

Prepared by Jeremy Broadhead, Consultant

Forest policy changes in Asia have often beendriven by natural disasters such as floods, droughtsand landslides. Perceived roles of trees and forestsin averting or mitigating such disasters have beenused to support radical policy realignments, buthow important are they in comparison with otherfactors?

In Asia, populations, infrastructure and economicactivity are expanding into marginal lands. Theassociated loss of vegetation and alteration ofhillslopes, particularly from road construction,logging and agricultural activity, has increased riskto life and assets from landslides, whileenvironmental degradation has also taken place.The projected increase in the frequency of extremerainfall events in many parts of Asia is also likelyto raise landslide incidence, further compoundingthe problem.

The preponderance of landslide deaths in poorercountries and experience of successful reductionof landslide risk in many areas around the regionand around the world suggest that much can bedone to avoid future landslides and associatedlosses.

An upcoming FAO publication looks at the rolesof trees and forests in the prevention of landslidesand rehabilitation of landslide-affected areas inAsia. It aims to bring information to policy mak-ers aimed at safeguarding lives and environmentaland economic assets in times of rapid develop-ment and predicted changes in rainfall and climatein the region.

The report will be published in June 2011 and willbe available at the following address: http://www.fao.org/world/regional/rap/nre/about

The role of forests and forestry in the prevention of landslidesand rehabilitation of landslide affected areas in Asia

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INTERACTIVE SHARING OF KNOWLEDGE ANDEXPERIENCE ON RESTORING FOREST LANDSCAPES

Prepared by Marija Spirovska-Kono, Consultant

The world’s forests are endangered. Every year,an area of forest the size of Greece disappears.The planet’s capacity to support itself is constantlybeing whittled away. Governments, industry andcampaigning groups are working hard to reducedeforestation. But that alone is not enough. ForestLandscape Restoration (FLR) can remedy thedamage done to landscapes and livelihoods by thedestruction and degradation of forests. It can helpto build sustainable relationships amongcommunities, commercial interests and thedamaged ecosystems on which they depend.

But it is not a quick or easy fix. There is no one-size-fits-all formula for restoring forest landscapes.Simply planting trees and crossing fingers doesn’twork. Every landscape, every set of social,economic, environmental and legal circumstancesis different and complex. Tropical forests aremarked by different dynamics and levels ofresilience than boreal forests. Societal needs andpolicy frameworks differ across the world.Therefore, solutions have to be tailored to eachindividual situation. They have to be flexible overtime and incorporate sustainable practices that canserve the needs of many stakeholders in the longterm.

This is the rationale behind the Learning Networkon Landscape Restoration, established by theGlobal Partnership on FLR (GPFLR). The aimof this growing network is to provide a store ofFLR experiences, capturing the real-world nuances

and uniqueness of different approaches, andgenerating tools and knowledge that can supportpractitioners in the field. Besides providing generalinformation on FLR, the learning network drawsout and shares insights into the practical activitiesand outcomes in a number of selected learningsites all over the world. And an interactivediscussion forum allows practitioners and policymakers to directly share their experiences, andincrease their knowledge.

A recent online learning event gathered 175practitioners across the globe to jointly define anddiscuss FLR and its various forms ofimplementation. By collectively reading articles,watching videos, and virtually visiting learning sites,participants gradually built up their common poolof knowledge. Through online discussions andteleconferences, participants shared their ideas onissues like restoration techniques, stakeholderinvolvement, land ownership, private sectorinvolvement, and climate change. In this interactiveway, policy development was brought closer towhat is happening on the ground, as it happens.

For further information on the Global Partnershipon Forest Landscape Restoration and its learninggroup, visit www.ideastransformlandscapes.org, orvisit the online discussion on http://forestlandscaperestoration.ning.com/.


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ADVANCING STRATEGIC PLANNING IN PACIFICFORESTRY

As part of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector OutlookStudy 2020 process, eight countries in the Pacificregion drafted country papers aimed at assessingtrends in forestry and developing scenarios for thefuture up to 2020. The Outlook Study is nearingcompletion and there is a plan for follow-up workto be conducted inmost Asia-Pacificcountries tofacilitate uptakeand use of theinformation andresults.

At the PacificHeads of ForestryMeeting, held inNadi, Fiji inSeptember 2009,FAO wasrequested toprovide support toPacific countriesfor follow-up tothe Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study2020, with a focus on strategic planning,rationalization of forest policies, and re-orientationof policies to meet emerging challenges in forestry.In responding to the request, the Secretariat of thePacific Community (SPC), with support fromFAO, the National Forest Programme Facility (NFPFacility) and German Development Cooperation(GTZ), organized the “Workshop on StrategicPlanning for Pacific Forestry” in Nadi, Fiji, 21–23April 2010.

The main objective of the workshop was toadvance strategic planning in Pacific forestry onthe basis of forestry outlook studies completedunder the Asia-Pacific Forestry Outlook Study

2020, and to produce related policy briefs andrecommendations for each country.

The workshop brought together senior forestryofficers, who are working for governments andother agencies in the areas of forestry policy,

p l a n n i n g ,legislation, etc.,from Fiji, Kiribati,Papua NewGuinea, Samoa,Solomon Islands,Tonga, Tuvaluand Vanuatu.P a r t i c i p a n t sanalyzed theimpacts of driversof change inforestry at thecountry level inthe context offorest productsproduction ande m p l o y m e n t ,

protection forests and environmental services andon policies and institutions. As an outcome, thefive most important drivers of change for theregion were identified as follows:

Climate changeInvasive speciesForestry and poverty reductionInnovative funding arrangements forforestry-related programmesHuman resources and capacity building.

Participants also prepared policy briefs withdefined sections on each of five thematic areas,taking into account the issues highlighted in theprevious analysis. These policy briefs will be thebasis for planning future activities in the region.

Prepared by Fan Xiaojie, nfp Facility Coach (Asia-Pacific)

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PAKISTAN EXTENDS PARTNERSHIP WITH THENATIONAL FOREST PROGRAMME FACILITY

Prepared by Fan Xiaojie, nfp Facility Coach (Asia-Pacific)

The first partnership between Pakistan and theNational Forest Programme Facility was launchedin February 2004. To achieve the goals ofenhancing stakeholder participation in forest policyand creating greater ownership, eight studies havebeen initiated through allocation of $300,000 ofsmall grants to non-government institutions. Themajor accomplishments have includeddevelopment of a number of important documents,such as: National Vision 2030 for Forest andBiodiversity Conservation; Methodology forValuation Forest Goods and Services; NationalResponse Strategy to Combat Impact of ClimateChange on Forests; Compensation Mechanism inlieu of a ban on commercial harvesting of forests;and Forest Communication Strategy. Additionally,work has been carried out to develop a Public-Private Partnership within the forestry sector andestablishment of a forum for consultation of forestpolicy issues at different levels. A variety ofstakeholders at federal, provincial, district and locallevels (including government agencies, NGOs,CBOs and research institutions and so on) havebeen invited to join in collaborative actions relatingto the national forest programme.

Through the 5-year implementation of the FirstPartnership Agreement, the Government ofPakistan has recognized and appreciated theoutcomes of the activities accomplished under thepartnership and considered it has contributedgreatly to Pakistan’s forestry development inachieving sustainable forestry management. Theevaluation on the outcomes and impact of the firstphase of the partnership, carried out by theGovernment through involvement of keystakeholders, concludes that Pakistan should carryforward the partnership to a second phase andexpand the scope of activities so that more

stakeholders from federal down to local levelscould participate. This conclusion has led to thedecision of the National Steering Committee toapply for the Second Partnership Agreement till2012 for another $200,000 support, and thisrequest was approved by the Facility SteeringCommittee in February 2010.

The Concept Note submitted by the Office of theInspector General of Forests of Pakistan presenteda detailed logical framework for the second phaseof the partnership, with a close link to the overallobjectives of the nfp process in Pakistan. It aimsto: i) promote synthesis and mainstreaming of thenfp initiatives’ recommendations at national andsub-national level; ii) facilitate the process of policyevolution and improving legal framework; iii)establish mechanisms for knowledge managementand communication among key players; iv)enhance understanding on the ecosystem-basedforest management approach; and v) implement amonitoring mechanism for reporting on nfpactivities. Besides the clearly illustrated objectives,activities and expected outputs to be carried outunder the new Agreement, the Concept Note alsostipulates the foreseen impact and indicators formonitoring, based on principles and indicators ofthe Facility M&E system – Outcome and ImpactMonitoring and Evaluation System/Result BasedManagement (OIMES/RBM).

The extended partnership is seen as a value-addedproposal to complement the current efforts inachieving a wider scope of nfp objectives inPakistan, though the grant is relatively smallcompared to other national and internationalsupports. Most importantly, it provides a practicalmechanism to involve multi-stakeholders in the nfpprocess in Pakistan.


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PREPARATIONS FOR THE SECOND ASIA-PACIFICFORESTRY WEEK TOP THE AGENDA AT THE SEVENTHAPFC EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE MEETING

Prepared by Sverre Tvinnereim(Associate Professional Officer),FAO Regional Office of Asia and the Pacific

The Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission’s ExecutiveCommittee meeting, held 13-14 January 2011,brought together four members of the Committee(chairperson and three vice-chairs) and fivemembers of key partner organizations of the APFC,supported by nine representatives of FAO. Thiswas the first opportunity for the Secretariat of theAPFC (based at the FAO Regional Office for Asiaand the Pacific) to engage in substantial face-to-face discussions with representatives of theChinese hosts for the upcoming APFC events,represented in Hua Hin by the State ForestryAdministration (SFA) of the Chinese governmentand the Asia-Pacific Forestry Network forSustainable Forest Management and Rehabilitation(APFNet).

Given the anticipated magnitude of the upcomingSecond Asia-Pacific Forestry Week (APFW),which will be held 7-11 November 2011 in Bejing,China, preparations for this event naturally becamethe main discussion item. Patrick Durst presentedthe Secretariat’s perspectives of expectations forthe Second Asia-Pacific Forestry Week. Heemphasized the desire to make the APFW the mostsignificant forestry event of the year in the region.

The main objectives of the APFW include: i)bringing together a diverse range of stakeholders;ii) forging new collaboration and initiatives; iii)sharing knowledge and insights; and iv) influencingthe agenda of the Asia-Pacific forestry sector. Mr.Durst outlined the resources available to supportthe event. Principal among these resources is thecommitment of FAO to make the event successful,

along with the dedicated support of APFNet. Healso highlighted the experience obtained fromorganizing the first APFW. It was emphasized thatthe APFC Executive Committee should play anactive role in shaping the content and profile ofthe event.

The meeting made recommendations on the overalltheme for the event and also provided valuablesuggestions for topics for plenary sessions andkeynote speakers. Furthermore, crucial logisticalissues were discussed.

Also on the agenda was a discussion on how toenhance the communication of the Asia-PacificForestry Commission. Activity and enthusiasm isalways strong leading up to and during sessions ofAPFC, whereas it has proven more difficult to keepup interest and engagement in the periods betweenthe sessions. The Committee made suggestions forenhancing communication with member countriesand within the Executive Committee itself, suchas more face-to-face meetings.

Finally, the Executive Committee spentconsiderable time reviewing APFC- and FAO-supported activities. The focus was on whetherthe APFC was on track in implementingrecommendations from its 23rd Session held inThimphu, Bhutan, in June 2011. The ExecutiveCommittee expressed overall satisfaction with theprogress made, but noted that recommendationspertaining to forests and biodiversity remained achallenge.

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NEW RAP FORESTRY PUBLICATIONS

Report of the Asia-Pacific ForestryCommission Twenty-third sessionRAP Publication 2010/09FO:APFC/2010/REP

At the invitation of the Government of Bhutan,the twenty-third session of the Asia-PacificForestry Commission (APFC) was held inThimphu, Bhutan, 9-11 June 2010. Delegates from28 member countries and 4 United Nationsorganizations participated in the session, along withobservers and representatives from 17 regional andinternational inter-governmental and non-governmental organizations.

Asian forests: Working for people and nature

The future of the world’s natural resources,including forests, will be decided in a large part inAsia, because the region imports a major portionof the resources it consumes. This brief arguesthat Asian forests today have a huge potential tocontribute to people and nature in the region. Ithighlights key concerns and presentsrecommendations on how to more fully optimizethe opportunities of forests today better than inthe past.

Preparation of this brief was a joint effort ofIUFRO’s Special Project on World’s Forests,Society and Environment (IUFRO-WFSE), FAO,and The Center for People and Forests(RECOFTC).

Forest law enforcement and governance:Progress in Asia and the PacificRAP Publication 2010/05

This publication documents the efforts of 16countries in the Asia-Pacific region to combat illegalforest activities. It is hoped that it will serve toidentify and encourage the implementation ofpromising strategies and approaches in the fightagainst illegal and unsustainable forest practices.Rather than providing an in-depth analysis on theextent of issues and problems related to forest lawenforcement and governance (FLEG), thispublication provides an overview of the key FLEGinitiatives and activities in each country, highlightingimportant achievements and the foundations formoving forward.

The recommendation to conduct this review wasmade by country delegates at the twenty-secondsession of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission,convened in Hanoi, Viet Nam, in 2008.


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Agenda items included:- State of Forestry in the Asia-Pacific region:

forestry in transition- In-session seminar: Asia-Pacific forests – now

and in the futureGlobal Forest Resources Assessment 2010Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector OutlookStudy (APFSOS)

- Forests and biodiversity: conservation andsustainable use of our forest treasures

- Progress in improving forest law enforcementand governance in the region

- Heads of Forestry DialogueForests, climate change and REDD:beyond CopenhagenHarnessing new opportunities for financingsustainable forest management

- APFC and FAO-supported activities in theregion

- Information itemsSummary report from the pre-sessionworkshop: “Forests: Moving Beyond GDPContributions to Gross National HappinessConsiderations”Asia-Pacific Forest Invasive SpeciesNetwork (APFISN)International Year of Forests – 201120th Session of the Committee on Forestry(COFO)

Introduction

In February 2010, FAO and the Center for Peopleand Forests (RECOFTC), brought togetherregional experts in Bali, Indonesia to reflect onthe outcomes of the 15th Conference of the Parties(COP) of the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Theresulting booklet “Forests and climate change afterCopenhagen: An Asia-Pacific perspective” wasdistributed widely and very well received.

Building on the success of this initiative, inFebruary 2011, FAO and RECOFTC, with supportfrom the Norad-funded REDD-Net project,repeated the exercise. Eleven climate change andforestry experts gathered in Chiang Mai, Thailand,to reflect on COP16 held in Cancun, Mexico, inNovember and December 2010. This bookletsummarizes their responses to 12 key questions.

Forests and climate change after Cancun – AnAsia-Pacific perspectiveMarch 2011

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15


RAP FORESTRY STAFF MOVEMENT

Wang Hong, a national of China, joined the FAORegional Office Natural Resources andEnvironment Group in September 2010 as aconsultant. Her duties include implementing theproject “Making forestry work for the poor:Adapting forest policies to poverty alleviationstrategies in Asia and the Pacific”, and providingsupport for the 24th session of the Asia PacificForestry Commission and Asia-Pacific ForestryWeek to be held in China in 2011.

Ms. Wang gained her Master’s degree in silviculturefrom Northeast Forestry University, China, in 1989and has more than 20 years experience in forestryresearch, education and project management. Shehas also worked with the multi-agency and multi-disciplinary project “capacity building for combatingland degradation” under the PRC/GEF partnershipon land degradation in dryland ecosystems. Priorto joining RAP, she was Director of the HumanResources and Finance Division of the Asia-PacificNetwork for Sustainable Forest Management andRehabilitation (APFNet).

Finella Pescott, a national of Australia, joined theRAP Natural Resources and Environment groupin November 2010 as a Forestry Policy Officerunder the Australian Youth Ambassadors forDevelopment (AYAD) Programme. Miss Pescott’smain duties include facilitating a project in PapuaNew Guinea which serves to strengthen systemsof forest planning and monitoring; assisting withan Assisted Natural Regeneration project to beimplemented in four Asia Pacific countries andreporting on Reduced Impact Logging (RIL)publications and events. She will further providesupport in the organization of the second Asia-

Pacific Forestry Week to be held in Beijing in 2011and associated APFC events.

Miss Pescott holds a Master of Forest Science fromthe University of Melbourne, Australia, and hasstudied at the Faculty of Forestry on exchange atthe University of British Columbia, Canada. Priorto arriving at RAP, she worked on climate changepolicy analysis and as a consultant for the YukonTerritorial Government in developing a manual onbest forestry practices.

Elizabeth Fontein, a national of The Netherlands,transferred from the FAO country office inMongolia to the RAP NRE group in Bangkok inNovember 2010. She will continue to work as anAssociate Professional Officer, focussing onforestry policy and participatory natural resourcesmanagement. Her duties will include theorganization of the Fifth Forest Policy ShortCourse, providing support to community focussedforestry projects in the region and assist in theorganization of APFC events, including the secondAsia-Pacific Forestry Week.

Prior to joining FAO, Ms. Fontein worked as aconsultant for the Environment and Sustainabilitysection of a Dutch engineering and consultancycompany on natural resources management andclimate change adaptation projects for both publicand private sector.

Marija Spirovska-Kono completed her initialassignment with the Natural Resources andEnvironment group, but continues to collaborateon various forestry initiatives.


1616


FOREST NEWS is issued by the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific as part of TIGERPAPER. This issue ofFOREST NEWS was compiled by Patrick B. Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, FAO/RAP.

ASIA-PACIFIC FORESTRY CHIPS AND CLIPS

INDIA TARGETS FOREST COVER OF 33%OF LAND AREA BY 2020

India targets another 10 million hectares of landunder forest cover by 2020. The announcementwas made by the Director General of ForestDepartment in New Delhi, during the IndiraPriyadarshini Vriksha Mitra (IPVM) awards givenfor afforestation and wasteland developmentefforts.

The forest cover in India is currently 23% of thetotal land area and the plan is to expand it to 33%within the next ten years. Better soil and waterconservation and afforestation efforts will resultin expanding agriculture, less migration to citiesand improved livelihoods.

The efforts of the government of India aresupplemented by plantations of poplar, eucalyptus,casuarinas, semul, gmelina among others species,in order to improve raw material supply for thepaper, plywood and panel industries. NGOs areestablishing plantations for fruit and medicinalplants including mango, tamarind and ebony.Established plantations of eugenia, mimusops,subabul, sissoo, neem and acacia provide timberfor the construction and furniture industries.

– ITTO Tropical Timber Market Report Vol.15 No.231-15 December 2010 –

FAO ASIA-PACIFIC FORESTRY CALENDAR

CHINA TO SPEND $30 BILLION MORE ONAFFORESTATION BY 2021

China’s government will earmark a total 200 billionyuan ($30 billion) to afforestation schemes to theend of 2021, the State Forestry Administration (SFA)announced Wednesday.

The central government spent 233.2 billion yuanon the 415 million mu (27.7 million hectares) ofnew forests planted from 1999 to 2009, said WuLijun, head of afforestation in the SFA, at a pressconference in Beijing. Among the total, 139 millionmu were farmland returned to woodlands. Sincethe government started to subsidize farmers whoreturn their farmland to woodland in 1999 to combatsoil erosion in central and west China, more than124 million farmers had been subsidized.

China had 195 million hectares of forests by theend of 2008, according to the most recent surveyby the SFA. In China, forest refers to woodscovering an area of more than 1 mu (0.06 hectares)with crown density — the measure of skylightblocked by plant material — at or above 20 percent,according to the SFA.

– Xinhua 19 August 2010 –

8-9 August 2011. Second Regional Forum on People and Forests, Community Forestry: Key to SolvingCurrent and Emerging Challenges. Bangkok, Thailand. Contact: Patrick Durst, Senior Forestry Officer,FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; E-mail:[email protected]

FORESTRY PUBLICATIONS: FAO REGIONALOFFICE FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC (RAP)

For copies please write to: Senior Forestry Officer for Asia and the Pacific,FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand.

Or visit the FAO website for an electronic version: http://www.fao.or.th/publications/publications.htm

East Asian forests and forestry to 2020 (RAPPublication 2010/15)Forest policies, legislation and institutions in Asiaand the Pacific: Trends and emerging needs for2020 (RAP Publication 2010/10)Report of the Asia-Pacific Forestry CommissionTwenty-third session (RAP Publication 2010/09)Asia-Pacific forests and forestry to 2020. Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study II (RAPPublication 2010/06)Forest law enforcement and governance: Progressin Asia and the Pacific (RAP Publication 2010/05)Forest insects as food: humans bite back.Proceedings of a workshop on Asia-Pacificresosurces and their potential for development(RAP Publication 2010/02)Strategies and financial mechanisms forsustainable use and conservation of forests:experiences from Latin America and Asia (RAPPublication 2009/21)Asia-Pacific Forestry Week: Forestry in achanging world (RAP Publication 2009/04)The future of forests: Proceedings of aninternational conference on the outlook for Asia-Pacific forests to 2020 (RAP Publication 2009/03)Re-inventing forestry agencies. Experiences ofinstitutional restructuring in Asia and the Pacific(RAP Publication 2008/05)Forest faces. Hopes and regrets in Philippineforestry (RAP Publication 2008/04Reaching consensus. Multi-stakeholderprocesses in forestry: experiences from the Asia-Pacific region (RAP Publication 2007/31)Trees and shrubs of Maldives: An illustrated fieldguide (RAP Publication 2007/12)A cut for the poor: Proceedings of theInternational Conference on Managing Forests forPoverty Reduction Capturing Opportunities inForest Harvesting and Wood Processing for theBenefit of the Poor (RAP Publication 2007/09)Trees and shrubs of the Maldives (RAPPublication 2007/12)Developing an Asia-Pacific strategy for forestinvasive species: The coconut beetle problem –bridging agriculture and forestry (RAP Publication2007/02

The role of coastal forests in the mitigation oftsunami impacts (RAP Publication 2007/01)Taking stock: Assessing progress in developing andimplementing codes of practice for forestharvesting in ASEAN member countries (RAPPublication 2006/10)

Helping forests take cover (RAP Publication 2005/13)Elephant care manual for mahouts and campmanagers (RAP Publication 2005/10)Forest certification in China: latest developmentsand future strategies (RAP Publication 2005/08)Forests and floods – drowning in fiction or thrivingon facts? (RAP Publication 2005/03)In search of excellence: exemplary forestmanagement in Asia and the Pacific (RAPPublication 2005/02)What does it take? The role of incentives in forestplantation development in Asia and the Pacific(RAP Publication 2004/27)Advancing assisted natural regeneration (ANR) inAsia and the Pacific (RAP Publication 2003/19) -2nd editionPractical guidelines for the assessment,monitoring and reporting on national level criteriaand indicators for sustainable forest managementin dry forests in Asia (RAP Publication: 2003/05)Giants on our hands: proceedings of theinternational workshop on the domesticated Asianelephant (RAP Publication: 2002/30)Applying reduced impact logging to advancesustainable forest management (RAP Publication:2002/14)Trash or treasure? Logging and mill residues inAsia-Pacific (RAP Publication: 2001/16)Regional training strategy: supporting theimplementation of the Code of Practice for forestharvesting in Asia-Pacific (RAP Publication: 2001/15)Forest out of bounds: impacts and effectivenessof logging bans in natural forests in Asia-Pacific:executive summary (RAP Publication: 2001/10)Trees commonly cultivated in Southeast Asia: anillustrated field guide - 2nd edition (RAPPublication: 1999/13)

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