VOL01NO2_3

7/26/2019 VOL01NO2_3

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mper at i ve

oor di nat i on

es exi gences e

coor di nat i on bur eaucr at i que

7/26/2019 VOL01NO2_3


Canadi an

J our nal

of

P o l i t i c a l and

Soci al Theor y

/ Revue canadi enne

de

t heori e

pol i t i que et soci al e,

ol

1

No

Spr i ng- Summer /

Pr i nt emps - Et e 1977)

URE UCR TIC

OPPOSITION

THE

CH LLENGE

TO

UTHORT R N

USES

TTHE

WORKPL CE

eena

Wei ns t ei n

Resi st ance t o

f ormal organi zat i onal

aut hori t y

by

i ndi vi dual s or

i nf ormal

groups i s an

i gnoredphenomenon

i n

t he s o ci al

sc i ences

Yet

ever yone

who

has

worked i n

a

compl ex

organi zat i on bureaucr acy) has

e i t her part i ci pat ed

i n

or

i s

f aml i ar w t h per i odi c power

st ruggl es and/ or whi st l e- bl ow ng

t hat has

been

under t aken

by

t hose

empl oyed

w t hi n t he

organi zat i on out si de

of and

agai nst

o f f i c i a l

procedures

f or process i ng gr i evances

Probabl y t hose s o c i o l o g i s t s who

descr i be t he

pri nci pl es

of

bureaucr at i c

har mony,

who showt he f unct i onal

di l emm s of

organi zat i onal p r a c t i c e or who

di scourse on

t he

q u a l i t i e s

of

l eader shi p

may

t hemel ves have

engaged

i n

oust i ng

a

depar t ment head

or

i n

bat t l i ng t o mai nt ai n

academc s t andards

.

Resi st ance t o f ormal organi za-

t i onal aut hor i t y, or

bureaucr at i c

opposi t i on,

pervasi ve

Theamount of

t i me

t hat t

absorbs,

t he

consequences t hat i t

has

f or

i nst i gat i ng

or i nt ensi f yi ng ra-

t i onal i zat i on of

t a s k s t he

f unct i ons

or

dysf unct i ons

t hat

i t

has

f or

t he i n-

di vi dual pers onal i t y,

and i t s

e t h i c al

i mpor t

w t hi n

mass

democr acy are al l

i s s ues t hat have

not been

addressed

by

mai ns t r eam or

even by c r i t i c a l

s o c i o l o g i s t s

The reasons why

t

has

gone

unnot i ced ar e

bot h t heoret i cal

nd

s o ci al

rom

a

paradi gmat i c

vi ewpoi nt , t he

var i ous

form of

f unct i onal i sm

have

s t r e s s e d

s o ci al adj ust ment of s t r a i n s

nd

di l emmas

t hr ough

adapt i ve

structures w t hi n

s i n g l e normat i ve

order, whi l e

t he

v a r i e t i e s of c o n f l i c t

t heory,

p a r t i c u l a r l y

Marx-

i sm have

emphas i zed

macr o- st ruct ural nd

i nt er- organi zat i onal t ensi ons nd

s t r i f e

t o t he

near excl usi on of i nt ea- organi zat i onal

st ruggl e

S o c i a l l y

u n t i l t he

1960s

bot h

apol ogi st s nd

c r i t i c s agreed

t hat t he

s o c i e t y was one-di mens i onal ,

t he

p l u r a l i s t s c a l l i n g at t ent i on

t o

l im ted

compet i t i on w t hi n normat i ve

consen-

sus

and t he

c on f l i c t t heor i s t s

i dent i f yi ng

pat t erns

of

e l i t e

domnat i on

The

ex -

pl osi on

of pl ural i sm

i n

t he 1960s,

f ol l ow ng t he

emer gence

of

ant i - col oni al i sm

t hroughout t he wor l d a f t e r Worl d

War

nd

l eadi ng

t o

var i ous

ot her

l i b e r a -

t i on

movements nd chal l enges

t o

est abl i shed i n s t i t u t i o n s have

made

obvi ous

t he t ens i ons w t h i n

compl ex

organi zat i ons

Bureaucr at i c opposi t i ons

have

occurred

i n bot h pr i vat e

nd

publ i c organi za-

t i ons nd

have been

perpet rat ed

byoneperson or

smal l groups, u t i l i z i n g any

of

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EEN

W NST N

a number of t a c t i c s and

meet i ng

wi t h

a wi de r ange

of

possi bl e

out comes

These

at t empt s

a t

change

from

bel ow,

comng

from

those wi t hout

author i t y,

ar e l abel l ed

opposi t i ons

because

t hey

a r e

out si de

of

t he

nor mal

r o ut i ne

and

ar e

chal l enges to author i t y

However ,

t h e i r ai ms ar e not

t o

usurp

t he

rei gns of

power

but

t o a l t e r

pr a c t i c es and/ or per sonnel I n

gener al , there

a r e

t wo types

of

bureaucrat i c

opposi t i on

One of them probabl y

t he

most f r equent

but l e a s t

reported,

t he revol t agai nst author i t y

cons i der ed to be a r b i t r a r y

abusi ve, or

unj ust

Such

opposi t i on

normal l y

mot i vat ed by per cei ved i nequi t i es of

t r e a t -

ment

and

may

aggregat e a number of

i ndi vi dual gr i evances i nt o a movement

agai nst a

supervi sor,

a

depar tment

head,

or a di vi si on chi ef

The second t ype

t he

protest agai nst or exposur e of

si tuati ons or pract i ces that are

consi der ed

t o

be

i l l e g a l

i n e f f i c i e n t

or

i mmor al

Si nce

unj ust aut hor i t ymay

a l s o

be

i mmor al ,

and

i mmor al i t y,

i nef f i ci ency

or

i l l e g a l i t y depends upon

i nequi t i es

to

keep t

under c o v e r t he

two

types

of

bureaucrat i c opposi t i on

ar e

often f ound

com

bi ned

However , t hey

have

t wo d i s t i n c t i v e

and

di f f erent t h r u s t s

Normal l y,

r esi st ance

agai nst

unj ust author i t y ai ms

a t oust i ng

a power

hol der whi l e op-

posi ti on agai nst

a s i t u a t i o n meant

t o

change

a p r a c t i c e

The

f i r s t

usual l y a

mat t er i n t e r na l to t he

or gani zati on whi l e

t he second

r e l a t e d

t o

t

f unct i on

and

t ends

to

s p i l l over

i nto t he

publ i c

domai n

The

model

of

a

bureaucracy,

c l a s s i c a l l y

descr i bed

byWeber

one

i n

whi ch

t he

t a s k s

a r e

t o t a l l y

r ati onal i zed The

t r a d i t i o n a l

assembl y- l i ne manuf act ur i ng

pr ocedur e

an

exampl e

of nearl y

compl et e

rat i onal i zat i on i n whi ch

t he

work

s o r out i ne that

the l abourer s a r e

merel y

extensi ons

of the

t o o l s

that they

use

and

have

no

di scret i on

over t hei r

a c t i v i t i e s

However , wher e

work

not f u l l y r a -

ti onal i zed

and

mademachi nel i ke

there

ar e pos s i b i l i t i e s f o r di f f erent

i nter preta-

t i ons

of what shoul d be

done,

what aspects of

t he occupati onal r o l e

shoul d be

emphas i zed,

what

const i tutes

j u s t i c e wi t h

regard t o r ewar ds

and

puni shment s ,

and when deci si ons about

wor k

become

comment ar i es

on

t he wor t h of t he

wor ker

( probl em

of

i ndi vi dual

di gni t y)

°Rout i ni zat i on or

rati onal i zati on

( used i nt er changabl y

here) r e f e r

t o

t he

t r i umph

of

i nst r ument al r a t i o n a l i t y

i n

whi ch t he

means t o

an end are rel ated

stepw se

i n

a

pr edi ct abl e pattern

of

cause

and e f f e c t

Tr ansf er r ed

to

t he real m

of

human

bei ngs,

t he t r i umph

of

i nst r ument al

reason

means

t he

substi tuti on of

admni st r ati on

f or

p o l i t i c s Bur eaucr ati c opposi t i ons

a r e

i ndi cator s

that

t h i s

subst i t ut i on

has not occur r ed, because

t hey ar e p o l i t i c a l

processes

gr owi ng out

of

c o n f l i c t s

over

pr oper

goal s or ends, j u s t

di str i buti on

of

r e s o u r c e s

and

t he

r i ght pr i nci pl es

of conduct Of t en

opposi t i ons

i ndi cate r e s i s t a nc e

t o

ad-

mni str at i ve

e c l i p s e of

p o l i t i c s a s i n

c a s e s of

di ssent agai nst pr a c t i c es

ai med

at

ef f i ci ency

whi ch di sr egard i ndi vi dual

di f f erences,

excl ude wor ker consul t a-

t i on or

deci s i on- maki ng,

or

ci r cumcri be

di screti on

Bur eaucrat i c

opposi t i ons

have, f or

t hemos t p a r t

been

under t aken

by

whi te-

c o l l a r rather

than by

bl ue- col l ar worker s Wi l ethere

a r e

p o l i t i c a l

c o n f l i c t s be-

32

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BUREAUCRATICOPPOSITION

t ween bl ue- col l ar

wor ker s

nd

management they

most

often

concern

t he

f i nanci al nd physi cal condi t i ons of work nd ar e

r egul ar i zed

i n

negoti ati ons

through

uni ons

( Uni ons

themsel ves,

however ,

c on s i s t

of

whi te- col l ar

type

j obs

nd oppos i t i on w thi n themshoul d be

anal yzed i n

that context , despi te

the

members

occupat i ons

I s s ue s concer ni ng

d i s t r i b u t i v e j u s t i c e

ar e supposed to be

s e t t l e d by

the contr act , whi l e

gr i evances ar e handl ed y

t he shop st ewar d

The

r ol e- def i ni t i on

of

t he

bl ue- col l ar

wor ker

s

r e l a t i v e l y

un m i guous nd

programmed by

machi ner y

or

other

t o o l s nd

oppos i t i on

t o

possi bl y

i mmor al

consequences of pr oduct i on s excl uded y

t he t er ms

of

t he bar gai n

Op

posi t i ons

agai nst

f or emen

consi der ed to

be

abusi ve

ar e

i n i t i a t e d

by

bl ue- col l ar

wor ker s, but they

ar e

l i m t ed

by

t he i nter pos i t i on of uni ons

nd

the l e ga l

machi ner y

f o r

enf or ci ng

t he

contract

Despi t e the ana l y s i s of whi te- col l ar j obs whi ch i n di c at e s

t h e i r i ncr easi ng

pr ol etar i ani zat i on , z t her e ar e s t di f f er ences

between

bl ue- ndwhi te- col l ar

work

that encour ages

p o l i t i c a l

a c t i v i t y i n the l a t t e r

F i r s t

modern West er n

cul t ure

has

t ended

to

di vi de

exper i ence between t he r ea l ms of

thi ngs

nd per -

sons

(Descar tes

d i v i s i o n

between thi nki ng

substance

and

ext ended substance,

Kant s d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of

t he

phenomenal

wor l d

nd

t he

ki ngdomof ends)

Wthi n

t he

r eal m of thi ngs

t he

pr i nc i pl es of

ef f i c i ency

nd

economy

( i nst r umental

r eason

or

Zweckr ati onal conduct)

ar e supposed to

appl y, whi l e

i n

t he

r eal m

of

per sons, pr i nci pl es

of

j u s t i c e and

r espect

(Wer t r at i onal

conduct)

ar e

appr opr i ate Much

of whi te- col l ar

wor k

s t

concer ns t he r eal m

of

per sons i n

whi ch

d i f f e r i n g i nter pr etat i ons of deci s i on r u l e s may be

at

stake and i n whi ch

concept i ons

of dut y may c l a s h

For exampl e, those who handl e c l a i ms or

cases

a r e

i nter pr eti ng

systems

of r u l e s and ar e l i k e l y to have t h e i r own

j udi c i al

i deol ogi es

whi ch may

c l a s h

w th those of

t h e i r

super i ors

Mor eover ,

much

of

whi te- col l ar

work r equi r es d i f f u s e

cooper ati ve

r e l a t i o n s whi ch of ten

br eed envy, j e al o us y nd

compet i t i on,

l l of whi ch may t ake a

p o l i t i c a l f o r m

I nsof ar

as

the

p roduct

of

whi te- col l ar

work

s

somet hi ng

i ntangi bl e

l i k e

deci s i on nd the r el at i ons of pr oduc t i on a r e di f f us e the

wor k

r e s i s t s

com

pl ete

r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n

nd s a potenti al br eedi ng

gr ound

f or

p o l i t i c a l opposi -

t i o n

Whi te- col l ar

work s

a l s o per vi ous

to p o l i t i c a l p r o c es s es pa r t i c ul a r l y above

t he m ddl e- l evel of or gani zati onal hi e r a r c hi e s

because

t

concer ns

the de ci s i o n s

about r out i ne nd

ther ef or e,

cannot be made r out i ne

i t s e l f

Ther e may be

con-

f l i c t

over al ter nati ve p o l i c i e s

but even more

i mpor t ant

ther e may be d i s a gr e e-

ment about whet her par t i cul ar deci s i on

was r i ght

or i n

t he

be s t

i n-

t e r e s t s

of

t he

agency

or

sub- uni t

Fur t her

compl i cati ng

the

mat t er

a r e d i f -

f er ences

among

i nter pr etat i ons

of pr of essi onal codes, pr oper r e po s i t o r i e s

f or

l o y a l t y

and

est i mates of

c ompetence ,

l l of

whi ch may gener at e p o l i t i c a l

opposi t i on

nd

gener al l y

do

not t r oubl e b l u e - c o l l a r wor ker s

Anot her

aspect

of

whi te- col l ar

work

f a vour i ng t he

emer gence

of

p o l i t i c a l

pr ocesses

s

t he

33

7/26/2019 VOL01NO2_3


EEN WEINSTEIN

t r adi t i ona l whi t e- col l ar

consci ousness

of

bei ng

d i f f e r e n t

from t he

machi nel i ke pr ol et ar i an

Whi t e- col l ar wor ker s

ar e

of ten wi l l i ng t o

take

l ower

s a l a r i e s

than

compar abl e

bl ue- col l ar

wor ker s

j u s t

t o

avoi d

t he occupat i onal

s e l f -

concept of bei ng t he ext ens i on of a

machi ne

Resi st ance

t o

pr ol et ar i ani zat i on

may

be

a

source of

oppos i t i on

Two

p o l i t i c a l

di mensi ons of

whi t e- col l ar work

ar e

i ntens i f i ed and

exacer-

bat ed wher ever

pr omot i on

and f i r i n g ,

as

wel l

as wor ki ng

condi t i ons

f or exam

p l e, schedul i ng

i n

hos p i t a l s

or academ c i n s t i t u t i o n s ar e

not r out i ni z ed

i n

s e n i o r i t y

syst ems and s p e c i f i c r u l es

Compet i t i on

f or pr ef erment , under m n-

i ng

r i v a l s ,

and

r esent ment at

bei ng

passed over ar e not

bur eaucr at i c

op-

posi t i ons, but

may

encour age,

l ead

t o,

or

deepen them

E s s e n t i a l l y ,

wi t h f ew except i ons such as keypunch operators and t y p i s t s

who

produce

t angi bl e

products and

have l i t t l e

p o s s i b i l i t y

f or pr omot i on, 3

whi t e-

c o l l a r

wor ker s

have

not been and per haps

cannot be

t o t a l l y subj ect t o

an

ad-

mni s t rat i ve

process that

excl udes

p o l i t i c a l

c o n f l i c t At t empt s t o

make

t hi ngs

seemas

though

they

ar e

r out i ne

or t hat

they

ar e

determned by obj ect i ve

standards

of

ef f i ci ency

or

pr oduct i vi t y ar e r het o r i c al s t r a t e gi es

wi t h

t hei r

own

p o l i t i c a l i mpor t

of

m n i m z i n g

chal l enges t o aut hor i t y

Despi t e a l l deni a l s ,

whi t e- col l ar wor ker s

e x i s t

wi t hi n

a

p o l i t i c a l s i tuat i on

Tr adi t i onal l y,

p o l i t i c s

has

been

vi ewed

as

t he

r eal m

of human

a c t i v i t y

i n

whi ch

deci si ons

ar e

made

about

such i s s u e s

as

t he

proper

def i ni t i on

of

f unct i on,

pol i cy and j u s t i c e

P o l i t i c s has

meant

t he p o s s i b i l i t y of choos i ng

among a l t e r -

nat i ves

wi t hi n

a

publ i c

s i t uat i on

hence,

di scr et i on and t he p o s s i b i l i t y

f or vary-

i ng i nte rpreta t i ons are

es s e nt i a l

aspects of p o l i t i c a l

r e l a t i o n s

Economc or i n-

st r ument al

a c t i v i t y

can be

programmed

t h i s i s

not t he case f or pol i t i c al ac t i v i t y

wher e

cont r adi ctory val ues

may

be at

s t a k e , not t o ment i on t he el ement

of

human choi ce i n

par t i cul ar s i tuat i ons

P o l i t i c s

as

an a c t i v i t y shoul d not be con-

fused

wi t h

what goes on i n

gover nment

or t he s t a t e

For

exampl e, J ohn

Dewey

and

Wi ght

Mi l l s

bot h def i ned

p o l i t i c s i n

t er ms

of

publ i c

consequences

rather than

i n s t i t u t i o n s

I nsof ar

as

or gani zati ons

put

peopl e i n

si t uat i ons wher e

they

have

d i s c r e t i o n ,

wher e

there

can

be di f f er ent

i deol ogi es

of r o l e

def i ni t i on,

wher e t h e i r

di gni t y

i nvol ved

i n t hei r

wor k, wher e

t hei r commtment and

l oyal t y mobi l i zed,

wher e

they

ar e

t aught

an et hi c

of

ul t i mat e

ends

as

i n

some prof essi ons that

may

c l a s h wi t h admni st r at i ve expedi encey

i n

s h o r t ,

wher e

everyt hi ng

cannot

be programmed

i n

advance as on

an assembl y

l i n e

there every reason t o expect

t h a t

or gani zat i ons

wi l l

show t he

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s that

have been obser ved

i n

s o - c a l l e d pol i t i cal syst ems

.

mong

these c har a c t e r i s t i c s i s

t he

phenomenon

of

oppos i t i on

whi ch

seems t o

be

ubi qui t ous i n t he p o l i t i c a l process

The f ol l owi ng di scussi on

wi l l

r e l a t e

opposi -

t i ona l a c t i v i t i e s

i n

bur eaucr aci es

t o t he

cat egor i es

of p o l i t i c a l

oppos i t i on d i s -

cussed i n recent

p o l i t i c a l

anal yses

wi t h

appr opr i at e

modi f i cat i ons t o

s u i t con-

t e x t s

ot her

than

t he

s t a t e

7/26/2019 VOL01NO2_3


BURE UCR TI C

OPPOSITION

State

and

Or gani zat i on

So c i a l

s c i e n t i s t s

concerned

w t h

t o p i c s

such

as

rebel l i on

and

r evol ut i on

pro-

vi de a more f r u i t f u l cont ext

f or t he unders t andi ng of

bureaucrat i c

opposi t i ons

than

do organi zat i on t h e o r i s t s

I n general

mai nst r eam

organi zat i on t heor y

has

s t r e s s e d

t he monocrat i c aut hor i t y of

or gani zat i ons and

has i nt erpret ed f a c t o r s

whi ch woul d

t end t o di sor gani ze

t h i s order as pr obl emat i c

pr obl ems t hat

s o c i a l

s c i e n t i s t s

shoul d

st udy and

pr obl ems

t h a t

t op management must

eradi cat e

The

r e s i dua l cat egor y of

di sor gani zat i on substi t ut es

f or

c o n f l i c t as

a

normal

and

perhaps product i ve

s o c i a l

process

good

case can be made f or t r eat i ng

bureaucrat i c

organi zat i ons as

t he

equi val ent

i n

many

r e s p e c t s t o

aut hori t ari an

r egi mes

Or gani zat i on

t heor y

i n

t he

Uni t ed

S t a t e s has t ended t omake t he busi ness

corporat i on t he model f or a l l

ot her organi zat i ons

but

i t

equal l y pl ausi bl e t o make t he

s t a t e

t he par adi gm

f or

s p e c i f i c purposes

such

as t he st udy

of


Al t hough

corporat i ons

have

nei t her

absol ut e

cont r ol over a t e r r i t o r y nor armed

t r o o p s ,

t hey

f unct i on

p o l i t i c a l l y

by al l ocat i ng

resources

t hr ough

syst ems

of

power n

t ony J ay

not es t hat t he board

of

d i r e c t o r s

anal ogous

t o a gover nment

sharehol ders

t o a

proper t i ed c l a s s ,

and

empl oyees

t o c i t i z e n s

P a r t i c u l a r l y w t h

regard

t o

t he

l a s t

anal ogy

s u bj e c t s

of an

aut hori t ari an r egi me donot

f a r e

so d i f -

f e r e n t l y

f r ommost

empl oyees of a

corporat i on

I n nei t her case

i s

there

f r eedom

of speech

t he r i g h t t o

a t r i a l , or

part i ci pat i on

i n

r ul e-maki ng

The

busi ness

c o r -

por at i on and s t a t e ,

of

c o u r s e ,

d i f f e r

i n

t he

penal t i es t hat

t hey

mete out f or i n -

subor di nat i on but

bei ng f i r e d and

somet i mes bl ackl i st ed can

be as harsh or

even

harsher over t he l ong r un t han

physi cal

coerci on

; w t ness

such

met aphor s

as bei ng

gi ven t he

axe

Li ke

r e b e l l i o n s ,

bureaucr at i c opposi t i ons

ar e out si de of

t he usual course

of

event s s

W l l i a m

Korhauser not es rebel l i ons occur when there ar e no

p o l i t i c a l

structures

capabl e of

accomodat i ng

p o l i t i c a l

demands

Bur eaucraci es

are

not s et

up

t o

handl e

i nt ernal

c o n f l i c t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y when

t he

s t a t u s e s

of

t hose

engaged i n

t he

c o n f l i c t

have

g r e a t power d i f f e r e n t i a l s

Bur eaucraci es ar e

h i e r a r c h i c a l ar r angement s

of aut hori t y

vi sual i zabl e as f l ows

of

deci si ons

downwar d

and obedi ence upward MaxWeber

a t t e s t s t o

t he l ack of

means

f or

t hose

wi t hout

aut hor i t y t o

make changes

The

o f f i c i a l entrusted w t h

speci al i zed t a s k s and

normal l y

t he mechani sm

cannot be put i n to

mot i on

or ar -

rested

by hi m but onl y f r om

the very t op .

7

Bureaucrat i c aut hori t i es

are

d i f -

f erent

f r omst andard p o l i t i c a l aut hori t i es

i n

t he one s i g n i f i c a n t sense

that t hey

do

not

admni st er

a

system

of

l aw

backed

up

by

or gani zed

physi cal

coerci on

e x -

cept f o r t he enf or cement

bureaucraci es

of

t he s t a t e They must

c a l l

on s t a t e

agenci es

t o

ai d them f l aws are

broken

but cannot use coerci on agai nst t h e i r

empl oyees

Hence

bureaucrat i c aut hori t i es

cannot

l e g a l l y empl oy

f o r c e , an

i m

por t ant means

i n

t he a r r a y

of

s o c i a l c o n t r o l

mechani sms agai nst t h e i r

3

7/26/2019 VOL01NO2_3


EEN

WEINSTEIN

empl oyees

I f

t he empl oyees use f o r c e t hemsel ves,

t hey wi l l

pr obabl y

have

t o

cont end w t h t he s t a t e

Bureaucrati c opposi t i ons

thus t end t o

be

non- vi ol ent

However ,

asi de

f rom

t he

l eg al

l i m t a t i o n s

backed

by

c o u r t s

po l i c e

and

pr i s o ns

bureaucrat i c

opposi t i ons are e s s e n t i a l l y no di f f erent t han p o l i t i c a l

op-

posi t i ons

Of

cour se,

bureaucraci es

are

not democrat i c

But

t hen,

most

s t a t e s

are not

democrat i c

ei t her

Wt h i n

t he cont ext of t he

s t a t e opposi t i onal

movements

have been

ext en-

s i v e l y

anal yzed, p a r t i c u l a r l y

revol ut i ons,

al t hough

r e be l l i o n s i n t e r n a l

war s

and

s o ci a l

prot est movements

have

a l s o

been

st udi ed

n at t empt

wi l l

be

made

here

t o consi der t h i s

l i t e r a t u r e s usef ul ness f or st udyi ng t he phenomenon of


I n general , there are three

maj or

i s s u e s t he condi t i ons

under whi ch

opposi t i ons

a r i s e

t he

processes

and

probl ems

of

opposi t i onal

gr oup

f ormat i on and coherence, and

anal yses of

t he

var i ous

s t r a t e g i e s

whi ch

they

mayempl oy

The

Or i gi ns

of

Bureaucrat i c

Opposi t i ons

di st i nct i on

bet ween

pr econdi t i ons and pr eci pi t ant s ,

whi ch

has been

devel oped t o

under st and

t he condi t i ons

under whi ch

opposi t i ons

agai nst t he

s t at e a r i s e

8

has

di r e c t

r el evance

f or

anal yzi ng

organi zat i onal

c o n f l i c t

pr e c i pi -

t ant s t he

l a s t

a c t

i n

a sequence

of

t ensi onpr oduci ng events

whi ch a c t u a l l y

s t a r t s t he war

The precondi t i ons,

on t he

ot her hand, a r e

bot h

t hose pr i or

event s

a s

wel l

a s

t he general ci r cumst ances

t hat s et

t he

cont ext , t hat char ge

t he

atmosphere, so t o

speak

The

preci pi t ant ,

t he spark t hat i g n i t e s t he f i n a l straw

t hat breaks t he camel s back, does not seem

t o

generate

great

i nt e r e s t among

st udent s

of

opposi t i ons

t o t he s t a t e The same

deemphasi s

woul d appl y t o

bureaucrat i c

opposi t i ons wher e

a

one- shot

of f ense does

not seemt o account

f or

t he ensui ng acti on ;

there

s

usual l y

a

l ong

t r a i n

of

abuses

Far more

energy

s

spent

by

t h e o r i s t s

of p o l i t i c a l

opposi t i ons

i n

exam ni ng

t he precondi t i ons One popul ar hypot hesi s

that

t he

weakness

of t he e l i t e

br i ngs

on

t he opposi t i on

I n a s e n s e t he habi t

of publ i c obedi ence

t o

t he

establ i shed

power s

s

somehowshat t ered

and

rebel l eadershi p

r epl a c es

t he now

def encel ess

e l i t e

Pareto and other I t a l i a n

e l i t e t h e o r i s t s

hel d, f or exampl e,

that

an

e l i t e whi ch had t he nerve

to use vi ol ence

deci si vel y and

e f f i c i e n t l y

coul d not

be di spl aced Such l o s s

of nerve, however ,

s not

a

f ree- f l oat i ng psychol ogi cal

phenomenon but

may i t s e l f

stem

from

t he decl i ne of l egi t i macy, t he erosi on

of

shar ed

v a l u es

and

general i zed

conf i dence

i n

t he

communi t y s

superi ori t y

and

dest i ny

W l l i a m

Gar r i son argues that such

general i zed

sent i ment s

a s

moral e

and l o y a l t y

are

sl ack

resources t hat l eader shi p

gr oups can

mobi l i ze i n

order

t o suppr ess

chal l enges

t o

t h e i r

domnat i on

The

di sappear ance

of

s l a c k s

bot h

an

i ndi cat or

and

a cause of

p o l i t i c a l

c r i s i s i n

whi ch

e f f e c t i v e l eader shi p cont rol

s

l o s t

7/26/2019 VOL01NO2_3


BURE UCR TI COPPOSITION

I n a summaryof

var i ous

vi ews

of

pr econdi t i ons,

Har r y

Eckst ei n

di v i des them

i n t o i n t e l l e c t u a l ,

economc, s o c i a l

s t r u c t u r a l and

p o l i t i c a l

f a c t o r s

The

f i r s t

i n -

cl udes

such el ement s

a s

a

r egi me s

i nadequat e

s o c i a l i z a t i o n

program

f or

exam

pl e ,

t he observat i on

t hat

s o - c a l l e d

YoungTurks ar e

more l i k e l y t o

be

i nvol ved

i n many

bur eaucr at i c

opposi t i ons may f i t her e I n t e l l e c t u a l

f a c t o r s

may

a l s o

i n -

cl ude t he coexi st ence

of

contrary

myt hs

i n a s o c i e t y

f or exampl e, a r e pol i ce

sup-

posed

t o

hel p t he publ i c or

have cushy

j obs?

Under

t he cat egor y

of s o c i a l

s t r u c t u r e , Eckst ei n ment i ons t he


of

t oo much r ecr ui t ment

i n t o

t he

e l i t e

f r omnon-el i t e groups, a

s i t u a t i o n whi ch

breaks t he

e l i t e s

i nt er nal cohe-

s i on

I f one had

a l ar ge

s ampl e

of

i nst ances of

bur eaucr at i c opposi t i ons

wher e

var i ous

cont r ol s

coul d

be

i n s t i t u t e d ,

t h i s

hypot hesi s coul d

be

r e a d i l y

eval uat ed

For

exampl e,

wher e

academ c depar t ment s

have

bl own

and

t he

heads have

been

deposed, does

t h i s happenmore f r equent l y

when t he

f a c u l t y

a r e r ecrui t ed

f rom compar at i vel y l e s s

pr es t i gi ous

gr aduat e

depar t ment s hol di ng t he

pr est i ge of t he

obser ved

bl own

depar t ment

constant?

mong

ot her

p o s s i b l e

causes

of

bur eaucr ati c opposi t i on i s abusi ve

or

corrupt

gover nment

that

i n

Pars oni an t er m, t he

f unct i on

of

goal

at t ai nment

was

i n-

adequat el y per f or med

For s t a t e s

t h i s m ght

mean l osi ng a

war

or

bei ng unabl e

t o

cope

wi t h

a

depressed

or

i n f l a t e d

economy For

pr i vate

cor por ati ons

t h i s

m ght

be

meas ur ed

i n

t er ms of

p r o f i t

However ,

many

bur eaucr ati c

opposi t i ons

a r e di r ected agai nst

heads

of

depar t ment s or

sub- agenci es, and

per f or mance

i n

such

c a s e s often d i f f i c u l t t o

meas ur e

For non- pr of i t

p a r t i c u l a r l y gover n-

ment al )

or gani zat i ons t he

whol e concept

of

goal

at t ai nment

i s per haps

i nap-

p l i c a b l e

At

best

t

may

r e f e r

t o

get t i ng

desi r ed appr opr i at i ons

Resi st ance

Regar dl ess

of

a l l

of

t he

f a c t o r s

t hat make

opposi t i on

a

constant


i n

bot h

s t a t e s and bur eaucr aci es, e xi s t e n t r egi mes

have many means a t t h e i r

di s p os a l

f or

suppr essi ng

t he publ i c

appearance of

di ssent

and r ebel l i on

These

means

f a l l

under t he gener al

cat egor y of

s o c i a l - c o n t r o l

mechani sms ,

and

range f romvi ol ence

t o l o y a l t y

or

what Parsons

t er med

val ue

commtments 3

Whi l e

vi ol ence

i s

not

ordi nar i l y

an opt i on

f or

bureaucr aci es and strong and

i n -

t er nal i zed

sent i ment s

of

l o y a l t y

obvi ate

t he

need

f or r epr ess i on,

there

ar e

many

s o c i a l - c o n t r o l mechani sms ,

some of themqui t e

s u b t l e ,

t hat f a l l

bet ween

t hese

t wo

pol es

Cl oses t t o out r i ght vi ol ence a r e

d i s m s s a l ,

geogr aphi cal

t r a n s f e r ,

and

somet i mes b l a c k l i s t i n g

of

per sonnel

Shor t

of

a c t u a l

r emoval

t he use

of

t h r e a t s , somet i mes ai med d i r e c t l y a t di s s e nt e r s

and

more often

couched i n

t er ms

of

supposed danger s

f romother or gani zat i onal

compet i t or s i f i n t e r n a l

uni t y i s di s r upt ed

The l a t t e r

t a c t i c s maybe

reversed when

e l i t e s f oment

i n t e r -

or gani zati onal

c o n f l i c t

t o mobi l i ze

s ol i da r i t y i n t e r n a l l y

Asi de

f romnegat i ve

37

7/26/2019 VOL01NO2_3


EEN

W NST N

sanct i ons or gani zat i ons

can o f f e r

materi al

r ewar ds t o

dampendown

di s s ent , a t -

t empt t o

co- opt

r e b e l l eader shi p, 1

and even requi re

that t h e i r

empl oyees

engage i n

conspi cuous

consumpt i on

so t hat

they

w i l l

become

dependent

on

cont i nued

empl oyment

5

Of c o u r s e , t he use

of

r ewar ds has

narrow l i m t s

F i r s t -

l y

pay-offs

t o di ssent er s s et a bad exampl e that

may encourage others t o

be

di sobedi ent so t hat

t hey t oo

get a

bi gger

s l i c e

of

t he pi e Secondl y, t he

s t r a t e g y

of

e l i t e s i s not

t o di str i but e t he

or gani zat i on s

weal t h

t o

empl oyees,

but t o

mai nt ai n

t h e i r power through

st r engt heni ng

t he or gani zat i on

G ven

t he wi de

knowl edge and

use

of

a host

of

c on t r o l s ,

i t

i s even

d i f f i c u l t

t o

concei ve

of how

bur eaucrat i c opposi t i ons

a r i s e a t

a l l

Yet

they

do

occur

6

Part

of t he sol ut i on

t o

t h i s myst er y l i e s i n

r ecogni z i ng that

t he modes

of

dom nat i on

a r e

onl y

e f f e c t i v e when

peopl e

act

i n

accordance w t h

t h e i r s o- c a l l ed r a t i o n a l

s e l f - i n t e r e s t

But narr ow- gauged s e l f - i n t e r e s t w t h i n

t he

l i m t s

of t he

structure

( what

Parsons

c a l l s

i ns t i t ut i onal i zed

i ndi vi dual i sm

17)

i s

onl y one

t ype

of

mot i vat i on f or

act i on ; consci ousness

t hat does not t r anscend

i t s

rootedness i n

an

econom cal l y compet i t i ve

mode

of

pr oduct i on . Wber

hi msel f was wel l

awar e of

other v a r i e t i e s

of

mot i vat ed a c t i o ns Less ` r a t i o n a l

act i ons

a r e t yped

by

Wber

i n

t er ms

of

t he pur sui t

of

`absol ut e ends , as f l ow-

i ng

from

a f f e c t u a l

sent i ment s,

or a s t r a d i t i o n a l . 19 Al t hough

Wber t ends t o

a s s o c i a t e

di f f e rent act i on types

w t h

di f f er ent

ki nds

of

c o l l e c t i v e a s s oc i a t i ons , i t

i s

unwar r ent ed

t o

concl ude

that

other

f or ms of act i on

ar e

not

present i n a

c e r -

t a i n t ype

of s o c i a l

structure

Adm t t edl y t r adi t i onal act i on

seems

unl i kel y

t o

mot i vat e opposi t i ons t o

aut hor i t y

However , bot h act i on mot i vat ed by t he

pur -

s u i t of

absol ut e

ends and by a f f e c t u a l

sent i ment s, together,

or

s e pa r a t e l y ,

c e r -

t a i n l y can,

and

does , act uat e r e s i s t a n c e

When

empl oyees bl ow

t he whi st l e

on bosses because t hey

a r e

pr oduci ng a

pr oduct

that

i s

harmng

consumer s ,

or

they ar e

m sus i ng gover nment appr opr i at i ons,

they

a r e

of ten mot i vat ed by

a

h i gher

reason

of

absol ut e

ends

Many

of

those par t i c i pat i ng i n

c o l l e c t i v e op-

posi t i ons ar e act uat ed, at

l e a s t

i n

p a r t ,

by

a f f e c t u a l

sent i ment s

Bur eaucr at i c

opposi t i ons,

i n

c o n t r a s t t o those i n

t he

p o l i t y ,

do

not r equi r e

mass

suppor t ,

al t hough

i t

may somet i mes

be

hel pf ul

Nonet hel ess

t he

dodge of

f ore i gn danger can

be

effectuated

by

s t i r r i n g

up

i nt er depar t ment al

r i v a l r i e s

or

sent i ment s

of

i nt er or gani zat i onal

compet i t i on

Mobi l i z at i on

and

T a c t i c s

Whether

they

t e rm

i t

r evol ut i on,

chal l enge

groups,

or

i n t e r n a l

war ,

those

concerned w t h t he

pol i t y

cons i der t he

opposi t i on t o

be

a

group of

peopl e,

rather

than

a l one

i ndi vi dual Because

of

t he

di f f er ence bet ween p o l i t i c a l

and

bur eaucr at i c

opposi t i on

( appeal

t o other

more

power f ul

or gani zat i ons

i s

po ss i -

bl e

i n

t he

l a t t e r c a s e ,

there

a r e

var i ous

s t r a t e g i e s

by

whi ch a

per son can

go

i t

3

8

7/26/2019 VOL01NO2_3


BUREAUCRATIC

OPPOSITION

al one, and

s t i l l

be e f f e c t i v e Thi s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t he case wher e t he i s s u e con-

cerns t he organi zati on s

f unc t i on

rather than abusi ve i nt ernal power

Despi t e

t he

p o s s i b i l i t i e s

of

i ndi vi dual

opposi t i on, there

are

compel l i ng

reasons

f or

those

i nvol ved i n r e s i s t a nc e

t o do i t c o l l e c t i v e l y

Soci ety

l ooks

askance

at those

who

march t o di f f erent drummers

and

who poi nt out

that

t he

emperor

has

no

c l othes .

Chal l engi ng

t he

everyday not i on

of

r e a l i t y of ten

brands one

as

men-

t a l l y deranged,

t he

modern equi val ent

of

de vi l possessi on Somehow

i f

more

than

one person

repudi at es t he o f f i c i a l de f in i t i on

of

the si tuat i on oppr obr i um

i s not usual l y

as

great

I t

i s l onel y t o

go

i t al one, because

one

very

e a s i l y

becomes

a

pari ah

at

t he

work

pl ace

Further,

more

peopl e

mean

possi bl y

more

i deas f o r act i on

and

more

resources

(such

as

connecti ons

w t h

hi gher- ups,

t he

medi a,

et c

Gr oups r a r e l y emer ge

spontaneousl y,

despi t e w despr ead di scont ent Some

one

needs t o broach t he matt er of t aki ng act i on and t o

mobi l i ze others

To use

Marxi st t erm nol ogy,

a

t ransf ormat i on

of

Kl asse an . r i c h

i nt o a Kl ass fuer

. r i c h

i s

needed Al t hough

gri pi ng

and bl ack

humor

ar e act i ons

most

usef ul

f or

spreadi ng

di scont ent and

del egi t i mz i ng a ut h o r i t i e s ,

they

do

not

i n

t hemsel ves

consti t ut e

opposi t i onal

movements

Thi s

i s

p a r t i c u l a r l y t he

c a s e

wher e l i b e r a l

i deol ogy

pr e v ai l s

and one

i s

al l owed

t o

t hi nk

anyt hi ng

and i s

gi ven

r e l a t i v e

f reedom

of

speech, l i m t e d

onl y

bysedi t i ous rousi ngs

Yet

despi t e

l i p - s e r v i c e t o

t r a d i t i o n a l l e ga l guarant ees

of

i ndi vi dual r i g h t s there

i s no

sent i ment that

l egi t i mat es opposi t i on w thi n

an

organi zat i on

Qui t e t he opposi t e,

a l l

habi t s

of

t hought are those of obedi ence t owar ds aut hori t y, even go i ng

s o

f ar as l o y a l t y t o

and

ident i f i ca t ion

w t h t he

organi zat i on

These sent i ment s a r e usual l y

r e i n -

forced

and encouraged by t he

organi zat i on

but a r e s pe c i f i c al l y t aught by t he

maj or

s o c i a l i z i n g


of t he s o c i e t y

t he

f aml y,

t he

school s and

t he

churches

Thi s nat ura l i ncl i nat i on t owards obedi ence, t h i s

one- di mensi onal

pattern

of

t hought ,

i s a maj or obstac l e to get t i ng others to

take

part

i n opposi -

t i o n s

Experi ment al

studi es

by

Mi l gram

al t hough

open

t o

questi ons

of

v a l i d i -

t y,

i ndi cat e

that

peopl e a r e so w l l i ng t o

obey aut hori t y

that

they wi l l i n f l i c t s u f -

fer ing

on

others si mpl y because

they

have been t ol d t o

do

so

°

I n a sense, t he

more

that

bureaucrat i c

opposi t i ons

a r e

made

publ i c, t he

more l i k e l y

are they

t o

occur, because

they

present a hi t hert o

unknown


Anot her

hi ndrance t o

creat i ng an opposi t i on group i s w despread f e a r of

r e p r i s a l s or a l t e r n a t i v e l y ,

l o s s

of possi bl e

rewards

i n a bourgeoi s c u l t u r e ,

prof i ts )

Bl a u s not i on

of f ai r exchange

21

and

Homans

r u l e of

di str i but i ve j us t i c e

22

( where one

expects t he

p r o f i t

t o be

proport i onal t o

t he

c o s t )

gi ve

some

i n s i g h t

i n t o

probabl e

deci si onal i nf l uences

on

potent i al

op-

posi t i on group

members

Most

cont emporar y s o ci al t hought , whet her Marxi st

or

f u n c t i o n a l i s t ,

accepts that

personal

s a c r i f i c e s

must

be

mot i vat ed Opposi -

t i o na l a c t i v i t y i nvol ves

such s a c r i f i c e s

because

i t i s

dangerous

Fi del Castro

and

Mao

Tse- Tung, f o r exampl e, based much of t h e i r

revol ut i onary

theory and

9

7/26/2019 VOL01NO2_3


DEENAWEINSTEIN

p r a c t i c e on t he

use of moral i ncent i ves wher e

mat eri al i ncent i ves are

unavai l abl e

Such

mor al i ncent i ves

i ncl ude,

as

J ames ownton

has not ed, com

radeshi p, pr i de

and

purpose

23

Garr i son adds that

commtment

t o a

cause of t en

al l ows t he

revol ut i onary

t o transcend t he cal cul at i ons

of cost - benef i t a n a l y s i s 4

Wrki ng

under

t he

pr i nc i pl es

of

cost - benef i t

anal y s i s

al one, nobody

woul dem

brace an unpopul ar

cause, but woul d al l ow

others t o

make

t he s a c r i f i c e s I n t he

c a s e of

p o l i t i c a l

revol ut i onari es, mor al

i ncent i ves

ar e often suppl ement ed

by

ex -

pect at i ons

that t h e i r

opposi t i on

w i l l

e f f e c t

d r a s t i c

changes

i n

s o c i a l and personal

l i f e and that i t s

members

w i l l

r i s e t o power

Bureaucr at i c r e bel s , however ,

must

often r e l y on

mor al i ncent i ves

al one

They

f requent l y ai m

at maki ng

rather mnor changes

and even

i f

they

ar e

s u c c e s s f u l ,

t h e i r

personal l o t

woul d

not appreci abl y

i mprove

I ndeed,

t he

r epl acement of an

oust ed

hi gher- l evel

bureaucrat

i s

usual l y not

a l eader of

t he

opposi t i on

Once peopl e begi n

t o

a f f i l i a t e

t hemsel ves w t h a prot est group, a

process

of

st i gmat i zat i on, wherei n t he

rebel

i s

depi ct ed i n

negat i ve t erms by

s o c i e t y ,

l abel ed

` i r r a t i onal ,

`degenerate , or at l e a s t

` i r r e s p o n s i b l e ,

further

pul l s

them

i n t o

i t

When

those part i c i pat i ng i n bureaucrat i c

opposi t i ons come

out

of

t he c l o s e t , st i gmat i zat i on often

becomes

even more e f f e c t i v e

i n pro-

moti ng

s o l i d a r i t y among t he d i s s e n t e r s ,

thereby

backf i r i ng

agai nst t he

aut hori t i es

Of

i n t e r e s t

t o

those

st udyi ng

p o l i t i c a l

r e v o l t i s

t he

r o l e

of rebel

l e ade r s

i n

organi z i ng and

di rect i ng

opposi t i on groups

They ar e

descr i bed i n t erms of

t h e i r a b i l i t y

t o mai nt ai n

commtment

and d i r e c t

e f f e c t i v e

acti on

Frequent l y

there i s a

di scussi on of d i f f e r e n t types of l eadershi p

r o l e s

corr espondi ng

t o

vari ous

phases

of t he

revol ut i on

Hopper , f o r exampl e,

di st i ngui shes t he

agi t a t o r

( who makes others awar e of abuses and

i n j u s t i c e s ) ,

t he prophet

who

has

s p ec i a l know edge and sense of

mssi on) ,

t he ref ormer who

o f f e r s

s p e c i f i c

a l t e r n a t i v e s ) , and

t he statesman

who f ormul at es

and operati onal i zes new

p o l i c y )

6

I n a

s im l a r

v ei n,

E r i c

Hof f er

i ndi cat es

that

a

movement

i s

pi oneered

bymen

of words,

mat eri al i zed

by f a n a t i c s and

consol i dat ed

by

men

of ac -

t i on

7

The

i s s u e

of l eadershi p has

a

somewhat d i f f e r e n t

f ocus whenone i s

consi der-

i ng bureaucrat i c

opposi t i ons

For

t he most par t t he st r uggl e

groups

are very

smal l and

are

often made up of col l eagues

who

f i n d

the creat i on of a f ormal

hi erarchy

rather

d i s t a s t e f u l

and

uni mpor t ant t o

coordi nat i ng

r e s i s t a n c e

The

organi zat i on of

these groups woul d be better under st ood by

reference

t o t he

var i ous

t heori es

of

f a c e - t o - f a c e

group i nt eracti on,

exempl i f i ed

i n

t he

c l a s s i c

c o l -

l ect i on ent i t l ed

Smal l

Goups

. 28

Shared

l eadershi p

seems

t o

be

t he

norm

t he l eadershi p

r o l e

sw t ches

f r om one person

t o

anot her (and)

there

maybe

i n

f a c t , many

l eaders i n

t he

same group i f

one f ol l ows

i t s course

of

i n-

t eract i on f r om one

moment

t o anot her

9

Possi bl y t he degree t o whi ch

t he

si tuat i on i s

deemed

c r i t i c a l woul d

i nf l uence whet her

a

l eader emerged f r om

t he

40

7/26/2019 VOL01NO2_3


URE UCR TIC

OPPOSITION

group

Perhaps t he

i mpor t ance

of appr oachi ng

t he goal out wei ghs t he

d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n s of

bei ng cont rol l ed

°

However ,

i f

each

st ands

to l oose

equal l y

t h e r e

i s

an

equal

r i s k f a c t o r ) ,

rel egat i ng

deci si ons t o

anot her

mght

be

con-

si dered as

unf ai r

The th i rd

maj or

area of concern t o t hose who st udy

opposi t i ons t o

t he pol i ty

i s

t he

v a r i e t y of s t r a t e g i e s and t a c t i c s whi ch

a r e

most e f f e c t i v e i n

di f f erent

c a s e s

I n general , t he

s t r a t e g i e s adopt ed

a r e

a f unct i on

of

t he goal s

sought

and t he

s t r u c t u r e

of t he

p o l i t i c a l

system Goal s can be

di f f erent i at ed

i n

t erms of some

changes

sought i n p o l i c i e s ,

s t r u c t u r e s ,

or

per sonnel Some t h e o r i s t s use the

t erms revol ut i on and

r e b e l l i o n t o

make a di st i nct i on among t ypes

of

opposi -

t i o n ,

but

there

i s

so much

i nconsi st ency and

r e l a t i v i t y t hat

t he t erms

are

not

usef ul

Coup

d e t a t s

are c l e a r l y

rebel l i ons ai med at

per sonnel

changes,

and

t hey

are

i nf requent l y

accompani ed

by

s i g n i f i c a n t s t r uc t ur a l

pol i cy t ransf ormat i ons

Most

f r equent

i nm l i t a r y

d i c t a t o r s h i p s ,

t hey a r e

not unknownw t hi n organi za-

t i o n s Bureaucrat i c opposi t i ons

di rected

a ga i ns t

s p e c i f i c

power

hol der s f ocus

upon t h e i r per sonal c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , as

opposed

t o r o l e

def i ni t i ons

I n

many i n-

st ances t h e i r i s s u e i s one of abuse of power

t he s t a t u s has del i mt ed r i g h t s

and

obl i gat i ons

and

f l agrant

maxi m zat i on

of

t he

f ormer

and/ or mni mzat i on

of

t he

l a t t e r r o l e

expl oi t at i on

l

can

i n s pi r e p r o t e s t

Or der i ng

a

s e c r e t a r y

t o

take di ctat i on

i s

w t hi n

an

execut i ve s

r i ght s , as opposed

t o

order i ng her t o work

overt i me

wi t hout addi t i onal pay, pr ovi de

sexual

f avour s ,

or t o

pad

an

expense

account

The

depar t ment

chai rman who f a i l s t o c a l l meet i ngs or i nf orm t he

f acul t y of admni str at i ve

r equi r ement s,

t he execut i ve

who

i s

usual l y t oo

drunk

t o work, or the Pet er- pr i nci pl ed bureaucr at

who

has r eached hi s or her l e ve l of

i ncompet ence3 z

are i nstances of

mni mz i ng

dut i es

Most bureaucraci es

make

l i t t l e

provi si on

f o r

di smssi ng empl oyees

f o r

power

abuse, p a r t i c u l a r l y

i n

t he

hi gher

echel ons Weber

s t a t e s t hat

normal l y,

t he posi t i on of t he o f f i c i a l

i s

hel d f o r

l i f e

at l ea s t

i n

publ i c bureaucraci es ;

and

t h i s

i s

i ncreasi ngl y t he

case f or

a l l si ml ar structures

33

Eval uat i on and

t h r e a t s

of di scharge come f r om t hose

above, but

f r equent l y t hose i n

t he

best posi t i on t o

knowof abuses

of

o f f i c e

a r e

t hose

wor ki ng under

t he person

i n

quest i on

Thi s

di sj unct i on bet ween

t he

capaci t y t o j udge

and

t he a b i l i t y t o pass

j udgement account s

f or much

organi zat i on c o n f l i c t and s t r e s s

There

i s no

power

of

t he ba l l o t i n most

organi zat i ons

I nt ensi f yi ng

t he probl emare norms or r u l e s prohi bi t i ng under -

l i n g s f r om

goi ng

over t he head

of

t h e i r

i mmedi at e

super i ors

Where

such

p r a c t i c es

o c c u r ,

t he

s t r a t e g y f or

bureaucrat i c

opposi t i on

i nvol ves

get t i ng

non-

i mmedi at e

superi ors to t ake t he report s

of

wr ongdoi ng s er i o us l y

Thi s

i s one of

t he most

d i f f i c u l t

phases

of a

s t r u gg l e ,

s i n c e

hi gh- l evel

o f f i c i a l s have often

ap-

proved

t he f unct i onar i es

under a t t a c k ,

a r e

anxi ous

t o

avoi d p u b l i c i t y , and

may

f ear

l eg al

r e p r i s a l s

i f t hey

act i n

f avour

of

t he i nsurgent s

I t i s pr obabl e t hat bot h

i n

t he pol i ty and w t hi n organi zat i ons, per sonnel

4

7/26/2019 VOL01NO2_3


EEN

W I NST I N

changes

spurred on

by t hose w t hout

power

are e as i e r to ef f ect uate

and

have

been more successf ul

t han

s t r u c t u r a l

or pol i cy

changes

The

t a c t i c s

whi ch

are

used

t o

at t empt

s t r u c t u r a l

changes

aremany

and

i n

part

a r e

i nf l uenced

by

how

r a di c al

t hey

a r e r e l a t i v e t o

t he e x i s t i n g organi zat i on, t he type

of

organi zat i on,

and t he

r esour ces avai l abl e

R HTawney

wri t es t hat

revol ut i ons,

as a

l ong

and b i t t e r

exper i ence

r e v ea l s ,

a r e apt

t o take

t h e i r

col our from

t he r egi me t hey

over t hr ow

.

For

exampl e,

bur eaucrat i c opposi t i on w t hi n

a met r opol i t an

pol i ce

depar t ment

(such

as

t he str uggl e t hat

Ser pi co l e d3 s

i s

apt t o be more

vi ol ent

t han one

i n a

f i r e depar t ment because

t he pol i ce a r e

i nvol ved

w t h

vi ol ence on

a dai l y

ba s i s

Ver bal

s t r a t e gi e s

a r e f r equent i n

most organi zat i ons,

especi al l y

i n

academ c

s i t u a t i o n s ,

because

symbol s

are

t he

manager s

and

pro-

f e s s i o na l s

stock

and

trade

Whereas

p o l i t i c a l

r evol ut i ons

are usual l y

v i o l e n t ,

i n

t erms

of physi cal

harm3

6 bur eaucrat i c

opposi t i ons

har dl y ever

r e s o r t

t o physi cal

force

Rat her t han

mol ot ov c o c k t a i l s and guns,

t h ei r weapons

are

r h e t o r i c ,

i deol ogy and

t hr eat of

exposur e Both

p o l i t i c a l and

bur eaucrat i c

opposi t i ons do

of t en t r y t o

mani pul at e

t he i nt er or gani zat i onal

cont ext

For a bur eaucrat i c

op-

posi t i on

such

f or ei gn a l l i e s mght bet he

p r e s s , l e gi s l a t i v e over si ght comm t t ees,

publ i c i nt e r e s t

advocat es,

or

ar egul at or y

agency

I n

t hose i nst ances

of

whi s t l e -

bl owi ng wher e

a per son

i s

al one i n t he

s t r uggl e ,

t he press has

been

a power f ul

a l l y

Concl usi on

Ther e a r e numerous s t r a t e g i e s as wel l

as

t ypol ogi es

of

opposi t i onal

st r uggl es

t hat f i l l

t he l i t e r a t u r e on

p o l i t i c a l

c o n f l i c t s 38 Many

of t hese are

usef ul

t o

under st andi ng

bur eaucrat i c opposi t i ons, but i t i s not t he

i nt ent

her e

t o do

an

exhaust i ve sur vey

and

a

codi f i cat i on

of t he r e s u l t s

Rather ,

t he

above

has

been

suggest i ve of a number of possi bl e

t ypes

of research

t hat

f o l l o w

from

t he

ap-

p l i c a t i o n

of p o l i t i c a l cat egor i es t o organi zat i onal

a na l y s i s

Asi de

f r om

possi bl e p r a c t i c al concerns, such

as t he

encour agement

of

humane change

i n

hi er ar chi cal organi zat i ons,

t he appl i cat i on

of

p o l i t i c a l

cat egori es

t o t he

st udy

of

bureaucraci es i s

a sheer

t he or e t i c al ne ce s s i t y

i n t oday s

wor l d

At present

there

i s

a

s t e r i l e

d i v i s i o n

i n s o ci a l

theory

bet ween f r amewor ks

t hat descr i be macropol i t i cal

c o n f l i c t and schema t hat t r e a t

of admni str at i ve

coor di nat i on

w t hi n organi zat i ons

Thi s di vi si on

r e f l e c t s , per haps,

a worl d

dom nat ed

by superpower s,

i n

whi ch

t he

great

congl omerat es

ar e at

odds

w t h

one anot her whi l e

at

t he same

t i me exer t i ng

r epr essi ve

control

over

t hei r sub-

j e c t s

Ther e

has

as

yet

been no t heor y t hat addresses t he

s t r i v i n g s of those

who

must l i v e

i n t he

shadows and under

t he cont r ol

of mass

organi zat i ons

The

pr evi ous

di scussi on

has been

an

e f f o r t

t o

synt hesi ze

p o l i t i c a l

concept s

and

organi zat i onal a n a l y s i s , w t h a vi ew t o

over comng

t he

t heor et i cal

s p l i t

The

2

7/26/2019 VOL01NO2_3


BUREAUCRATICOPPOSITION

ul t i mat e goal i s

that

t h i s t h eor et i c al

nexus

w i l l

hel p i nf orm a praxi s of l i b e r a -

t i o n

Student s of

revol ut i ons,

and

of

c o n f l i c t

i n

general , are i nt erested i n

t he

r e s u l t s

of such a c t i v i t y

Whi l e

t he

most

conservat i ve and

apol oget i c t hi nkers

f i nd

not hi ng

of

p o s i t i v e

val ue

i n

opposi t i on

t o

const i t ut ed

aut hori t y and often

si mpl y

i gnore i t as

a

m nor

aber rat i on

i n

t he pattern of s oc i al

l i f e ,

other

t h e o r i s t s

such

as some f u n c t i o n a l i s t s do

f i nd

c o n f l i c t t o

be usef ul t o

t he

establ i shed order bureaucrat i c opposi t i on

whi ch

br i ngs t o l i g h t t he

i l l e g a l

a c t s

or

abuses

of

power

of an o f f i c e hol der

br i ngs

t oget her upri ght

con-

s c i enc es

and

concent rates them i nt erpol at i ng f r omDurkheim

I n

other

words, t he

o f f i c i a l

norms woul d

be rei nf or ced by t he opposi t i on

Lew s Coser,

i n

books

e n t i t l e d

The

Funct i on

of

Soci al

Conf l i ct

and

Cont i nui t i es

i n t h e

St udy

of Soci al

C o n f l i c t , de s c r i b es

numerous possi bl e

f unct i ons m ni mal l y enact ed

des i r e

even

i f i n

t he

absence

of

a l t e r nat i v e

channel s,

i t

be

expressed

through

s o ci a l

v i o l enc e,

may

hel p c l e ar t he ai r

4°

Cl ai ms

that

bureaucrat i c op-

posi t i ons

enhance

t he e f f i c i e n c y , or d i a l e c t i c a l l y change t he val ues embodi ed i n

t he organi zati on,

ar e

w del y used

j u s t i f i c a t i o n s

f or

them

4

Hence, t he l a t ent

f unct i ons

of

bureaucrat i c opposi t i ons

ar e

at

l eas t equi vocal

;

there i s no

assurance that

theyweaken

t he system

they may

even strengthen

i t by

pur gi ng

i t

of

grat ui t ous abuses,

or

a c t u a l l y

l ead t o

s t r u c t u a l change

Al t hough i t i s

i mpossi bl e f o r a c r i t i c a l

ana l y s i s

of bureaucrat i c opposi t i on t o

reach t he concl usi on

that

t h i s

phenomenon

nec es s ar i l y

produces

humane and

l i berat i ng changes,

such an

ana l y s i s

does

r e v e a l

a

si gni f i cant di mensi on

of con-

t empor ary

s o ci al

st ruct ure t hat

i s

rel evant

t o

t he

i s s u e

of

change

The

great

s i m l a r i t i e s

bet ween

t radi t i onal p o l i t i c a l c o n f l i c t and i nt ra- organ

i z at i ona l

con-

f l i c t poi nt t o t he

gr ow ng

i nvasi on of

h i er ar c h i c al cont rol

i nto a l l

phases of

human

e xi s t e nc e Wher ever

such

control

appears t he di f f erent i at i on bet ween

t he p o l i t i c a l and

other spheres of l i f e i s

l o s t

and al ong

w t h t h i s

l o s s

goes

t he

di m nut i on

of

d i s t i n c t i v e

i n s t i t u t i o n a l autonomy

Al l

organi zat i ons

t end

t o

become congl omerat es , organi zi ng t h ei r members around t he

pursui t of

abs t r a c t v a l ues , p a r t i c u l a r l y c ont r o l , whi ch becomes

t he precondi t i on of

a l l

other

ends

Gl obal p o l i t i c a l

sol ut i ons,

such

a s

those proposed

i n

ni neteent h-

cent ury

p o l i t i c a l s oc i o l ogi es and

c ar r i ed

out

i n

t went i et h

cent ury super power s,

depend

upon

p o l i t i c i z i n g

t he

workpl ace,

ei t her

d i r e c t l y as i n t o t a l i t a r i a n

s t a t e s or

by

anal ogy as

i n

mass

democraci es

P i t i r i m

Soroki n

c a l l e d t he s o ci a l

system of

West er n mass

democr aci es

decent r al i zed total i tar i ani sm

4

Each

organi zat i on

was,

f o r

hi m

an

aut hori t ari an s t a t e on i t s

own

account

The

dangers,

f r u s t r a t i o n s ,

and

often cont radi ctory

consequences of

bureaucrat i c

op-

pos i t i ons , t hen,

ar e

merel y

exempl ar y

of

t he pr obl ems

of

c o l l e c t i v e

act i on

i n

a

wor l d i ncreasi ngl y governed by

a b s t r a c t

h i e r a r c h i c al control

4

Soci ol ogy

DePaul Uni versi t y

7/26/2019 VOL01NO2_3


EEN WEINSTEIN

Notes

1 Thi s i s

a

r evi sed ver si on of

apaper

pr esented at

t he

meet i ngs of

t he

Amer i can Soci ol ogi cal

Associ at i on

i n

New

York

i n

August ,

1976

The

aut hor

w shes

t o

thank

P r o f e s s o r s

Mar i e

Haug

Rober t P er r uc c i Ar t hur Kr oker andM chael Wei nstei n

f or

t h ei r

hel pf ul

suggest i ons

2

For a

di scussi on of t h i s trend see f or exampl e, Mar t i n

Oppenhei mer

The

Uni oni zat i on

of

t he

P r of e ss i o na l Soci al Po l i c y

Vol

5

J anuar y/

Febr uar y, 1975)

34- 40

and

T S

Chever s,

Pr ol etar i ani zati on

of a Ser vi ce Wor ker , Soci al

Resear ch,

Vol

21

November , 1973)

633- 56

3

For

a

study

and

di scussi on

of

those

i n

such

l ow

l e ve l

whi te-col l ar empl oyment s ee

Bar bar a

Ki r sch

andJ oseph

Lenger mann,

An

Empi r i cal Test of Rober t Bl auner

s

I deas on

Al i enati on

i n

Wrk

as Appl i ed t o Di f f er ent

Type

J obs i n

aWi te

Col l ar Set t i ng,

Soci ol ogy and

Soci al

Resear ch, Vol

. 56 J anuar y, 1972) 180-94

4

J ohnDewey Reconstr ucti on i n Phi l osophy NewYork

Henry

Hol t, 1927) ;

C Wi ght

Mi l l s

TheSoci ol ogi cal l magi nat i on NewYork

Oxf or d

Uni ver si ty P r e s s 1958)

5

Antony J ay, Management

and

Machi avel l i

An I nqui r y

i nto t he P o l i t i c s of Corpor at e L i f e

NewYork

BantamBooks,

1968)

pp

11- 12

6 W l l i am Kor nhauser , Rebel l i on

and

P o l i t i c a l

Devel opment

i n Har r y Eckstei n

ed

.

I nt er nal War , NewYork Fr ee P r e s s 1964)

p 142

Max

Weber Bur eaucr acy ,

i n H. H

Ger t h and

C

.WM l l s

eds

. From

MaxWeber : Essays

i n Soci ol ogy New

York

Oxf or d Uni ver si ty P r e s s 1946)

p 228

8

See Har r y

Eckstei n,

On t he

Causes

of I nter nal

Wars

i n Er i c A Nor dl i nger ed . P o l i t i c s

and

Soci et y: Studi es : n

Compar at i ve P o l i t i c a l Soci ol ogy

Engl ewood C l i f f s Prenti ce

Hal l ,

1970)

p

291

9

W l l i amA Gamson,

The

Str ategy of Soci al Pr otest

Homewood Dor sey

P r e s s 1974) p

111

10

Eckstei n,

op

c i t

11 Thegor y descr i pt i on of

what happened

t o Ser pi co,

t he

New

York

Ci ty pat r ol man

who bl ew

t he

whi stl e

on

t he NYCPD

s t r e s s e s

t h i s poi nt

See

Peter Mass, Ser pi co

NewYork

Bantam

Books, 1973)

12

For an

a n a l y s i s of t h i s phenomenon s ee

DeenaWei nstei n and M chael

A Wei nstei n, Li v i ng

Soci ol ogy

A Cr i t i cal I ntr oduct i on

New

York

Davi d McKay

1964)

chapter

10

13

Tal cot t

Par sons, P o l i t i c s andSoci al Str uctur e NewYork Fr ee P r e s s

1969)

44

7/26/2019 VOL01NO2_3


14

For

a di scussi on

of t h i s

poi nt see Randal l

Co l l i ns Conf l i c t

Soci ol ogy

New

York

Academc

P r e s s 1975)

p

301

15

I n a

conversat i on

w t h a Sout h Af r i can execut i ve,

he

i ndi cated t h a t w t hi n

somewhat

broad

l i m t s

execut i ves i n h i s f i r m

are

pai d accord i ng t o t he i r st andards of

l i v i n g

t he

more

t hey

spend

t he

hi gher t h e i r

s a l a r i e s

16 O

a

c l a s s of

29 eveni ng students, onl y three

di d

not

encount er an

exampl e of a bureaucrat i c

opposi t i on wher e t hey wor k ed)

My f i l e s have

dozens

of exampl es

c ul l ed

f r om newspaper s

and magazi nes , as wel l as casual

conversat i ons

w t h

acquai nt ances,

I have no i dea of

the extent

of curr ent bureaucrat i c opposi t i ons,

but because

al most everyone

who

i s asked r e a d i l y

admts

t o

knowng

of a t l e a s t one, t hey a r e probabl y

rather ubi qui t ous

17 Parsons,

op

c i t

BUREAUCRATIC

OPPOSITION

18

Lew s A

Coser,

Cont i nui t i es

i n

t he

Study

of Soci al

Conf l i c t New

York

Free P r e s s 1967)

p

145

19 H H Get t h

and

C

Wi ght

Mi l l s

I nt roduct i on

The Man and

Hi s

Work ,

From

Max

Weber

Essays

i n Soci ol ogy New

York

Oxf ord

Uni vers i t y P r e s s 1946)

p

56

20 St anl ey M l gr am Obedi ence t o

Aut hori t y

An

Exper i ment al

Vi ew

NewYork Har per and

Row

1974) ; f o r

an

e xc e l l e nt c r i t i q u e of t h i s

work

s e e Mart i n Wengl i nsky, Revi ew of

M l gr am Obedi enc e t o

Authori t y ,

Cont emporar y Soci ol ogy

A J ournal

of

Revi ews

November , 1975)

613-17

21 Pet er Bl au, Exchange and

Poweri n

Soci al

L i f e New

York

J ohn

l e y

1964)

22

Geor ge

C

Homans, Socr al Behavi or NewYork

Harcourt, Brace

andWor l d,

1961)

23

J ames

V

Downton

J r Rebel Leader shi p :

Commtment andChar i sma i n

t he

Revol uti onar y

Process

New

York

Free P r e s s

1973)

p 62

24

Garr i son, op

c i t p 59

25

Downton, op c i t p 7

26

Rex

D Hopper ,

The

Revol uti onar y

Process

A

Frame

of Ref erence

f o r

t he

Study

of

Revol uti onar y Movements,

SocudForces,

Vol

28

1950)

270- 79

27

E r i c Hof f er,

The

True Bel i ever Thought s

on

t he

Nat ure of Mass Movements New

York

New

Amer i can Li brary, 1951)

p

113

4

7/26/2019 VOL01NO2_3


30 Sprot t , i b i d.

p 156

33

Weber op c i t . p 202

35

Mass,

op

c i t

EEN

WEINSTEIN

28

Paul Har e, Edgar F

Bor gat t a and Rober t F

Bal es

eds

.

Smal l Groups

: St udi es i n Soci al

I nt eract i on

NewYork Knopf ,

1955)

29

H Sprot t , Human

Groups

Bal t i mor e

Pengui n Books,

1958)

pp 153- 54

31

For

a

di scussi on

of t he

concept of

r ol e expl oi t at i on

s ee

Deena

Wei nst ei n

and M chael

Wei nst ei n , Rol es ofMan Hi nsdal e

Dryden

P r e s s 1972)

pp

98- 99

32

Lawr ence F Pet er s and Raymnd H a l l The Pet er Pr i nc i p l e NewYork

Wl l i amMor r ow

1969)

34 Ri chardHTawney,

The

Acqui s i t i veSoci et y NewYorkHarcour t ,

Br ace,

1920)

36 .

Most af a Re j a i

The

St r at egy o fPo f t i c al Revo l ut i on Gar den Ci t y Doubl eday,

1973) ,

p

8

37 Char l es

Pet er s

andTayl or Br anch,

Bl ow ng t he Whi st l e

D ssent

i n

t he

Publ i c I nt er est

New

York Pr aeger , 1972)

and Ral ph Nader ,

Pet er

J

Pet kas

and Kate

Bl ackwel l

eds

. Whi st l e

Bl ow ng

The

Repor t

of t he

Conf er ence on

Prof essi onal

Responsi bi l i t y NewYork

Grossman

Publ i sher s, 1972)

38 See

f or

exampl e,

t he

wor ks

of

Lew s Coser ,

The Functi ons of

Soci al

Conf l i c t NewYork Free

P r e s s

1954)

;

and

Ral f

Dahr endor f ,

Cl ass andCl ass

Conf l i ct

i n

I ndustr i al

Soci et y

Stanf ord

Stanford

Uni ver s i t y P r e s s 1959)

39

Eml e Durkhei m

TheDv i s i o n o fLabo r i n Soci et y

New

York

Fr ee P r e s s

1947) ,

p 102

40

Coser ,

Cont i nui t i es

i n

t he

St udy

.

op

c i t .

p

110

41

For

an anal ysi s

of

t he

j u s t i f i c a t i o n s of vi ol ence s ee

Kenneth

Grundy

and

M chael

Wei nst ei n,

The

I deol ogi esof Vi ol ence Col umus

Char l esE . Mer r i l l 1974)

4 2 Pi t i r i m

Sor oki n,

The

C r i s i s

of

Our ge NewYork

E P

Dut t on,

1941)

7/26/2019 VOL01NO2_3


Canadi an

J our nal

of

P o l i t i c a l and

Soci al Theor y

/ Revue

canadi enne

de

t heol i e

pol i t i que et s oc i a l e Vol

1

No

( Spr i ng- Summer / Pri nt emps- Ere,

1977)

D LE TI L

SENSI I LITY

I I

:

TOWR S

NEW

INTELLE TU LITY

Ben

Agger

I n

t he

precedi ng

a r t i c l e

I

c a l l e d

f or a

new

concept of

radi cal i sm

appropr i at e

t o

l a t e

c a p i t a l i s t

s o c i e t y ret urned

t o Marx s

and

Marcuse s

concept

of t he ad-

v i s or y r o l e

of

c r i t i c a l

t heory

i n

i t s r e l a t i o n

t o

e x i s t i n g

al i enat i on

and

t o

e f f o r t s

t o

over come

al i enat i on

I n

t h i s

a r t i c l e want

t o

devel op f ur t her t he concept of

di a l e c t i c a l s ens i b i l i t y

as

t

mght i nf ormt he a c t i v i t y

of

r a di c al i n t e l l e c t u a l s

I nst ead

of

submer gi ng

t heory

i n t he

t a c t i c s

of

revol ut i onary preparat i on,

I

wi l l

argue f o r a t heory

whi ch does

not

pret end

t hat

i t s val ue- neut ral i n t s

ori ent at i on t o

t he p o s s i b i l i t y

of

change The di a l ec t i c al s e n s i b i l i t y a s I

concei ve

of

t

democr at i zes c r i t i c a l

i n t e l l e c t u a l i t y

as

a way of creat i ng

s o ci a l

change

from

w t hi n ,

count er i ng what Weber

so

percept i vel y

cal l ed

bureaucr at i c

i mperat i ve coordi nat i on

I n

t h i s

regard donot

w sh t o

i mpl y

t hat

changi ng

bourgeoi s

concept s

of schol arshi p

s

a s u f f i c i e n t

f o rm

of

p r a c t i c e t oday : wemust

s t l l produce

a

t heory

whi ch

expl ai ns

ut opi an

p o s s i b i l i t i e s

cont ai ned i n t he em

p i r i c a l present

Cogni t i ve Sel f - Management

The

di a l ec t i c al

s e n s i b i l i t y

begi ns

t o

l i v e

t he

revol ut i on

I n

t h i s

sense,

i n t e l l e c -

t u a l s

do

not

merel y

t al k but

exempl i f y

i n

t h e i r

own

a c t i v i t i e s

t he order of a

news o ci e t y

ref usi ng t o be

bound and

det ermned by

i mposed

st andards

of

t ruth and val ue What

I

c al l

cogni t i ve sel f - management i nvol ves t he

t ranscendence

of

i deol ogy and i mposed

i n t e l l e c t u a l

aut hori t y

But

cogni t i ve

sel f - management i mpl i es more t han mere

t hought

;

t

a l s o

changes t he very ac -

t i v i t y

of cogni t i on

The r adi c al


port rays di a l ec t i c al


demonst rat i ng t o

t he power l ess

t hat

t hey

need not

l i v e

f orever

under

t he t yran-

ny

of

sel f - i mposed

i gnorance

and

p a s s i v i t y

The

r a di c al

i n t e l l e c t u a l begi ns t o

l i v e t he

revol ut i on

by

becomngmore

t han an

i s o l a t e d i n t e l l e c t u a l

ref usi ng t o

s t a y

w t hi n t he conf i nes

of

t he academc

r o l e

t

s t h i s

mul t i - di mensi onal i t y

of

rol e- pl ayi ng

t hat

cont end

i s

revol ut i onary,

chal l engi ng t he very

essence of

t echnocrat i c

s o c i e t y whi ch

counsel s

peopl e

onl y

t o

consume ( commodi t i es and

commands

7/26/2019 VOL01NO2_3


BEN GGER

t woul d

be

hypocr i t i cal

t o

preserve t he

r o l e

of

t he t r a d i t i o n a l Mar xi st i n

t e l l e c t u a l

whi l e counsel i ng

others

t o destroy t he di vi si on of l abour

The di a l ec

t i c a l


must

t r ans fo rm

i t s e l f

i n

t he

mds t

of

e f f o r t s

t o

t r an s fo rm

s o c i e t y

Wthout devel opi ng

t h i s type

of

s e n s i b i l i t y on t he par t

of


t he

not i on

of

cogni t i ve

sel f - management woul d r e s t

onpr ecari ous

f oundat i ons

ever yone

but i n t e l l e c t u a l s woul d

be exhor t ed t o

engage i n t he mer gi ng

of

theory

and p r a c t i c e

Cogni t i ve sel f - management wi l l take

t he

form

of

what Mar cuse c a l l s new

sci ence

or

what

I

have

cal l ed

r adi cal empi r i ci sm

The

i dea

of a newsci ence

i s

a

metaphor

whi ch

st i mul at es t he i magi nat i on, f ur ni s hi ng a wor kabl e

i mage

of

a

dedi f f er ent i ated, demyst i f i ed

s o c i e t y

I n

t h i s

cont ext , new sci ence

s an

es s e nt i a l

mde of f ree human

a c t i v i t y

pr act i ced f o r t s own

sake, w t hout

reference t o external l y

i mposed pur poses

have

devel oped

t he not i on that

cogni t i on can becom a form

of

ment al pl ay r ei t er at i ng

Mar cuse s

vi s i on

that

al i enat ed

work

can be

el i m nat ed and t hus

f undament al l y

t r ansf or med

under

a

di f f er ent s o c i a l

or der New

sci ence

s c r u c i a l her e because t

st i mul at es human

bei ngs t o

take

control of cogni t i on i n

l ear ni ng

that

cogni t i on i s

an

a c t i v i t y not

reserved f or exper t s

do not

bel i eve

that mdern

capi t al i sm s mvi ng t owar ds t s i nexorabl e

c o l

l apse

Thi s does

not

mean

however ,

that

change

s

i mpossi bl e or even

i m

pr obabl e,

f or

t he psychi c c o s t s

of

dom nat i on

ar e

mounti ng r a pi dl y

es pec i a l l y

s

capi t a l i sm

i s

i ncreasi ngl y

capabl e

of s at i s f y i ng bas i c

mat er i al

needs and yet

peopl e s t l l

go

hungr y

andwor k

at

unsat i s f yi ng

j obs

Mar cuse has

e x p l i c i t l y sug-

gest ed that subver si ve

f o r c e s

ar e

al r eady bei ng pr oduced by c api t a l i s t s oc i et y

a l b e i t

i n f or ms

whi ch

depar t

from

orthodox

Mar xi an model s

of

change accept

that

t h i s t rend e x i s t s t he quest i on f ac i ng c r i t i c a l theory t oday s howdo we

r ecogni ze and

enhance

these

ami guous

f o r c e s as

Mar cuse

has cal l ed them

At t h i s

j unct ur e,

t he concept

of a

d i a l e c t i c a l s e n s i b i l i t y

engagi ng i n

cogni t i ve

sel f - management ,

s

a

r easonabl e

pl ace

t o car r y

on

t he

s t r uggl e

both

t heor et i cal

and p o l i t i c a l

Si nce t he st r uggl e

s

al r eady

happeni ng

i n

mul t i f ar i ous

f or ms

as humanbei ngs at t empt

t o

over come al i enat i on

i n t h e i r

own l i v e s t h i s i s

a pl ace f o r


t o j oi n t he process of

s e l f

t r ansf ormat i on Whi l e t h i s

may

be a

pai nf ul and t r oubl ed p r o c e s s I can t hi nk

of

n

o bet t er

way

of cont r i but i ng t o

s o c i al

change

than

t o t r ans f o rmthe

t r a d i

t i o n a l

di sengagement

of

t he

l onel y s c ho l a r

i n

t he

pr ocess creat i ng an

ar chet ype

of

d i a l e c t i c a l


engaged

i n

r evol ut i onar y

sel f - management

s

r adi c al i n t e l l e c t u a l s

car ry

out

t h e i r own

c r i t i c a l

a c t i v i t y

t hey

wi l l

ne c es s a r i

l y engage

i n p o l i t i c a l

educat i on

whi ch

expl i cat es

t he


of cogni t i ve

sel f - management

I nst ead of mer el y r eveal i ng t he

fact

of

dom nat i on, p o l i t i c a l

educat i on wi l l

i nst ead demonst r at e potent i al s f or

changi ng s o c i e t y

i n

f e a s i b l e

and compr ehensi bl e ways

I n demons t r at i ng

these pot ent i al s, di al ec t i c al sen-

s i b i l i t i e s wi l l draw

upon

e x i s t i n g exampl es

of r ebel l i on

and s t r uggl e

r ef usi ng t o

8

7/26/2019 VOL01NO2_3


D LECTIC L

SENSIBILITYI I

i nvent

u n r e a l i s t i c , i mpr obabl e s c ena r i os i n ac t s of sheer

proj ect i on

P o l i t i c a l

educat i on

wi l l communi c tew t h e x i s t i n g r e s i s t a nc e

t o t he present

order

i n

at -

t empt i ng

t o

r a i s e

t s

radi cal i sm

t o

hi gher ,

more

t h e o r e t i c a l l y

coherent

l e ve l

The r a di c a l i n t e l l e c t u a l i n t hi s w y wi l l hel p t o organi ze on- goi ng e f f o r t s t o

r e s i s t t he

di vi si on of

l abour bet ween expert

nd

non- expert , encouragi ng

revol ut i onary

democr acy

as t he

mos t

di r e c t means of

creat i ng a

neworder nd

avoi di ng

vanguar di sm Al t hough

t he

r a di c a l i n t e l l e c t u a l s an expert of

s o r t s , he s onl y t oo

w l l i ng

t o

abandon

hi s

e xpe r t i s e

i n

t he i n t e r e s t of

l i berat i ng

others

perhaps l e s s t h e o r e t i c a l l y nd p o l i t i c a l l y a r t i c u l a t e

from

t he

t y r a n -

ny nd hegemony of

expert i se

The

r a di c a l

i n t e l l e c t u a l s

not

opposed

t o

speci al i zed

knowl edge

but

onl y

t o

t he

type

of

speci al i zed

knowl edge

whi ch,

t hrough mysti f i cat i on, bec omes

p o l i t i c a l l y

dom nat i ng

Si gni f i cant

s oc i a l

change wi l l

onl y

occur,

submt, whenhuman bei ngs become abl e

t o

a r t i c u l a t e

reasons

f or

al i enat i on

nd

t he

syst emat i c

p o s s i b i l i t y of

a

new

s oc i a l order The

r a di c a l


hel ps t o

provi de t he l anguage nd t he or e t i c a l system

t hrough whi ch

t hat

type

of revol ut i onary compr ehensi on

mght

t ake pl ace

t t h i s

t i me,

p o l i t i c a l resi st ance s f r agment ed nd s c a t t e r e d Thi s r e s i s t a n c e

may be

organi zed

by provi di ng

a model

of

change

t hrough whi ch each

ot herw se

i s o l a t e d

nd

therefore

i mpot ent

pocket

of r e s i s t a n c e

can

be or -

chestrated

Thi s t ype of orchest rat i on

can

avoi d

t he

p e r i l s of vanguar di sm by

encouragi ng

rebel l i on

nd resi st ance

t o

devel op

t s

own sel f - conf i dence nd

p o l i t i c a l f r eedom of

choi ce

t h i s

s

t he

emanci pat ory

cont ent

of t he phrase

cogni t i ve

sel f - management

F r e i r e s

pedagogy of

t he oppressed

w s desi gned

t o r a i s e

p o l i t i c a l con-

sci ousness

by

t eachi ng

peasant s t he r udi ment s of l i t e r a c y , gi vi ng thema new

purchase on hei ght ened sel f - est eem nd thus pol i t i c a l e f f i c ac yz Thi s can s e r v e

as

n

archetype

of

t he

p o l i t i c a l educat i on whi ch


s ens i bi l i t i es wi l l con-

duct

I nst ead

of

l earni ng

t o

read

nd

wr i t e ,

peopl e

i n

advanced

i ndus t r i a l

s o c i e t i e s wi l l be shown

t he

p o s s i b i l i t y of becomng news c i e n t i s t s , f r e e f rom

t he

yoke of

i mperat i ve coordi nat i on

by

expert s

I ndeed,

F r ei r e s

l i t e r a c y -

t echni ques ar e p r e c i s e l y an exampl e of

cogni t i ve


reveal i ng

t o

human

bei ngs

t he pr ac t i c al oppor t uni t y

t o

cont rol

t h ei r

own i n t e l l e c t u a l ,

nd

i mpl i c i t l y

p o l i t i c a l ,

de s t i n i e s

Thi s t ype of p o l i t i c a l educat i on d i f f e r s from

pri or

f orms i n

t hat

t

r e l a t e s

human suf f eri ng nd

t he

r e s i s t a nc e

whi ch t

occasi ons

t o t he v i s i b l e , pal pabl e

prospect

of

a

q u a l i t a t i v e l y

di f f e r e nt s oc i e t y

I nst ead

of merel y

proj ect i ng a

new

order i n specul at i ve f ashi on,

p o l i t i c a l educat i on wi l l

a r t i c u l a t e

t he

d i a l e c t i c

be-

t ween

empi ri cal l y di scoverabl e st ruggl e

no mat t er how

reformst t

may

ap-

pear

nd

t he

prospect

of cr eat i ng a

neworder The d i a l e c t i c a l s e n s i b i l i t y

recogni zes

t he

subj ecti ve root s

of

obj ect i ve

s oc i a l change

emanci pat i on wi l l not

f a l l

from

t he sky

49

7/26/2019 VOL01NO2_3


BENAGGER

The


does

not shun

on- goi ng

r e s i s t a nc e

har bour i ng a

pr ef ormed

i mage

of an aut hent i c

revol ut i on I ndeed, t he r a d i c a l i n t e l l e c t u a l

dr aws

h i s

own

opt i msm

p r e c i s e l y

f r om

t hat

whi ch

he

st udi es

and

a s s i s t s

i n

t he

process of

sel f - emanci pat i on

I n

t he

hands

of

Horkheimer and

Adorno

c r i t i c a l

theory regret t abl y became a form

of

negat i ve proof , vi ndi cat i ng i t s

own

h i s t o r i c a l pessi m sm

by demonst r at i ng t hat radi cal i sm

does

not

and

therefore

cannot

e x i s t

I nst ead,

r a d i c a l i nt e l l e c t ua l s wi l l l ook

t o

t he

exi st ence

of

r e s i s t a n c e as

conf i rm ng

t h e i r own

suspi ci on t hat t he systemcan be

changed

by

purposef ul , a r t i c u l a t e

human bei ngs,

suggest i ng

t hat

we need not awai t t he

ml l enni um

or

an

aut omat i c

r evol ut i on

Theory becomes t he

p r a c t i c e of

t hi nki ng and l i v i n g t he concept

of

radi cal i sm

a new

order

cannot

beseparat ed

f rom

t hemvemnt

t o

achi eve i t I

have

s a i d t hat t he d i a l e c t i c a l s ens i b i l i t y woul d

becom

a

l i v i n g

t h e o r i s t free

from

g u i l t

about

appear i ng p o l i t i c a l l y i n a c t i v e

i n

t he

usual sense

Thi s t ype

of

g u i l t

pl agued

t he o r i g i n a l c r i t i c a l t h e o r i s t s

pushi ng

themfurther away f r om

l i v i n g

t heor y

Adorno wrot e

i n hi s 1966 wor k, Negat i ve Di al ecti cs

My

t hought

i s dr i ven

t o

[ negat i ve

d i a l e c t i c s ]

by

i t s

own

i nevi t abl e

i n s u f f i c i e n c y by

my

g u i l t

of

what

am

hi nki ng

The

concept

of

d i a l e c t i c a l s ens i b i l i t y ent a i l s a

` ` s u f f i c i e n t i n t e l l e c t u a l i t y a

d i a l e c t i c s

whi ch

breaks out

of

t he conf i nes of

i s o l a t e d

t hought

w t hout

l osi ng

t he

r e f l e c t i v e

moment

can

over come

c r i t i c a l

t heory s

di chot omous

appr oach

t o t hought and

a c t i o n

r emni scent

of

phi l osophi cal dual i sm he same dual i sm

whi ch

Hegel i an

Marxi smo r i g i n a l l y

opposed

Di al ecti cal s e n s i b i l i t y

wi l l

percei ve

t he

p o s i t i v e

w t hi n

t he

negat i ve,

domna-

t i on

pr oduci ng i t s

t r anscendence

t h i s

s t he

f oundat i on of

t he r a d i c a l i n t e l l e c -

t u a l i t y whi ch am

pr oposi ng

Horkheimer andAdornower e overwhelmed

by

t he

appearance of

t he

negat i ve

t o t a l i t y

Adorno,

paraphr asi ng

Hegel ,

wrot e

t hat t he

whol e

i s t he

unt r ut h,

mani ng t hat ever yt hi ng

s

t oday

equal l y

r e i f i e d

and t hus

i nt ract abl e

Even c r i t i c a l t hought t ends

t o be

degr aded

i nt o a

com

modi t y

by mar ket pressures and t he c u l t u r a l star-system

Adorno

f a i l e d t o

recogni ze,

however ,

t hat

human

bei ngs

do not i n

t he empi r i cal here

and

now

al ways acqui esce

i n

t h e i r

bondage

Human

bei ngs

have

not

surrendered

And

t s

t he

t a s k of d i a l e c t i c a l

s e n s i b i l i t y t o

l ocat e t hat

resi stance

w t hi n

a

concept ual t o t a l i t y

whi ch

gi ves

p o l i t i c a l voi ce

t o t

mvi ngbeyond i t s

i n i t i a l i s o l a t i o n andf r agmentary qual i t y

Marx s a n a l y t i c t r eatment

of t he

P a r i s Commune s

an

exampl e

of

t h i s

k i nd

of


he

sei zed upon t he

Commune

as

t he

bel l - wet her

of

future

wor l d

communi sm not

mn imz i ng t s

i mpor t ance merel y

because t began as

an

i s o l a t e d

mvemnt That t heCommune f a i l e d

t o

r e a l i z e communi sm

does

not v i t i a t e

Marx s

post ur e t owards t

Opposi t i on f o r c e s

wer e

st ronger

t han

t he

o r i g i n a l

communi st s

D i a l e c t i c a l s e n s i b i l i t y must

be

a n a l y t i c a l l y scr upul ous

i n

a s s es s i ng t he p o l i t i c a l pot ent i al

of

r e s i s t a nc e

as often

as

not i t wi l l a r r i v e

at

a

0

7/26/2019 VOL01NO2_3


D LECTIC L

SENSIBILITYI I

pes si m s t i c conc l us i on, di s cover i ng

that

r e s i s t a nc e

and

st r uggl e

i s

pur el y

r ef orm-

i s t augur i ng no f undament al al t ernat i ve

t o t he

present However

there

i s

a

d i f

ference

bet ween Ador no s

pes s i m sm

and



dorno

coul d

not

see t he

p o s i t i v e

penumbra

sur r oundi ng

t he

shadowof

dom nat i on

The

r ad i c al i n t e l l e c t u a l by

c o n t r a s t r e f u s e s

t o see

onl y grey on g r e y goi ng

beyond

t he appearance of

het er onomy

i n s ear ch

of a l t e r nat i ves pr oduc ed f r om

w t h i n

t he

seem ngl y t o t a l

darkness of

t he

present

Cont r a Or t hodoxy

y

s t r e s s i n g

t he

i n i t i a l

i mpor t ance

of

cogni t i ve l i berat i on

we do

not i gnor e

more

f undament al l y mat eri al modes of change i nvol vi ng p o l i t i c a l and

econom c i n s t i t u t i o n s

I

have

al r eady

r edef i ned

cogni t i on

as

i nvol vi ng

t he

sen-

s i b i l i t y

-

of

t he

person s e n s i b i l i t y combi nes ment al and

manual

a c t i v i t y

Thus,

cogni t i ve

l i berat i on goes

beyond

t he t r a d i t i o n a l

concept of

di sengaged

i n t e l l e c t u a l i t y augur i ng more than

a

pur el y c e r e b r a l f reedom

Thi s

bl ossom ng

of ment al

i n t o mat eri al

l i berat i on i s what Mar cuse i nt ends when he

argues

that

` ` s o c i a l

change

becomes an

i ndi vi dual

need

.

I t

may

be obj ect ed

that


w i l l

f a i l

t o

change

t he

wor l d

because

t

r emai ns

i s o l a t e d

i n

t he

uni ver s i t y or t he

study

Al l egedl y,

we f a i l

t o

consi der

t he

s t r a t e g i c quest i on of how

t o

produce

a

wor l d of d i a l e c t i c a l s e n

s i b i l i t i e s

wear e i deal i s t s

Thi s t ype of

c r i t i c i s m

i s

a

product of mechani st i c

t endenci es

i n

Mar xi sm

whi ch d i a l e c t i c a l s e n s i b i l i t y opposes Di a l ec t i c al s e n s i b i l i t y a c t s by t hi nki ng

about how

t he

d i v i s i o n of l abour

and

i mper at i ve coor di nat i on can

be

over come

by

t hi nker s

and a c t o r s Ques t i ons of

s t r a t e g y

can onl y

be answer ed

i n

t he

par t i cul ar

contexts

of cont empor ar y

exi st ence

and

must

not

be

r esol ved

from

above,

and

t he

sol ut i ons

then

i mposed

onmute

a c t o r s

The

poi nt

that

t he

r evol ut i on

w i l l

al ways f a i l i n i t s

ul t i mat e

ai ms

i f

s oci al i sm

i mposed ;

d i al ec t i c al


r e c r e a t e s t he

r evol ut i on

i n

counter- hegemoni c i n s t i t u t i o n s and thus

heads

of f

t he

sel f - per pet uat i ng,

s e l f i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z i n g

t endenci es

of

aut hor i t ar i an s oci al i sm

Cogni t i ve

s el f - management

guar ant ees

that

t heor et i c al

vanguar di sm w i l l not c r ys t al l i z e i n

a di c tat or shi p over t he

p r o l e t a r i a t as

Karl

Korsch c a l l e d i t

Quest i ons of s t r a t e g y

ar e not

i mmat er i al ; but

nei t her

can they be

r esol ved

i n

t he

ol d or t hodox

t er ms I t

not

a mat t er of dr aw ng up new

bl uepr i nt s of

s o c i e t y t o be s ubm t t ed

t o

t he execut i ve

comm t t ee

of

t he

Lef t

and

then

aut omat i cal l y c a r r i e d

out

4

Soc i al i sm

must be l i v e d i n

t he

present,

even i f

t

produces deep

and unset t l i ng cont r adi c t i ons

bet ween ol d bour geoi s

and

new

s o c i a l i s t

exi st ence

Count er - hegemoni c


ar e

not t he

end a l l

and be a l l of c r i t i c a l theory

;

count er - i ns t i t ut i ons

ul t i mat el y

w sh

t o

become

nor-

5

7/26/2019 VOL01NO2_3


EN GGER

mal and

per vasi ve i n a

new

s o c i e t y

no

l onger

bei ng opposi t i onal ut i n

t he

i n

t e r im

bet ween dom nat i on and f r eedom

count er - i nst i t ut i ons

can

har bour

f r a g i l e

human

bei ngs

and

a l s o

augur

a

possi bl e

fu ture

s

To

l i ve

t he

r evol ut i on i s

deemed

i mpossi bl e by or t hodox Mar xi st s f o r

whom

change

r equi r es

t he

dest r uct i on of

pr i vat e

property

Si nce

do

not

equat e

expl oi t at i on

onl y w t h

pr i vat e

property

I

have

a

d i f f e r e n t

v i s i o n

of

t he

new

s o c i e t y

I contend

that

i t i s

possi bl e to

l i v e t he

r evol ut i on

i n

t erms of an

i n

terpersonal e t h i c s rooted

i n

mut ual

respect

and

car e f or

humani t y and

nature

Thi s t ype of e t h i c s w i l l not be super i mposed onhuman bei ngs

but

w i l l i nher e

i n t h e i r di a l e c t i c a l s en s i b i l i t i e s Orthodox

Mar xi sm has

i gnor ed

et hi c s

because i t

was concerned

more

w t h changi ng econom c

structures

t han w t h changi ng

human

bei ngs

: i t assumed

that

humani t y

woul d

aut omat i cal l y

be t r ansf or med

a f t e r pr i vat e

property hadbeenabol i shed

Di al ect i cal

e t hi c s

has

a number of features

t i nvol ves r espect and

c a r e

f or

t he

bei ng of others ; i t

i nvol ves

a

r at i onal i t y

of

grat i f i cat i on ,

as

Mar cuse c a l l s

i t ,

t r eat i ng other s as

sensuous bei ngs i t a l s o

i nvol ves a

newr e l a t i o n bet ween

human

and

nonhuman

nature

an e t hi c s whi chgover ns our at t i t udes t owar ds

t he envi r onment

subm t

that

these

f e a t u r e s

of e t h i c a l

pr axi s ar e

t r u e r t o

Mar x s v i s i o n of communi smthan

t he

econom st i c

not i on

t hat communi sm

mans

onl y

c o l l e c t i v e

owner shi p of

t he i ns t r ument s

of pr oduc t i on

bel i eve

that

t he

not i on of

publ i c

owner shi p i s i mpl i ed

i n t he

t ype of e t h i c s

emanat i ng

fromd i a l e c t i c a l s e n s i b i l i t y and does not have

t o

be i nt r oduced

f r om

t he

out-

s i de

.

d i a l e c t i c a l e t h i c s

does not

concern

onl y

i deal i s t i c

a t t i t ude s

but

i s

fun-

dament al l y mat er i al i st

i n

i t s i mpl i cat i ons Human

bei ngs

are subj ect - obj ects

who l i v e

i n

and through

a

sensuous wor l d Bour geoi s concepts of e t h i c s have

i g

nored t he sensuous wor l d andman- nat ur e

r e l a t i o n s

bei ng

concer ned

pr i mar i l y

w t h r i g h t s

i n

t he

a b s t r a c t

l e ga l sense n emanci pat or y et hi c s goes beyond

t h i s

concept i on

and

devel ops

non- expl oi t at i ve

s t r a t e gi e s

f or coexi st i ng

w t h

others

andw t h nature

Thus, an

emanci pat or y

e t h i c s

takes

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

f or p o l i t i c a l

econom c

and ecol ogi cal

as we l l as

s t r i c t l y moral

di mens i ons of human ex

i s t e nc e

r ef usi ng t o

separate

a

person s

s o c i a l fa te

and hi s

a b s t r a c t

l e ga l r i ght s

and

dut i es

Orthodox

Mar xi st s

r i d i c u l e t he

di a l e c t i c a l s e ns i b i l i t y

because i n t h e i r own

l i v e s

they respect

t he d i v i s i o n

of

l abour

and

t he

concept of t h e i r

own

speci al i zed

aut hor i t y They

bel i eve t hat

t h e i r t i me i s b e t t e r spent on schol ar shi p than i n

uni f yi ng

t h e i r

own

f r agment ed

a c t i v i t i e s

They

f a i l

t o

r ecogni ze

t hat t he

di a l e c

t i c a l


does

not

abandon

t hought and t heor i z i ng but rather

i nt egr at es

t hought

and

theory

i n t o

t he

t o t a l i t y of

human

exi st ence The

or t hodox

Marxi st

schol ar

r a t i o n a l i z e s hi s di sengagement by sayi ng

that

condi t i ons

ar e

not

r i p e

f or

personal l i berat i on ; but t oday s o c i a l

change i n a

t o t a l sense

begi ns

w t h

per-

sonal

l i berat i on

Ther e

i s a

d i a l e c t i c a l dependence

bet ween humanand

i n s t i t u

52

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D LECTIC L

SENSI ILITYI I

t i o na l change

Onl y by guar ant eei ng per sonal

change can

t he author i t ar i an

t endenci es

of


soci al i sm

be e f f e c t i v e l y

chal l enged f rombel ow

Orthodox

Mar xi st s

pl ay

t he

r o l e s

of


schol ar shi p,

separ at i ng

t hei r

t hought

and

ac t i on

because orthodoxy prescri bes and

sanct i ons

t he d i c t a t o r

shi p of

t he

pr o l e t a r i a t and

t hus

t he

concept

of

r evol ut i onary

pr of essi onal i sm

Al l egedl y,

Marx sanct i oned

t he

t r adi t i ona l r o l e of

t he

prof essi onal

s c ho l a r

t hi nki ng

t hat

t he

r evol ut i on

woul d occur aut omat i cal l y and woul d

t hen go

t hr ough t wo d i s t i n c t s t a g e s w t h

communi sm

onl y

t o

be r eached

i n

t he

di st ant

future

when

i n t e l l e c t u a l i t y coul d become

general i zed)

Or t hodoxy i n t h i s

sense repeat s

orthodox s o ci a l

r e l a t i o n s t rusti ng

i n t he

dual i sms of

contem-

porary

exper i ence

The orthodox

Mar xi st adm t s t hat event ual l y

dual i sms wi l l

be over come and newmen pr oduced

Yet

he

post pones

t hat

t i me

because

ot herw se

hi s own

author i t at i vebehavi our

woul d l o s e t s

sancti on

subm t t hat

t he

onl y

way t o c r e a t e a

new

order s

t o

begi n

w t h per sonal

ex

i s t enc es

creat i ng

new s e n s i b i l i t i e s capabl e

of

engagi ng

i n

cogni t i ve and

p o l i t i c a l

sel f - management Hi stori cal pess i m sm

can

be

r econci l ed

w t h di a l e c

t i c a l


Hegel t aught

t hat

t he d i a l e c t i c

r e v eal s

t he

uni versal i n the par-

t i c u l a r

Today

t h i s

means t hat

dom nat i on

must be

read i n t he fates

of

peo-

pl e

; and,

f u r t h e r

that l i berat i on

must be

concei ved

as i nvol vi ng

st ruggl i ng,

frustrated

human

bei ngs,

not

t aki ng

pl ace

behi nd

t h e i r

backs

or

on

a

cosm c,

transpersonal

l e ve l need

not

r e t a i n

Hegel s f a t a l i s t i c

concept

of t he

cun-

ni ng of reason but can

i nst ead

r e l y on

hi s

not i on

of

t he d i a l e c t i c

Hegel

sug-

gest ed

t hat

t he

whol e

t he

t r u t h

i ndi cat i ng t hat

t he

par t i cul ar cannot

sur vi ve

w t hout echoi ng

t he

uni versal

S i m l a r l y

t he


dependence bet ween

per sonal and

s o c i e t a l

change

cannot be abr ogated

Wen

Mar xi sm becomes

a

l i v i n g t h e o r y

a

form

of

per sonal i t y,

t he

e n t i r e

nat ur e

of schol ar shi p wi l l

change, c a l l i n g

i nto

quest i on deep- seat ed emot i onal

pref er ences and

habi t s

The d i a l e c t i c

r equi res

t hat

t hought

t hi nk

of i t s e l f as an

a c t i v i t y ori ent ed

t o

generat i ng

a

t r u l y

democrat i c


as

a route

t o

s i g n i f i c a n t

s o ci al

change

TheDual i sms of

Oppr ess i on

Radi cal

s o ci al

s c i e n t i s t s are

engaged

i n uni f yi ng a c t i v i t y uni t i ng a c t i v i t i e s

heret of ore

concei ved as

separate

These

separat i ons bet ween work and pl ay

sci ence and

commons ense,

r e f l e c t i o n and

act i on

protect domnant

i n t e r e s t s

by

l egi t i mat i ng

structures

of

exper t i se

and i mposed aut hor i t y

Knowedge

pr oduced

by expert s

and

consumed by non- exper t s i n advanced

i n d u s t r i a l

s o c i e t y t h i s

s

t he

sense

of

Lukacs

concept of

r e i f i c a t i o n

as

i nvol vi ng

t he

t r ansf ormat i on of

ment al processes and i deas i nto

t hi ngs even commodi t i es

S oc i a l change wi l l r e s u l t subm t , from

maki ng non- exper t s producers

as

wel l

as consumer s

53

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EN GGER

I n

chal l engi ng

c e r t a i n

dual i sms

t he r a di c al i n t e l l e c t u a l does

not go

over -

boar d

and

r educe

ever ythi ng t o s u b j e c t i v i t y he d i a l e c t i c a l non- i dent i t y

be-

t ween

subj ect

and

obj ect

wi l l

be

preserved

a c t i v i t y

pr oduces

o b j e c t i v i t y

creat i ng a

conti nuumbet ween

humani ty and

t he

wor l d he

r a di c al

i n t e l l e c -

tual

onl y

a t t a c k s

those dual i sms such

as oppr essor

and oppr essed

whi ch ar e

h i s t o r i c a l and

can

be el i m nat ed he d i a l e c t i c

bet ween

subj ect

and

obj ect

mn and wor l d i s

not

a

dual i sm and cannot be

ef f aced

Theor i es whi ch

r educe ever ythi ng

t o s ub j ec t i v i t y gl o s s

over

cont r adi cti ons and t ensi ons

i n ob-

j e c t i v e r e a l i t y

pr et endi ng that

t he

wor l d

can

be changed

i n

t he

mnd of

t he

t hi nki ng

subj ect

Rather

t he

subj ect

must i nt er a c t w t h

t he

wor l d

i n t ransfo rm

i ng

i t s

h i s t o r i c a l character

hi l e

r a di c al

i n t e l l e c t u a l s wi l l

engage

i n uni f yi ng

a c t i v i t y

mking non-

experts

e x p e r t s capabl e of

comprehendi ngand over com ng t h e i r own dom na-

t i o n

they wi l l

preserve

t he

el ement al di f f er ence

bet ween

subj ect and

obj ect

whi ch

mot i vat es s o ci al change t i s not enough

that

non- exper t s t hi nk

that

they ar e

experts

; they must

act

as e x p e r t s wr est i ng

control

of

cogni t i ve

and

p o l i t i c a l

pr ocesses

from

technocrats

I n over com ng

t he dual i sm

bet ween

t he

oppressor and

t he

oppressed

t he

exper t and

t he

non- exper t we do

not i nt end

t o

el i m nat e t he

di f f er ence

bet ween

mn

and

t he

wor l d he

commnist

per son

wi l l

be

dest i ned

t o

an

obj ecti ve

body

and

t o

space- t i me

Subj ect i vi t y

wi l l sus -

t a i n

i t s e l f by r ecogni zi ng

i t s d i a l e c t i c a l dependence

on

t he obj ecti ve

wor l d f r e e

f or

t he

f i r s t t i me i n

humn

h i s t o r y

t o

i nt er a c t

w t h

t he

wor l d

i n

i t s

own

chosen ways

Di al ecti cal dependence

bet ween

subj ect and obj ect i s

eternal

Dom nat i on

however

i s nonet ernal Di a l ec t i c al s e n s i b i l i t y

anal yzes the di f f erence

bet ween

the eternal

and

t he

t empor ar y i n

devel opi ng a concept of

t he

l i v e a b l e

l i f

r ef us i ng ut opi a because

i t

at t empt s

t o change

ever ythi ng thus changi ng

not hi ng

have

devel oped

t he

concept

of

cogni t i ve

sel f - management

because

want t o

emphasi ze t hat a

newor der must be

depi ct ed

i n compr ehensi bl e

r e a l i s t i c

met aphor s do

not

oppose

dual i sm

i n t ot o

but onl y par t i cul ar dual i sms

such

as

oppr essor - oppr essed

and exper t - non- exper t he shape of

t he

new

s o c i e t y

can

be capt ur ed

i n

i mages

whi ch

borrowfrom

pr esent

concept s

di al ec t i c al sen-

s i b i l i t y

al l ows

concept s

t o

poi nt beyond t hemsel ves

br i ngi ng

out

t h e i r

hi dden

cont ent

i n

new even

unf or eseen

di r ecti ons

C r i t i c a l

theory i n t he hands of

Hor khei mer and

dorno

has t ended t o por -

t r a y

t he

new

or der

as

e n t i r e l y

uni magi nabl e

by

contrast

t o

t he

present

damged

l i f e

oppose t h i s

t endency because

bel i eve

i t

i mper at i ve

t o

t hi nk through

t he

concept of

a

newo r d e r u t i l i z i n g

es pec i a l l y t he concept of sel f - management

Ther e wi l l not be

a quantumj ump

bet ween t he

present and t he

f u t u r e as

Engel s

suggest ed i n

hi s

not i on

of

t he

l eap

f r om

ne ce s s i t y

t o

f r eedom

I nst ead

4

7/26/2019 VOL01NO2_3


D LECTIC LSENSIBILITY

I I

peopl e i n a new order

w i l l s t i l l be

f aced w t h

compl ex pr obl ems

of s oc i a l

or gani zat i on andadmni st rat i on

whi ch

t hey

must

face w t h

ser i ousness

Di a l ec t i c a l s e n s i b i l i t y wor ks

through

these

pr obl ems

Damaged

l i f e

w i l l

not

aut omati cal l y produce ut opi a

t w i l l onl y

pr oduce

al ternati ve

s o ci a l f orms,

none

of

them dea l Aut omat i c

Marxi smhas t ended

t o

endorse

an

i mage

of

aut omat i c

communi smBot h concept s

ar e

i r r es pons i bl e

negl ect i ng t he

ne c es s i -

t y

of subj ecti ve

choi ce and

deci si on

Exper i ment al

Mar xi sm

Thi s

t o

envi sage

an

exper i mental

Mar xi sm

l earn i ng

f r om

t he

exper i ence

of

creat i ng a

new

order Cogni t i on

a

v i t a l

f a c t o r

i n t h i s

process of

t heoret i cal

sel f - educat i on

So c i a l exi stence

s o

compl ex as t o pr event

t h eo r i s t s

f rom

pl an-

ni ng or predi ct i ng

every det a i l of communi st

l i f e

most

of t hese

d e t a i l s w i l l

have

t o be

c l a r i f i e d

i n

exper i ment at i on

w t h

a l t e r n a t i v e

s o ci a l

f orms, not

f o i s t e d

upon a c t o r s

f rom

t he

begi nni ng

s a l i e n t

exampl e

of

exper i ment at i on i n

t h i s

sense

regards

t he future

of t he

f am l y t d i f f i c u l t

t o

s t a t e

w t h

cert ai nty

whi ch

f orms of

chi l d- rai si ng

and adul t

cohabi t ati on woul d

be

appr opr i ate

t o

a

s e l f -

managed

s o ci a l

order

We

have

i n s u f f i c i e n t

l ong- t erm

exper i ence

w t h

f orms

l i k e

t he ki bbut z

i n I s r ael

or t he

Ser bi an

ext ended f am l y

t he zadruga t o

pro-

j ec t

a

communi st f am l y s t r u c t u r e i f

there

i s

t o

be

any f am l y at a l l S i m l a r l y

a psychoanal yt i cal l y

i nf ormed

Mar xi smw i l l r ecogni ze

that

t he

pa i n

of per-

sonal

mat ur at i on

cannot be avoi ded

under

a neworder

t h a t mat ur e

adul t

l i f e

w i l l

r equi r e at

l eas t

a modi cumof

what

Freud

c a l l e d

r epr essi on and

subl i mat i on

s

Mar cuse

st at ed i n a

debate w th

Norman

Br own,

t he

poi nt

i s

not

t o

el i mnate

t he r e a l i t y pr i nci pl e

but onl y

part i cul ar r e a l i t i e s

such as

domnati on and oppr essi on

n exper i ment al Mar xi smcan

determne what t he

psychol ogi cal

and

soci o- economc

l i m t s

of

change

w i l l

be

C r i t i c a l

theory does

not have a purel y

ant i c i pat ory

el ement , awai t i ng

a

d i f -

f erent

f u tu re

Peopl e ar e

al r eady begi nni ng

t o

c r e a t e

a

di f f erent s oc i et y

i n

t h e i r

own

l i v e s have character i zed

t h i s as

uni f yi ng

heret of or e separate

ac -

t i v i t i e s I ndeed,

counter-

hegemoni c

a c t i v i t y

today

t akes t he

f orm

of

redef i ni ng

t he concept and

pr a c t i c e

of

ex per t i s e

The wor l d

changi ng

as

non- exper t s

become e x p e r t s

chal l engi ng the i nst i tut i onal i zed domnance

of

technocrats

and p o l i t i c i a n s

The

di a l ec t i c al


l i v e s

i n t he space

between today

andt omor r ow,

not

e n t i r e l y

a

creature of ei t her

pr esent

or

future The

not i on

of a l ong r oad

t o com

muni sms

abandonedbecause t he concept has

t r a d i t i o n a l l y

l egi t i mated s e v e r e -

l y hi er a r c hi c a l f orms

of

t r a n s i t i o n and

t he

i nst i tut i onal i zat i on

of t he

Com

muni st

Party

But nei t her

i s di a l ec t i c a l s ens i bi l i t y

merel y

a

par l i ament ar y

s o c i a l i s t

s e n s i b i l i t y f o r

t

l i v e s

a

di f f e r e nt

s oc i et y r ef usi ng t o

post pone f un-

7/26/2019 VOL01NO2_3


EN GGER

dament al per sonal

changes unt i l

that magi c

moment

of par l i amentar y success

Bol shevi k nd par l i amentar y

s t r at egi es end up

changi ng

nothi ng,

eschewi ng

f undament al

per sonal t r ansf ormat i on

i n

f avour

of mer el y

s t r u c t u r a l

modi f i ca-

t i on

The

di a l ec t i c a l s ens i b i l i t y

cannot

separate

s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e from

human ex -

i s t e n c e

t

i nter prets

Mar xi an

str uctural i sm

as

n

ac t of

r evol uti onar y

bad f a i t h

I nst ead,

t he

di a l ec t i c a l s ens i b i l i t y

t r ans l a t es

t he

concept of

structure

i nto term

of l i ved- exper i ence

nd v i c e

v e r s a

r ef usi ng t o

r educe

t he

compl exi t y of

s o c i e t y

t o

ei ther purel y obj ecti ve or purel y subj ecti ve t erms

F i n a l l y

di al ec t i c al

s e n s i b i l i t y i s unw l l i ng t o

del ay

r evol uti onar y g r a t i f i c a -

t i o n awai t i ng f uture l i ber ati on

t o

e

pai d f or by

pr esent suf f er i ng

such

as

organi zati onal

di sci pl i ne

nd

even oppr essi on

The

concept

of - the di ctator shi p

of

t he p r o l e t a r i a t i s unnecessary

t t r a d e s f uture

benef i t s agai nst

present

s a c r i f i c e s Thi s

s a c r i f i c i a l

model of s o ci a l change i s r enounced y t he di a l ec t i c al

s e n s i b i l i t y nd

i n

i t s pl ace

a more sel f - ser vi ng

model

of

t r a n s i t i o n i s con-

cei ved

Wy

mustwe awai t

the

ml l enni um

when ever ythi ng

wi l l

al l egedl y

e

d i f f e r e n t

w l l i ng

t o

s u f f e r pr esent domnat i on? Ther e no

pl ausi bl e

answer

Emanci pat or y theory t oday conf r ont s t he quest i on

how

di f f er ent

wi l l

the

f uture be? Economsmand l a t e r c r i t i c a l

theory

both

deny t he hypothesi s that a

qual i tati vel y

di f f er ent

s o c i e t y

may

not

appear

t o

be

e n t i r e l y

d i f f e r e n t

from

t he

present r e a l i t y Avoi di ng the questi on howmuch di f f er ence?

wi l l

onl y

l ead

to utopi an

quagm r es

i n

whi ch

human bei ngs

do

nothi ng

to

change

t h e i r

own

l i v e s

i n

t he expectat i on

that

r e a l change wi l l

onl y

come from

above

f r om

t he

ommuni st Party or

f r om

t hecosmc c l a s h of

sel f - contr adi ctor y

econom c

s t r u c -

tures

The

r a di c al i n t e l l e c t u a l

l eans hesi tati ngl y

t owards

the f uture,

r ecogni zi ng

that the

pr eser vat i on

of

hi s

hum ni ty a l be i t

damaged t o some extent

r e-

qui r es

that

he not

r enounce

suddenl y

ever ythi ng hehas been nd

known

w

wi l l

our

l i v e s

as

i ndi vi dual

producer s

nd

consumer s

change

under

a new

order?

Howcanwe

preserve aspects

of

present happi ness?

The c r i t i c a l

t heo r i s t be l i ev es

that

nothi ng

i s wor t h savi ng ; t he

or t hodox Mar xi st

be l i ev es

that

ever ythi ng

shoul d

e changed

The r adi c al

i nt e l l ec t ua l

r ecogni zes t he truth of

each

of

these po s i t i o ns orchest r at i ng them

i n

order

to

pr oduce

a

f eas i b l e s t r a t e gy

of

emanci pator y l i v i n g

Emanci pat or y theory, l i nki ng

t ogether

as t

does n

ex -

per i ment al Mar xi sm

w th the

pr i nci pl e of cogni t i ve


ul t i matel y

begi ns by

r ef ormul at i ng

what i t means t o begi n I n

t h i s

way, t he


s e n s i b i l i t y maypr oduce

a

di a l ec t i c al s o ci a l

order , a neworder

eyond

the r e i f i c a t i o n

whi ch

t oday wei ghs

so heavi l y

upon a l l

of us

6

Soci ol ogy

Uni ver si t y of

Wat er l oo

7/26/2019 VOL01NO2_3


D LECTIC L

SENSIBILITYI I

Notes

1 See

my

Di al ecti cal S e n s i b i l i t y

1

C r i t i c a l

Theory,

Sci enti sm

and

Empi r i ci sm , Canadi an

J our nal

of Pol i t i ca l andSoci a l Theory, Vol

1,

No

1,

Wnter

1977

2 See

Paul o

F r e i r e , Pedagogy

of

t he Oppressed, NewYork, Seabury

P r e s s , 1970 I

must add

that I

do

not

thi nk

that

Frei re

goes f ar

enough

t owar ds p o l i t i c i z i n g

hi s

concept

of

r a di c al

pedagogy

He

does not c a r r y

t hrough

hi s ana l y s i s of t he

d i a l e c t i c between

expert and non

exper t

t o

i t s

ul ti mate

concl usi on, namel y,

an

i mage

of sel f - management

and

revol ut i onary

democr ac y

3

On

the

meani ng

of

sensi bi l i ty

i n

t h i s

context,

see

Herber t

Mar cuse,

n

Essay

on

Li ber ati on,

Bost on, Beacon

P r e s s ,

1969,

e s p e c i a l l y Chapt er

2,

TheNewS e n s i b i l i t y

Al so

s ee

Herber t

Mar cuse,

Counterr evol ut i on

andRevol t , Chapt er 2, Nature

and Revol ut i on

Far f r om

bei ng

a mer e

psychol ogi cal

phenomenon i n

groups

or

i nd i v i d ua l s , t he new

sen-

s i b i l i t y

i s

themedi um

n

whi ch

s o ci a l

change

becomes an i ndi vi dual

need, t he medi ati on be-

t ween

the

p o l i t i c a l pr a c t i c e

of

changi ng t he wor l d and the

dr i v e f o r per sonal

l i b e r a t i o n

. p

59)

Mar cuse s andmyconcept of s e n s i b i l i t y thus

i nvol ves

a concept of obj ecti ve s u b j e c t i v i -

t y , p o l i t i c a l s u b j e c t i v i t y

4 Thi s

al l udes

t o the c l a im that t he

s t a t e

i s merel y t he execut i ve

comm t t ee

of the

bourgeoi si e

I

want

t o

suggest that authori tari an

s o c i a l i s m

and

authori tari an capi tal i sm

a r e

bot h h i e r a r c hi c al and i mpose aut hori ty fromabove

5

Al r eady i n

Nor th Amer i ca there a r e a

f ew

counter-

hegemoni c

j ournal s whi ch

eschew

conventi onal

c r i t e r i a

of

academ c commodi t y- product i on mong t h e s e ,

Tel os andNew

Ger -

mn Cr i t i que are the

most i mpor t ant

t h e or e t i c a l organs However , the creati on of counter

hegemoni c

j ournal s such as these has been f ar f rom peaceful I t i s very i n s t r u c t i v e t o

observe

the e f f o r t s t o i ntr oduce Eur opean

Hegel i an Marxi sm

o Nor t h Amer i ca

The recent hi story

of

these e f f o r t s

reveal s

that counter-

hegemoni c


can qui ckl y become

as oppressi ve

and authori tari an

as

establ i shed

ones I n

Nor t h

Amer i can

c i r c l e s of l ef t -w ng schol arshi p

stars have emer ged,

and

even a

product i ve wor k- ethi c whi ch r esembl es t he ol d publ i sh

or

per i sh

I n

the

pages

of

Tel os

c e r t a i n

of

these

d i f f i c u l t i e s

have been

art i cul ated

and

debat ed

Russel l

J acoby s

recent F a l l i ng

Rate of I ntel l i gence? , i n

Tel os No

27,

Spr i ng 1976, pp

141- 146,

descr i bes the i ntr usi on of commodi t y-f et i shi sm

i nto

academ c pr oduct i on

Al so s ee

the

di spute between

J ames Schm dt and Mar t i n J ay on the

subj ect of

ort hodoxy and

r e v i -

si oni sm

carr i ed out

i n

the

context of

Schm dt s

r esponse t o a

pi ece

by

J ay onMannhe mand

the Frankf ur t

School

publ i shed

i n

Tel os No

I n

Tel os

Nos 21

and

22,

Schm dt and J ay

b a t t l e

i t

o u t ,

at t empt i ng

t o r es o l v e t he quest i on of d i a l ec t i c al

l oyal ty

On t h i s t opi c , s ee

the di spute between J ay and J acoby i n t he

pages

of Theor y and

Soci et y

concer ni ng J acoby s

revi ew i n t ha t

j our nal

of J ay s

hi story

of the Frankfurt

School ,

TheDi al ecti cal

I magi nati on

( SeeJ acoby s r evi ew

of J ay s

book i n Theory andSoci et y, I / 2 , Summer 1974

;

a l s o see Mar x-

i sm and C r i t i c a l Theory

Mart i n J ay and

Russel l J acoby ,

Theory

and

Soci ety, 11/

2, Summer

1975,

pp

. 257-263

Peopl e

l i k e

J ay

and

J acoby

a r e

at t empt i ng

t o

prevent

the

f et i shi sm

and

academ ci zat i on of c r i t i c a l theory and t he consequent

creati on

of a

new

academ c author i ty-

s t r u c t u r e tooted i n a star-system These di sputes transcend part i san i n- f i ght i ng

and prof es-

s i o na l j eal ousy they di spl ay the

ki nds

of

probl ems

i nher ent i n

creati ng

e f f e c t i v e counter-


whi ch

do

not t hemsel ves

become

contr ol l ed

by

an e l i t e I t

i s

a di sturbi ng

i rony

that c e r t a i n Marxi sts ar e

of ten

hi ghl y s c h o l a s t i c

and

i n t e l l e c t u a l l y

authori tari an,

r egardi ng

t he tr adi t i on as

sacred

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