Date post: | 07-Aug-2018 |
Category: |
Documents |
Upload: | leela4ever |
View: | 212 times |
Download: | 0 times |
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 2/124
Canadi an
J ournal of
Pol i t i cal
and
Soci al Theory
Revue
canadi enne de t ht sor l e pol i t i que
et
s oc i al e
Edi tor/REdacteur
Arthur
Kroker
Pol i t i c al Sci ence, Wnni peg)
Managi ng Edi t or / R6dact r i ce on chef
Mar i l oui se
Kroker
Associ ate Edi tor/REdacteur
adj oi nt
Al ki s
Kontos Pol i t i c al Economy, Toronto)
Revi ew
Edi tor/R6dacteur des recensi ons
Al l en
M l l s Pol i t i c al Sci ence, Wnni peg)
Advi sory
Board/Comt6
cons ul t at i f
Ben
Agger
Soc i ol ogy, Water l oo) ,
Howard
Ast er
Pol i t i cal
Sci ence, McMaster),
P h i l l i p Hansen
Pol i t i cal
St udi es, Mani toba), Kenneth J
Hughes
Canadi an
L i t erat ur e,
Mani t oba) , W l l i am
Lei s s
Pol i t i cal Sci ence and Envi ronmental
St udi es, York), J ames Moore Pol i t i c al
Sci ence,
Concordi a), Ray Morrow
Soci ol ogy,
Mani toba),
Mark
Novak
Soci ol ogy,
Wnni peg),
Rod
Preece
Pol i t i c al
Sci ence,
W l f r i d
Laur i er ) , HenryVel tmeyer
Soci ol ogy,
St
Mar y s) ,
Davi d
Wal ker
Pol i t i c al Sci ence, Wnni peg),
Deena
Wei nstei n
Soci ol ogy,
DePaul ), Mchael A
Weinstei n Pol i t i c al
Sc i enc e, P ur due) ,
Davi d
N
Weisstub Osgoode
Hal l
Law
School ,
York),
C audi a
A
Wi ght
Pol i t i cal
Sci ence,
Wnni peg)
The Canadi an
Journal
of
Pol i t i c al
and
Soci al Theory i s
a
r ef ereed,
i nt erdi s c i pl i nary revi ewpubl i shed tri annual l y- Wn ter , Spri ng-Summerand
Fal l
Annual Subscr i pt i on Rates
I ndi vi dual s,
10
. 00
; St udent s,
7 . 00
; I nst i t ut i ons,
15 . 00
Si ngl e Copi es, 5
. 00
Pl ease
add 2 . 00
ext ra per year
f or postage
out s i de
of Canada. / L a Revue canadi ennede
t hdor i e
pol i t i que
et
s oc i al e
es t une
revue
i nt er di sc i pl i nai r e
dont t out a r t i c l e publ i 6 es t choi si par un j u r y de l ec t e ur s
i nd6pendants
El l e
es t
publ i d- e
t r o i s
f o i s
par
an
en
hi ver ,
au
pr i nt emps- 6t e
et
en
automne
Abonnement annuel
10. 00 ;
et udi ant s, 7 . 00
i nst i tut i on,
15
. 00 Le
num6ro
5
. 00
Aj out er 2
. 00
de
f r a i s
postaux pour abonnement
A
I 6t r anger
Edi t or i al
and busi ness
correspondence
shoul d
be
sent t o
Professor
Arthur
Kroker, Department of
Pol i t i c al
Sci ence,
The Uni ver s i t y of Wnni peg, 515 Portage
Avenue,
Wnni peg,
Mani toba, Canada, R3B
2E9 Authors
ar e requestedt o forward
t h r e e
copi es of t he manuscri pt and t o pr ovi de se l f - addr essed envel opes w t h
correct
postage Footnotes shoul d be assembl ed on separate sheets. / Tout e
correspondence doi t et r e
adressde
au pr of esseur Arthur Kr oker ,
D6partement de
Sci ence
Pol i t i que, Uni vers i t y
de Wnni peg,
Mani toba, Canada,
R 2E9 On
demande aux col l abor ateur s d envoyer
t r o i s
exempl ai res de l eur
manuscri t
et de
l es
accompagner
d une
envel oppe
ti mbree
et adressee
I expddi t eur
Les notes
doi vent t i t r e dactylographi ees sur des f eui l l es separees A l a f i n de a r t i c l e
Correspondi ng
address f or
Revi ews
Pr of es sor Al l en M l l s , Department of
Pol i t i cal Sci ence, t he Uni ver s i t y
of
Wnni peg,
515
Portage
Avenue, Wnni peg,
Mani toba R3B 2E9. / Adr es s e A
l aquel
i t
f aut
envoyer
l es comptes
rendus
Professeur
Al l en
M l l s , Departement de
Sci ence
Pol i t i que, Uni ver s i t y de
Wnni peg, Wnni peg,
Mani toba,
R3B2E9
The Journal acknowedgeswthgr at i t ude thegenerous as s i s t anc e of theCanada
Counci l and theMani toba
Ar ts
Counci l /Les r 6dact eur s
t i ennent
8 exprimer
l our
reconnal sanceauConsei l
desAr ts
duCanada
et
auConsei l
des Ar ts du
Mani toba
I ndexed
i n/ I ndi x6e
au
I nt ernati onal
Pol i t i c al
Science Abstracts/Documentati on
pol i t i que i nt ernat i onal e
;
Soc i ol ogi c al Abs t r ac t s I nc
Member
of
theMani toba I ndependent Publ i shers As s oc i at i on and t he Canadi an
Per i odi cal
Publ i sher s
As s oc i at i on
GTous
droi t s r6serves
1978,
Canadi an Journal of Pol i t i c al and Soci al Theor y,
I nc . / Revue
canadi enne
de t h6or i e pol i t i que
et s oci al e,
Lt6e
I SSN
0380-9420
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 3/124
Canadi an
J ournal
o o l i t i c a l
and Soci al
Theory
Revue canadi enne
de t heor i e
pol i t i que et soci al e
Fal l utomne
Vol ume
Number
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 4/124
Cont ent s/ Sommai r e
Post - Car t esi an Transf or mati ons The
Cl oud of
Knowng
5
J ohann
Mohr
Needs Exchanges and
t he Fet i shi sm of Obj ect s 7
W l l i amLei ss
The Legacy of
ol i t i c a l
Economy
Thi nki ng
Wth
and
49
Agai nst
Cl aus Of f e
J ohn
Keane
Machi avel l i and Gui cci ar di ni
Anci ent s
and Moderns
93
J GA
Pocock
Hegel on
Possessi on
and
Property 111
FR Cri st i
Revi ew
Art i cl es/
omptes r endus
Carl
Schmtt
Conf r ont s t he Engl i sh- Speaki ng Worl d 125
J oseph
Bender sky
The Soci al Li m t s of
Bourgeoi s
Democracy
137
Davi d P Shugarman
Si x
Characters
Out
of
Cont ext 144
Ri chardRoyal
Cel ebrat i ons
i n
Exi l e
145
Arthur
Kroker
Hayek s
Resi dual Pl at oni sm 156
Ri char d
Vernon
The Mor al i t y of Law 163
Cl ayt on
J ones
ooks
Recei ved/ Li vres
regus
175
I ndex
to Vol ume 178
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 5/124
Canadi an J our nal of
P o l i t i c a l
and
Soci al Theory Revue canadi enne de
t heori e
pol i t i que
e t
s oc i a l e
Vol
2
No
Fal l /
Autome
1978
POST CARTESIAN
TR NSFORM TIONS
THE LOUDOF
KNOWNG
UTION
J ohannWMohr
DO
NOTRE DWal k t hrough t he t ext as you
would
t hr ough
t he s t r e e t s
of
a
c i t y or
ont hebeach
or
i n f a c t
anywhere I f som
t hi ng a t t r a c t s you, stop
and
l ook ;
i f
n o t wal k
on
You
can
al ways
com
back
The
sequent i al
numers
are addresses
onl y
DO
NOTUNDERST ND
St and
i f you
pl ease
and l e t your
t hought s
andmemori es
speak
Thi s
i s not
a h i s t o r y there
i s no
order i n t i me Thi s
i s not
even
a
s t o r y there i s
no
poi nt onl y
v i s t a s no bui l d- up onl y
bui l di ngs
Hopef ul l y chi l dren s t i l l
pl ay
gams there
I
HDE
ND
SEEK
Andhe s ai d
I
heard t hy voi ce i n t he garden,
and
I
was
a f r a i d
because I
was naked,
and
I
hi d mysel f
Genesi s 3, 10
1
Nakedness
hi des
after
havi ng known
The
f i ni t ude of desi re i s
i nt ol erabl e i n the f ace of i nf i ni t y Fi ni t ude i s t ol er abl e onl y i n af f i ni t y
We
appear
i n
af f i ni t y
and
di sappear
i n
i nf i ni t y
Language
al l ows us
t o
hi de
and t o
c a l l forth,
but
theword i s beyond
def i ni t i on
What
we
mst hi de from
we
mst hi de fromeach other
Man
al one,
we have been
cry i ng f or years, i t seem
ages,
i t seem our
whole
t i me i s
enshrouded i n i t ndbecause i t seem so, i t i s so
The
cr y has mny form
mst of themsoundl ess
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 6/124
JO NNW
MO R
. 3
Man
al one, t he desi r e
when
des i r e
i s
spent
a f t e r
knowng
Onl y
i n
hi di ng can we hi de what we know But hi di ng our
sel ves needs
el abor at e
gar ment s
t o
hi de our di smemberment
Knowng
di smemberment i s
anxi et y,
Angs t , and so we
huddl e
t oget her
see
our c i t i e s ,
see
ane
s e e ) ;
tragedy i s
t he
bl eat i ng of goat s
. 4
Hi s t or y moves
forever
beyond t he i nt er s ect i on of known s i g n s
What
repeats
i t s e l f i s what di d not happen, what was hi dden by appear ance
Onl y i n
cer t ai n moments or a c t s , or words i s t he
di vi s i on
bet ween hi ddenness and
appear ance
suspended
and
they s i gni f y
each
ot her
Onl y
then
i s
t he
hi dden
no
l onger t he
deni ed,
t he repressed hi s t or y
whi ch
haunt s us but t he memory
whi ch
r e- member s us
. 5
Hi s t or y i s t he hi gh
s t o r y
of our est r angement i n t he
mnd,
t he hi di ng
pl ace
Descr i pt i ons of what i s and
what
has been andwhat shal l beand
what
i s
el sewher e
emmanatefrom
he
stranger
Madness
i s onl y
poss i bl e
i n a pos i t i ve
wor l d whi ch hi des
t he r es ent ment of hi s t or y ;
t he
i n-d i v i dual
hi des t he
di vi dual ,
t he
mnd hi des
t he
body
. 6
ecomng i s di s -cover i ng
t he chi l d
one has not been
The chi l d t hat
f u l l y
i s
i s l o s t
The
t r ansmssi on
bet ween gener at i ons
and
t he
t r ansmss i on
bet ween ages i s of that whi chhas not been
What has not been i s
t he
future,
t he
condi t i onal past, i t coul d
have been
as i t
s ha l l be , t he nat ur e of t he
i mper at i ve `Be
Chr i s t i ani t y i s r oo ted i n t h e body Thi s i s mybodyand
t h i s
i s my bl ood
The
cr uci f i xi on i s a cr uci f i xi on of t he body even
though
t he
r esur r ect i on
may
wel l be more Rememberi ngandmembershi p i s i n t he shar i ng of t he bodyand
t he
bl ood
. 8
The body, our mani f est par t i cul ar
Ever y
step
fromt he body
i s a st ep
i nt o t he
gener al
ut body t oo can
be
gener al i zed i n body
management
from
medi ci ne t o
sex
educat i on t o
t r anqui l i zer s and
deodor i zer s Li ke
a
pati ent
et her i zed upon
a t abl e
. 9
Goodand
ev i l l i k e appear ance
andhi ddenness
i s
a
ze ro sumgame
The
more
cl ai m we
makeonbecomng b e t t e r , t he morewe
ascr i be
e v i l
t o
others
Themorewe i n s i s t on do i ng good,
t he
more ev i l must
i n f act
appear
t o
keep
t he equat i on i n
bal ance
Good and
e v i l cannot be i nput
measur es ,
onl y
outcome measur es
non- r edepl oyabl e
Goodand
e v i l i s not what weare, but
what we
ar e i n Per f ect i on i s t he end of t i me
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 7/124
THE
LOU
OFKNOWNG
2 . 1
eus abscondi t us, mundus i n o r b i t ,
t he
ego
s p l i t from he sumn whi ch
i t has
been cont ai ned
W have gone out e x - i r e and exi st ence
can
onl y be
mai nt ai ned i n t he m r r or , t he
l ooki ng gl ass Radi cal doubt ext ended beyond
Decartes
i magi nat i on L i f e ,
one s
l i f e a pr oj ect p r o j e t , structure at w i l l from
dest r ucti on
of
bei ng
Man
i s
reborn
i n
power
beyond
knowedge
2 . 2
Ego 1824) i s deri ved from
egoi sm 1785) al r eady
general i zed from
egoi st e
1755)
Moder ni t y becomes possi bl e i n t he cent ral i t y of t he
ego
The
i ndi vi dual
and t he a- t omos ar e no l onger unspl i t t abl e
2
. 3
Ego
and
i d e n t i t y , ar r i ved
a t by
def i ni t i on
from
he i r
boundar y, border,
box and
pr i son Li enat i on not
t o
groundbut
t o
boundarybecomes
al i enat i on
Under st andi ng
becomes st andi ng
a ga i n s t ,
obstat
;
i n
i ncreasi ng
r esent ment
t hr ow ng
agai nst , obj ect i ng, o b j e c t i v i t y ,
obj ect
I dent i f y
as
task
and
def i ni t i on ;
ego
i n
spl endi d i s o l a t i o n
2
. 4
nd
yet
One shoul d
both
take
t o
heart
say)
and
t hank t hi nk) that
bei ng
i s Par meni des/ Hei degger )
Bei ng
i s
exi st ence
appears
Wy more
orpora sunt
i f
i t
has
t o
be
sai d t hat
bodi es
are)
but why t he empty
af f i r mat i on
that deus
es t that
God i s
w t hout
doubt ) and t he
empt i er
one of
ego sumcogi t ans t hat I
amnmy
mndandno l onger whenout
of
mymnd
2
. 5
1 am
because I
make mysel f up I am
make- bel i eve as
m r r o r e d by t he
mnd I s-ness i s no l onger f or
i t s e l f
but f or me The I ams t he
I
i s and t he I t i s
t he I t amThe b i r t h of subj ecti vi t y whi ch subj ect s t he I amo t he mnd and
obj ect i vi ty whi ch makes t he other and t he s e l f i n t o my obj ect , my obj ect i on
2 . 6
The ` i t
am
reverberates i n t h e i d
and
the l
i s
i n t he
superego as Es,
das I ch
and
das
f i b e r - i c h as Es i s ` t h e i t Engl i sh s e n s i b i l i t i e s softened
t he
i t
t o
t he
i d,
anot her
German
f or mat i on
[Wei ssman
1893]
denot i ng
germ
pl as m
or i di opl asm,
das I ch
i s ` t h e I captured i n ` t h e ego t o
tamet he
embar r ass i ng
Freud as f i ber- i ch,
t he
`over
g l o r i f i e d
as `super ego
whi ch
Freud
di d not
use
very often)
i s
super
onl y f or t he ego
i n Ego- psychol ogy
2
. 7
Onl y i n
a
Car t esi an conver si on whi ch Freud
s et
out
t o
over come) do
t hi ngs of t he
body
become
ego
syst ems, as str uct ure,
t opol ogy and hi er ar chy
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 8/124
JO NN
MO R
I t i s
sai d t hat
we
ar e
dr i ven by our dr i ves and
bounded
by our consci ence
But
ar e
our dr i ves,
our
desi r es l i m t l e s s ? Onl y
i n
t he
mnd
The
mnd
hi des
t he
l i m t s of
t he
body s desi r es
whi ch ar e soon
spent
We
ar e
bound
and
bounded
by t he body Cons ci ence con- sci ence) can hi de t he
pr i mar y i n s u l t
and
i nj ur y
t o
t he ego, t he
body s l i m t e d
pot ency and pot ent i al i t y Cons ci ence
as
capi t al
t o mai nt ai n des i r e
i n t he mnd ;
super - ego as
aut hor i t y
under condi t i ons of
s c a r c i t y ,
a
ser vi ce
s ta t i on
f or t he ego
as
narci ssus
Appol l o
hi des t he
l i m t s of
D onys os
8
The
s p l i t t i n g
of
t he I - t hou fromt he I i t Buber ) , a l a t e and f a i l i n g
humani sm
f a i l i n g
t o
di s t i ngui sh
bet ween
nar ci s s i s m
and
r ecogni t i on,
bet ween
r e f l ect i on
medi at ed by
t he m r r o r and
r ef l ect i on i n
knowngt he ot her ness
of
t he ot her
and t he l i m t s of
t he
bounded body
2 . 9
Cogni t i on
t r a n s f o r m
i s - n e s s
i nt o
I i s
t he subj ect i nt o
t he obj ect whi ch
e x i s t s as a
pr oj ect
Gest al t
ps ychol ogy
has
shown
not hi ng
more than
t he
i nat t ent i on
i n
our t i me, t he predomnanceof as s umpt i on over appear ance, t he
pr ecept over t he per cept
Gest al t
and
i dea
can onl y appear i n speed,
i n
t he
g l os s ,
i n
cogni t i on
whi ch
bounds
r ecogni t i on,
i n method t he
way
beyond) ,
whi ch
bounds
theory
t he
gaze), whi ch
t ur ned i n on i t s e l f The
speed
reader s
dream I amokay you ar e okay
3 . 1
Br eat hi ng psychei n) t he s t eadi es t exchange w t h t he
wor l d
Not t o
br eat he, not
t o breathe f r e e l y t he
great
anxi et y
The s i gh, an
i nor di nat e
amount
of
breath
taken
i n
and
r el eased
;
i n
cryi ng,
breath
t aken
i n
r el uct ant l y
and
staccato and pus hed- out t he same
way i
n t he sob
or used f or
t he
cr y
3
. 2
To cr y qui r i t are) t o
i mpl or e
t he ai d of
c i t i z e n s
t he anxi et y not t o be a
c i t i z e n ,
not t o be embedded
i n
t he taken
f or
gr ant ed,
t he
cr y i n t he w l der ness
w t hout
human echo
Wen di d cr yi ng
become pr i vat e
and s hamef ul ?
When
di d t he
evocat i on
and
i nvocat i on of
others
become
an
i nj ur y t o
t he ego
rather
than
t he heal i ng
of
t he s e l f ?
Thef r e e
cr yi ng
of
t he reek
hero
l ong
behi nd
us
3
. 3
I dent i t y
has
r epl aced
s e n s i b i l i t y
I dent i t y i dem
t he
eternal
recurrence
of t he
samemakes
sci ence
poss i bl e and
t echnol ogy
and structure
as
t he
i dol
Sens i bi l i t y
i s of t he senses r oot ed i n t he body
as
humans
ar e
rooted
i n
humus
The
t i l l i n g of t hi s s o i l i s cul t ur e c o l e r e
Nat ur e i s onl y nat us, bei ng bor n
i nt o
t h i s wor l d wer- el d
theageof man t he cour se of t i me)
I dent i t y
s amenes s
di f f er ence onl y
i t s
count er - meas ur e,
i t s m r r o r
Change
madness andi nj ur y
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 9/124
THE LOUDOF
KNOWNG
I ndo- Eur opean *mei -
t he
root of change ; Lat i n mutare
change and
i nj ury)
What
a
hi st ory
and
s pect r um
madness
has,
from
wi l d
ent husi asmand
des i re t o
fury and
anger
and f ool i shness uncont r ol l ed by reason
Onl ynow
subst ant i ve
and adverb comng f roma verb of def i ni t i ve act i on
3 . 4
I d e n t i t y s t e r i l i z e d
and f r ozen madness , ego
t he great
s t e r i l i z e r Even
Fr eud, t he magni f i cent
t hough
i ncompl et e)
br each wi t h Decar t es, has been
br ought
back i nt o t he s er vi ce of t he ego The
onl y
l egi t i mat e
f ur or
l e f t
i s t he
f ur or
t her apeut i cus, t he f r a n t i c a c t i v i t y of s t e r i l i z i n g t he r et ur n of t he
repressed
The l i v i n g
god,
who
breat hes i n
humus
and
cul t ure
becomes t he
deus ex
machi na
who
i s dead
The
ego shoul d
nowbe pr ot ect ed
from
Hi s
i n f i n i t e
i nj ury
Why does
t he body s t l l cry?
I I
LIND
MANS
UFF
But J onahroseup toffee unt o Tars hi shf romt hepr esence
of t he
Lord
andwent downt o J oppa
andhefound
a
s hi p
goi ng
t o
Tars hi sh
; so he pai d t hefare t hereof , andwent
down i nt o t t o
go
wi t h themunt o Tars hi sh
f rom
t he
presence
of
t he Lord
J onah
1 3
Let
us
begi n agai n Why? Becaus e not
t o begi n
i s i mposs i bl e
;
t
i s
i mposs i bl e
t o
do
not hi ng,
even not hi ng must
be
done
whenone i s I s t h i s
a
ground
f or
begi nni ng?
There
ar e
onl y
two
gr ounds
:
necess i t y
and
desi re
To
begi n i n necess i t y
ends i n
t he
w i l l t o power
To begi n
i n desi r e
ends i n
knowedge Necess i t y s naked, desi re s hi dden Knowedge seeks power i n
common
cor r upt i on,
i n
t he
servi ce
of
t he
ego,
t he
r epl acement f or t he Deus
abscondi t us, t he
hi dden god nowl e g a l l y
decl ar ed
dead
4
. 2
Hol derl i n
saw t he
gods
dyi ng, Ni et zsche
si gned t he deat h c e r t i f i c a t e
and Hei degger di d not t al k about t any
more
Al l t hree
rai sed i n J er usal em
em gr at ed
t o
At hens
Hol der l i n s
search f or t he puri t y of man Puni shment
40
years
i n
hi di ng
He di d not go gent l y i nt o t he
ni ght
Ni et zsche saw
t hat
man
as
he
hadbecome,
coul d not be EcceHomo
t he
f l ber mens ch as
Untermensch
Man
as
mast er and
sl ave
had
t o be
overcome Puni shment
I years
s i l e n c e
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 10/124
JO NN
MO R
Hei degger became
gui l t y
by associ at i on
wi t h t he Untermensch
as
Cbermensch and
accept ed
h i s
own
bani shment
i n t o
bei ng
f or
l i f e
4
. 3
The s p i r i t of r evenge
my f r i ends , t hat was u n t i l nowman s
best
ref l ect i on
; and where t her e was
suf f eri ng
t her e
wi l l al ways be puni shment
Ni et zsche,
On
Del i ver ance)
Where
i d
[ i t ] was, ego s h al l be
4
. 4
The
f u r i e s
are
t he
pri ce
At hens
pai d
f or
t he
i de a,
t he
i ndependent
exi st ence J erusal em kept t he covenant
t hat
vengeance was Hi s and was
preserved f rom t o t a l
dest ruct i on
al t hough cont i nuous l y
dest r oyed as a
remnder Madness i s Gr eek, deat h i t s Hebrewequi val ent Thanat os
a
l i n g u i s t i c cover - up) Onl y Chr i st opens J erusal emt o madness and
cure
J ohn
of
t he
Gospel becomes J ohn of
t he Revel at i on and t he
r evenge
i s f i e r c e The
onl y
madness
among
t he Hebrews i s
t he Mess i ah bef ore t he end of t i me The
gr aven i mage
f orbi dden, t he Name must r emai n
hi dden
5
I dent i t y
and
s e n s i b i l i t y ,
t he
mnd
and
t he
body,
t he
general
and
t he
part i cul ar,
t he
momentumand
t he
moment
Taki ng eus
es t
and corpora
sunt f or
gr ant ed
t hrows
t he r adi cal
doubt
back
on
t he sum
t he
am
I f we
const i t ut e
our sel ves i n cogi t at i on
i n l ogi c and structure) t hen
t he wor l d t oo
reconst i t ut ed
as l ogi c
and
structure, as sci ence
and
t echnol ogy
Cons t i t ut i on
becomes
i n s t i tu t i on
5
. 2
The
nat ure of
t he
sumwhi ch i s const i t ut ed i n s t i t u t e d
by cogi t o was
r e- examned by Husserl ut sumhad al r eady
become
t he ego
and
t he
onl y
wayout but not
i n
was t he t r anscendent al ego
The
t hi ngs t hem el ves
had
al r eady become t h e i r structure, and i nt ent i onal i t y
coul d
f i n a l l y onl y be
puri f i ed i n
t he e i d e t i c i mage, s igni f icat ion wi t hout s i gn, systemcl osed
5 . 3
Cogi t o al so cons t i t ut es i n s t i t u t e s t he obj ect
Phenomenol ogy
i l l u -
m nat es
i t s el f i n t he
subj ect / obj ect
di chotomy I t
recovers
re- covers?)
t he
subj ect
i n
r el at i on t o t he obj ect
Exi s tent i al i s m
t o use t hese
gener al i zed
si gns
i n
gener al i zed
t i mes) gr ounds t he obj ect ed subj ect and subj ect ed obj ect i n
appar ent
exper i ence
Dasei n) at t empt i ng
t o
r ecapt ure
a
l i ngeri ng
pre-
Car t esi an
memoryof bei ng i n
al l
t he not hi ngness of t he s t e r i l i z e d ego Sartre)
and of odi n what i s s t i l l l e f t
t o
bei ng, despai r Ki er kegaar d)
Pr e- Car t esi an
becomes
pre- Socrat i c i n t he search
f or further f r agment s of memorybef or e
t he mnd
Hei degger )
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 11/124
THECLO
U OFKNOWNG
6
1
When
a l l
t hi ngs began,
the
word
al r eady was Theword
dwel t w th
God
and
what God
was, the
word
was
Theword
then
was
w th
God
at t he
begi nni ng
andthroughhiml l
t hi ngs
came
t o
be no si ngl e
t hi ng was cr eat ed
wthout him
Al l
t hat came
to be
was
al i ve
w th hi s l i f e
and t hat l i f e was
t he
l i ght
of
men J ohn
1
2- 4)
6
2
The
bl unt asser t i on i s
I nthe begi nni ng
was
t he
wordand
t he
wordwas
w t hGodandGodwas
t he
word J ohn
1 1
nd
the
wordwasmade f l esh and
dwe t
amongus
J ohn
1 14)
6. 3
The
word i s w th thename t hat mst not be named Youmayread i n
between
i nt er - l eger e)
as youmaybei n between i nt er - esse)
The
l i ght
i s
i n the
space carved out by t he l ett ers and
between the
l i nes
Every
word
i t s
own
t ransl at i on mnyfol dover Fi nnegan s
wake
at the b i r t h of t he
word
Theword
became
f l esh
andthe
f l esh
through the senses t hedoors of
percepti on and concepti on) becomes
word
as cal l word and cal l i ng, address
and speech mot , par ol e, ver be) ; I say unto you
6
4
Beyond the
word
the i nf i ni t e
cal cul us sediments
i nt o sci ence Beyond
t he
f l esh
the
Gol em
the non-human
made human becomes
i nhuman
Consti t ut i on
as i nsti tuti on, cl ock-work or ange,
the
sel f - regul at i ng mchine
the
system
6. 5
To humni ze system
i s
t o syst emat i ze humns
i s
t o deny ot her ness
andestrangement of i nsti tuti ons and
t he
state
The
state w t her s away i n
t he
corporati on
as
the
corporation
mst w t her away i n
the
body
Nei ther
exi stent i al i sm
nor
mrxi sm
can
be a
humani sm
no i sm
can
be
human
Humani sm s anthropomrphi sm i s
nar ci ssi smwhen
i t extendsbeyond t he
body
6. 6
Toturn f l esh i nt o meat i s obscene Onl y the f l esh can be known The
ego cogi t at es t he obj ect
Cannibal i sm
pr os t i tut i on and i ncest are obscene
onl y
as
nar ci ssi sm
or obj ecti f i cati on
Thi s i s
mybody f l esh t o
be eaten
Sarah
pr osti t ut ed
Hagar
but
Hagar
al so
became the mther of
gener at i ons
Lot s
daughters
concei ved
of t hei r
f at her
af t er Sodom wheremenwanted t o know
t he
vi si t i ng angel s
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 12/124
JO NN
MO R
6
. 7
The
cor por at i on,
t he
body corpus) gener al i zed
The
ego
as
opus, as
system
of
t hought
nd t hought
as
system
as
Summa
as
Levi at han,
as
Cr i t i que
beyond
a l l
Reason,
as
Encycl opedi a Between Bei ng and
Not hi ngness, Bei ng
and Tim t he Di al ogues
becom
t e x t s and t he word
i s
frozen
Man des i r e s by nat ur e
t o
know
Ar i stot l e)
but knowedge
syst ema-
t i z e d
freezes
t he word
i n t o
concept ,
ready
f or a r t i f i c i a l i ns emnat i on
The
story
becomes
hi story
8
Ever y throw of t he
di ce
i s
a
new pos si bi l i t y un-determned
by
a l l
pr evi ous
t hr ows
;
and
yet
t he i r s er i es wi l l
be a
known order
The mol ecul e
i n
randommvement
unpr edi ct abl e
and yet meas ur abl e as mass
Pro babi l i t y
approaches cert ai nt y through i ncreasi ng
consi st ency
and massi f i cat i on
Death of t he mul t i t udes i s
i nsur abl e
and so ar e acci dent s Howmany wi l l di e
i n
t h i s
c i t y t hi s year? The act uar i ans ar e rarel y wrong Wen
wi l l
I di e? Who
knows?
7
To be
i n one s body i s
t o desi r e
t o know
To be
shut
up i n
t he
mnd
i s t o
beout
of
one s mnd
The
mnd i s what wemndandwhat mnds
us
Wat
r e
mnds
us
i s
exper i ence negat ed
The
s el f whi ch mnds i t s e l f
freezes
i n t he
m r r o r The
unknown i n
t he
equat i on r epl aced
by
i t s e l f di ssol ves i n t o zero
7
Exper i ence
i s i n- di vi dual mancan
be di vi ded i n
manyways Watever
we
may be
we l i v e t he
exper i ences
we have not
l i v ed
and
we
l i v e i n
t he
exper i ences
we
have
l i ved
Our
exper i ences
ar e
our
memory
whi ch
r e
mmbers
us
Exper i ence i s
t he
body remmered
t he
mnd
onl y
remnds
us
Socrates, t he great
remnder,
becam
a
memory through
t he
death of t h i s
body Pl at o was then
bound
and
freed
t o deny t he body and
t o recreate
t he wor l d i n t he mnd, awor l d whi ch
A r i s t o t l e
then cal l ed nature
But physi s
has nowturned i n t o
physi cs,
const i t ut i on
i n t o i n s t i t u t i o n
seei ng i n t o
theory,
bei ng i n t o formTheway back t o t he body
bl ocked
by thedeat h of Socrates,
repressed as cal amt y, t he way
beyond
met a- odos) constr i cted by
structure
Physi cs
i s
met a- physi s
;
met aphysi cs
i s
t he
way i n t o
nowher e,
i n t o
not hi ngness Logos
t he wor l d) has turned i nt o l ogi c
7 3
Sensi bi l i t y and
exper i ence,
t he body i n touch
The mnd i s t he l i m t
of
t he body Each exper i ence
i s
l i m t e d unto i t s e l f i n- di vi dual i t can transcend
i t s
l i m t s
onl y i n
t he
mnd,
t he unl i m t ed
Exper i ence i s i n
t he
body
as
Pavl ov
r ecogni zed,
a condi t i on si ne qua
non
The
body,
t he humancondi t i on
s i n e qua
non
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 13/124
THECLOUD
OF
KNOWNG
4
st ructure of experi ence can onl y be cast i n t he
mnd
The
body l i k e
t he
word
forever
pol ymorphous What we
mnd
ar e t he l i m t s of our
exper i ences and t h e i r i so lat ion The
mnd
andwhat we
mnd
i s space and t i me
and t he body s cont i ngency
The sent i ment of t he
body
i s r e- sent ment
i n
t he
mnd
Bei ng- i n- t he- wor l d i s forever
made
t o
not hi ng
i n t he
p o s s i b i l i t i e s
of t he
mnd
and
what may
have been
And
t o be not hi nged i s t he ul t i mat e despai r
Whave t o l i m t t he
mndwhi ch
i t s e l f
t he
l i m t l e s s
l i m t
of
t he
body
7
. 5
The
body i n
t he
mnd i s
t he i de a, t he body s perver si on
Umkehr
Per ver si on
i s t he body i n t he mnd
r e- sent i ng
t he
l i m t s of desi r e
and
exper i ence
Logi c
and
st ructure
l i m t
r es ent ment
and
s t e r i l i z e
t he
s e l f
i d i o s
in to
t he i de a, t he
pr i vat e
i d i o s
i nt o t he
common I n- di vi dual
exper i ences
can
now
connect ,
l i k e
t r ai ns connect
on
a
j our ney Er - f ahr ung)
accor di ng
t o pl an
and
l o g i s t i c s ;
t i me canbe cont r ol l edby t i met abl es and space meas ur ed beyond
t he f oot whi ch
wal ks
and s e t s t he pace he l i m t s of t he body s pace can be
surpassed
wi t h ever - i ncr easi ng speeds
;
t he sky i s no l onger t he l i m t and
heaven has di sappear ed) The wal ker di d not have t o make connect i ons,
connect ednes s was i n t he wal k
7 I n t he mnd structure, exper i ence can be denuded f romwhat
t
has not
been I t can be stored f or saf ekeepi ng i n t he co- or di nat e systemandt he
i n f i n i -
t esi mal cal cul us Themetaphor as anal ogue and t he l e t t e r as d i g i t t he
i dea
as
i do l
Some voi ces r emai n, but Vi co s ol d sci ence i s adowdy
const r uct i on,
Bl ake s warni ng a cur i osi t y The Gol em s mushroomi s mght i er t han t he
cross Space
becomes
out er
space and t i me t he
dyi ng
of
car bons
And
space/ t i me i s
speed
and t he
ul t i mat e speed
i s
t he
di sappear ance
of
t he
body,
t he mat t er whi ch mat t er s
7
. 7
Mnd control i s not cont r ol
over
t he mnd t h i s i s i mposs i bl e,
t he
i n f i n i t e cannot be cont r ol l ed) but cont r ol of
t he
mnd Mnd
cont r ol , a
t echni que
t o i n s t i t u t e
t he
i dea
as i deol ogy, t he
perverted body as common
structure, f i n a l l y
succeeds
onl y i n t he torture of t he r e a l body School i ng does
not capt ur e t he mnd,
t capt ur es
t he bodywhi chmust submt t o
st ructure
as
t i met abl e and c l as s Law s t he mai nt enance of t he mnd s or der as i deol ogy I t
t oo
mai nt ai ns i t s e l f f i n a l l y as
tor tu re
of
t he body
I I I
EENY,
ME NY MONEY
MOE
C TCHHMN KEDBYTHETOE
And
I
gave
my
hear t
t o
seek
and search
out
by wsdom
3
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 14/124
JO NN MO R
concerni ng
al l t hi ngs t hat are
done
under heaven t hi s
sore t ravai l
hath god
gi ven
t o the sons of
man
t o be
exer ci sed t her ew t h
Eccl esi astes 1, 13
ut put
forth t hi ne hand
now
and
touch hi s
bone
and
f l esh and
he w l l curse thee t o thyface J ob 2, 5
8 Theor i es
are not t he
i nvent i on of
s c i e n t i s t s and
phi l osopher s
The
most
t heoret i cal occasi ons arethe
beer
house
t a l k and
t hemass
s i c )
medi a Theory
l ong separat ed
from
seei ng
has
become t he
r edempt i on
of
sl aves
and
t he
promse
f or
woul d
be mast ers
The categor y
s down i n t hemar ket pl ace kata
agora
8
. 2
Typi ng s t he
t r ansf ormat i on
of t he body
i nto
mnd
form t he
perver t ed body , t he
t r ansf ormat i on
of t he word i nt o l e t t e r s
Letters as i deal
t ypes, as
i deo- gr ammes,
as t races
of t he s e l f
Thewordcan
onl y
emanatefrom
a speaker
Cast
i nto type
t becomes
i ndependant ,
t he
gol em
that
can l a s t and
do
hi s
own
work
8 . 3
Typi f i cat i on of humans t he
f oundat i on
of egoand i d e n t i t y , t hegraven
i mage, t he i dol Assembl age of pi eces whi ch are
e a s i l y exchangeabl e and
r educeabl e t o t he bi nary
wor l d
of d i g i t a l comput er s
8
. 4
Sci ence
r e s t s on
regul ari t y
and where
sci ence
ends, t echnol ogy begi ns
t o ext end
regul ari t y
Nat ur e l i k e exper i ence does not pr oduce suf f i ci ent
regul ari t y
and
predi ctabi l i ty to
make
us safe
Sci ence
compl et es
i t s e l f
and
us
i n
t he
model ,
t he
system
i n
structure
and
typi f i cat i on
I t s
r educt i on
s
r educt i on to regul ar i ty
The rarer the event t he l e s s i ncorpor at ed i n
sci ence
Chance s
syst emat i cal l y
rul ed out i n t he order of one i n t went y, one i n a
hundr ed, one i n a t housand
Event s bel ow
that
order become non- event s i n
sci ence
Exper i ence r e g i s t e r s
event s of once
8
. 5
Sci ence covers t s l i m t s by t echnol ogy, t he expressi on of t s
arr i ved
structure w t hout t s
search
;
human sci ence f u l f i l l s
i t s e l f i n
t ypol ogi es ;
everybody as
somebody
as
nobody
The rare
event
s excl uded and si nce
we
are
t he
most rare
of
l l event s we
are a l l excl uded
We
arethe chance
of
one i n
b i l l i o n s
Weare
t he wager
8
. 6
Theory and t ypol ogy
are
not i nvent i ons of
sci ence
but our most
common response t o our l i m t s i n t he
face of
t he
unnameabl e t he hi di ng of
our l i m t s , t he cover t o our nakedness
The
t r ansparent
garment
of
l anguage
4
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 15/124
THE
LOU OF
KNOWNG
becomes armour t hr ough
sci ence Humansci ence compl et es
our
aspi rati ons
as
work
of
t he st r anger , as
seei ng
out si de
t he
gaze
;
de- f i ni ng
our
f i ni tude
8 7
Human sci ence does not f i n d us , but our es t r angement i n
t he
mnd I f
wecoul d
face
i t
as
our perver si on Umkehr i t coul d l ead
us
back
t o
t he
body
But
human
s c i e n t i s t s caught
i n
human sm
rather than
t he
human, shar e w t h
rare except i ons) i n t he conspi racy of vani ty
Fi ndi ngs,
hi di ng t he quest i on
i n
t he answer,
become
r e i f i e d ,
t he
wor l d
and t he
wor d)
become
reconst i t ut ed
as
i nsti tuti ons
and types
I d i o s ,
t he pr i vate, the
s e l f whi ch
has
been t r ansf or med
i nt o
t he
i dea i n
t he
begi nni ng of sci ence
i s
f ashi oned
i nt o
the i deal
type
8 . 8
Onl ynowcan we busy our sel ves
w t h ps ychol ogy
and
psychi at r y and
soci ol ogy
and
ant hr opol ogy t o r e - f o r m
t he
wor l d i n
our ownestranged
i mage
L i t t l e
men
i n
whi t e
coats
measur i ng behavi our , i n bl ue
coats
t e l l i n g us what
t o
do,
i n
bl ack ones
j udgi ng
us and t he many grey ones
i n
bet ween
di rect i ng
t he
paper :
Your name
Your
address
Your sex
?
Your
age
Anamnesi s and
anal ysi s
The
story
becomes hi story and sci ence pos i t i ve The
quest i on becomes t he answer
and t he body s experi ence c l a s s i f i e d
i n s t at i s t i c a l
structures
The average f a m l y has two and a hal f
chi l dren, pi ty
t he
hal f one,
pi t y us
al l
Where
ar e
t he
dappl ed
t hi ngs?
t he
gl or y
t o
God ?
Angui s h comes i n cur i ous
ways
and t hr ough cur i ous
mes senger s And
cur i ous i s
a
cur i ous
word because
what i s
at
stake i s
curi os i ty
Angui sh
as
barred
curi osi ty,
angst and
anger
Angui sh i s
that
i t
coul d
be ot herw se
9
Rati onal i ty
and
sci ence
mrrored
by
t he
f ac e l e s s
cr owd,
t he f l e e t i n g
passerby sensed
by Baudel ai r e t hr ough t he
poppy, captured
by
Poe i n
t he
grotesque whi ch caught
up wi t h
Benj amn at
t he
Spani sh
border
9
. 3
Sci ence as
doxa
conceal s t he paradoxa unti l
t he measured wor l d
breaks
i n t he
absurd
The
i n f i n i t y of t he
mnd
and t he
death
of
t he body
can
onl y be i mper f ect l y
conceal ed
by
t he compul s i on to sci ence, l e degre zer o, di e
5
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 16/124
JOH NN
MOHR
ent zaubert e Wel t Even theory
el evat ed
t o c r i t i c a l theory and
r e f l e x
t o
ref l ect i on
cannot
escape
t he
c r i s i s
of
i n f i n i t e
r egr essi on
9 4
Marx turned Hegel upsi de downt o standhimon
h i s
f eet
Hegel asked
f or
i t
Ki er kegaar d
turned Hegel upsi de down
t o
stand himon h i s head
Hegel
asked
f or t But how di d Hegel st and? ndwher e? You must
under st and The Pr ussi an M ni st er of Cul t ur e
of f er ed
2000
Thal er and
Expenses
Hegel negot i at ed
f ur t her
assurances on
r e n t
produce and
l i f e
i nsur ance ;
l ect ure
f e e s wer e good So f ar Marx i s vi ndi cat ed, t he body
w ns
but howc an t he
st at e t hat f eeds us
so
wel l
w t her away The body i s pri vat e
property and
t he
means
of
pr oduct i on
Freud)
onl y
t he mnd c an
be
nat i onal i zed nd t he
s t a t e
can no l onger be t ur ned
upsi de down Poor
Mar c use) nd
Ki er kegaar d
s t i l l st andi ng on
hi s
head di sc om or t i ng us
I V
FROM
ULDNG LOCKTOMECCH NOSET
nd
t he
whol e
earth
was of one
l anguage
and
of one
speech Genesi s
11
1)
ndthey
s a i d Go
t o l e t us bui l d
a ci t y
and
a t ower ,
whose t op may reach unt o heaven and l et us make a
name,
l e s t we
be
scattered abroadupon
t hef ac e of t he
whol e earth
Genesi s, 11
4)
10 1
Fromt he catacomb
t o t he cat hedr al , fromt he vaul t t o t he soar i ng
bank, t he out st andi ng i s t he out st andi ng
Savi our
and
savi ngs
as
t r u s t
as
sur pl us val ue and debt
The
sacred and t he pr of ane, meaningandmeanness as
means
10 2
The
money
l ender s bench thrown out of
t he t empl e becomes t he
t empl e Moneta goddess
and t empl e,
str uct ur i ng
subst ance
i n coi nage,
t r ansubst ant i at i on
t he
pure
i dea fromrare subst anc e t o i mage and
p r i n t
t o
el ect roni c t r ansf er
The
promssory
note
and
t he
pr om sed
l and,
br i de
pr i c e
and
consi der at i on, contract
and convenant
10 3
To have i s
t o
be had
t o
take i s
t o
be t aken and t o
possess
i s
t o
be
possessed ; t he yi el d
i s
g u i l t
Usury i s f or bi dden
Tohave
an i n t er e s t i nwhat
one
i s not i nt er ested
i n
t o
have a share
i n
what one does not share i s pur el y
fromt he head
capi t al
1
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 17/124
THE
LOU
OF
KNOWNG
10
4
api tal i smi s head- st uf f i s mnd-stuff, matter i n the
mnd
the
perverted
t hi ng
Money
thepure
exchange
i t em
the
opi at e
of the
peopl e,
the
l im t l es s f ant asy,
the Messi ah
bef ore
the end
of
t i me
10 5
Materi al i smthe l ogi cal ant i dot e But i n what we c al l
mat er i al i sm
i t
was
not
matter t hat mattered
i t
was the
mnd
t hat mattered andwasmade
matter
Materi al i sm
yoked t o sci ence
l acked i t s own
cont radi ct i on
and l ost i t s
obj ect i on i n obj ecti vi t y, i t s di al ect i c w th hi story became agai n) the
resentment of hi story
10 6 The Reformati on as
transformati on
Luther the
f at her
of
Marx
Rot st ei n)
and Protestanti smthe
mother
of capi tal i sm
Unl imted progress
became
possi bl e
i n the
templ e of
rat i onal i ty
and
posi t i ve sci ence f or whi ch
Come peddl ed
hi s handbi l l s
Soci al i sm
was
the
f a i t h
of engi neer s
from
the
begi nni ng St Simon
onl y
machi nes canbri ng
l i bert y
by
breaki ng t he l i m t s
and
bonds
of t he body Onl y machi nes can symbol i ze f u l l
equal i t y
of
exchangeabl e parts
i n
the absence of cl oni ng) and f raterni ty onl y works
smoothl y i n the sameness t he machi ne guarantees
The
companyone
keeps
becomes
t he
company
bywhi ch
one
i s
kept
Pl anned
per f ect i on
i s
prof i ci ent ,
i s
prof i t
Structure,
born
i n
the
perf ect i on
of t hemndcompel s the past per f ect
and future per f ect f unct i on
Per f ect i on, the per f ect defence agai nst the
l i m tl essness
of t hemnd andthe
l i m t s
of thebody Structure, the
per f ect i on
of t he t hi ng
whi ch
has
voi ded
i t s e l f
of i t s e l f and t i me
Per f ect i on,
t hepossi bi l i ty
of standi ng s t i l l i n rapi d progress,
of
escapi ng t he resentment of
hi story,
of
what has not been andwhat maynot be
2
Structure,
t he
ful crum
of
Athensafter
Socr at es
death
I nthedi al ogues
al ready
a sense of
knowbetterness
yet s t i l l balanced by a chal l enge
t o
presumed
knowedge
by
negat i vi t y
I
know
t hat
do not know The
Socrati c
method
now
al i ve
i n
School s
of
Law
w th
t he
same
resul t
the
puri f i cat i on of
structure
and
rul e, the emergence of l aw
as
a
t hi ng i n
i t s e l f
3
I t
i s
wel l that Socr at es di d not wri te
Wi ti ngbefore hi m orphi c and
awesome f ragmentarynot
onl y through the
f orget f ul ness
of hi story but i n i t s
openness The
Gods
were
s t i l l
al i ve and
t he
word
amemory
trace andnot
a
bui l di ng bl ock
of
a
mnd
system
The questi on born on the
boundary of
7
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 18/124
JO
NNW
O R
exper i ence
t owar ds what
has not been, not
yet
a
pr el ude to
an
answer whi ch
hi des
what el udes u s what
t e s t s
and over taxes our r esponse- abi l i t y
1 1 . 4
Socr ates,
t he great
teacher w th not hi ng to teach
but
to unteach,
a
menace to educat i on and
t he
s t a t e
Republ i c
can not
sur vi ve
t he
aci d
t e s t of
t he Di al ogue The
phi l osopher ki ng woul d have to know
not hi ng
The
s t a t e
whi ch i s
a
s t a t e
of mnd
made
posi ti ve coul d
not
sur vi ve
i t s own per ver si on
Umkehr made
obvi ous
Ci vi l i sat i onwoul ddrown i n
i t s
di s- content
whi ch i s
the uneasi ness i n
cul tur e
1 1
5
The
mnd
i s
a
tabul a
rasa
memory
i s
not)
i nscri bed
w th
di s- content ,
the r esentment
of hi stor y
whi ch has not been
Teachi ng t r ansf orms di s-
content i nto content
and contentment Teachi ng makes
sense
apar t fromthe
senses
wher e i d
has not been ego s h a l l be Teachi ng pr ovi des the t oken,
t he
si gn
and
consi der at i on f or
t he under t aki ng whi ch
l ays
t he quest i on
to r e s t
Expl anat i on
emanates f romt he
pl ane,
t he pl an, t he norm
and
t he common,
the ( cl osed) system The body ref uses to stop achi ng af ter al l expl anat i on
1 1 . 6
Beyond
a l l
str uctur i ng
and
structure
t he
body
r e t a i n s i t s
memory of
pl easur e
and
pai n
i n the exper i ence
of
what
has
and
has not
been, f used
i n the
dr eam t he ki ndl ed
and
ki ndr ed s p i r i t
The
dr eam
pr egnant
f l u i d i t y
whi ch
hi des i t s body or i gi n fromt he
mnd
but
opens
i t s e l f to t he quest i on
of
bei ng
the dr eam s p i r i t t o t he
body, ghost
to
t he
mnd
12 Where i s t he s p i r i t i n t he Phenomenol ogy of t heMnd?Thecogni t i ve
structurewhi ch super sedes t he taken f or granted deus e s t andt heemptybody
i n
space
i s
augmented
by t he d i a l e c t i c
f uncti on
of becomngandest r angement ,
of t he
s p i r i t
whi ch
f u l f i l l s i t s e l f i n
t he cour se of t i me,
i n hi story
TheGerman
Gei st
covers up t he
di sj uncti on and Engl i sh
t ransl ator s
ar e
f or ever i n
t r oubl e bet ween s p i r i t and
m nd)
12 . 2
The s p i r i t s r ef l ect i on i n
t he
mnd ( Schei n) , the
cave of t he
ego, the
ghost i n t he
machi ne but
Hegel s words
cur i ousl y
al i ve
and
cl ose t o the body
What i s promsed i s a Systemof Sci ence i n Consci ousness and Sel f - con-
sci ousness
i n Reason
and S p i r i t
Rel i gi on
and Absol ut e Knowedge The
system
r emai ns i ncompl ete i n
every
respect, the
body s
l anguage coul d
not be
suf f i ci entl y s t e r i l i z e d f or
a
per f ect mnd f uncti on
The germ nal
matt er
humus r emai ns but t he dream s hi dden
8
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 19/124
THE LOU OFKNOWNG
12
3
Descar t es was
no
stranger t o
t he dreamand t he l i v i n g
body
but
hi s
mother
di ed
earl y
and
t he
l o s s
of
t he
breast
was
never
fo rgot ten
The
subsequent at t empt by t he
men
of t he
Company
t he
Schoo l men,
t o heal t he
l o s s bya br i col age of t he
mnd
was never fo rgot ten ; t he
di sappoi nt ment
of t he
body and t he
uncer t ai nt y i n t he mnd
wer e deep and t he
answer f or m dabl e
12
. 4
but t hat t he human
body
i nasmuch as t d i f f e r s fromot her bodi es
i s
composed onl y
of a
cert ai n conf i gur at i on
of
members
and of other
si m l ar
acci dent s, whi l e
t he
human
mnd
not
s i m l a r l y composed of
any
acci dent s,
but a pur e subst ance Medi t at i ons, Synopsi s)
12 5
And t he
answer
arose
i n
a dreamand
came
f r o m
t he Vi r gi n
Mary
t he
pr e- oedi pal mot her , a f t e r t he body s act i on i n f enci ng
and
t he
body s
repose i n
musi c
and
t he
s ol d
body as sol di er
and
t he
est r angement of t r a v e l andwar
coul d
not put
HumptyDumpty
together
agai n
I n
t he
bi r t h of t he
ego t he
body
becomes une
chose
qui
pense, r es cogi t ans
But
onl y i n
t he
mnd, t he
body s
per ver si on)
12
. 6
For,
as
regards
t o t he
conduct
of
our
l i f e
we
ar e
f r equent l y
obl i ged
t o
f o l l o w
opi ni ons
whi ch ar e mer el y pr obabl e, because t he opport uni t i es of
act i on woul d i n most cases pass
away
bef ore we coul d del i ver our sel ves from
our doubt s Pri nci pl es,
I I I
12 . 7
The Body and t he Dreamr emai n pr i vat e domai ns S i r
I
r ubbed
my
eyes t o see whet her or not
I
was sl eepi ng when
I
read
i n
your
l e t t e r that
you
wer e
pl anni ng
t o
come
here
; and even now
I
dare not r e j o i c e
at
t h i s news
ot her w se then as
i f
t wer e onl y a dream Mor eover ,
I
must t e l l you that
I
awai t you here w t h
a
l i t t l e
bundl e of
dreams whi ch
wi l l
per haps
not
be
di spl easi ng t o
you
And t he
s a t i s f i e d senses
ar e
i n nosense i n
doubt
Ever y
day
I
take a s t r o l l
amd
t he
conf us i on
of a gr eat crowd ven t he noi se of t h e i r comngs
and
goi ngs
does not
i nt er r upt
my daydreams any more than woul d t he sound of abrook
I f at
t i mes
I
r e f l e c t on
t h e i r a c t s I recei ve the
same
pl easur e that youwoul d
have i n
wat chi ng peasant s cul t i vat e your f i e l d s f or
I
see that al l t h e i r l abour
serves
t o adorn t he pl ace of my abode and
t o pr event
me froml ac ki ng
anyt hi ng I
need
Let t er t o
MdeBal zac, May
15
1631)
12 . 8
The
chose
qui
pense
must
l i v e wel l
Wen
t he
w l y Gal i l eo
who al so
l i ked t o l i v e
wel l was apprehended f or hi s heresy concer ni ng
t he earth s
mot i on,
Descar t es protected hi s
body
secur el y :
and al t hough
I
thought,
they
were
based
on very
sure
and
obvi ous pr oof s, I
woul d not
f or anyt hi ng i n
9
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 20/124
JO NNW
MO R
t he wor l d
uphol d themagai nst
t he aut hor i t y of t he
Church
I amot so
f ond of my t hought s t o w sh
t o
make use of [ such] except i ons
i n
order t o be
abl e
t o mai nt ai n
themand
t he desi r e I have t o
l i v e
i n peace andt o cont i nue t he
l i f e
whi ch
I have begun by t aki ng f ormymotto bene v i x i t bene qui
l a t u i t
he
l i v e s wel l who l i v e s a
r e t i r e d
l i f e Letter t o Fat her Mer senne,
J anuary
20,
1634)
I havemyp r i n c i p l e s i f you
don t l i k e them
haveothers
Even
t he
gent l e
Ei ns t ei n
ur ged t he atombomb
12
9
The
ego
safe
i n t he mnd, god
neut r al i zed i n
per f ect i on, t he
body
di smembered i n strangerness
What ot her
spot
i n
t he wor l d
coul donechoose,
i n
whi ch a l l
t he
conveni ences
and
c u r i o s i t i e s
of
l i f e
one
coul d
desi re are as
easy
t o f i n d
as
here?
What
ot her
count r y
i n
whi chonemay
enj oy such compl et e
f r eedom or sl eep w t h
l e s s
uneasi ness
where there ar e al ways f oot - sol di ers
avai l abl e f or t he express
pur pose of
pr ot ect i ng
us
Letter
t o deBal zac)
The
perf ect
model f or
moder ni t y
13
One hundred years
after f a i t h
was
l i berated
from l abour
and
l abour ers wer e
r ebound) ,
t hought was separat ed f rom
he
body whi ch
coul d
now
be sol d f or
pi ece work
and
t i me)
Capi t al
r el at i ng t o t he
head, deadl y,
mor t al ) i s f i n a l l y unencumbered and can
generat e
i t s e l f
t hr ough m ndi ng,
i nst i tut i on
and structure
13
2
Body
and
l abour ,
means
and
pr oduct i on,
t he
i mper f ect
machi ne,
i mper f ect out put I t i s i nsuf f i ci ent
t o
s p l i t
f a i t h
f rom
abour ,
t o
s p l i t bodyand
mnd
t he
body s t i l l has t o
be
gener at ed
t o pr ovi de a
sub- st r uct ur e and
l abour
has
gener at ed
cust oms,
a
super - st r uct ur e
whi ch st ands
i n
t he way
of capi t al
and i t s
per f ect i on
13 3
Thebodyneeds t o be
borne
andproduced
i n
l abour , and sust ai ned by
parent s par er e- pr oduce) and ki nf ol k The
body
born i s not
anybody
nowher e, but somebody s omewher e,
par t i cul ar
and not p a r t i c l e and
ever
more
part i cul ar as i t
gr ows
i n t he f am l i ar w t h
part i cul ar
others Parent s
had
t o be
t r ansf or med i n t o
t he
par ens pat ri ae
and
f a m l y i nt o
t he
common
weal t h
of
nat i ons
13
4 O kos
Eco-),
t he
house,
househol d and t empl e,
rel at i ons
and
bel ongi ng
konoma t he wayt he househol d i s managed t he
nature
of care
2 0
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 21/124
THE LOUDOFKNOWNG
Economyand
ecol ogy speak of bel ongi ng t oget her
Et hos, t he
waywebehave
t o
each
other,
body as
character,
house
as
home
e t h i c s
i s
human
et hol ogy
13 5
Fam l y i s
what
i s
f a m l i a r
ki nshi p
and house,
servant , sl ave
and
pr oper t y,
but
f i r s t
and
f or emost bel ongi ng t oget her i n what ever
sensewemay
see
i t
As behavi our i s what we have been,
bel ongi ng i s what
we have l onged
f o r bi ndi ng
and
bond
of
t he
body, memory andmembershi p
13 6
Membershi p
i s
al ways i ncompl et e Memory remembers what i s
cont i nuousl y
di smembered
i n consumpt i on
and r et ent i on Bel ongi ng
sedi ments
in to
bel ongi ngs,
property
And
proper
i s
what
bel ongs
t o
o nes el f
or
i t s e l f
;
and
pr oper t y,
t he
s e l f possessed,
sedi ment s in to
possessi on
t o
st ave
of f
t he
r evul si on
of t i me and
i t s
` i t has been
13 7
Ego i s
pr oper t y,
and i d e n t i t y t he
s e l f
possessed
Thebodychanges
and
separ at es
i n Er os
and
Thanat os
Pushed out
from
t he
comort of t hewomb
t aken of f t he nour i shi ng b r e a s t l osi ng t he hi di ng pl ace of home
and f i n a l l y
when
t he over whel mng wor l d i s somewhat known l osi ng
i t t oo For
men, t he
r epet i t i on
compul si on
of
r egai ni ng
what
has
been
l o s t
;
f or
women
t he
compul si on
of t he repet i t i on of l osi ng what has been gai nedand f orman
both
t oget her The pi et a t he symbol of uni t y
VMRWOLF WH T
TIM
I S I T?
I
t e l l
you
t h i s
unl ess
you
turn
round
and become
l i k e
chi l dr en, you wi l l
never
ent er t he
ki ngdom
of
Heaven
Mathew
18 2)
14 At
t he
end of Descart es t i me was
Fr eud
t t heend of Descart es
l i f e
bef or e he di ed
fromt he
demands of t he c h i l d mot her ,
t he
mast er st udent , a
f i n a l
at t empt
t o deal w t h t he passi ons, separ at e fromt he body and yet i n t he
body
t he ul t i mat e
and most pr oxi mat e cause of t he
passi ons
of t he soul
i s
none other t han t he
agi t at i on w t h whi ch t he s p i r i t s
move t he
l i t t l e
gl and,
whi ch
i s i n
t he mddl e
of
t he br ai n
Passi ons
of t he Soul Ll )
14
2
The
gr eat doubt er , who
sol d subsequent
cent ur i es on
t he
cer t ai nt y of
t hought as
cogi t at i on
and
structure,
f a l l s back
in to
t he
t waddl e of r ecei ved
l ear ni ng as
i f
he never
had di scour sed on met hod, and msses what ever
1
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 22/124
JO
NNW
O R
meani ng there was
do
not seewhythey
have desi r ed
t o
r ef er them
[the
passi ons] al l to
concupiscence
or
anger
Passi ons
of
the
Soul
LXVI I I
14 3
The gl and i n
the mdd e of the br ai n, the brai n i n
the
mdd e
of the
wor l d,
the worl d
as mnd,
as
ego
and
i dent i t y,
as
obj ect i f i cat i on andobj ect
Thedi smembered
body yet l i nked t o the brai nby ner ves
and what i s here
most worthy
of remark i s t hat al l t hemost animated
and
subt l e port i ons of t he
bl ood whi ch
t he heat has rar i f i ed
i n the
heart,
ent er ceasel essl y
i n
l arge
quant i t i es
i nto the cavi t y of the brai n
Passi ons of theSoul X
14
4
Descar t es
desperate
endi ng
was i n
Freud s i nnocent
begi nni ng
Devoti on
t o phi l osophyturned
i nto medi ci nebyapparent exi genci es, i nto the
study
of t he brai n and sci ence,
di ssecti on
and
anal ysi s
And why
the
chemstry of gases? Was i t
an echo
of
ner ves whi ch
resembl e smal l
f i l ament s, or l i t t l e
t ubes, whi ch
al l
proceed
f romt he
br ai n, and
t hus
contai n
l i k e i t a cer t ai n
very
subt l e ai r or wnd
which
i s cal l ed the
animal spi r i ts
Passi ons of the
Soul , VI I )
14
5
Hyst er i a
speaks
of
pl ace
and
t i me
af t er
the
womb
Hyst er i a
comes
too
late and must
search f or i t s begi nni ng Hyst er i a, emoti on
i n t he
mnd
searchi ng f or
abody,
anybody
i nany
formbut
always f i ndi ng
t he
mnd
and
i t s
control La
grande
hyst eri e est l e grand
hypnoti sm power
as
knowedge,
necessi t y
as desi re
The
body s
r ej ected
knowedge as body of
knowedge,
as
proof
of the mnd i n
t he body s par al ysi s
14
6
ow
many
ci rcumenteddesi r es i n t he sci ence
of the
mnd?
Theauthor
who
becomes the
aut hor i t y and the aut hor i t ar i an str ucturi ng
theorgani c t o
i ncr ease
regul ari ty
and control The pat i ent
seeki ng
and r ecei vi ng)
the
domnance
of t he
doctor
af t er t he s e l l out of the s e l f The s e l f - w l l e d
and
spontaneous,
t he act
wthout apparent
cause
automatos becomes
the
automaton, the mechani smof
def ense
14
7 Hyst eri a di sappear s f rom the
Sal pet r i er e
af t er
Charcot
r Bl anche
Wttman
hi s star
pati ent) as Bl anche I returns
t o radi ol ogy as Bl anche I I and
di es as she
has
l i ved) a
martyr
t o sci ence The
primaryaut hor i t i es
aremn
and
t he
primary
pat i ent s
are
womn
i n
the
Dscovery
of t he
Unconsci ous
El l enber ger ) , the
r e- di scover y
of t he
body
14 8
Af ter Charcot s death, the st udent s
repudi ate t he
master and hi de
behind the
restructured body,
t he organ
as
structure
and
f unct i on
theorgan
as
i nst rument
or
tool
organon whi ch
works
ergon) but
i s
af f l i cted w th
orgasmand
anger
Themnd i nstr ucts the body beyond i t s organi c
l i m t s
22
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 23/124
THE
LOUDOF
KNOWNG
Bet ween Char cot s domnanceand t he
pa t i e nt s
subm ssi on, l a
gr ande
hyster i e
was
l e
gr and
or gasme,
desi r e
f r ozen
i n
a
c l i ni c a l l y s t er i l i z ed
pose
s e e
pai nt i ng
by
Broui l l et) yi el di ng
power
t o
both The power di sappear ed w t h
t h e i r
bodi es but t he mys t er y
r emai ned
14
. 9
What was
l e f t
unsai d
i n
t he case of Char cot , reud began to see
i n
hi s
movement
fromstructured
obser vat i on t o
t he dr eam from
anal ysi s t o s el f
a n a l y s i s ,
f r o m
nna
Oto
Moses and
Monothesi mThe
pr om sed
l and
and
caval r y, l i b i d o and
Thanatos
Mos es, t he l aw gi v er , was not al l owed
to see
t he
pr om sed l and andt he
i ndecent shar i ng of C h r i s t s
body
was
cover ed
by
Paul
i n a
newstr ucture, the Church
14. 10
Breuer, the f a t h e r , r ef used t o ent er t he pr om sed
l and of t he body
F l i e s s , t he brother
i n
s p i t e
of
nose
oper at i on
and
congr esses)
escaped
i nto t he
met asci ence
of number s, t he
def ense
of
per f ecti on
W
can
under st and
t he
f r i g h t
a brother ani mal was vanqui shed
Roazen Tausk) J ung, t he
son
t he
Chri sti an who knew of
t he
s a c r i f i c e
of sons) escaped i nto cul tur e and
met acul t ure,
t he t r oubl ed mnd
14 . 1 1
The covenant w t h t he body
bi ndi ng as p o s s i b i l i t y and as
castr ati on
ody
bondage, mas t er and
sl ave
i n cont i nuous
r evol ut i on agai nst h i s t o r y ,
dependence
and
l i m t s
Ana- l ysi s
as
r esol uti on and r e l e as e , not f rombondage
t h i s
i mpossi bl e) but fromt he r esent ment of
hi stor y whi ch
has not
been, t o
make anew l or dshi p p o s s i b l e ,
a
new
doxaamong
the par a- doxa, know edge
among
t he
par a- noi a
Concupi scence
and
anger
as season and t i me
are
and
sorrow are
t he same
Sor ge)
14. 12
To be Oedi pus Rex
or
not
t o
be
Oedi pus Rex)
t he uneasi ness
i n
cul ture
To
repress
t he
wager
c i v i l i s a t i o n
and
t di scont ent
Oedi pus, to
r epeat agai n t hemost
constant r epet i t i on, sl ewhi s f at her
and
knewhi s
mother
and bl i nded hi s gaze
theor y) bef or e goi ng i nto ol onos
Chr i st, Rex J udorum
f o r ever y
At hens
there
a J er usal em accept ed
castr ati on f or t he sake of t heki ngdomof Heaven t heet er nal mot her ) andwas
s l a i n by hi s f at her
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 24/124
JO NNW
MO R
15
1
There are two s t o r i e s So
God created man
i n
h i s own i mage,
i n
t he
i mage of God created he him
mal e and f emal e
created
he
them
Genesi s
1 , 2 7 Thi s
story
i s cl ear
and
succi nct , but wesoon l earned t hat
i t
was
not t hat si mpl e
Af t er t he
begi nni ng
of t i me
and t he namng of a l l l i v i n g
creatures
t he
f i r s t bui l di ng bl ocks of t he
m nd t he
process had
t o be
descr i bed
And t he
Lord
God
caused
a deep sl eep t o f a l l uponAdam
and he
s l ept
;
and he t ook one of h i s
r i b s ,
and
cl osed up t he
f l e s h i nst ead
t hereof And
t he r i b whi ch t he
Lord God had
t aken
f romman made he
a woman
and
brought
her unto
t he
man
Genesi s
2, 21- 22 Theywere bot h naked
but
were
not yet
ashamed Thi s came l a t e r w t h
knowng
Cl ar i t y
i s
l os t i n t i me and
knowedge
15 2
The
memory ol d
but
s t i l l t roubl es us
as busy aswehave been t o trace
evol ut i on,
t o
grasp t he autonomous c e l l whi ch
di vi des i t s e l f
and t o put every
l i v i n g si gn i nt o
t i me and order
r i ch f i e l d
of
uncount abl e
years and
uncount abl e
creatures t o
makewhat poi nt ?
Where
al most any
poi nt coul d be
made
i n
t he
m nd
Af t er
one voyage, Darwn
spent t he
r e s t
of h i s
l i f e
i n
secl usi on
t o put
t he
mnd
i n cont rol of t he f r i g h t of
creat ureness,
i t s dyi ng
and
becomng
whi ch
we
share
15 . 3
Many
mnds were c a l l e d on but he persi st ed
i n
gi vi ng reasons f or t he
s t a t e of nature, as h i s
countryman bef ore himgave
reasons
f or
t he
nat ure of
t he s t a t e by f ri ght eni ng
us
w t h t he
war of
a l l agai nst a l l
w t h
a l i f e t hat
was
nast y, brut i sh
and short
And l i f e vi ewed t hr ough a syst em
a
s t a t e
o f nature,
mnd or ot her l e ga l
structure and Levi at han
i s
nast y, brut i sh
and short
15 . 4
Gener at i ons
come
and
generat i ons
goand not even t he f i t t e s t
survi ve
f or
ever
The
poi nt
i s
t o
make
an
A r t i f i c i a l
Ani mal ,
an
A r t i f i c i a l
Man
For
what t he Hear t but a spri ng ; and t he
Nerves, but so many s t r i n g s
;
and t he
J oynt s,
but so many wheel es, gi vi ng
mot i on
t o
t he
whol e
Body,
such
as
was
i nt ended by t he
Art i f i cer?
rt
goes yet
f u r t h e r , im ta t i ng
t hat
Rat i onal l and
most
excel l ent
Worke of Nat ure,
Man
For by Art
i s
created t hat great
Levi at han cal l ed
aCommon-Weal th or St at e, i n l a t i n e Ci vi t as whi ch
i s
but
an A r i t i f i c a l l
Man
and
i n
whi ch, t he Soverai gnt y
i s
an
A r t i f i c i a l l
Soul ,
as
gi vi ng
l i f e
and
Moti on t o t he
whol e
body
;
Levi at han,
I nt roduct i on
15
5
The Great Art i f i cer was
f ort ui t ous
I
cannot l ook
at t he uni verse as
t he
r e s ul t of bl i nd chance, yet
I
can
see
no
evi dence
of
benef i ci ent
desi gn of any
ki nd
i n
t he
d e t a i l s
Darw n,
1870 Onl y t he
mnd
and
t he s t a t e
can
best ow
benef i ci al desi gns
of benef i t t owhomemai ns t he quest i on
Meanwhi l et he
s i ck ly Darwnwas cared
f or by h i s w f e
24
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 25/124
THE
LOU
OF
KNOWNG
15 . 6
The body s ans wer t o l i m t and
i n f i n i t y
i s
a f f e c t
and a f f i n i t y
Where
arwn
saw
t i me
and i t s
r avi shes
and
anar chi sm
Kr opot ki n
saw
mutual
ai d
among
l i v i n g creat ures and
t urned t o
anar chi sm
t o l et
bei ngbe The pr i nce
as
pauper i n a bourgeoi s wor l d
15
7
Or der
has
t o
be
ordered Teemng
humani tycont rol l ed Thearche t he
begi nni ng)
has
t o be
augmented
by
and
f i n a l l y
conver t ed i nt o
t echne
a r t
c r a f t
and cunni ng) t o ward of f t he
t hreat of
f a i l i n g
par adi gms The body cannot
pass onacqui r ed l ear ni ng
Whence shoul d
perf ect i on
come
f rom V i t a br ev i s
ars l onga
Consci ous
of t i me, ar t
has
t o be a r t f u l
c r a f t
craf t y t o
make
benef i ci al desi gns f or t he ego
16 Thegodwho
cannot be perf ect i n t he wor l d, t he
deus
abscondi t us, t he
god
i n hi di ng,
becomes t he di sappoi nt i ng god
who has
l e f t
and i s f i n a l l y
r enounced
Coper ni cus
envi si oned a
new
c e l e s t i a l
order but Kepl er al r eady
deepl y
di sappoi nt ed
i n hi s st ruggl e t o
prove
t hat
t h i s
order
was
perf ect
t he
perf ect c i r c l e becam t he i mperf ect i on
of t he
e l i ps es
when t he j umbl ed
dat a of
Tycho rahe f e l l
i nt o
pl ace
How
can we
l i v e
w t h an
i mper f ect god?
Perf ect i on t he f u l l f i l l ment
of t he m nd, t he
empt i ness of t he
body
I t
I s
F u l f i l l e d i s t he end of t he
body, t he r e s t i s corpus
mysti cum
16 . 2
The
great
i mper f ect i on
of
t he
body
t he
si ngul ari t y of sex and t he
need
f or compl et i on i n
t he ot her
Or
at l eas t
t hus
t he
way
back
t o
t he
body
begi ns)
The
need
f or t he
ot her
r emai ns
t he
n a r c i s s i s t i c
i nj ury
of
t he
ego,
even
i f t he ot her sought
i n
what
one has been or
i n
what one
has not been i n t he
af f i rmat i on of
t he same sex
16 3
I t
not a mat t er of count i ng Sons
k i l l
t h e i r mot her s more
of t en
t han
t h e i r
f at hers
and f at hers sl eep w t h t hei r
daught er s moreof t en t han sons w t h
t h e i r
mot her s The
i n f a n t unabl e
t o
speak, i s pol ymorphous
perverse
l i k e
t he
word whi ch was i n t he
begi nni ng
ur sense of perf ect i on and
order i s
t hreat ened by t hose
who
cannot rel i nqui sh omni pot ence, t he m nd s
def ense
agai nst
t he
f r a g i l i t y
of
t he
body and
i nf ant i ci de
The
manchi l d s l ong
dependency
f earsome and
f u l l
of par a- noi a,
t o
whi ch t hemanmust return
at
every
t hreat
16
. 4
Looki ng and showng i s t he af f i rmat i on of
i dent i t y s ameness) and
di f f erence bear i ng
apart )
The
di s - member ed
body i s
t he part i al i zed
sex
obj ect ,
t he l ove subj ect
di spl aced and
t hus
m spl aced and
not
t o
be
f ound
by
2 5
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 26/124
JO
NN
W O R
r epet i t i on compul si on
What has been i ncompl et e
cannot be compl et ed
per f ect ed)
by
g r a t i f i c a t i o n ,
onl y
by
despai r
We
must
not
i magi ne Si syphus
t o
be happy
16
Domnance
and subm ssi on
ar e t he
ego s r esponse t o
t he
threat of
separ at i on
and
l o s s G vi ng
pai n and r ecei vi ng
pai n bef ore
t h e i r
t i me has
come i s wi l f u l l control
of despai r ,
t he e v i l
of war di ng
of f e v i l ank
vaul t s
and
pr i son c e l l s cont ai n t he wages
of
s i n ,
t he
r e a l
conf i ned as a
def ense
agai nst
del i ver ance
What i s
sensel ess
i s
sense- l ess
but not
mndl ess
16 6
Desi r e i s t he exper i ence of
i mper f ect i on, t he onl y openness we
possess
and whi ch possesses us Desi r e
s o r t s t he wor l d and
us)
i n i t s own
way
Exper i ence i s t he embodi ment of
desi r e
i n what has been and what
has not
been The embodiment of t he
exper i ence of what has not been
i s
ar t
16 . 7
Ar t i s i n- f or mat i on of t he
body,
i t s
char i sma f r e e g i f t and
car e
The
mnd i n- st r uct s Art i n- f or ms
St r uct ur e
di m n i shed formas
f or mul a
t he
mnd s ar t
t he
a r t i f a c t
Form
physi s as met a- physi s The l i m t s
of
exper i ence
can
be
de- f i ned
and
conf i ned)
i n
t he
obj ect i ve st r uct ur e
of
t he
mnd
or
be subj ect ed t o t he subl i mt as, t he
subl i me
t he choi ce
i s ego
bui l di ng
t he def ense of pr i de)
or subl i mat i on
16
8
From
generat i on t o gener at i on
t he
t hr eshhol d t he l i m t
r enews
i t s e l f
i n t o
new or ms f rom
exper i ences shar ed
sub- l i mes
The b i r t h of t he
body
The
i mage
of ar t
i t s e l f
a
t hr eshhol d
i nexchangeabl e,
non- r edepl oyabl e, non
r ef undabl e b o t t l e s of
s p i r i t , j e n i i
an
we
r egai n const i t ut i on
from
n s t i t u t i o n ,
bei ng fromego,
ar t
f rom he
a r t i f i c i a l ,
s p i r i t
and
body
whi ch
ar e
one)
from
pur pose
and t i me? an we r egai n t hi nki ng
whi ch i s t hanki ng) from
cogi t at i on? I t
i s t i me
t o
r e t u r n fromout er space,
t
t i me
t o gat her
Bef or e Mose s, Pl at o and Paul , we ar e
Bef or e Descar t es, Freud was
The
acci dent
i s t i me
Osgoode Hal l LawSchool
York Uni ver si t y
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 27/124
Canadi an
J ournal
of Pol i t i cal and
Soci al
Theory/ Revue canadi enne
d
e
t heor i e
pol i t i que
et
soci al e,
Vol
2 ,
No
3 ( Fal l /
Automne
1978)
NEEDS
EXCH NGES
ND
THE
FETISHSM
OF
OB ECTS
W l l i a m
Lei ss
I : I nt roducti on
The
ant hr opol ogi st
Raymond F i r t h
has
wri t t en : I was
once
asked
by
t he
l a t e
Rober t
Redf i el d t o address h i s
semnar
wi t h
ref erence t o
t he
quest i on,
`What can one say of a man any
man?
Mytheme
i n
repl y was t hat
at some
poi nt s of
hi s soci al
exi st ence every man
w i l l
engage
i n acts
of exchange
.
I n
t h i s
r emar k
there
seems t o echo
t he
openi ng passages of dam
mth s Weal th
of
Nat i ons,
where i t i s sai d t hat t he pr opensi t y t o tr uck, bart er and
exchange
one t hi ng f or
another
i s commont o a l l men hosewho are
l ooki ng f or an
account of t he humanessence, and
who have consi dered
t he opt i ons
r angi ng
f rom
homo faber
t o homo l udens,
may
have
over l ooked an obvi ous
candi dat e
homo
mercator
man
t he
trader
I n
f a c t F i r t h s poi nt i s
not t he
same
as Smth s
Fromt he l a t t e r stemmeda
t r adi t i on i n modern
p o l i t i c a l
economy whi ch
j udged t he
mater i al out put of
savage
s o c i e t i e s
accor di ng t o an
i nvi di ous c r i t e r i o n
of economc
rat i onal i ty
and
f ound
themwant i ng
F i r t h s
wor k,
on t he ot her hand, i s
one
of
t he most
i mpor t ant cont r i but i ons
t o
t he
t went i et h- cent ury economc
ant hr opol ogy
whi ch
has
al t ered
f undament al l y
our under st andi ng
of e a r l i e r
humancul t ures
Thi s research exposed t he
f a l l a c y
of
at t empt i ng t o f i t al l human hi story i nto
t he concept ual
mol d
of amarket soci et y
( Of course Marxi sm r i e d t o do
t h i s
as
w e l l , but
l e s s
successf ul l y, f or i t shared wi t h i t s
bour geoi s
opponent s
t he
need t o f i n d a l i near l ogi c i n hi st ory
Therestr i ct ed scope of
mar ket
exchanges i nmanypr i mt i ve s o c i e t i e s caused
many ear l i er observers
t o
msr epresent t h e i r
soci o- econom c
ar r angement s
*for
Herber t Marcuse, on
t he occas i on of
hi s ei ght i et h
bi r t hday
27
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 28/124
WLLI MLEISS
Themost not or i ous exampl e
i s
per haps
t he
theory
of p r im t i v e
communi sm
Pr i vat e propert y,
di vi s i on
of
l abour ,
t he
st r i vi ng
f or i ndi vi dual r eward,
margi nal u t i l i t y
cal cul at i ons,
and
extensi ve exchanges
both
w t hi n and
among
t r i b a l uni t s f l our i shed, but t hey wer e
conceal ed
t o
some
ext ent by t he
customary
pr i nci pl es
of
reci proci t y
and
redi str i but i on whi ch
cont r ol l ed t h ei r
nature
and
scope
The
f a c t
t hat t hey occurred
l a r g e l y
(but
not e n t i r e l y
i n
non-
market contexts
di sgui sed how
much t hey shar ed i n t erms of t he i r s oc i a l
f unct i ons wi t h
s im la r
a c t i v i t i e s
i n mar ket
contexts For i n many
pr imt i ve
s o c i e t i e s ,
t he
channel s of
soci al
obl i gat i ons
f unct i on as
a
substi t ut e f or a
market
. z
I n
t h i s
paper
I
have
f ol l owed
t he
i nt er pr et at i on
t hat
l ooks
at
both
t he
mat er i al exchange
of
manand natur e Marx and
t he
net wor k of exchanges
among persons
as f unct i ons of more general cul t ur al det erm nant s
s
Marshal l Sahl i ns puts
i t i n
p r im t i ve exchange t he mat er i al
f l owunder wr i t es
or i n i t i a t e s soci al rel at i ons . 4
Thi s
per spect i ve
suggest s
there are
cert ai n
under l yi ng cont i nui t i es
spanni ng what
seems t o be
t he
unbr i dgeabl e gul f
bet ween pr imt i ve and i ndustr i al market
s oc i e t i es
; not that the
di scont i nui t i es
are
l e s s
r e a l or
uni mpor t ant
Si mpl i st i cal l y, exchange
rel at i onshi ps consti t ut e
the chi ef
el ement
of
cont i nui t y,
and
t he
market
versus
non- mar ket
cont ext
of
exchanges marks t he
chi ef
el ement of
di scont i nui t y
Thi s paper s purpose s t o
expl or e
newroutes t owar d a
c r i t i c a l
t heor y of
needs
f or cont empor ar y soci et y
s
I t
wasprompted pr i mar i l y by
convi ct i on
t hat nei t her of
t he
two main approaches i n
t he
r ecei ved radi cal cr i t i que of
capi t al i sm t he t heory of r e i f i c a t i o n and commodi ty f et i shi sm and t he
di st i nct i on
bet ween
true
and
f a l s e
needs
pr ovi des
an adequat e
basi s
f or
a
c r i t i c a l
eval uat i on of
soci al change p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n t oday s soci et y
pr evi ous paper ar gued t hat an exam nat i on of
t he
symbol i c
pr oper t i es
of
goods
i s
a
key el ement
i n a
theory of commodi ty f et i shi sm
and
i t
under t ook a
t r i a l
exam nat i on
of
them
by anal yzi ng adver t i sement s wi t h
t he ai d
of
concept s used i n
communi cat i ons
theory
Thi s paper
t r i e s
t o
strengthen
t hat
case
I t s
basi c
pr esupposi t i on i s t hat some l i g h t
can be
shed
on
probl ems
i n
t he
t heory of needs by seeki ng t o uncover structured f eat ur es i n t he system of
obj ect s
( Baudri l l ard s
phr ase)
whi ch i s
t he pr i nci pal sour ce of
t he sat i sfacti on
of needs i n a
market
soci et y
The
paper
t akes a
roundabout pat h I t s st ar t i ng- poi nt
i s
t he per spect i ve on
contemporary
soci et y
devel oped
by
Ti bor
Sci t ovsky
( The
J oyl ess
Economy
and Fred
Hi r sch ( Soci al
L i m t s
t o Gr owt h) ,
whi ch
was
di scussed b r i e f l y
i n
t he
pr evi ous paper
These st udi es f ocus on
three
si gni f i cant
f eat ures
i n
t he
consumpti onor consumer behavi our s i de of our pr esent - day economy 1 t he
i mpor t ance of i nt er per sonal
compar i sons
or soci al r anki ng ; 2 t he
r el at i onshi p
bet ween t h i s emul at i ve
behavi our and
goods
consumpti on ;
3
t he symbol i c det erm nat i ons of rank and prest i ge i n economc
a c t i v i t y
28
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 29/124
TH
FETISHSM
O
O J ECTS
Al l
t hr ee f eat ur es
were
a l so pr om nent i n
many
(but
not
a l l
pr i mt i ve
s oc i e t i e s
The mre
l im t e d
physi cal
di mens i ons
of
those
s oc i et i es ,
and
t he
mre l im t e d
r ange of
goods
wi t h
whi ch they oper at ed casts those f eat ure s i nt o
sharp
r e l i e f
I suggest that
expl or i ng t he expr essi on of those p r imtive
behavi our
pat t er ns
can
ai d
our under s t andi ng
of
howt he d i a l e c t i c
of needs
and obj ects
i s
expressed i n our i ndust r i al mar ket soci et y
The gener al i zed
mar ket
exchanges i nt r oduced by c a p i t a l i s t
soci et y
break
down
t he bar r i er s t o
exchangeand by means of
a
uni ver sal currency
gi ve a
common denomnator t o a l l obj ects Thus i t woul d seema t
f i r s t
gl ance that
there i s l i t t l e poi nt
i n
r evi ewi ng t he very d i f f e r e nt s t ructured exchanges of
pr i mt i ve
s oc i et i es ,
i f
one s obj ect i ve
i s
t o
better
under s t and
t he
i nt er pl ay
of
needs and obj ects i n
our
own i ndust r i al mar ket soc ie ty Some r easons f or
under t aki ng
t h i s
ki nd of compar at i ve exer ci se ar e o f fe red
i n
Mar shal l Sahl i ns
Cul t ur e and
Pr act i cal Reason Sahl i ns pr i mar y obj ect i ve
i s
t o
ar gue
that
there
i s
a
common
th read uni t i ng a l l
t ypes
of human
s oc i et i es , from he pr i mt i ve
t o
t he
modern theact i on
of cul t ur e i n shapi ng
t he
mat er i al
exchanges
bet ween
humans and t he
natural
envi r onment I n di f f er ent ways t he symbol i c
st ruc tures
expressed
i n cul t ur al f o r m def i ne t he
s o c i e t y s concept i on of
mat er i al
u t i l i t y ,
t he
sel ect i on and
t r ansf ormat i on
of
nat ur al
mat er i al s
into
des i r ed obj ect s Thi s i s t he common thread
or
conti nuum
n humancul t ur e,
i n
Wes t er n
cul t ure
t he
economy
t he mai n
s i t e
of
symbol i c pr oduct i on
For us t he
pr oduct i on
of
goods
i s
at t he same
t i me
t he pr i vi l eged
mode of
symbol i c pr oduct i on and
t r ansms si on,
by compar i s on wi t h
a pr i mt i ve
wor l d
where t he l ocus of symbol i c di f f er ent i at i on r emai ns s oc i a l r el at i ons,
pr i nci pal l y ki nshi p
r e l a t i o n s , and other
spher es
of a c t i v i t y
ar e ordered
by
t he
operat i ve
di st i ncti ons of ki nshi p
6
The key poi nt i n
t h i s
appr oach
t he
not i on that behi nd t he
abstract
equi val ence
of
obj ects
( exchange- val ue) expr ess ed
by
t he
uni ver sal medi umf
exchange
money
i n mdern
s oc i e t y ,
needs and
t he
obj ects
of
needs
ar e
s t ruc tu red
by
symbol i c or cul t ur al det ermnat i ons Sahl i ns
b r i e f l y
di scusses
f ood and c l ot hi ng t o i l l u s t r a t e t he appl i cat i on of hi s appr oach
t o
contemporary consumpti on
pat t er ns ; I w i l l
r e tu rn
t o t hi s i n
Sect i on I V
The
pr esuppos i t i on of my
own
adapt at i on of t
i s
that i nvesti gati ng
these
s t ruc tu red
det er mnat i ons of t he obj ects of needs i e commodi t i es i s a
pot ent i al l y
f r u i t f u l
mthod
f or a
c r i t i c a l
t heor y of needs
One
f i nds
i n
adver t i s i ng t he
most
obvi ous
exampl e
of
t he syst emat i c
l i nki ng
of s ymbol s
and
obj ects i n
our
soci et y
The
study
by
Kl i ne and
Lei ss
o f f e r s
some
evi dence f or t he vi ew that there ar e si gni f i cant pat t er ned or s t ruc tu red
el ement s
i n
advert i si ng s
associ at i on
bet ween
goods and i mager y, r ei nf or ci ng
t he
s im l a r concl usi ons
r eached by
somewhat di f f er ent routes i n
t he r esear ches
of
Leymre
and
W l l i a m o n 7
Al though
adver t i sement s i n t hemel ves
cannot
be i nt erpr eted
as i ndi cat or s of t he s t ruc tu re of needs, they may yi el d some
2
9
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 30/124
WLLI M
LEISS
cl ues t hat
wi l l
enabl e
us t o f r ame more preci se
quest i ons ( i nc l udi ng
research
desi gns
f or
empi r i cal
s t udi es of at t i t udes
and
behavi our )
about
how
persons
devel op
t h e i r unders t andi ng of t h e i r needs i n our
hi gh- i nt ens i t y market
s e t t i n g
These
i n q u i r i e s
i n t urn
mght enabl e us
t o
b e t t e r
comprehend t he l a t ent
s oc i a l change p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n c a p i t a l i s t
s o c i e t i e s
today
The f ol l ow ng sect i ons trace out
t h i s
roundabout approach t o a
c r i t i c a l
theory of needs Sec t i on I I
i nves t i gat es t he
geneal ogy of Sci t ovsky s and
Hi rsch s not i on of
t he
i mport ance of emul at i ve
behavi our
i n
economc a c t i v i t y
as a
way
of j us t i f yi ng anot her l ook at t he
pres t i ge
economy
i n
pr i mt i ve
s o c i e t i e s Sec t i on I I I o f f e r s
some
i l l u s t r a t i o n s of howt he prest i ge
economy
used
goods
or
mat er i al
obj ect s
as
symbol s
of
soci al
di f f erent i at i on
and
i nt erpersonal
compar i s ons
Sec t i on I V offers
some
suggest i ons f or appl yi ng
t he not i on of
ranked
c l as s e s of goods t o t he d i a l e c t i c of needs and obj ect s
i n
contemporary
soc i et y
I I
Emul at i on,
Pecuni ary and
Ot her
I n
The
Theory
of
the
Lei s ur e Cl as s
Vebl en
wrot e
Wth
t he
except i on
of
t he
i n s t i n c t f or sel f - preservat i on, t he propens i t y f or emul at i on i s probabl y t he
strongest andmost a l e r t and
persi st ent
of t he economc
mot i ves
proper
. g
One
can say
that Vebl en
sought
t o depi ct t he pres t i ge
economy
of
amarket
soc i et y
The
chapt er
e n t i t l e d Pecuni ary
Emul at i on
i s t he cent repi ece of The
Theory
of
t he Lei sure l ass
For
Vebl en
al l t he
mani f est
occupat i ons of
a
market
s oc i e t y
not abl y t he
accumul at i on
of
property, wer e found
upon
anal ys i s t o have a l e s s t angi bl e, but more st rongl y det ermni ng, source The
mot i ve that
l i e s
at t he root of owner shi p i s emul at i on ; The possess i on of
weal t h
confers honour ;
i s an i nvi di ous
di s t i nct i on
Thef act that al l
s p e c i f i c
types
of weal t h
can be
reduced t o a si ngl e ( pecuni ary) st andard i n a
general i zed exchange
economy
i s t he deci s i ve factor
i n
t he way that t he
propens i t y
f or
emul at i on expresses
i t s el f i n
a
market
soc i et y
For then a l l
t angi bl e f o rm
of weal t h ar e mer el y t he
momentary
si gns of r e l a t i v e
success,
and do not have any
l as t i ng
s i gni f i cance
pecuni ary
st andard f or i nt erpersonal
compar i s ons
i s an abstract,
i n f i n i t e l y
mal l eabl e
st andard I ndi vi dual success i s
a
s t r i v i n g f or
a
hor i zon of
s o ci a l
honour
that
recedes
w t h
every
approach
But
as
f a s t
as a
person makes new
acqui s i t i ons,
and
becomes
accus t omed t o
t he
resul t i ng
new
st andard of
weal t h, t he new st andard f or t hw t h ceases t o afford
apprec i abl y greater sat i s f act i on than t he e a r l i e r standard
30
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 31/124
TH FETI SHSM
O
OBJECTS
di d
So
l ong as
t he
compari son
[ w t h
ot hers]
i s
di st i nct l y
unf avourabl e
t o
hi msel f
t he
normal , average
i ndi vi dual
wi l l
l i v e
i n chroni c di ssat i sf act i on wi t h
hi s
present
l o t and
when
he has reached
what
mybe
c a l l e d
t he normal
pecuni ar y
st andard of t he
communi ty
or of
hi s c l a s s i n t he
communi ty
t h i s
chroni c di ssat i sf act i on
wi l l
gi ve pl ace t o
a r e s t l e s s
s t r i v i n g
t o
pl ace awi der and
ever- wi deni ng
pecuni ary
i nt erval bet ween
hi msel f and
t h i s
average
st andard
The
economc growth
brought
about
by
i ndustr i al
capi t al i sm
mul t i pl i es
opport uni t i es
t o reap
mat er i al benef i t s from
t h i s
r e s t l e s s
s t r i v i n g ,
but not
wi t hout paradoxi cal
r e s u l t s ,
f or no general i ncrease of t he
communi t y s
weal t h canmke any approach
t o
s a t i a t i n g
t h i s
need .
9
Every
at t ai ned
l e ve l i s
merel y t he
j umpi ng- of f
poi nt
f or anot her
round
of compet i t i ve
emul at i on
whi ch
f eat ures newl y- devi sed t okens
of success i n t he consumer goods
arena
I n
Vebl en s vi ew conspi cuous
consumpt i on
i s not conf i ned t o persons
i n
t he
hi gher
i ncome
l e v e l s ;
i t i s si mpl y most conspi cuous
there As a
f undament al
economc
mot i ve
i t s
t races
are
f ound
uni versal l y
i n
t he
ordi nary
l i f e
pat t erns
of
al most everyone,
excl udi ng onl y t he very poorest persons
who
di spl ay i t as
soon as they cease t o be
very poor) I t mani f est s i t s e l f
i n
what
he
c a l l s
t he
el ement of conspi cuous
or honori f i c wast e or t he
quasi - decorat i ve
aspect
present i n
t hemundane
sat i sfact i ons of l i f e s n e c e s s i t i e s
He seems
t o have i nmndever yt hi ng t hat
exceeds
t he
s t r i c t l y
f unct i onal
mai nt enance
of
bi ol ogi cal
l i f e
Usi ng
t he economst s term
he
suggest s t hat mny
of
t he
u t i l i t i e s
requi red
f or a comor t abl e
exi st ence by
c i v i l i s e d mn
are of a
cer emoni al
charact er . 1 0
Usi ng Sahl i ns t ermnol ogy one
woul d c a l l
t h i s
t he
symbol i c
structure
i n
mat er i al u t i l i t y
.
Vebl en s
book, l i k e
i t s aut hor,
occupi es a cur i ous
pl ace
i n
i t s
f i e l d
I t s
mai n
thrust
was assumed
t o be ,
by i t s
admrers
and
detractors a l i k e , consonant wi t h
t he general s o c i a l i s t
c r i t i q u e
of
bourgeoi s
soci et y A f ew readers sought
c l a r i -
f i c a t i o n of i t s message,
whi ch
they f ound
ambi guous,
but
Vebl en steadf astl y
ref used
as
was
hi s wont
t o
mke
i t mre
e x p l i c i t
After
i t s i n i t i a l
publ i cat i on, t he book
was
republ i shed
oftenbysmal l l ef t - w ng presses
Yet i t s
emphasi s ont he
uni versal
charact er of t he
propensi t y f or emul at i on, root ed i t
i s
i mpl i ed)
e i t h e r
i n
humn nat ure
or
i n
t he
nat ure of humn
soci et y
as
such,
j ars
wi t h t he st andard
s o c i a l i s t theory,
whi ch
at t ri but es
such
p r o c l i v i t i e s
t o
t he
di st ort i ng
e f f e c t s
of
c a p i t a l i s t economc rel at i ons
Vebl en s caut i on, conceal i ng hi s
own posi t i on behi nd a
smoke- scr een of
b r i l l i a n t l y
i nvent i ve
t ermnol ogy, mkes i t
d i f f i c u l t ,
i f not i mpossi bl e,
t o
di scern hi s
poi nt
There
i s l i t t l e uncert ai nt y,
however , about
t he st r ong
t echnocrat i c bent i n hi s t hi nki ng
The
anarchy of
t he
market pl ace
was t he
3 1
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 32/124
WLLI ML ISS
chi ef
e v i l t o be
over come, and i t woul d
be
overcome
by pl aci ng
engi neer s
i n
command
of
s oc i e t y s
pr oduct i ve
appar at us
.
I
can
onl y
surmse
si nce
Vebl en
does not el aborat e
what
i mpact
such a
transfer
woul d have ont he
cer emoni al
charact er
of everyday
consumpti on
pat t erns Wul d
t he
engi neer s
resol ve t o
ext i rpat e t he
emul at i ve propensi t y root
and
branch, f or exampl e, by
i ssui ng one and onl y one t ype
i n
each product cat egory, such as shoes? Or
woul d they al l ow t hat a
cert ai n
amount of var i at i on
i n
s t y l e and
mat er i al
composi t i on i s
s t i l l w t h i n
t he boundar i es of rat i onal desi re a true need) ,
al t hough what ever
exceeded t he decreed l i m t s f a l s e needs) woul d have t o be
repressed?
For
t he
most
part Vebl en s work
was
t aken
ser i ousl y
by
those
who
i n t e r -
pret ed The Theory of t he Lei sure Cl ass
as
an
e t h i c a l obj ect i on
t o
t he f r i vol ous
excesses
of upper - cl ass
wast rel s
Thi s
i nt erpret at i on
obscured t he real
di f f i cul t y i n hi s out l ook,
namel y
hi s apparent
use
of a bl eak
f unct i onal i st
st andard t o measur e t he degree of honor i f i c
wast e i n everyday l i f e ( Hi s
personal househol d, w t h i t s packi ng- crat e
f urni t ure and coarse wool
cl ot hi ng, seems t o i ndi cat e t hat
he di d
i ndeed const rue
f unc t i onal i sm
nar r ow y . Read as a general account
of
i ndi vi dual behavi our
at
a l l l e v e l s
( above
t hat
of
gri ndi ng povert y)
i n a
market
s o c i e t y ,
t he
presumed
c r i t i c a l
t hrust
i n Vebl en s book l oses
most i f not
a l l )
of i t s
force One reason i s t hat
emul at i on
appears
rather beni gn
i n i t s
consequences,
wheni t t akes t he formof
compet i t i on f or possessi ons
So
f ar as
I can t e l l
Vebl en
does not say
t hat
w despr ead
di f f erences
i n weal t h
among s oc i a l
c l a s s e s
( or
t he
brut al
expl oi t at i on of t he poor s l abour ) i nevi t abl y
r e s u l t from t
Thus
i f t he propen-
s i t y
i s
so
evenl y
di st r i but ed
among t he
popul at i on,
and
i f
i t s wor ki ngs
are
rel at i vel y beni gn, i t woul d be
sheer
msant hr opy t o compl ai n
of i t
There
i s anot her cur i ous aspect
Vebl en
chose as
hi s key
concept
an i dea
t hat
had been common
i n modern
soci al t hought f or
a l ong t i me
The
di rect
source f or
i t was
hi s r eadi ng
of t he
p o l i t i c a l
economy current i n hi s
day
The
emul at i ve
propensi t y
was sai d t o be an i nsat i abl e want on t he
i ndi vi dual
l e ve l
and
t he motor of economc progress ont he soci al l e ve l
Perhaps Vebl en s
ori gi nal
obj ect i ve
was
si mpl y
t o
bal ance
i t s
ent husi ast i c endor sement i n
t he
t e x t s of
p o l i t i c a l
economy
w t h
an
account of
what wer e f or
him
i t s
l e s s
savoury
characteri st i cs I n any event t he argument of The Theory
of t he
Lei sure Cl a s s ,
l i k e
t he
r e s t
of Vebl en s t hought ,
r emai ns somet hi ng of a
bast ard
of f spr i ng
i n
t he
househol d
of
t he
s o c i a l i s t
theory
whi ch
chose
t o
adopt
i t
Despi t e
i t s
short comngs The Theory of t he Lei sure
Cl ass
cont i nues
t o be an
i nt erest i ng
and
i mpor t ant
book
The best evi dence of
t h i s
i s
t he t hemat i c
cont i nui t y bet ween i t and t he recent
st udi es
by Sci t ovsky and Hi rsch
1 3
Three
of
t he
pri nci pal t hemes i n
t he
l a t t e r ,
as wel l as
numerous subsi di ary
poi nt s,
have t h e i r
anal ogues
i n Vebl en s
work (they
are not
i dent i cal and i nany case
32
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 33/124
TH FETISHSMO O JE TS
ar e der i ved i ndependent l y)
Sci t ovsky s
r ank- happi ness
and Hi r sch s posi -
t i onal
compet i t i on
ar e
more
pr eci se
f ormul at i ons,
r el at ed t o
empi r i cal
evi dence,
of t he pr opensi t y f or emul at i on The e f f o r t t o erect what Vebl en
cal l ed i nvi di ous
di st i nct i ons
t hr ough
open- ended goods
accumul at i on, w t h
potent i al l y
i n f i n i t e
permut at i ons,
has become,
t hr ough
t he
prol i f erat i on
of
t ypes
of goods,
hi gher
personal i ncomes i n t he popul at i on as a whol e, and
t he
omni pr esent mass
communi cat i ons
medi a, a r egul ar feature of ever yday l i f
The per vasi ve symbol i c
mani pul at i ons
whi ch l i n k goods
w t h
i mages of
wel l -
bei ng al so t e s t i f y t o
t he
i mpor t ance
of what
Vebl en
named
i n more el egant
l anguage,
t he cer emoni al
character
of u t i l i t y
amper suaded by t he evi dence offered by
Sci t ovsky
and Hi rsch that t he
i mpor t ance
of t h i s venerabl e theme
i n
s o ci a l t hought cannot
be
under est i mat ed bel i eve
i t shoul d
be
r ecogni zed
as a central concept i n t he
t heory of needs I n that cont ext i t s i mmedi at e e f f e c t i s t o undermne s t a t i c
cat egor i es
and t o r equi r e
more
r el at i onal and cont ext ual ones Fur t hermor e,
t he
pr opensi t y f or
emul at i on
as
a
pr i nci pal dr i ve i n
t he
art i cul at i on of
human
needs s
c l o s e l y
r el at ed t o 1 ) soci al mechani sms of exchange i n bot h mar ket
and
non- mar ket
contexts and 2 ) t he symbol i c
ve i l
cast over mater i al obj ect s
i n cul t ur al t r adi t i ons
My pr i mar y pur pose here
i s not
t o suggest that t s ei t her possi bl e or
desi r abl e t o devi se a general t heor y of human needs w t h t he not i ons of
emul at i on, exchange, and symbol i c det ermnat i ons, but rather
t o
urge t hat we
r econsi der t he
concept s of
r e i f i c a t i o n ,
commodi ty f et i shi sm
and
f a l s e
consci ousness as t he key concept s i n the radi cal cr i t i que of c a p i t a l i s t market
r el at i ons
w t h t he ai d of such not i ons Despi t e t he f act that these concept s
have been empl oyed i n t he r adi cal c r i t i q u e f or over a century, t hey
r emai n
undevel oped
and
pr obl emat i c
We
must
know
more
about
t he
r el at i onshi p
bet ween t he commodi ty formi n general , whi chmakes possi bl e an ext r emel y
f l u i d
and ever - changi ng
f i e l d
of
obj ect s
f or t he sat i s fact i on of needs, and t he
structured character of human
needi ng i t s e l f
(assumng
t hat needs are
structured
i n some
way
Mor eover ,
i f we
mai nt ai n that
t he commodi ty form
represents
some ki nd of l i mt t o t he art i cul at i on of needs, andf ur t her t hat i t
i s a l i m t
whi ch
we shoul d s t r i v e t o overcome on account of i t s al l eged
del et er i ous e f f e c t s ,
wemust
t r y t o
say
more cl ear l y
what t he nature
of that
l i m t
s
what
al t ernat i ve
ar r angement s
ar e pos s i bl e ,
and
whywe
shoul d expect
t he
maj or i t y
of
c i t i z e n s
i n i ndustr i al
mar ket
s o c i e t i e s
t o
opt
f or
an
al t ernat i ve
way at
some
poi nt
I n
i t s hi gh- i nt ensi t y
phase, where t he maj or i t y of c i t i z e n s have
access
t o
a
huge array
of
goods,
t he mar ket soci et y
t hr ows up i nvi di ous
di st i nct i ons
ever ywher e
Weare ur ged const ant l y t o compare t he advant ages of onebr and
over another, one c l a s s of goods over another , one mar gi nal i ncr ement
of
sat i sf act i on
over
anot her ,
one
s et
of val ues over anot her , i ndeed one l i f e s t yl e
33
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 34/124
WLL ML I SS
package over
anot her
Yet what i s t he
basi s
f or
compar i son?
The
market pl ace
gr adual l y
di ssol ves f i xed
cus t omar y
t radi t i ons
(such
as
t he
d i s t i n c t i v e cui si ne
and dress
of ol der
et hni c
or
nat i onal gr oups)
by
whi ch
t he
appr opr i at eness of an i ndi vi dual s t a s t e s used t o
be j udged
I n a modern
market
soci et y
t he bases of i nt erper sonal
compar i son change
cont i nuousl y
I t
i s as
d i f f i c u l t t o
anal yze t hose
s h i f t s as i t
i s
t o navi gat e them
I t i s
t h i s
d i f f i c u l t y i n l ocat i ng a f oot hol d f or anal ysi s t hat promptsme
t o
suggest
t hat we step back f or amoment and l ook at t he st r uct ur ed
exchange
pr ocesses
i n
some
pr i mt i ve
s o c i e t i e s
Thei r more l i mted physi cal di mensi ons
and
ass or tment
of
goods
t hrows
some of
t he
f eat ures
of
t h e i r exchange
rel at i onshi ps i nto
shar per r e l i e f Thi s by no means i mpl i es t hat those
rel at i onshi ps are
s i mpl er t han our own Wen t hey are vi ewed
i n rel at i on
t o
t he
f u l l
s et
of soci al i nt eract i ons ( especi al l y reci proci t y i n
ki nshi p
rel at i ons) to
whi ch
t hey bel ong, t h e i r compl exi t y i s i n f act overwhelmng
14
I
di scuss them
here f or a par t i cul ar
purpose
i n abst r act i on fromt h e i r
cont ext ual s e t t i n g
ere we
f i nd
a
f aml i ar at t r i bute,
t he
pr opensi t y
f or emul at i on
I t
i s not
exact l y as a
uni ver sal f e a t u r e , but
as a suf f i ci entl y
f r equent occur r ence i n
d i f f e r e n t
human
c ul t u r es , i n w del y separ at ed ar eas of
t he eart h, t o warr ant
speci al
at t ent i on
nor
was i t a
merel y
i nci dent al f eat ure
of
those
s o c i e t i e s
The desi r e
f or
emul at i on ,
F i r t h wr i t es , was
t he i ndust r i al
spur of
t he
ol d
Maori economy
The
ori gi ns
of
t he dual economy ( subsi st ence and pr es t i ge i n pr i mt i ve
soci et y
need not
concer n us
here The s p e c i f i c nat ur e of t he
dual i t y var i es
consi der abl y, but t he
f ol l ow ng character i st i cs
are common
1
each of
t he
two
economes
has i t s
own t ypes
of goods or obj ects ; 2 goods are c l a s s i f i e d
i n
r anked,
di scont i nuous, or
i ncommensur abl e
spher es of exchanges ; 3
soci al
di f f erent i at i on,
i ncl udi ng t he
at t ri but e
of
pr e s t i ge ,
i s
r el at ed t o
mani pul at i ons of a
s p e c i f i c
c l a s s of goods, not al l goods ;
4
prest i ge
goods
r e f l e c t a
del i beratel y
or
a r t i f i c i a l l y
creat ed
scarci t y
whi ch stem fromt he
arbi t rary
ascr i pt i on
of
symbol i c
si gni f i cance
t o mater i al
obj ect s
I I I Spher es of
xchange
Raymond
F i r t h has
commented t hat
we shoul d not take t h i s
di s t i nct i on to
mean
t hat t he
two
t ypes
of
a c t i v i t y
are
r i g i d l y
separ at ed
There
are
commonl y
some
over l appi ng poi nt s bet ween
them Wat i s
us ef u l ,
however , i n such
l a b e l s i s t he
di rect i ng
of our
at t ent i on t o maj or over t el ement s i n t he demand
schedul e of
t heeconomc
system pr i mt i ve
or advanced
Such
not i ons
i nvol ve
a
separat i on
i n
t he
qual i t y of want s
16
Goods and obj ect s
are
c l a s s i f i e d i nto
two
maj or
cat egor i es ( t here are f ur t her subdi vi si ons, as
we s ha l l
see ,
eachw t h
a
mode of exchange appr opr i at e
t o
i t barter
ont heone
hand,
and
obj ect s
t hat
3
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 35/124
TH FETI SHSM
O
OBJECTS
serve
as
medi a
of exchange
f or
status
val ues ont he
ot her
These
ar e t he
v i s i b l e
mani f est at i ons
of
t he
structured
char act er
of
needs
or want s ,
f or t he
two
a c t i v i t i e s
ar e
nor mal l y kept qui t e d i s t i n c t byvi r t ue of
segr egat i ng
t he ki nds of
goods
t hought t o be appr opr i at e t o
each
t ype
How
commn t h i s
i s maybe
seen i n t he spher es
of exchange devi sed by
d i f f e r e n t
cul t ur es
f a i r l y si mpl e and st r ai ght f or ward
di vi s i on i s cust omar y
i n
Ponapea, one
of
t he
Carol i ne
I s l ands i n
M cr ones i a The subsi st ence
econom consi st s
of
f ood,
cl ot hi ng,
and
shel t er
i t ems
ordi nar i l y pr oduced
and consumd by
househol d mmers Food consi st s of
smal l
yams,
bananas,
f resh
br eadf r ui t ,
coconut , and
seaf ood
The
pr est i ge econom
i s
l argel y
conf i ned
t o t he annual
f e a s t s
whi ch
feature
compet i t i on
amng i ndi vi dual s w t h r espect t o
two
goods,
bot h f ood
i t ems very l arge yamand br eadf r ui t aged f or l ong per i ods
i n l e a f wr appi ngs Growng t he l arger yamr equi r es speci al
s k i l l s
and careful
t endi ng f or
y e a r s
t he
pl aces where t hey ar egrownar e conceal edand t hey ar e
t ended
i n
s e c r e t
usual l y
under
cover of dar kness
The
f l avour of
t he br eadf r ui t
i mpr oves w t h age ; t he wr appi ngs must be changed per i odi cal l y, and pr est i ge
i s r el at ed t o t he age of t he i t em Bothar e br ought t o t he f e a s t s and shar ed, and
a
consensus i s
r eached
on t he r e l a t i v e
qual i t y of
t he
of f er i ngs
18
The
best - known
examl e
of pres t i ge
compet i t i on
i n
Nor t h
Ameri ca i s
of
course t hat whi ch occurred
amng
t he Kwaki ut l of B r i t i s h Col umbi a, who
l i ved i n
a r egi on of
gr eat nat ural
abundance
TheKwaki ut l ,
even
mre
t han
most
peopl es i n t he wor l d,
were
obsessed w t h rank ndeed, i n
t he
mdst of
such pl ent y t hey cr eat ed a r t i f i c i a l shor t ages i n t he soci al syst em and t h e i r
st r i vi ng for
hi gh
soci al
posi t i on was an
i nt egr al
part of
t he econom
9
Subsi st ence
goods di d not
f i gure at al l i n t he pr est i ge
compet i t i on, whi chwas
conf i ned t o j ust two ki nds of
ob j e c t s
bl anket s and l arge pi eces of engr aved
copper Compet i t i on
amng pot l atch
r i v a l s
i nvol ved i ncr easi ng
numers
of
bl anket s, u n t i l one
ended
i t by
of f er i ng
a copper pi ece ; t h i s compet i t i on was
ended
i n t ur n by
t he
dest r uct i on
of copper pi e c es
t he vi ct ory
goi ng t o
t he one
whowasdeemd t o have dest r oyed t he
pi ece
of gr eat est val ue Ther i v a l r ywas
structured as a conver s i on of desi gnat ed
obj ect s
i n a r i t ua l i z ed s er i es of
exchanges whi ch
cul m nat ed
by
t r ansl at i ng mat er i al
val ues i nt o
t he purest
val ue
r eput at i on
Bohannan
Bohannan s work
on t he
econom
of t he Ti v
o f f e r s oneof t he best exampl es
of r anked and
di scont i nuous
spher es of exchange I n t he
subsi st ence econom
ar e
i ncl uded
f ood
( yams,
c er e a l s
veget abl es,
seasoni ngs, chi cken,
goat s,
sheep) ,
househol d ut ensi l s (mor t ars, gr i ndst ones, cal abashes, basket s, pot s)
and
som
t ool s Exchanges
amng them
ake pl ace by
g i f t
gi vi ng and i n a
mar ket
whi ch
t r adi t i onal l y
used nomoney,
onl y
bar t er
Thepr est i ge econom
i s t wo- t i er ed One
cat egor y i ncl udes
s l a ve s
c a t t l e r i t ua l of f i c es aspeci al t ype
of c l ot h
medi ci nes, and
brass
rods Exchanges amng
t hese
take pl ace at
cer emoni al and
ot her speci al occasi ons onl y, andw t bi n t hi s cat egor y brass
35
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 36/124
WLLIAMLEISS
rods
serve as
amedi um
of exchange Abovet h i s categorystandsanother w th
a
s i ngl e
good
the
exchange
of
r i ght s
i n
women
Theranking
of t he
spher es
i s
cruci al
Transacti ons of goods betweenthe
spheres i s necessary, for
examl ewhen
al arge
amount
of food i s r equi r ed f or
a
f east andmust be pai d for w th br ass r ods, or
when
t he
rods wereused t o
purchase a w f e But onestr i ves
t o avoid
exchanging
hi gher - cat egor y
goods
f or l ower - cat egory ones,
and
he
who
. must
do so
suffers
l oss
of pr est i ge
The
brass rods are onl y a
t rue
equi val ent w t h i n t hesecondcategory
Conversel y
one
str i ves
t o
convert
l ower category
goods i n t o
the hi gher z
0
Richard
Sal i sbury
pai d speci al
at t ent i on
t o
spheres
of
exchange
i n
hi s study
of the
Siane
peopl e of the
ew
Guineahi ghl ands, andonthebasi s of hi s work
i t i s possi bl e
t o make some f i ner
di scr i mnat i ons
that mayappl y t o other
examles
di scussed
above efound
i t necessary
t o
di st i ngui sh not
two
but
three nexuses of act i vi t y
i n
economc l i f e each of
whi ch corresponds
t o a
di st i nct i ve
assortment of
goods
andobj ect s used excl usi vel y i n r el at i on t o
i t
His
di scussi on stresses
the
cruci al anddetermningr ol e t hat
the
discontinuous
spher es
of exchange
pl ay
i n
the
soci al
l i f e of the
group
e
cal l s
themt he
subsi st ence, l uxur y, and
ceremonial
nexuses of act i vi ty
Subsi stence
goods
i nc l ude
everyday
food
i tem
sweet
potatoes
and
other
veget abl es) , t ool s,
cl ot hi ng,
and
housing
Theyare
producedboth
i ndi vi dual l y
and
col l ect i vel y w thi n each
cl an and
respons i bi l i t y f or produci ng thems
shared i nf ormal l y
i n
that context
These
act i vi t i es
maintain
both t he accepted
ki nshi p rel at i ons
i n
the
group and
the basi c
consumtion
l evel
enjoyed
by
everyone
They providea
mnimal
consumtion f l oor
f or each i ndi vi dual
and ar e deri ved f romnatur al mat er i al s
that
are rel at i vel y pl ent i f ul
Luxury goods encomass
t obacco,
palm
o i l
pandanus nuts,
s a l t
snake
ski ns
for
drum,
stone
f or
axe-bl ades,
and
palm
wood
f or spears
These
are
producedor acqui red by i ndi vi dual i ni t i at i ve, ar e exchangedon the basi s of
reci proci t y, andthe
di r ect consumtion i tem
among
themareenjoyedei t her
pr i vat el y
or
i n
ent er t ai ni ng vi s i tors, where gener osi t y i s avi r t ue
Thi s i s a
kindof i nt ermedi at e category
of goods,
which
al l ows
f or the expr essi on
of
di f f er ent i ndi vi dual pref erences unl i ke the subsi st ence sphere,
where
there i s
l i t t l e
or no
var i at i on) ,
and
seem
t o
work
agai nst excessi ve r i gi di t y
i n
soci al
behaviour
by
permtti ngthe i nt r oduct i on of
new
goodsand
pr act i ces through
i ndi vi dual i n i t i a t i ve
Ceremoni al
goods
ar e
val uabl es
exchangedby
barter
at
publ i c
event s
Thi s
category i ncl udes
shel l s,
ornamental axes, neckl aces, pl umes, headdr esses,
andpi gs Exchanges
take pl acebothw thi n
and
amongcl ans
and
they create
return
obl i gat i ons th i s i s an
arena
of s t r i ct r eci pr oci t y
wherea
det ai l ed
accounting
of
val ue
i s
kept
Thei ndi vi dual andby associ at i on the
cl an
of
whi ch he
i s
amember create obl i gat i ons t o themeves f romothers i n
maki ng pr esent at i ons
of ceremonial goods
and t hus
i ncrease hi s
and t hei r
3
6
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 37/124
THEFETISHSM
O JECTS
pr e s t i ge
I t
al so t he
means
of s o c i a l mobi l i t y
f or t he i ndi vi dual
wi t hi n
h i s c l an
Ther e
i s
very
l i t t l e
c ros s i ng
of
t he
boundar i es
bet ween
t he di f f erent
t ypes
of
goods
; t he
onl y one ment i oned
s p e c i f i c a l l y by Sal i sbur y i s t he i nf r equent
exchange of pi gs
f or
s a l t ( t he l a t t e r
i s very scarce and i s
a monopol y
of t he
c l an
whi ch occupi es t he onl y s a l t deposi t )
The bar r i er s among
goods and
obj ect s
ar e at t he
same
t i me t he
s t r uc tur i ng char acter i s t i cs of s o c i a l r e l at i ons
The
more general r u l e
i s
that
commodi t i es
ar e us ed onl y
i n s i t uat i ons
wher e
t he
nexus of
a c t i v i t y
i s
c l e a r l y one
of i nt ea- cl an h el p, i nt er - cl an
pr esent at i on, or
exchange bet ween
t r ade f r i ends ; no commodi ty can be used
i n an
ambi guous
s i t uat i on
2 i
Not
onl y ar e cer emoni al
goods
never
exchanged f or f ood or
l uxur i es , but
per sons
who
exchange
t he
l a t t e r
two
cannot
al so
exchange
t he
f or mer
O s p ec i a l i n t e r e s t t o Sal i sbur y
was t he
f a c t
that he wi t nessed t he i mpact
of a
newt echnol ogy s t e el
rather than stone
f or
axe- bl ades) on
t he cl os ed, hi er ar -
chi cal spheres of exchange
The f ar greater ef f i ci ency
and
dur abi l i t y
of t he
s t e e l
bl ades
r el eased s i gni f i cant amounts of
new
f r e e t i me
f or
t he
popul at i on
Ther e
was no
change
i n t he pr oduct i on of
t ypes of subsi st ence
goods, s i nce
t h i s
coul d
not have
happened wi t hout
di s r upt i ng
f undament al
r o l e
r el at i onshi ps ( onl y
menown
and
use
axes
t o c l e a r
pl ant i ng
areas
whi ch
women t hen t end
and t o bui l d houses) Rather, t he new
t i me was absorbed
exc l us i vel y
i n
ext endi ng
t he
spher e of
pr est i ge
compet i t i on themost e l a s t i c
ar ea of demand
t o
use t he
econom st s t e rm
by
f i ght i ng
and by
exchangi ng
t he
mat er i al t okens of pr est i ge
Sal i sbur y
gi ves
an
excel l ent
summary
s t at ement
of
t he
s oc i a l
f unct i ons
per f or med by
t he
di scont i nuous spheres of exchange
and t he s t ruc tured
character of t he needs f or whi ch they ar e t he means of
sat i s fac t i on
t he
presence i n
non-monetary
soc i et i es of di scre te
s c al es of val ue i s a s i mpl e
mechani sm
i nsur i ng
that
subsi st ence goods ar e used t o mai nt a i n a bas i c standard
of
l i f e
bel owwhi chnoone f a l l s
; that
f r ee- f l owi ng power
[ pr est i ge]
i s al l oc at ed
peacef ul l y,
wi t h
a
mnimumof
expl oi t at i on ( or di s t ur bance
of t he
i ndi vi dual s
r i g h t t o
subsi st ence) and
i n
accordance
wi t h accept ed standards ;
that t he
means
of
i nsur i ng
f l e x i b i l i t y
i n
t he
soc i et y
do
not
di sr upt
t he f or mal al l ocat i on
of statuses i n
t he
soc i et y or
t he
means of gai ni ng power 22
Af ter
compari ng t he r anked
spheres of exchange
among t he
Si ane
wi t h
anal ogous pr act i ces el sewher e, Sal i sbur y of fe rs
a way of l ooki ng at at l ea st
37
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 38/124
WLLI ML ISS
some commodi t i es i n
our
soci ety f rom
hi s
perspecti ve He suggests that i n
i mpor t ant goods,
l i k e
the automobi l e, the three
nexuses
of a c t i v i t y aremxed
together
but
that
i t i s
al so possi bl e to
di st i ngui sh them
anal yti cal l y
Ther e
i s
a
subsi stence
nexus i n respect
to
i t s
mani f est
use- val ue
i t conveys
passengers) ,
a l uxur y
nexus
i n al l the opti onal
extras f or greater comort
nd
conveni ence that
most purchasers choose,
and
ceremoni al or presti ge
nexus i n
t he
compar at i ve l e v e l s
of s i z e
s t y l e nd
cost
2 3
Three poi nts are worthy of note i n at t empt i ng to assess these mater i al s f or
comparat i ve
pur poses
Theyconcer n
t he str uctured nature of needs or wants,
the rel ati on between presti ge
nd types
of obj ects,
nd
the quest i on whet her
one
may
pr oper l y
speak
of
f eti shi sm
of
obj ects
i n
t h i s
cont ext
The
hi erarchi cal
and di scont i nuous spheres of exchange are i n a senseonl y
the
v i s i b l e
mani f estat i on
of
qual i tati ve di sti ncti ons i n
t he
assor tment
of
human needs Rat her than emergi ng as n undi f f erenti ated s e r i e s of a
merel y
quant i tati ve scope, human needs
appear
uni versal l y,
I thi nk i t i s safeto say
i n
groups
or
c l u s t e r s that r e f l e c t e f f o r t s
to
def i ne meani ngf ul ,
compl ete
spheres of
a c t i v i t y
The
number
of di screte
nd
i denti f i abl e needs and thei r
obj ects
i n any
sphere
seems
l e s s
s i g n i f i c a n t on the whol e, than t he natureof
the
qual i tati ve di sti ncti ons
whi ch
mark
t he
boundar i es
between
them
Yet
i n
r emar ki ng
t h i s pattern one must
be at tenti ve to
t he
r ich
var i ati ons
i n
de t a i l
that l end i t col our The i mpor t ant
poi nt
i s t he pri nci pl e of structureddi scri m-
nat i on At t empt s to pi n i t downt oo preci sel y,
not abl y
Masl ow s hi er archy of
needs,
t r i v i a l i z e
t he process of
needi ng f or i n
order
to
achi eve s u f f i c i e n t
general i ty,
t he categor i es
of anal ysi s must be r educed t o thei r barren
s k el e t a l
outl i ne ( Thi nk of f ood , on the one hand, nd t he mar vel ous over-
i ndul gence i n
f east
ceremony by
whi ch
a
f el l ow
t r i e s to
augment
hi s
pr es t i ge
on
the
other
. ny research
scheme u t i l i z i n g
the pri nci pl e of
structured
di scri mnat i on
shoul d
devel op
i t s
speci f i c
anal yti cal
categor i es
i n
a
di al ogue
wi t h s p e c i f i c empi r i cal mater i al s
great
var i ety
of goods or
obj ects
are empl oyed
as presti ge
tokens,
as
we
h ve
seen Thi s st ems f rom
he
very nature of
t he enterpr i se
Wat i s
r equi red
i s
a physi cal counter f or human
rel at i onshi ps,
n arbi tr ar i l y- chosen si gn f or
compl ex
s et of
at t r i butes s ki l l i n i t i a t i v e
i nher i ted s t a t u s l uck, ambi t i on,
cour age, nd so
forth)
Wat t he group of counter s must be
abl e to si gni f y i s
t he
requi si te degree of di scri mnati on i n
t he
process of soci al
di f f erenti ati on
Were there
are
manyaccepted
compet i t or s
f or
pr es t i ge
f or
exampl e,
t he
s et
of t okens
as
whol e must be s uf f i c i en t l y d i v i s i b l e so that i t i s
possi bl e to
di scern
the r e l a t i v e
success of
each
Prest i ge t okens
r e f l e c t
a r t i f i c i a l
s c a r c i t i e s
and such scarci t i es
may
be
mul t i pl i ed
i ndef i ni tel y as
t he
need
f or
f i ner
di scr i mnat i ons a r i s e s
They
may or may not
embody si gni f i cant
amounts
of
s k i l l e d l abour ,
a r t i s t i c
t a l e n t or
preci ous natural
mater i al s
he onl y general
r equi r ement i s that they be kept separate f rom
subsi stence uses
38
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 39/124
THEFETISHSMOF
O E TS
Whether we
shoul d speak her e of
a f et i shi sm of
obj ect s
i s par t l y
a
mat t er
of
def i ni t i on, si nce
many
of
t hese
s o c i e t i e s
have
f et i sh- devi ces
i n
t he
s t r i c t
sense i e
obj ect s t hought
capabl e
of
per f or m ng
oper at i ons
s p e l l s ,
wi t chcraf t )
on
persons t hat are not t he
sam as
t h e i r
pr est i ge
t okens, i t i s
pr obabl y
unwi se
t o
do
so I f
by
a f e t i s h
we
r e f e r t o
any
si t uat i on i n
whi cha
mat er i al obj ect st ands fo r a soci al r el at i on (thus
maki ng i t vi r t ual l y
synonymous wi t h what i s i nt ended by t he
concept
of r e i f i c a t i on ,
and
especi al l y
i f
al l
such
si t uat i ons
are
t hought t o be unf or t unat e
by t h e i r
very
nat ur e, d i f f i c u l t i e s
ari se
5
or t o
mark
a s oc i a l rel at i on
by
mans of amat er i al
t hi ng
i s
preci sel y what pr est i ge
t okens
are
i nt ended
t o
do
Mor eover ,
most
s o c i e t i e s
whi ch eml oy themcl ear l y
r ecogni ze
t hat
t h e s e
s oc i a l
r e l a t i o n s
t hemsel ves i
e
t he
pr ocess of soci al
di f f erent i at i on
t hr ough pr est i ge
compet i t i on ar e
pot ent i al l y
danger ous i n t h e i r consequences, and t hey have
e x p l i c i t , wel l - est abl i shed
count er vai l i ng
mchani sm
( e . g
redi st r i but i on) to
cont ai n t hose
danger s
6
They
do not
seemo
be
at al l myst i f i ed, for
exampl e,
by t he r e i f i e d f orms of t hose soci al r el at i onshi ps
Thus i t does
not
appear
j u s t i f i a b l e t o me t o vi ew t he pr est i ge
economy
of p r im t i ve s oc i e t i e s as an
expr essi on of t he
f et i shi sm
of
obj ect s
We
may
now
tu rn
t o
t he
quest i on of
what
bear i ng
t hese t hr ee poi nt s
have
on
t he d i a l e c t i c of needs and obj ect s i n our i ndustr i al
market soci et y
I n appl yi ng
t h i s
compar at i ve
per spect i ve we are
encour aged
t o l ook f or t he structured
di sc r i m nat i ons
of needs t hat
may
be pr esent ,
and
i f
we t hi nk wedo
di scer n
evi dence of t hem) t o ask how t hey
expr ess t hemsel ves i n r el at i on t o t he
abstract
equi val ence
i n t he
f i e l d
of
obj ect s ( exchange val ue or t he commodi ty
f orm)
Wecan ask how
t he pecuni ar y form
of
t he
pr opensi t y
f or
emul at i on,
whi ch
a r i s e s i n a mar ket
exchange
soci et y based
on
commodi ty pr oduct i on,
d i f f e r s
i n
i t s
char acter i sti cs
and
soci al
consequences
from
t he
non- pecuni ar y
formbased on di scont i nuous spher es of exchange
or exampl e, i f we accept
Sal i sbur y s
cl ai m
about
t he conf l at i on
of di f f erent nexuses of
a c t i v i t y
i n a
uni f or m
spher e
of mar ket - exchange goods, we m ght ask What
are
t he
i ndi vi dual and s oc i a l consequences, i f
any, of pur sui ng pr est i ge compet i t i on i n
a
si t uat i on
where
al l
easi l y- r ecogni zabl e di st i nct i ons bet ween
prest i ge
and
non- pr est i ge cat egor i es have col l apsed?
Fi nal l y,
i s
i t possi bl e t o
ground t he
concept s of rei f i cat i on and t he f et i shi smof commodi t i es f or
our
soci et y i n
t he
col l apsi ng of spheres of exchange?
I V ommodi ty
Fet i shi smOnce
More
ean Baudr i l l ar d opens hi s book, Lesyst eme des o b j e t s ,
wi t h
t he
f ol l owi ng
quest i ons
an
one
c l a s s i f y
t he i mmnse veget at i on of obj ect s
l i k e
f l o ra and
f auna, wi t h
t r opi cal
and nor t her n s p ec i e s , abr upt mut at i ons, and
39
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 40/124
WLLIAMLEISS
di sappear i ng speci es?
Can
onehopet o
c l a s s i f y
aconst ant l y changi ngwor l d
of
obj ect s
and
arr i ve at
a
descr i pt i ve
syst em?
To
answer
them
he devel ops
a
scheme
based
on
categor i es such as ar r angement and
envi r onment ,
t ogether
w t h var i ous sub- cat egor i es, and concl udes w th hi s f i r s t pr esent at i on of the
t h e s i s ( el abor at ed
i n
l a t e r books) t hat consumpti on
t oday
i nvol ves the
syst emat i c
mani pul at i on of
si gns
whi ch
as a
whol e f orma
behavi our al
code
Thi s means ( so f ar as
I can
underst and
t he t hes i s )
t hat obj ect s t end t o
l ose any
subst ant i al
l i n k w t h di scret e domai ns of
a c t i v i t y
( eat i ng,
f or
exampl e) an
i nt eri or rel at i on
and
consti t ut e
an
ext ernal l y- r el at ed
s e r i e s or
mere
col l ect i on of t hi ngs
whi ch
onl y
represent
abstract
desi gnat i ons
( col oni al f urni t ure, sporty cl ot hi ng, gourmet frozen f oods) .
Baudr i l l ar d i s one of a number of
French
theor i sts f or whom
symbol i c
det erm nat i ons
pr ovi de
t he key f or under st andi ng
gener al i zed commodi ty
pr oduct i on
z 8
Baudr i l l ar d ext ends
t he semol ogi cal
approach
t o
embrace
p o l i t i c a l
economy and suggest s t hat there i s a
s t r i c t
anal ogy bet ween t he
nat ur e of
a
si gn andt he nat ur e of
t he
commodi ty formThe
t wo- f ol d character
of
t he
s i gn , as
s i g n i f i e r
(the s i gn s mani f est f o rm
and
as
s i g n i f i e d
i t s meani ng) ,
dupl i cat es
t he dual i t y of use val ue (the materi al
or u t i l i t a r i a n aspect )
and
exchange
val ue
( t he r el at i on
w th
other
t hi ngs) i n t he
commodi ty
I n
D Amco swords
W are to underst and
t he connect i on
as
f ol l ows
exchange
val ue and
s i g n i f i e r
desi gnat e
r el at i onal f orms, wher eas
use val ue and
t he
s i g n i f i e d
stand f or t he cont ent or obj ect of t he
rel at i ons
Baudr i l l ard w shes t o f ound, on t h i s b a s i s ,
a theory of t he f et i shi smof
commodi t i es t hat
i s
di f f erent f romMar x s
He under st ands
Mar x s
theory
as
l i nki ng t h i s f et i shi sm s o l e l y t o
one
si de
( exchange
val ue) of t he
commodi ty
fo rm si nce t he other (use
val ue) i s anunambi guous
q u a l i t y ,
t he commodi t y s
capaci t y
f or sat i sf yi ng some human need
Baudri l l ard mai nt ai ns,
i n
opposi t i on t o
t h i s
r eadi ng
of Marx
t hat u t i l i t y
or use val ue i s j u s t as much an
abstract
form
of t he obj ect as exchange val ue
For
there
t o
be exchange val ue t i s al r eady necessary
t hat
u t i l i t y become
t he
pri nci pl e of r e a l i t y
f or t he
obj ect as
product
Exchange presupposes t hat
t he obj ect s are
al ready rat i onal i zed as
usef ul
The r educt i on
t o
u t i l i t y i s
the basi s
f or
both
exchange
and
systemat i zat i on
t he
precondi t i ons, i n Baudr i l l ar d, f or
f et i shi sm ( whi ch
he
def i nes as the r educt i on of t he
symbol i c- ambi val ent to the
syst emat i c- equi val ent )
For Baudr i l l ard exchange and
t he
equi val ence- f orm are
made
possi bl e
by an
o b j e c t s
bei ng
made
compar abl e t hr ough
t hecommon
denomna-
t or
of
f unct i onal - r at i onal
( Onl y
t he
obj ect s of symbol i c
4
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 41/124
THEFETISHSM
OBJECTS
exchange
r et ai n
t h ei r t r ue
s i ngul ar i t y nd i ncommen
s u r a b i l i t y
Ther ef or e,
t o
be
more r adi cal
t han
Marx
i s
t o
see t he p r i o r i t y of
t he
obj ect f o rm over
t he
commodi ty
form
9
Thi s
passage
shows
what
i s
f or Baudr i l l ar d t he cr i t er i on f or
di st i ngui shi ng
f et i shi zed from
non- f et i shi zed
exchanges
The l a t t e r i s r e s t r i c t e d
t o event s
whi ch
have
( al l egedl y)
an
i r r educi bl e s i ngul ar i t y
;
exampl es
ar e
gi f t - gi vi ng nd
t he
f e a s t
cer emoni es of
pr i m t i ve s o c i e t i e s
Appar ent l y al l
r educt i ons
t o a
s t andar d of
equi val ence are formof f et i shi sm
Ther e
much
of
val ue
i n Baudr i l l ar d s work
He w s
t o t he best of my
know edge) t he
f i r s t
sympat het i c r eader of
Marx
t o
ar gue agai ns t t he
s t andar d
Mar xi s t f or mul at i on of t he
concept
of commodi ty f et i shi sm3
Hi s i s
al so
n
e f f e c t i v e
chal l enge t o ny who l ocat e t he
pr obl emat i c aspect of c a p i t a l i s t
m rket r e l a t i o n s s o l e l y
i n
t he
commodi ty formper
se
ndwho r egar d
t he
r el at i on of need nd use
val ue
as unambi guous These advant ages,
however ,
ar e l ar gel y negat ed y
i t s
d e f e c t s ,
whi ch a r i s e bot h from t s dubi ous
t heor et i cal
s t ance
andfrom
s t y l e
of
expr ess i on not abl e
f or
i t s
consi st ent
hyper bol e
Baudr i l l ar d s
concept
of
f et i shi sm
i s so al l - encompass i ng
t hat t
over whel m
t he
dat a of exper i ence t
seeks
t o addr ess
For someaspect
of equi val ence
i s
a
necessar y
par t of al l exchange To e sure t he
equi val ence r epr esent ed i n
exchange
based
on
r eci pr oci t y
i s not t he
same
as t hat r epr esent ed
i n
commodi ty exchange,
but
t
ki nd of
equi val ence nonet hel ess
I t
cus t omar y bot h i n pr i m t i ve
s o c i e t i e s
nd i n
our own
not
t o
cal cul at e
t oo
f i n e l y t he exchange
val ue of si ngl e g i f t , but where
t he par t i es t o g i f t
exchanges
are
of
t he
s me
status
any l ong- t er m
i mbal ance wi l l be r egar ded as
a del i ber at e affront
Si m l ar l y
mar ket
nd
non- mar ket
exchanges
i ngener al ,
whi ch empl oy
var yi ng st andar ds
of
equi val ence, r e f l e c t qual i t at i vel y
d i f f e r e n t
cont ext s of s oc i a l
r el at i ons The cont r ast of
sys t emat i c- equi val ent w t h
s ymbol i c- ambi val ent
pr event s
us
frommaki ng
t he necessar y di scr i mna-
t i ons among di ver se cont ext s of
exchange
r el at i onshi ps
Baudr i l l ar d s
appr oach i s a
pr i me
ex mpl e
of
wh t we
mght
term
pr emat ur e concept ual
synt hesi s, pr emat ur e
i n
two senses
F i r s t , t t er mnat es
t he di al ogue
bet ween
anal yt i cal
concept s ndempi r i cal dat a
al mos t as soonas
t
has
begun
;
t he
f or mer
exer ci ses
an
aut hor i t at i ve
sway,
so
t o
speak,
whi ch
t he
l a t t e r not permtted t o chal l enge
Second, t f or ecl oses
on
t he r ange
of
quest i ons t hat mght be
posed as t he i nqui r y pr oceeds For
exampl e, i f
we
i n s i s t t hat t he
same
l ogi c
( and t he
same f et i shi sm
i s
at
workont he twos i des
of t he commodi ty
s p e c i f i e d yMarx use
val ue and
exchange
val ue ,
3
we
have i n e f f e c t deci ded
pr i or i
not
t o
al l ow t he
dat a t o
show
any
si gni f i cant
el ement s of
t ensi on bet ween t he two s i des t hat may be
pr esent i n our
exper i ence w t h commodi ty exchange
pr oduct i on
4
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 42/124
WLLI ML ISS
The
more
measuredapproach
of
Marshal l Sahl i ns
rescues
t hese mat er i al s
f rom
such
concept ual
aut ar chy
and
t hus
hol ds
open
new
i nes
of
i nqui ry
Hi s
emphasi s on t he symbol i c structure i nmat er i al
u t i l i t y
does not tempt himo
reduce t he
concept
of u t i l i t y (use val ue) t o some
al l egedl y more
pr i mordi al
obj ect
form or
t o di ssol ve
t he dynamc t ensi on bet ween use val ue and
exchange val ue Rat her , he opens up
t he
concept of ut i l i t y i t sel f i n order t o
search
f or t he
di f f erent i at ed
structures of meaningw t hi n, i n order t o r epai r
t he
i mbal ance f ound
i n
Marx s
work
He
c i t e s
t he
Gr undr i sse
:
The
commodi ty
i t s e l f appear s as
uni t y
of twoaspect s
I t i s use
val ue,
i e
obj ect of
t he
sat i sf act i on
of
any
system
what ever
of human
needs
Thi s
i s
i t s
mat er i al
s i de whi ch
t he most di spar at e epochs of
pr oduct i on
may have i n common
and whose
exam nat i on
t heref ore
l i e s
beyond p o l i t i c a l
economy
3 2 He
suggest s t hat
we
must ext end t he i nvest i gat i on of commodi ty pr oduct i on by
di ssect i ng
t he mat eri al si de
Themat er i al f orces t aken by t hemsel ves are l i f e l e s s
Thei r
s p e c i f i c mot i ons and det erm nat e consequences can be
sti pul at ed
onl y
by
progr essi vel y compoundi ng
them
w t h
t he
coordi nat es of
t he
cul t ural order
An i ndustr i al
t echnol ogy i n i t s e l f does not di ctat e whet her t
wi l l
be r un
by men or by women
i n t he
day or
at
ni ght by
wage
l aborers or by col l ect i ve owner s,
on Tuesday
or
on
Sunday, f or a p r o f i t or f or
a l i vel i hood
; i n t he ser vi ce of
nat i onal securi t y or pri vat e gl ut t ony ; t o produce hand- f ed
dogs or s t a l l - f e d
c a t t l e
bl ue c o l l a r s or whi t e
dresses ; t o
pol l ut e
t he
r i v e r s
and
i n f e c t
t he
at mospher e
or
t o
i t s e l f
s l ow y rust away l i k e t he Si nger sew ng machi ne posed
maj esti cal l y i n f ront of t he
house
of an
Af r i can
Chi ef
theory t hat i gnores t he i nt er- penet rat i on of t he concrete mat eri al and
cul t ural
( symbol i c)
det erm nant s i n
t he
sat i sf act i on
of needs, rest r ic t ing i t s e l f
i nst ead ent i r el y t o
i t s f or mal
structure (the commodi ty formunder c a p i t a l i s t
rel at i ons of
pr oduct i on) , wi l l
r emai n
unabl e
t o expl ai n pr ocesses of s oc i a l
change
i n preci sel y
t hat
ki nd
of
soci et y
whi ch
t he
t heory pret ends t o
have
as
i t s
obj ect of
anal ysi s
a soci ety
where t he sel f - underst andi ng of
persons
has
been f ormed
under
condi t i ons
of f u l l y
devel oped c a p i t a l i s t
mar ket rel at i ons
U t i l i t y
i s not const i t ut ed
excl usi vel y
by t he propert i es of agoodbut i nst ead
by t he
rel at i on
bet ween themand t he demand schedul es of
persons t h i s
much
i s al r eady
convent i onal
wsdom
i n
margi nal u t i l i t y theory However,
i n
def i ni ng u t i l i t y as
no more t han psychol ogi cal
u t i l i t y t h i s theory
i mme-
42
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 43/124
TH FETISHSM
O
OBJECTS
di at el y
s hor t - ci r c ui t s
di s cus s i on
of
t he s o ci a l and cul t ur al
determnants
of
i ndi vi dual
ps ychol ogy The
process
of s o ci a l
l i f e
i n
whi ch
men
r eci procal l y
def i ne obj ect s i n t er ms of
t hemsel ves
and
t hemsel ves i n t er ms of obj ect s
4
i s
here
reduced
t o i t s crudest di mens i ons So t he consumer behavi our
researchers l abour t o
f i n d d i r e c t cor r el at i ons bet ween
an
i ndi vi dual s
per sonal i t y at t r i but es
and
hi s or
her pr ef er ences f or
s p e c i f i c
br ands
One
s tudy
f ound a s i gni f i cant cor r el at i on bet ween t he at t r i but e need f or domnance
super i or t o need f or
a f f i l i a t i o n and a
pr ef er ence f or
Fords
over Chevr ol et s
and
vi ce
versa
Unf or t unat e l y
these st udi es as a whol e showed t h a t , al t hough
par t i cul ar cor r el at i ons wer e
o f ten
s i g n i f i c a n t ,
t he
r e s u l t s c oul d
not
be
gener al i zed
across
pr oduct
t ypes
35
I n f act a cul t ur al sys tem
of i nt er pr et at i on c al l ed a
code by
those who
f o l l o w
t he
Fr ench
t heo r i s t s )
i nt ervenes
between per s ons and obj ect s I t
i nc l udes autonomous domai ns , not
determned by
t he
mode of pr oduct i on,
that s t r u c t u r e
i ndi vi dual
exper i ence
and behavi our
Sahl i ns
di scusses two
exampl es
i n
NorthAmeri can l i f e t oday, i nvol vi ng f o od and
c l ot hi ng Theuses
of ani mal s
f or meat ar e s t r u c t u red
i n
a number of
ways ,
i nc l udi ng edi bl e
c at t l e and pi gs )
versus
i nedi bl e
(dogs
and horses)
sources
and a
hi er ar chy
of
preferences
w t h
respect
t o edi bl e
sources
f l es h
versus
or gan
parts)
St yl es of
c l ot hi ng r e f l e c t andr ei nf or ce gener al
behavi our patterns,
such as
mal e/ f emal e
and work/
l e i s u r e di s t i nc t i ons
and
t he
var i at i ons
w t h i n t h i s c l as s
of
obj ect s
a l l o wa hos t of di f f erent i at i ons i n
t he s oc i a l
order t o be expr ess ed
The
i n f i n i t e
mani pul at i on
of
mat eri al s
made
poss i bl e
by
i ndus t r i al t echnol ogy
permts
t h i s
soci et y t o devel op a f ar l arger s et
of
di f f er ent i at i ng s i gns
than
was poss i bl e
e a r l i e r Yet however
broad or
narrowi t s
r ange
maybe, t he
wor l d of
pr oduced
obj ect s al ways
represents man
speaki ng
t o man
t h r ough t he medi um
of
t hi ngs 3 6
I t i s
s t l l
f r u i t f u l
t o
f o l l o w
Marx s
l ead
and
t o
vi ew
t he
under st andi ng of
t he
commodi ty form
as at
t he
very l e a s t )
t he
i n i t i a l
probl em
or
our
anal yt i cal
e f f o r t s
However bel i eve wemust
pr oceed
ont he
as s umpt i on
that wedonot
yet under st and t
W
must domore
t han feed new
data
i nt o
t h e o l d program
I n
my
vi ew t he
sources
di scussed
i n t hi s
essay
(espec i al l y
Sc i t ovsky, Hi r s ch,
and Sahl i ns) put
us
on
t he
t hr eshol d of
s i gni f i cant new
departures
f or t he
theo ry
of
advanced
c a p i t a l i s t
soc i et y
I n
what
f o l l ows
I
have i ndi cat ed
onl y
t he
out l i nes
of s p e c i f i c
t opi cs
that c oul d
be
pur s ued ont he bas i s
of
t he
pr ecedi ng
di s cuss i on
Rei f i c at i on and
Fal se
Consci ousness
One of
t he commonest
features of
human cul t ur es i s t he us e of obj ect s t o mark soci al di s t i nct i ons among
per s ons
Under many d i f f e r e n t ki nds
of c i r c ums t anc es
t he
at t r i but es
associ at ed
w t h
those
di s t i nc t i ons may
be
t rans fer red
t o
t he obj ect s
t hemel ves,
whi ch
then
woul dcome
t o possess
a
degr ee
of autonomyvi s - d- vi s
human
agent s whohad
l o s t
contro l
of
t he symbol i c meani ngs vested i n them
4
3
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 44/124
WLLI M
L ISS
hose
meani ngs,
now
wi t h a
l i f e
of
t h e i r
own ,
can
act as
acount erwei ght
t o
the
spont aneous
devel opment
of
newer
cul t ural
f orms
ari si ng
i n
response
t o
envi r onment al
and s oc i a l changes
I f
some
t erm nol ogi cal
l i c e n s e
be
permtted,
rei f i cat i on coul d
be
t ermed
a
negat i ve
external i t y i n
t he process
of
obj ecti f i cat i on,
where by
t he l a t t e r
we
underst and
t he
t r ansf ormat i on
of
nat ur e into
physi cal f orms t hat express
human creat i vi t y
he i deol ogi es
of
ear l y
capi tal i sm whi ch
r epresent ed economc rel at i ons as
t he outcome
of
t he worki ngs
of
uni ver sal l y- appl i cabl e
nat ural
l aws, wer e
r e i f i e d
f orms
of
soci al consc i ousness I n them
he
real soci al t r ansf ormat i ons
whi ch created
t hose economc rel at i ons (such as
t he f orc i ng of l abour - power
in to
t he
commodi ty
f o rm
were
conceal ed
and
di stor t ed
soci al
po l i c y,
t
was
s a i d , had t o obey
t he
l aws of
t he
market pl ace
However t he
gradual
accept ance of i ncr easi ng
government al
mani pul at i on
of t he economy has
l argel y ( but
not e n t i r e l y
made
t h i s
formof r e i f i e d
consc i ousness obsol et e I t i s
not cl ear whet her t
has been r epl aced, on t he
l e ve l of
overal l
publ i c
underst andi ng of t he rel ati on
bet ween economy and publ i c
po l i c y,
by some
other f orms
hetheory of f a l s e
needs i mpl i es t hat t he
l ocus
of r e i f i e d underst andi ng has
shi f ted i n
a
sense
from
t he sphere
of
pr oduct i on
to that
of
consumpti on
Thi s
theory
suggest s t hat there i s apervasi ve
mani pul at i on of desi re or
di stort i on i n
t he
rel at i on
bet ween
needs
and
t he
obj ect s
of sat i sfacti on
G vent he cul t ural
vari abi l i ty of needs,
however ,
t
has pr oved
d i f f i c u l t f or
t he theory
t o
go
beyond t he vaguest
general i zat i ons
3
Unt i l
i t
i s
abl e t o
do
so t
wi l l not
be
possi bl e
f or us t o eval uat e t he
cont ent i on and unl ess t does
so t runs
t he
r i sk
of bei ng consi der ed
as
merel y an
i nvi di ous
di sti ncti on
I n general any
theory
of f a l s e
consc i ousness
shoul d
be abl e
t o be
cl earer
t han t hose
i n
t he
past
have
been
about
j ust what ki nds of
myst i f i cat i on
occur as a r e s ul t of
c a p i t a l i s t
exchange
r el at i onshi ps
2
R e i f i c a t i o n
and ommodi ty Fet i shi sm
I n
Mar xi st
t hought
t he
f et i shi smof
commodi t i es byand
l arge
a
speci al case of rei f i cat i on
What was
sai d
above of t he l a t t e r
appl i es
as
wel l t o the f ormer
Speci f i cal l y, t
i mpl ausi bl e t o suggest t hat
persons
are rul ed by
what ever meani ngs are
proj ect ed
ont o
t he
wor l d
of commodi t i es
Rather ,
t hose
commodi t i es
seem
t o
be
more
and
more
t he perf ect l y t r ansparent
reposi t or i es of
t hose
meani ngs
i
. e
t he sat i sfacti on
of needs
t akes pl ace
i n
t he
context of
an
open- ended
compet i t i ve
emul at i on,
where
t he
assor t ment
of
bot h
obj ect s
and
symbol s
i s
const ant l y reshuf f l ed
I t may be
possi bl e, however , t o
re- i nt erpret
those
concept s i n
t h i s
new
context he r anked and
di scont i nuous spheres of exchange
abol i shed
by
commodi ty
pr oduct i on
may r e- appear
as
qual i t at i vel y
d i s t i n c t
spheres of
meani ngw t hi n t he
commodi ty
form
t s e l f
( Recal l
Sal i sbury s
poi nt
about
t he
di mensi ons of
subsi st ence,
l uxury, and
ceremony
or prest i ge i n
t he
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 45/124
TH
FETI SH SM
OF
OBJ ECTS
aut omobi l e
.
Thi s r equi r es car ef ul
i nvesti gat i on
to see
whet her a
f r u i t f u l l i n e
of
i nqui r y
may
be devel oped
One
possi bl e i mpl i cat i on may
be
not ed
The
ef f ect i veness
of
t he
pr esti ge economy i n pr imt ive s oc i e t i es seems to
depend
i n
l ar ge par t on 1
i t s
segregat i on
f rom
non- pr est i ge
subsi st ence pur sui t s
and
2 t he
speci f i cati on of
a cl osed s et
of counter s
as prest i ge
tokens
Both
pr i nci pl es
ar e vi ol ated i n
t he
pr esti ge
compet i t i ons i n
mar ket soci ety
I f
t he
compet i t i on i s more
open- ended, the s i gns of
success
are al so
l e s s
cl ear and
stabl e t hus i t i s
bot h more extensi ve, encr oachi ng
on
a l l
aspects
of
ever yday
l i f e
and
per haps
l e s s
sati sf yi ng
i n i t s
out come, si nce t he
t okens
of mer i t
have no
l a s t i n g val ue
Presti ge t oo
i s t hreatened by i nf l ati onar y
pr essur es
The
di f f usi on
of
pr esti ge
compet i t i on
t hr oughout
the domai n
of
consumpti on
may
pr ovi de
a
basi s
f or r e- i nter pr eti ng
t he
concept of
rei f ication
i n
t he
context of
the commodi ty form
9
Exchange i n Market and
Non market
Contexts
Changes
i n
t he l ar ger
context of
market
r e l a t i o n s
and thei r s oc i a l f unct i ons have
l ong
been
advocated
as par t
of
t he
s o c i a l i s t
opposi t i on
to
capi tal i sm Some
of
t he
ar gument s
about
t he
d i f f e r e n t
stages t hr ough whi ch
s oc i a l i s t s oc i e t i es
ar e
supposed to evol ve,
or
about the di f f erences between
soci al i sm
and
communi sm
turn
on
t h i s
poi nt
Yet
i n
Mar xi st
t heor y
a t l e a s t ,
accor di ng t o
Stanl ey Moore these ar gument s have s t i l l not been s u f f i c i ent l y c l a r i f i ed
4
o
Such
i s s ues as
t he
scope
of
commodi ty pr oduct i on, al ter nat i ve
types
of
exchange
r el at i onshi ps,
and t he
types of soci al di f f er enti ati on
r equi r e cl ose
r e -
exam nat i on i n s o c i a l i s t
t heor y
The enter pr i se wi l l
be
more
pr oduct i ve
i f
i nstead
of
conf i ni ng i t s e l f to specul at i ve
t r e a t i s e s ,
i t al so l ooks at
t he
i nstr ucti ve
exper i ences
w th
these
matter s
that have
occur r ed
under the s t a t e -
s o c i a l i s t r egi mes 4 1
4
The
Compar at i ve
Per spect i ve
Concl udi ng Not es
The
anthr opol ogi cal
mater i al s
ar e
especi al l y i nter esti ng
on
one
poi nt
t he
l i nkages
bet ween
pr esti ge
and
i t s mater i al
t okens ar e qui te
ar bi tr ar y Thi s
has
somesi gni f i cance
f or our
own s oc i e t y ,
where si ml ar l i nkages
i n
r ecent
t i mes
rely ongoodsand
l i f e s t y l e s
that pl ace
heavy
demands
on
r esour ces
and
ener gy
Thi s
has
made
i t
d i f f i c u l t
to know
how
to deal
w th
t he
ser i ous
i nequi t i es
i n
t hedi str i buti on
of i ncome,
si nce rai si ng other s to a
hi gher
st andar d
woul d
f ur t her i n t e n s i f y
those
demands
A
di f f er ent
appr oach may br i ng
a happi er sol ut i on to t h i s
di l emma
I t i s
possi bl e that r e l a t i v e l y
i nof f ensi ve
ways
may
be f ound
t o
r e- i nter pr et
pr esti ge
val ues
i n
t er ms of
l e s s
r esour ce- ext r avagant
goods
G ven
t he
ar bi tr ar y char act er
of
such val ues, there
i s
no
r eason
to suppose that t he
r e s u l t s
wi l l
be
l e s s f a i r
or
l e s s sati sf yi ng
Envi r onment al
Studi es
o l i t i c a l
Sci ence
York
Uni ver si t y
5
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 46/124
WLLIAMLEISS
Notes
1 Raymond
Fi r th ,
Pr i m t i ve
Pol ynesi an
Economy,
nd
ed London
Rout l edge,
1965,
p
18
Fi r th ,
Pr i m t i ve Pol ynesi an
Economy, p
36
3 I n t he l i t e r a t u r e on
economc
ant hr opol ogy
there i s
a debat e over t he
appl i cabi l i ty
of
moderneconomc categor i es
( capi tal
i nvestment,
f or exampl e) t o
t he
anal ysi s
of pr i m t i ve
s o c i e t i e s
The
st r engt hs
and
weaknesses of t he
di f f e r e nt
posi t i ons ar e
not
r el evant t o
t he
pur pose of t h i s
paper
; myor i entati on i s
based
on
t he
i nt er medi at e posi ti on chami oned
by
F i r t h
See Raymond Fi r th , ed Thems i n Economc Anth r opol ogy, London Tavi stock,
1967
4
Mar shal l
Sahl i ns,
On
t he
Soci ol ogy
of
P r i m t i v e Exchange , i n h i s StoneAge Econom cs,
Chi cago Al di ne, 1972, p 186
5 Ot her s ar e Stephen Kl i ne and
W l l i am
Lei ss,
Adver t i si ng,
Needs
and Commodi ty
Fet i shi sm ,
Canadi an
J our nal
of P o l i t i c a l
and
Soci al Theor y, Vol
2 ;
No
1
Wnter,
1978,
pp 5-30 ;
and
W l l i am L e i s s Marx
and Macpherson Needs,
U t i l i t i e s
and
S e l f
Devel opment ,
( f or thcom ng)
6
Mar shal l
Sahl i ns, Cul ture and
Pr acti cal
Reason, Chi cago
Uni ver si ty
of Chi cago
Pr ess,
1976, p
211
7
V L Leymore H dden
Myth
The Structure of Symbol i sm n
Adver t i si ng,
London
Hei nemann,
1975 ; J udi t h Wl l i amson,
Decodi ng
Adver t i sements, LondonMari on
Boyar s,
1978
8
Thor stei n
Vebl en,
The Theory of t he
Lei sur e
Cl ass, New
York
Vanguard
Press,
1926,
p
110
9
/ bi d pp 25- 6,
31,
3
10 / bi d pp 58
157f f
11
Thi s
i s
t he themof TheEngi neer s andt he
Pr i c e
System a s e r i e s of essays f i r s t publ i shed i n
t he
magazi ne The
D al
i n
1919,
and
i t
can
befound
t hr oughout
Vebl en s
t hought
see
J oseph
Dorfman, Thor stei n
Vebl en and
hi s Amer i ca, wYork
A
Kel l ey,
1961,
passi m
12
See Dorfman, op c i t
p
6
One of Vebl en s
sour ces
was J B Cl ar k, The Phi l osophy of
Weal t h
( 1885)
For
an ear l i er
exampl e
s ee Rousseau s r emar ks i n
Roger
Master s, ed
The
Fi r st andSecond
D scour ses,
New
York
St
Mar t i n s
Press,
1964,
pp
149, 156,
174- 5
Cf
C B Macpherson Needs and
Wnts an Ontol ogi cal or Hi stor i cal Pr obl em? i n Ross
Fi tzger al d, ed
Human
Needs
and P o l i t i c s London Pergamon Press,
1977, pp
28- 9
13
And
i ndeed
Staf f an
Li nder s
mar vel ous
book, The Harri ed
Lei sur e
Cl ass, NewYork
Columbi a
Uni ver si ty
Press, 1970
14 For one
examle
s ee t he
di scussi on
of ceremoni al exchange among t he Ti kopi a i n F i r t h
Pr i m t i ve
Pol ynesi an
Economy,
pp 320- 332
15 Raymond Fi r th , Economcs of t he NewZeal and
Maor i ,
nd ed Wel l i ngt on, N Z
Governmnt Pr i nter ,
1959,
p 450 ; s ee al so p 167
16
Fi r th , Economcs of
t he
NewZeal and
Maor i ,
p
41
46
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 47/124
THE
FETISHSM
O
O E TS
17
Cora DuBoi s, The Weal thConcept as an I ntegrat i ve Fact or i n Tol owa- Tut ut ni
Cul t ur e ,
i n
Essays
i n
Anthropol ogy
pr esent ed
t o
A
L
Kr oeber, Berkel ey
Uni ver s i t y of Cal i f or n i a
Press,
1936,
pp 49-65,
i s t he
e a r l i e s t
pi ece
I have f ound that uses
t he subsi stence- pr est i ge
economy t er ms
I n addi t i on t o
t he
exampl es gi ven bel ow
see
Paul Bohannan, Soci al
Ant hr opol ogy, New
York Hol t ,
Ri nehar t and Wnst on,
1963,
pp
233- 240 ( Tr obr i and
I sl ands)
;
Fi r th ,
P r im t i v e
Pol ynesi an
Economy
pp
340- 344
( Ti kopi a) ; and
W
R
Bascom
Soci al St at us,
Weal th
and I ndi vi dual D f f e r ences
among
t he
Yor uba , Ameri can
Ant hr opol ogi st ,
vol
55,
1951
18 WR
Bascom Ponapean Prest i ge Economy Sout hwest er n J our nal of Ant hr opol ogy,
vol 4, 1948,
pp 211- 221
19
Bohannan op
c i t
p
254
20
Bohannan op
c i t
pp
248-253
See
especi al l y
p 252
Ti v ar e scor nf ul of a manwho i s
mer el y r i c h i n subsi st ence
goods
or , t oday, i n
money)
I f havi ng adequat e subsi st ence,
he
does
not
seek pr esti ge i n accor dance w t h t he ol d count ers, or i f
he
does
not
s t r i v e f or
more
w ves,
and
hence morechi l dren, the f a u l t
must
be per sonal
i nadequacy
They al so not e t hat
they a l l
t r y t o
keep
a man
from
maki ngconver si ons ;
j eal ous
ki nsmen
of a r i c h man wi l l
bew t ch hi m
and
hi s
peopl e by
f e t i s hes , i n or der t o
make
hi m
expend
hi s
weal t h
on s a c r i f i c e s
t o
r epai r
t he f e t i s h e s , t hus mai ntai ni ng
economc
equal i t y
Ther ef or e, t he manwho
conver t s hi s
weal t h
i n t o
hi gher
cat egor i es i s successf ul he has a st r ong
heart
He i s bot h
feared
and
r espected .
21
R
F
Sal i sbur y,
From
Stone
t o
St e el ,
London
Cambri dge
Uni ver si t y
Press,
1962,
p
103
22
Ibd, p 212
; c f Mary
Dougl as,
Pr i m t i ve
Rat i oni ng
A
St udy i n
Contr ol l ed
Exchange , i n
F i r t h ,
ed
Themes i n Economc Ant hr opol ogy, pp 136-138
23
Op
c i t
p 204
24 Oneexampl e of what
may
be mssed w t h excessi vel y abst r act
cat egor i es
I n most
p r im t i v e
s o c i e t i e s
t he
r anked spheres
of needs and
exchanges ar e
i n t r i n s i c a l l y
re la ted
t o ro le
deter m nat i ons Thus t he pr est i ge economy
i s
al most ent i re ly amal e preserve Thi s
i s
hardl y
an i nconsequent i al f a c t f or t he theory of human needs
25 Thus t he br oad meani ngof f et i sh
offered
by
Webst er s
c o l l e g i a t e
di ct i onary i s
any
mat er i al
obj ect regarded w t h superst i t i ous or ext r avagant t r u s t or r everence. I t al so has
a
t echni cal
meani ng
i n psychoanal yt i c
l i t e r a t u r e
that i s w del y known
26 I
do
not mean t o i mpl y here that
soci al
re l at i ons i n
t hese
s o c i e t i e s
wer e a per f ect expr essi on
of t he
pr oper
i nt erpl ay
of
i ndi vi dual
and
gr oup, or t hat t her e wer e
no
r egr essi ve el ement s
( the w despr ead f e t i s h i s t i c pr act i ces ar e
s u f f i c i e n t
ev idence t o t he contrary)
A
cri t i que
of
themon t h e i r own
t er ms
i s
bothbeyondmy
compet ence and
beyond
t he scope of t h i s
paper
27 J ean
Baudr i l l ard,
Le syst eme
des o bj et s , Pa r i s
Gal l i mar d,
1968,
pp
276f f
; t he
t h es i s i s
el abor at ed i n La
soci i i i
de
consommat i on,
Pa r i s
S
G
P
. P
1970
The
exampl es
i n
t he
t ext
ar e
mne
28 Thei r work
i s
presentedanddi scussed i n a super b
essay
byRober t D Amco, Desi r e and t he
Commodi ty
Form, Tel os, no 35 ,
Spr i ng,
1978
The
quot at i on at t he endof t h i s
par agr aph
i s
from
p 101
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 48/124
29 [ b i d
p 104
DAmco
obj ect s
t o
Baudri l l ar d s r eadi ng ofMarx
I t hi nk
there
i s more
t r u t h
i n
i t t han DAmco
i s
wi l l i ng
t o
concede,
but
i t i s
cer t ai nl y
correct t o say t hat
Baudr i l l ard
i gnores
a l l
t he
nuances
i n
Mar x s
texts
The
most
adequat e
c r i t i que and
i nt erpretat i on
of
Marx
on
t h i s
poi nt
i s i n my
vi ew,
t he one
offered
by
Sahl i ns, Cul t ur eandPr acti cal Reason,
pp 148- 170
30 I n
hi s
essay,
176t i chi sme
e t i d6ol ogi e ( 1970) , repr i nt ed i n h i s Pour une c r i t i que de
l Vconome
pol i t i que du
si gne,
Par i s Gal l i mar d,
1972, pp 95- 113
; al so t he
chapt er
Au- del a
de
l a val eur d usage , i b i d
pp
154- 171 Cf
Kl i ne
and
Lei ss, op c i t
pp
9-13
31 Pour une c r i t i que, p 160 (my i t a l i c s
WLL MLESS
32
Marx
Gr undr i sse, t r
Mart i n Ni col aus, London
Pengui n, 1973, p 881,
quot ed
by Sahl i ns,
Cul t ur e and
Pract i cal
Reason,
p
151
Sahl i ns not es t here
t he
cont r ast i ng passage
f rompp
267- 268
of
t he Gr undr i sse,
where
Marx pr om ses but never
subsequent l y f u l f i l l s
t he
pr om se
t o show
how
use val ue
i s
a det erm nant of t he sys t em of
needs and
product i on
33 Sahl i ns,
Cul t ur e
and Pract i cal Reason,
pp
207- 208
34 I b i d p
169
35 W Wel l s
andA
Beard, Personal i t y
and
Consumer Behavi our , i n
S
Ward
and
T
S
Rober t son,
eds
Consumer Behavi our
:
Theor eti cal
Sources, Engl ewood
C l i f f s ,
N
J
Pr ent i ce- Hal l ,
1973, pp 141- 199
Tabl e
3
i n
t hei r
a r t i c l e
( pp
180-189)
l i s t s
a
great
number
of
these research ef for t s
36
Cul t ur e
and
Pr acti cal
Reason, p 17 8
37
A
recent
st at ement of fe rs
a
good i l l u s t r a t i o n
Hence, t rue needs
ar e
those whi ch
foster
t he
devel opment of human uni versal i t y, gi ven
t he
achi eved l e ve l of mat er i al and i n t e l l e c t u a l
resources ; f a l s e needs t hosewhi ch bl i ndl y
reproduce
t he
i r r a t i ona l
necessi t y
of
dom nat i on
.
Char l es
Rachl i s,
Marcuse and
t he
Probl em
of Happi ness ,
Canadi an
J our nal
of Pol i t i cal
andSoc i al Theory , Vol
2 , o
1 Wnter ,
1978,
p 8
38
1
have
benef i t ed
f roma
conver sat i on
wi t h Herbert
Marcuse
on
these mat t er s
I
hast en
t o
add
t hat t he
f o rmul at i ons
i n
t he
t ex t a r e ent i rel y
myown respons i bi l i t y
39 I n
hi s
Democr at i c Theor v, NewYork
Oxford
Uni ver s i t y Press,
1973,
pp 178-9, C B
Macpherson
accuses mar gi nal u t i l i t y
t h eo r i s t s
of
maki ng
t he assumpt i on of
uni versa l i nnat e
emul at i on, or
i nnat el y
i nsat i abl e want s, and
he suggest s t hat t h i s
i s
a
r egr essi on
t o a pr e
Hobbesi an pos i t i on I n p r im t i v e
s o c i e t i e s
t he pr o pens i t y f or
emul at i on
i s general l y
r e s t r i c t e d
t o adul t mal es (thus i s not
uni versal ) and
i s
not re l at ed
t o
any
i n s a t i a b i l i t y of
want s I t
i s
cl ear l y
a
cul t ural
pr a c t i c e, and t hus not i nnate
i n t he
s t r i c t sense
;
oneneed not
assume i t
i s present
i n
a l l
human c u l t u r e s , but al so one cannot regard
i t
as si mpl y a
pr oduct
of c a p i t a l i s t mar ket
re l at i ons
Whether one
vi ews
i t s modern
form
as i nher ent l y harm ul or
benefi ci al i s
of cour s e a
mat t er of j udgement
; i n
t h i s essay I have not
taken a
stance on t hat
i s s u e,
but
mer el y cal l ed
at t ent i on
t o
i t s
si gni f i cance i n
an
anal yti cal
sense
40 Thi s
i s devel oped
i n hi s f or t hcom ng
book AnObsured
Al t ernat i ve
Marx on Soc i al i sm
and Communi sm
Prof essor
Moore ki ndl y al l owed
me
t o r ead hi s draft manusc r i pt
41
One
val uabl e study i s P h i l i p
Hanson Adver t i s i ng and
Soc i al i sm
Whi te Pl ai ns,
Y
I nt ernati onal Arts and Sci ences Press, 1974
48
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 49/124
Canadi an J ournal of Pol i t i cal and
Soci al
Theory/Revue canadi enne de
t hi or i e
pol i t i gue
et
soci al e,
Vol
2,
No
3 ( Fal l / Automne
1978)
THE
LEG Y
OFPOLITICAL
E ONOMY
THNKINGWTH
ND
G NST L USOFFE
J ohn
Keane
Recent st at ement s
byPi err e Trudeau
have conf i rmed
whatmanyof us
have
l ong
suspect ed
t heage
of
l i beral i smandi t s s e n s i t i v i t y
t o pr obl ems
of
power
i s
over
Not w t hst andi ng w despr ead o f f i c i a l chat t er
about
de- cont r ol s and
cut backs and t he renewed
c a l l
f or free
market s ,
we
of
t he advanced
c a p i t a l i s t
worl d
are w t ness
t o
s t a t e
a c t i v i t i e s
unparal l el ed
i n thei r extent ,
sophi st i cat i on,
and i nt rusi veness
i n
t he
market - pl ace Mar x s
except i onal
comments
on t he huge s t a t e e d i f i c e
of
t he France
of
h i s
day
a
count r y
where
every mouse i s under pol i ce admni st rat i on z
become
uni versal l y
appl i cabl e t o our
t i mes
I n l i g h t
of
t hese
devel opment s, t he recent ent husi ast i c
r e v i v al of i n t e r e s t i n
Mar x s
di scussi on
of p o l i t i c a l economy
and
t he
s t a t e
i s l ong overdue
Yet
t h i s
r enewal e . g t he
M l i band- Poul ant zas conf r ont at i on
3 i s
a t horoughl y
ambi guous, even precar i ous devel opment
Thi s
i s because t hepromset hat i t s
r e a l
i n s i g h t s woul d
condemn t o obscuri t y t he
by-nows t a l e p o l i t i c a l
c l assi cs
of
t he
Marx i st t radi t i on, 4
t ends
t o
go
hand
i n
hand
w t h at t empt s
at a more
general
t heor y of
p o l i t i c s
char act er i zed
by a retreat t o
Marxi an
f ormul at i ons
Al most
i nvari abl y, t h i s textual
regressi on i s accompani ed
by
l ament at i ons
about Marx s
wel l - known f a i l u r e
t o compl et e h i s
f or eshadowed fourth
vol ume ( of
a more
ext ensi ve, si x- part t r e a t i s e s )
on
thestate Si nce
Marx never
effected t h i s compr ehensi ve,
syst emat i c
t heory of t he c a p i t a l i s t
s t a t e , i t
i s
sai d
t hat
t he
l a t t e r
i s
now
onl y possi bl e
on
t he
basi s
of
a
r econst ruct i on
of
vari ous
of
h i s
pi eces de ci r const ance
For al l t h e i r
i mpor t ant
di sagr eement s, t h i s i s
t he
shared poi nt of
depart ure of
Poul ant zas earl y
c l a im
t hat
Marx
and
Engel s
under st ood
Bonapart i sm as
t he paradi gmat i c
t ype of
c a p i t a l i s t s t a t e , b
M l i band s
der i vat i on
of
t he
t heory
of
t he
r e l a t i v e
autonomy
of
t he c a p i t a l i s t
s t a t e from
a
wel l - known Mani festo passage, ? and
Al t vat er s Kapi t al - l ogi k
anal ysi s of
t he
separat i on of
Economyand
P o l i t i c s . 8
Thi s ret urn t o Marx
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 50/124
JOHN
K N
i s a
pr i me
and
t roubl i ng
exampl e
wi t hi n
contemporary
Marxi smof
what
Mer l eau- Pont y
has
cal l ed
t hought
i n retreat
. 9
Al l egati ons
about
t he
need
f or an el aborat ed
t heory
of
t he
s t a t e vi a a return
t o
Marx are
symptomati c
of
a
strong t endency
wi t hi n
t h i s Marxi sm t o pret end that
i t has al ready
f ound
out about
t he
wor l d
i n whi ch i t l i v e s ; that i t has
di scovered
t h i s worl d smodus
operandi by
r et urni ng
t o anddef endi ng vi gorousl y,
t he
Mar xi st roots
of
i t s concerns
I nmyvi ew,
t h i s dogmat i c retreat i s bound t o undermne t heel aborat i on
of
a c r i t i c a l
emanci pat i on- i nspi red t heory of
t he
present
Thi s i s
becauseMar x s
most general
t heses
on
t he
modern
s t a t e
and
economy
ar e
c r i t i c a l
appropr i at i ons
of t he
secret of
t he l aws
of
moti on
of
a uni que
ensembl e
of
condi t i ons i n
c a p i t a l i s t moder ni t y
namel y, ni net eent h- cent ury
l i b e r a l
capi t al i smand
i t s s t r i c t d u a l i s t i c
separat i on
of
t he r eal ms
of
c i v i l soci et y and
state
Wth
t he expanded
i mpor t ance of
state
a c t i v i t i e s
under t he
condi t i ons
of
advanced
capi t al i sm
Mar x s
general
i nsi ght s on
p o l i t i c a l
economy, t he
state and c r i s i s stand i n
need
of
radi cal reconst ruct i on
t hey
have l o s t t he i r
obj ect and,
hence, t he
medi um
of
t h e i r
pract i cal verif icat ion
That
t he
Marxi an
cri t i que
of
p o l i t i c a l
economy and t he s t a t e has been out wi t t ed by empi r i cal
devel opment s
whi ch
i t
had
not
ant i ci pated
i s
t he
i n i t i a l
premse
of
t he
work
of
Cl aus Of f e
Aswe can no l onger
regard
t he
syst emof p o l i t i c a l
aut hori t y
as
a
mere ref l ex
or
subsi di ary
organi zat i on
f or secur i ng soci al i n t e r e s t s
we
are
forced t o abandon the tr adi t i onal
approach, whi ch sought
t o reconstruct t he
p o l i t i c a l
syst emand i t s f unct i ons from he
el ement s
of p o l i t i c a l economy. I
I n
def ense
of Of f e
who
merel y
broaches t h i s poi nt ) t h i s
argument
needs
t o be
worked
t hr ough
t horoughl y,
and
Marx s cri t i que of
l i b e r a l capi t al i sml ocated
wi t hi n
i t s pr oper cont ext Agai nst t he
seduct i ve
power of dogmat i c
ret reati sm
t o
whi ch,
as
we
shal l
see
Of f e
somet i mes
suc cumbs) ,
t he
f ol l owi ng
ar gument s ar e
present ed
as
a
cont ri but i on t o
t he shar peni ng
of
recent
debat es
on
p o l i t i c a l economy
and t he
s t a t e They
are f ounded on t he
assumpt i on
that t he de-myst i f i cat i on of our
present
necessi tates the
c l a r i f i c a t i o n
of
our past ; that
onl y
t hereby can t h i s past beocme
ours,
no
l onger f orgot t en,
negat ed abst ract l y, or
embraced
bl i ndl y
OnLi beral
Capi t a l i sm
For Of f e, what was
uni que about
l i ber a l capi t al i sm
was t he
extent
t o
whi ch
f ree market
rel at i ons became hegemoni c The bourgeoi si e
st ruggl ed
t o
make reci procal exchange
rel ati ons
bet ween
pri vat e and al l egedl y
autonomous commodi ty owners
both t he paceset t i ng structural pri nci pl e
of
t h i s soci et y and
t hemaj or
sourceof i t s l egi t i mat i on
Soci al bei ng,
l anguage
and
consci ousness
came
t o be
def i ned
and
ordered
t hrough mar ket
rel ati ons
5
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 51/124
THELEG YOF
POLIT L ONOMY
I n
t h i s
sense (and here Of f e s argument i s pr ef i gur ed ni cel y
i n t he
work
of
Neumann
Kar l Pol anyi
and Wol i n
z )
l i b e r a l
capi t al i sm
was
t he
cul m nat i on
of
a
process
of
s oc i a l evol ut i on whi ch had
seen
a
gr adual
di f f erent i at i on
and
uncoupl i ng
of
t he
sphere of economc pr oduct i on and exchange
fromt he
f ormal const rai nt s of
ki nshi p and
p o l i t i c s
Market capi t al i smsawbot h
t he
emer gence of a sphere
of
product i ve
r e l a t i ons , and
a pattern
of
i deol ogi cal
t hought
and speech
( possessi ve
i ndi vi dual i sm
t he achi evement
pri nci pl e)
rooted
d i r e c t l y
wi t hi n t hose rel at i ons and seeki ng t h e i r
r epr oduct i on
13 Lat er
i n
t h i s
essay, t he
si gni f i cance
of t he l a t t e r spher e of symbol i c
i nt eract i on
w i l l
be
expl or ed i n
some
dept h
For now
t
shoul d not
be
f or got t en
t hat l i beral
capi tal i sms
rel at i ons of pr oduct i on wer e at t hesame t i me
symbol i c rel at i ons
Symbol i c codes
or s i gn val ues al r eady exi st ed
w thi n
t he
l ogi c
of
t he
pr oduct i on of
exchange and use
val ues,
r egul at i ng
t he
acc umul at i on process
by
est abl i shi ng
f or
i t s
par t i ci pant s
a
meani ngf ul , al l egedl y
undi st or t ed
uni ver se of di scour se
Cert ai nl y,
economc
l i beral i sm
and p o l i t i c a l
l i beral i sm
wer e no
Si amese
t wi ns
I t
untrue
t o
say
t hat mar ket
soci et y
and
l a i s s e z - f a i r e
coi nci ded bef or e
t he
ni net eent h cent ur y Locke, f or exampl e,
had str essed t he pr i macy of t he
s t a t e s
f ederat i ve
i . e
f orei gn
pol i cy)
and
t he
monar ch s
prerogat i ve
power s
over
l aw,
whi l e
Machi avel l i
and
Hobbes
had
underst ood t hat t he very
charact er
of
possessi ve
mar ket rel at i ons
at
f i r s t
presupposed
ext ensi ve
hi erar chi cal
s t a t e
r egul at i on
t o ward
of f severe
unempl oyment
andeconomc
and
s oc i a l di sorder
The f orc i bl e
cr eat i on
of abstract i ndi vi dual s
coul d
onl y
succeed
under t he aegi s
of an
abstract,
cent ral i zed s t a t e Thi s was preci sel y
t he
outcome
of
t he
absol ut e monar chi es ( e . g
t he
Tudors and
ear l y
St uar t s) , whi ch
pi l l aged t he church, suppressed
f orei gn enem es, and
dar ed
t o establ i sh
peacef ul
s t a b i l i t y
14
vens o,
by
t he
ear l y
ni net eent h century
( Engl and
i s
perhaps
pr ot ot ypi cal s )
t he
oper at i ons of gover nment
weremoreandmoreseen t o be
di st urber s
of t he
harmoni es economques . The
a c t i v i t i e s of
t h i s
ni ghtwatchman
state ( a s
Lasal l e
cal l ed
i t ) wer e
t o
be r e s t r i c t e d
t o
t he
general secur i ng of
ot herwi se
s e l f -
r epr oduci ng
market condi t i ons
:
t he
har nessi ng of t ax, banki ng and
busi ness
l aw
t o t he
dynamc needs of t he process of
capi t al acc umul at i on ; t he
pr ot ect i on of
bourgeoi s
commerce
vi a c i v i l l aw, po l i c e, and
t he adm ni str at i on
of
j u s t i c e
Fromwi t hi n
t he
ranks
of
earl y ni net eenth- centur y
ut i l i t ar i ani sm
came
t he
strongest
j ust i f i cat i on
f or
t he
weakest
state
commensurate
wi t h
t he
c l a s s
dom nat i on of
c i v i l
soci et y I t was
Bent ham s convi ct i on, f or
exampl e,
t hat t he
most
general end of l aws wer e but
f our
i n
number
:
t o
pr ovi de
subsi st ence
; t o
produce abundance t o
f avour
equal i t y ; t o
mai nt ai n
securi t y
16
Pr oceedi ng fromhi s t i me- bound
assumpt i ons t hat t he
great
unwashed
mass of l abour er s woul d never
seek t o el evat e t hemsel ves
above
subsi st ence
l e v e l s except t hr ough f ear of
st arvat i on,
and
t hat , f or t he
more
5
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 52/124
JOHN
K N
wel l t o do, t he secure hope
of
gai n was t he
necessary
andsuf f i ci ent st i mul us
t o
mximum
achi evement
and
pr oduct i vi t y, Bentham
deduced
hi s
one supreme
pr i nci pl e of secur i t y of exi s t i ng property rel at i ons
t hr ough
t he
s t a t e
The
goal
of
equal i t y
of weal t h
was
mde
t o yi el d t o t hat
of
secur i t y
of
bot h exi s t i ng
property
and t he
returns
onone s l abour
:
I n
consul t i ng
t he
grand pr i nci pl e
of
secur i t y
what
ought
t he l egi s l at or
t o decree
r espect i ng t he mass of
property
al r eady
exi st i ng? He ought t o mai nt ai n
t he
di s t r i but i on
as i t i s
act ual l y
est abl i shed .
7
The
market
property
and
symbol i c
order
was
t her eby
summned t o
shed
i t s p o l i t i c a l
ski n
;
l i b e r a l
capi t al i sms
i nst i t ut i onal
f ramwork
and
i t s mde of
l egi t i mat i on becam
i mmedi at el y
economc and
onl y medi at el y p o l i t i c a l
L i t e r a l l y ,
soci al l i f e was
par t i t i oned
: a
network of
r e i f i e d p o l i t i c a l i ns t i t ut i ons ( t he publ i que Sword as
Hobbes cal l ed
i t
was s et
t he
task
of
medi at i ng and def endi ng
t he
anarchy
of
t he
pr i vat e
real m
i n
whi ch,
f reed
f rom
he ol d
per ni ci ous
r egul at i ons ,
i ndi vi dual s
pursued
t h e i r
i n t e r e s t s
and exer ci sed t hei r nat ur al r i g h t s of pr i vat e j udgement
I t
was under
these
de- pol i t i ci zed
condi t i ons
t hat
l abour and
exchange
processes t ook on
t hat t wo- f ol d nat ur e out l i ned
by
Marx
whi l e pr oduci ng
use
val ues, l abour i ng a c t i v i t y
al so creat ed exchange
val ues Whi l e
al l ocat i ng
commodi t i es
vi a t he
mdium
f
money
t he
exchange
processes
of
t he
market
served
t he
sel f - expansi on
of
capi t al and
i t s
unspoken domnion
over those
who
l abour ed
8 Cl ass
dom nat i on strove
t o
becom s i l e n t and
anonymus
Money
began
t o gover n
and
t a l k
I n pl ace
of
t he
sl ave dr i ver s
l ash
not ed
Marx, we have t he overseer s
book of
penal t i es
.
19
Accor di ng t o
Of f e,
t he bour geoi s at t empt at
ef f ect i ng t h i s anonymus,
l egal i zed cl ass
domnati on was poss i bl e i nsof ar
as t hat st at e ensur ed
t he
predomnance
of
t he pre- pol i t i cal i n t e r e s t s
of
t he bour geoi s by
t aki ng
on
a
def ensi ve
r ol e ( as
out l i ned
by
Bentham
;
that
i s
t he
s t a t e
guar ant eed
t he
s e l f -
r epr oduct i on of
s t r i c t l y
del i m t ed
spheres of c i v i l a c t i v i t y
beyond i t s
aut hor i t y
I ndeed,
t he bour geoi s s t a t e conf i r med
i t s
c l a s s
nat ur e
preci sel y t hr ough
t he
mat er i al
l i m t s
i t
i mposed on
i t s
aut hor i t y
. z °
Whi l e
Of f e
does not el aborat e t h i s poi nt ,
i t i s
i mpor t ant t o note that t h i s
i s
t he cont ext i n
whi ch,
i n h i s famus
1859 f ormul at i on,
Marx
spokec o r r e c t l y
of
t he
bour geoi s- const i t ut i onal s t a t e
as
super st r uct ur al Thi s s tatewas
i ndeed
dependent upon t he
real
f oundat i on of
t h i s per i od, namel y,
those
rel at i ons
of
pr oduct i on
whi ch
const i t ut ed
t he economc
structures of l i b e r a l ,
bour geoi s
soci et y z 1
Thi s f ormul at i on
i s
r epeat ed ( a l b e i t qui t e unsyst emat i cal l y)
t hr ough
a wi de sel ect i on
of
Mar x s texts
Poul ant zas earl y c l a imt hat Bonapar t i sm i s
t hei r
cent r al
them
i s
but
a
car el ess and unfoundedover - i nt er pr et at i on
For
exampl e, t he
1859
f or mul at i on
i s al r eady
f or eshadowed i n t he cr i t i que
of
Hegel ,
accor di ng
t o
whose rather
c l a s s i c a l
vi ew
of p o l i t i c s
t he mdern s tate
was t he r e a l i t y
of
concr et e
l i ber t y , t he
uni versal
domin
of
enl i ght ened
convi vi al i t y
wi t hi n
whi ch
i ndi vi dual
c i t i z e n s real i sed
t h e i r
j u d i c i a l ,
mor al
and
52
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 53/124
THELEG YOF
POLITICAL
E ONOMY
p o l i t i c a l
f reedom
2 2
Through t he
c i v i l
cor por at i ons and t he s t a t e bur eaucr acy
t he cont r adi ct or y,
part i cul ari st i c
el ement s of
c i v i l
soci et y
wer e
t o
be
brought
t o reconci l i at i on at t he hi ghest
st age
of obj ect i ve
S p i r i t
t he f ormer
were
seen
t o
f unct i on
as
f i l t er s
t hrough
whi ch
t he
bel l um
omni um
contra omnes of
c i v i l
soci et y woul d be
or gani zed
and di r ect ed
t oward
t he s t a t e t he
bur eaucr acy, on t he ot her
hand,
was
t o
medi at e
rat i onal l y
bet ween these
pri vat e gr oups
Accordi ng
t o
Marx
i t i s preci sel y
t h i s t emper i ng
and uni versal i st i c
medi at i on of pri vat e
i nt e r e s t
whi ch coul d
not be
real i sed Hegel s
concept i on
of
t he
moderns t a t e
i s
pur el y abst r act - f ormal
Hegel s i nt ent i on
of
overcomng
t he act ual separ at i on of
c i v i l
soci et y and s t a t e act ual l y
l eads
t o t he concept ual
r e- af f i rmat i on
of t he
dual i sm
Hegel
i s accused
of syncreti sm
Wt h i n
t he
Hegel i an
schema, t he
act ual anti nomyof s t a t e and
c i v i l soci et y whi ch
Marx
t ook
t o be
a
key
charact eri sti c of bour geoi s
moderni t y s at t empt at
establ i shi ng
non- pol i t i cal
r eser vat i ons of exchange
23
was
si mul t aneousl y
r eveal ed and
conceal ed Bur eaucr acy
deni grates t he cor por at i on as mere
appear ance, or rather
want s t o
deni gr at e
i t
but
i t want s
t h i s
appear ance
t o
ex i s t
and
bel i eve i n i t s
own
exi st ence The cor por at i on i s
t he
at t empt of
c i v i l
soci et y
t o become t he
s t a t e
but
bureaucracy
i s
t he
s t a t e
whi ch
i n
act ual i t y
has
become c i v i l
soci et y .
2 4
Agai nst
Hegel , Marx
further pur sued t h i s
theme
of
t he
subj ugat i on of
t he
s ta te to t he l ogi c andpower of
c i v i l
soci et y
i n
h i s sti ngi ng
c r i t i q u e
of Ruge The
mdern
bour geoi s
s t a t e was seen once agai n t o be restr i ct edto mere f ormal
and negat i ve
a c t i v i t i e s preci sel y because i t s power s
ceased where t he de-
pol i t i ci zed
hustl e and bustl e of market
a c t i v i t y
commenced Thi s
sl aver y
of
c i v i l
soci et y
was, f or Marx t he natur al f oundat i on uponwhi ch
t h i s
s t a t e
rested and t owhi ch
i t
hadt o react
Thi s s t a t e
was
l i t e r a l l y
hel d
t oget her
by
c i v i l
l i f e 5
Thanks
t o t he f a c t
t h a t
t he bourgeoi si e
was
the l eadi ng
source of
r evenues
from
t axat i on
and
l oans,
t he
l i beral - bourgeoi s s t a t e became, i n
t he
f ormul at i on of The German I deol ogy) not hi ng
mre
t han t he formof
or gani zat i on whi ch t he
bour geoi s
by
necessi t y
adopt s
f or
bot h
i nt ernal
and
external pur poses
as a mutual
guarant ee
of
t hei r
property
and i n t e r e s t s
.
2 6
Thi s s t a t e became
amutual
i nsur ance pact of t he bourgeoi si e bot h agai nst t he
prol et ari at
and agai nst i t s e l f , t hat
i s
agai nst t he persi st ent anarchy of
i ndi vi dual c a p i t a l i s t i n t e r e s t s
2 1
st he most
famus
(and i l l - i n t e r p r e t e d ) 1848
f ormul at i on
had
i t
t h i s
s t a t e
was
but
a
comm t t ee
f or managi ng
t he
common
a f f a i r s of
t he
whol e
bour geoi si e . 28
O course, Marx underst ood t he i deal - t ypi cal
case
of
t h i s
devel opment
t o
be t he Ameri can
2 9
On ot her occasi ons, he poi nt ed
t o
aberrant cases
e . g
t he
Bonapar t i st s t a t e i n
France,
Bi smar ck s Germany
t he
Asi at i c
mode
of
pr oduct i on) wher ei n t he
r e l a t i v e l y gr eat er i ndependence of t he s t a t e t o mre
act i vel y or gani ze t he r el at i ons of
pr oduct i on
r esul t ed
from a )
uni que
53
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 54/124
JOHNK N
t e r r i t o r i a l and cl i mat i c condi t i ons , rei nf orced by t he gener al
absence
of t he
pr i vat e owner shi p and control of l and ; b )
t he
f a c t that f eudal r emnant s
cont i nued
t o hi nder
t he
achi evement of bour geoi s hegemony ;
and
c )
whereno
one par t i cul ar c l a s s ( or
cl ass
f ract i on) had at t ai ned
domnance
over t he
others
30
The l a t t e r
case
i n par t i cul ar r em nds us t h a t , f or Marx, t he
success
of
t he
bour geoi s st r uggl e t o de- pol i t i ci ze
market
rel at i ons
was
ext r emel y
t ent at i ve
Cer t ai nl y, t he
emer gence of
c i v i l
soci et y permt ted
anenormous, but
unpl anned,
devel opment
of
t he pr oduct i ve f o r c e s , a
devel opment
gui ded onl y
by t he
acqui si t i ve,
i ns t r ument al - ut i l i t ar i an act i ons
of market part i c i pant s
Ther ew t h,
l i b e r a l
capi t al i sm
and i t s Manchest er i t e s t a t e became
t he
f i r s t
mode
of
pr oduct i on
t o
i nst i tut i onal i ze
near
sel f - sustai ni ng
capi t al
accumul at i on
However, as i s
wel l - known, t he
bour geoi s dreamof
opaque,
non- pol i t i cal ,
uni ver sal l y- accept abl e c l as s dom nat i on r esul t ed i n
i t s
shat t er i ng opposi t e
pro l et ar i an st r uggl e agai nst t he formand cont ent of
t h i s
soci et y
Li ber al capi t al i sm(whoseext r eme f r a g i l i t y f l owed
f rom
he f a c t
that
i t s pol i t i cal - econom c structures and domnant
patterns of t hought
and
speech were l i nked i somor phi cal l y)
was
rocked t o i t s very f oundat i ons by
c r i s i s
t endenci es
whi ch
wer e t ot al i n t hei r i mpact Very f ew soci al f or mat i ons
have
ever
l abour ed
under
such
permanent
and
t hor ough
f ear
and
exci t ement
about
t he
possi bi l i ty of r evol ut i onar y
change
Economc
c r i s e s were
si mul t aneousl y soci al c r i s e s
They
r eveal ed at even t he
mundane
l ev e l of dai l y
l i f e
t he cont r adi ctory,
i r r at i onal
character of
l i f e
under l i b e r a l capi t al i sm t he
per sonal
was
i mmedi at el y
and
undeni abl y pol i t i cal Such
c r i s es , by t h e i r
per i odi cal
return
put on i t s
t r i a l , each t i me
more
t hr eat eni ngl y,
t he exi st ence
of t he ent i r e bour geoi s soci et y
31
Thi s was f a c i l i t a t e d by t he f act t hat t he
charact er i st i c
market
i deol ogy
( possessi ve i ndi vi dual i sm
per t ai ned
t o
ear t hl y
re l at i onshi ps of
human subj ect i vi t y at
t he
same t i me,
t h i s
i deol ogy
r eveal ed
and
conceal ed
t he
possi bi l i ty of human subj ects sel f - consci ous l y
maki ng
t h e i r
soci al
wor l d
As i deol ogy, possessi ve
i ndi vi dual i sm
coul d l ay c l a i mt o bei ng
t he f i r s t i deol ogy,
and
l i b e r a l
capi tal i smt he f i r s t s oc i a l
f or mat i on
w t h i n
whi ch
uni ver sal
emanci pat i on f rom
deol ogi cal
domnati on was
possi bl e
s Of f e poi nt s out ,
t h i s
i s t he cont ext w t h i n whi chMar x s enqui r y i n t o t h e
ni net eent h
century
val ue- f or mwas bot h
credi bl e
and f r u i t f u l
The cr i t i que of
c a p i t a l i s t
dom nat i on
at
bot h t he
i nst i t ut i onal and
symbol i c- i deol ogi cal
l e v e l s
t he anatomy of c i v i l soci et y coul d
come
i n t he
form
of a cr i t i que of
p o l i t i c a l
economy
onl y
under
condi t i ons
wher e,
as
Marx
s t r e s s e d ,
t he
whol e
of
human
ser vi t ude i s i nvol ved
i n
t he
rel at i on
of
worker t o pr oduct i on .
32
Thi s
al so
why,
w t h i n
Marx s
schema,
t he
cat egor y of need- sat i sf yi ng,
ont ogenet i c l abour was centra1
33 For Marx t he descr i pt i on of
men
and
women
as bei ngs
who
st r uggl e w t h and agai nst nat ure and, t hereby,
t hemsel ves,
was l i nked
cl osel y
w t h t he theory of
modes
of
pr oduct i on
successi vel y t r ans f or med t hr ough c l a s s st r uggl e Mor eover , t hr ough t he
54
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 55/124
THE
LEG YOFPOLITICAL
E ONOMY
i nsi ght t hat
t he
val ue of
t hi ng- l i ke
commodi t i es
was
dependent upon t he
l abour i ncor por at ed
i n
t hem
t hrough
t he
t heor y
of
surpl us
val ue, and
t hrough t he t heor em
of
per i odi cal
c r i s e s Marx demonst r at ed,
cont ra ry t o
bour geoi s
i deol ogy,
that
t he
bour geoi s accumul at i on
process
woul d
come
t oa
s t a n d s t i l l
over
and
over
agai n
These i ndust ri al ear t hquakes
wer e
under s t ood
as
t he real
bases
of t he
hope f or revol ut i on
The
s t a l l e d
boom
bust
charact er
of
l i b e r a l
capi t al i sm
was a
k i nd of
vi sual
demons t r at i on
t o
t he
t o i l i n g
masses, unl ess somet hi ng gave,
of
t he
di spari t y
bet ween t he devel oped
pr oduct i ve
f orces and t he
c l a s s - f e t t e r e d
rel at i ons
of
mat eri al
and symbol i c
pr oduct i on w t h i n whi ch
t hese f orces
were embedded
. 34
Late
Capi t al i sm State I nt ervent i on
as
Cr i s i s - Management
Of
course,
some
t hi ngs
di d
gi ve
byt he
l a s t
quar t er
of
t he
ni net eent h cent ur y
Of f e
ment i ons t he
de- subl i mat i on of
t he
product i ve f orces vi a
t he growng
nat i onal and
t rans- nat i onal
rat i onal i zat i on of wages,
commodi ty
pr i c es
tasks,
and
p r o f i t s Fur t her
and
most
s i g n i f i c a n t l y f or
our
purposes)
s t a t e
i nt ervent i on agai nst
t he
mar ket
around and
a f t e r
Worl d
War I
has
been
c r u c i a l i nsof ar
as
has
come t o si gnal t he
di ssol ut i on
of
t he
non- pol i t i cal ,
l i b e r a l phase of
capi t al i sm
and i t s
s o c i a l l y di s i nt egrat i ve
t endenci es
To
be
s u r e t he quant i t at i ve gr owt h
of
s t at e ac t i v i t y i n t h i s
per i od
has been
i mpress i ve
f or
exampl e,
i n Br i t a i n I t a l y t he
Uni t ed
States,
France and
West Germany s ta te
expendi t ur es
now
appr oach
or
exceed
40
of t he val ue
of
gross
domest i c pr oduct
6
More
i mpor t ant l y,
however , t hi s s t at e growth
const i t ut es a qual i t at i ve
expansi on compared w t h i t s
f ormer
rol e
Whether
ushered
i n t hrough
par l i ament ary appeal s
as i n t he Uni t ed
St at e s Br i t a i n
anada
Aust ra l i a) or
aut hor i t ar i an
f asci sm as i n
I t a l y andNazi
Germany) ,
t h i s qual i t at i ve gr owt h
has become a uni ver sal and
apparent l y
i r r e s i s t i b l e
trend
w t h i n
t he c a p i t a l i s t
wor l d
of
t he
past f i v e decades
I t s
qual i t at i ve
moment
i s reveal ed by i t s c r i t i c s whot a l k
of
cr eepi ng
soci al i sm
Such
s t a t e
i nt ervent i on
i s
not
soci al i sm
but
cr eepi ng
has
been
That real mof
l i f e i n
whi ch Mar xi an
cat egor i es
had
movedw t h
a g r e a t
deal of c r e d i b i l i t y t h a t real m
whi ch
consi st ed
i n pr i vat emen i n
t he exerci se
of
several Trades andCal l i ngs
Hobbes) ,
begi ns
t o shr i vel
Agai nst
t he
l a t e
ni net eent h cent ury
backdr op
of
economc
cart el i zat i on,
l abour
and
t a r i f f di sput es,
there
wer e
a
number
of
cruci al
devel opment s i n t he
p o l i t i c a l real m
Har bi ngers of t he
ci vi l i sat i on
of
t he s t a t e
and t he
pol i t i ci zat i on
of
c i v i l
s o c i e t y these i ncl uded t he
gradual
a f f i l i a t i o n
of
p o l i t i c a l part i es w t h part i cul ar
economc
i n t e r e s t groups, t he
emergence
of
part y
machi nes
bent
on
engi neer i ng
popul ar
consent , and t he
mass i ve
economc
mobi l i zat i on of
Worl d
War
I
Thi s s t a t e i nt ervent i on coi nci ded
w t h
55
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 56/124
JOHN
K N
a
t he
er osi on of
t he unw el dy par l i ament ar y
forum as
t he
l ocus of
bar gai ni ng
moved
t o unof f i ci al
party
or
coal i t i on
caucuses,
and
t o
new y-
est abl i shed government mni st r i es e . g t he Weimar
Republ i c s
I nt er par t y
Commttee and
M ni st r y of Labour ;
t he I t a l i a n
Fasci st
Grand
Counci l
and
M ni st r y of
Corporat i ons) whi ch deal t
d i r e c t l y w t h
sectors
of
l abour
and
capi t al ; ( b) t he
begi nni ngs
of
at t empt s
at accr edi t i ng organi zed
l abour ,
by
seeki ng
i t s
i nt egr at i on
w t h i n
a st at e- super vi sed
bar gai ni ng syst em
( by t he md- 1930 s, f or exampl e, t he Mati gnon agr eement s and
t he Wagner
ct had i mposed
such r equi r ement s
onFrenchand
meri canentrepreneurs
s im la r t o
t he
al r eady exi st i ng St i nnes- Legi en
and
Pal ozzo Vi doni agr eement s
i n
Germany
and I t a l y ; and
c
t he
dr amat i c
growth
of newstate f unct i ons,
such as
at t empt s
at al l ocat i ng rawmat eri al s and
pl anni ng and
r egul at i ng t he
movements of l abour
and
commodi ty pr i ces
Rescui ng
l i b e r a l
capi t al i sm
f rom r i s e s becamepossi bl e onl y
t hr ough
i t s
r e -
cast i ng i n a
cor por at i st
di r ect i on,
di ssol vi ng
t he ol d dual i sm
of
t he s t a t e
and
i t s cyber net i c
market More and mor e, t he s t a t e came
t o
negot i at e
w t h
f r act i ons of capi t al
and or gani zed
l abour o r , sanct i oned pseudo- uni ons, as
i n
I t a l y , t her eby bui l di ng them nto i t s structures 3 7 These devel opment s
wer e
r ecogni zed
ear l y
i n
t he
pi oneer i ng
work
of
Hi l f er di ng on
or gani zed
capi t al i sm, i n t he
wr i t i ngs of Kor sch,
Horkheimer and Mar cuse, and wer e
announced pr ophet i cal l y i n t he
words
of per haps
t he most
i nsi ght f ul f i gure i n
t h i s
c i r c l e ,
Fr eder i ck
Pol l ock
What i s comng
t o
anend i s
not
capi t al i sm
but
i t s
l i b e r a l
phase 3 8
Of f e pur sues t h i s
theme t he s t a t e i n
l a t e capi t al i sm
has
become
i nt erwoven
w t h
t he accumul at i on
process
such
that
t he
l a t t e r becomes a
f unct i on
of
bur eaucr at i c
s t at e ac t i v i t y and organi zed
p o l i t i c a l
c o n f l i c t
No
l onger ar e
they
as
super-structure
t o base
Rat her ,
c a p i t a l i s t r el at i ons
of
pr oduct i on have
been
re- pol i t i ci zed
The ( pot ent i al )
antagoni sm
bet ween soci al i zed
pr oduct i on
and
par t i cul ar
ends has
r e- assumed
a
di rect l y p o l i t i c a l
form
The
real i sat i on
of
pr i vat e capi t al accumul at i on o r , t o i nvoke
Of f e s
f avour i t e
expressi on, the uni versal i zat i on
of
t he
commodi ty f or m ) i s nowpossi bl e
onl y
on t he
basi s of
an
al l - encompass i ng pol i t i cal
medi at i on
I n an er a
of
compr ehensi ve state
i nt er vent i on,
onecan no
l onger
r easonabl y speak
of
`spheres
f r e e of
s t a t e
i nt er f er ence t hat const i t ut e
t he
`mat er i al base of
t he
` p o l i t i c a l
superstructure
; an
al l - per vasi ve
s t a t e r egul a-
t i on
of
soci al
andeconomc processes i s
cer t ai nl y
abetter
descr i pt i on
of
t oday s or der
39
El sewher e, Of f e devel ops
t h i s
argument vi a
t he
anal yt i cal di st i nct i on bet ween
5
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 57/124
THE
LEG YOF
POLITI L
ONOMY
al l ocat i ve
and
pr oduct i ve
s t a t e
p o l i c i e s
40
hereasi n t he era
of
l i b e r a l
capi t al i sm
s t a t e
a c t i v i t i e s
wer e
genera l l y
r e s t r i c t e d
t o
a l l o c a t i v e
f unct i ons,
i n
l a t e
capi t al i sm not
onl y
ar e these
cont i nued
but
t he s t a t e now
ac tual l y
produces condi t i ons whi ch
ar e
es s en t i a l
f or t he
r epr oduct i on of pr i vat e capi t al
but
whi ch t h i s capi t al
s
i ncapabl e
of
creat i ng These i nc l ude
key
i nf rast ruct ural
components
such
as
heal t h, housi ng, educat i on, t ranspor t at i on
and communi cati on s er v i c es , energy,
manpower
t r a i n i n g , and s c i e n t i f i c
research
and
devel opment
Unl i ke t he
l e s s preci se c onc ept of
s t a t e
i nt ervent i on , t h i s
i mpor t ant
di st i nct i on i s based not
onl y
on t he ext ent of s t at e ac t i v i t y r equi r ed t o
reproduce
t he accumul at i on
process,
but
al so
onan empi r i cal descri pt i on
of
t he nat ur e of t hese
r equi r ement s
and t he means
by
whi ch t he st at e
f u l f i l l s
them
Al l ocat i ve
p o l i c i e s i nc l ude
those
s t a t e at t empt s
t o
mai nt a i n
condi t i ons
f or
prof i t abl e
c a p i t a l i s t accumul at i on
t hr ough
t he
al l ocat i on of
resources
of
s ta te
pr opert y
( f or ces of l aw and order , taxes, t a r i f f s , crown
l and
and sea ,
et c
whi ch
al r eady
ar e
under
t s
j ur i sdi ct i on Usual l y,
such resources
are
di st r i but ed
accor di ng
t o power st r uggl es w t h i n and
w t hout
t he s t a t e i t s e l f
Al l ocat i on
i s a
mode
of
a c t i v i t y
of
t he
c api t a l i s t s t a t e that creates
and
mai nt ai ns
t he
condi t i ons
of
accumul at i on
i n
a
pur el y
aut hor i t at i ve
way
Resources and power s that i n t r i n s i c a l l y belong t o t he st at e and ar e at t he
di sposal
of
t he s t a t e
ar e
al l ocat ed .
i
For
exampl e, cer t ai n i ndust r i es
ar e
bai l ed
out , and others
recei ve
protect i ve t a r i f f s monetary pol i cy s
det erm ned accor di ng t o cer t ai n s t a t e r u l es t r a c t s
of l and
ar e
gi ven over
t o
r ai l ways t he pol i ce,
courts and
m l i t a r y ar e despat ched
accor di ng
t o cer t ai n
l e ga l gui del i nes and so on
Per haps
t he
c l ear es t
exampl e
of
such al l ocat i ve
p o l i c i e s
s
t he var i ous
( Keynesi an)
t echni ques
of
i ndi cat i ve
pl anni ng
devel oped dur i ng
t he
post -
war reconst ruct i on e f f o r t i n France 42 Whi l e
st eady
i n f l a t i o n ,
l abour
unrest
and i nt ernat i onal
trade compet i t i on
have sl owed recent
rates of gr owt h, t h i s
i ndi cat i ve pl anni ng pl ayed a maj or r o l e i n r ej uvenat i ng t he French
accumul at i on
process i n t he 1940 s
and
1950 s
Pr em sed upont he Keynesi an
t h e s i s that f i r ms deci s i ons
t o
i nvest ( and, therefore, busi ness
f l uctuat i ons)
depend
d i r e c t l y upon
t he
degr ee of
cer t ai nt y about
t he
future,
t he
Comm ssar i at
du Pl an has cons i s tent l y
s ought t o
remove t he
el ement of
unpredi ct abi l i t y i n
domest i c demand
and
i nvest ment
he
pl an
pl ot s t arget s
f or
each
basi c
i ndust r i al
s e c t o r ,
est i mat es t he pat t er ns
of
demand
t o
be
expect ed
by
i ndi vi dual
producers,
and s pec i f i es t he
l i kel i hood
of suppl i es
readi l y bei ng avai l abl e t o those
producers
I t
has
hel ped
overcome
bot t l enecks and
sl uggi sh
r a t e s
of
i nvest ment
i n s t r a t e g i c
sectors
of
t he
economy
and,
more r e c en t l y ,
has been
i nst r ument al i n pr omot i ng
nat i onal
champi ons
i n
t he
domai ns
of
domest i c and i nt ernat i onal t r ade Offe s poi nt s
that
these
al l ocat i ve t echni ques, form
of
whi ch were
al so
common
i n
t he
57
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 58/124
JOHNK N
ni net eent h century, ar e now or t hodoxy
i n
a l l
l a t e
c a p i t a l i s t
count r i es
On
t he
ot her
hand,
t he
novel t y
of pr oduct i ve
p o l i c i e s
i s
that they seek
t he
pr ovi si on of i nput s of accumul at i on
e . g
r econst r uct i ng l abour
s k i l l s
vi a
programmes of
vocat i onal
t r ai ni ng) i n
ant i c i pat i on of di st ur bances w t hi n t he
domai n of pr i vat el y
cont r ol l ed
accumul at i on
Thus, pr oduct i ve pol i ci es
s t r i v e t o bol st er saggi ng suppl i es of bot h var i abl e andconst ant
c a p i t a l ,
where
such
capi t al
i s
ei t her
not pr ovi ded, or pr ovi ded
i n
i nadequat e suppl y y
pr i vat e mar ket
deci si ons
43
Pr oduct i ve
s t a t e po l i c i e s a r e ,
t her ef or e, c r i s i s -
avoi dance s t r a t e g i e s , t hr ough whi cht he s t a t e r esponds t o actual or per cei ved
bl ockages
w t hi n
t he
accumul at i on
pr ocess
Thei r
r ati onal e,
whi ch
has
r e a l
mar ket - shear i ng e f f e c t s ,
i s
to res tore accumul at i on
or
t o avoi d
or el i mnate
per cei ved threats t o accumul at i on
44
Thi s i s t he
r e a l
si gni f i cance
nd uni queness of publ i c pol i cy f ormat i on i n
t he per i od of l a t e capi t al i sm
Through
such p o l i c i e s , t he s t a t e sel f consci ousl y
shoul der s t he
task of
overcomng
t he
s o c i a l l y
di si nt egr at i ve
consequences
of
l i b e r a l
capi ta l i sms
anar chi c pur sui t of pr of i t
By nomeans ar e
these p o l i c i e s
unpr oduct i ve
4 s
cruci al case i n poi nt
(mer el y
ment i oned by Of f e) i s
government
strategy
whi chseeks
t o up- gr ade t he
i mmat er i al i nf r astr uctur e
vi a
t he
f ormal
pr ovi si on
of
school i ng and
r e- school i ng
and,
t hereby,
t he
out put of those whom
Habermas
has cal l ed ref l ect i ve wor ker s
46 Such
r e f l e c t i v e , or
second- or der ,
l abour power
(e .g
that of
i ndust r i al
chemsts,
engi neer s, t eacher s) can
be seen as
l abour
appl i ed t o i t s e l f ,
i t s
pur pose
( exempl i f i ed
i n t he ol i gopol y sector) i s
t o
enhance
t he pr oduct i vi t y
of
d i r e c t ,
f i rst - order l abour
Thi s
pl anned pr oduct i on
of
r e f l e c t i v e
wor ker s i s
uni que
t o
l a t e capi ta l i sm
nd poi nt s
t o
t he obsol escence of
Mar x s as sumpt i on i n
t he
famous
f a l l i n g
rate of prof i t t he s i s
s t i l l
def ended y Poul ant zas nd others)
t hat the
rate
of
sur pl us
val ue t ends
t o
const ancy
Thi s mar ket - r epl aci ng, pr oduct i ve s t a t e a c t i v i t y i s onl y oneex mpl e of t he
s t a t e s more gener al i nvol vement i n
t he
pl anned
pr ovi si on
of
s c i e n t i f i c nd
t echnol ogi cal suppor t
f or the
accumul at i on pr ocess The sci ent i zat i on of
t he
c a p i t a l i s t accumul at i on pr ocess dat es fromt he
l a s t
quarter of t he ni net eent h
century
Duri ng
Mar x s
t i me
sci ence
and
t echnol ogi cal
devel opment
were
not
yet i ndust r i al i zed
Now however ,
sci ence a
l eadi ng pr oduct i ve f o r c e ,
f i nanced
d i r e c t l y
t hr ough st at e- f unded r esearch nddevel opment pr oj ect s
f or
t he ml i t ar y sect or
The
consequences
of
t h i s
st at i zat i on nd
i ndustr i al i zat i on
of sci ence nd
t echnol ogy
have been st agger i ng
Not
onl y
does
t hel p t o remove
t he dest r uct i ve
uncer t ai nt y f romt he patterns
of
t echni cal
i nnovat i on i n
t he
ol i gopol y
s e c t o r ,
t al so r ender s di r e c t l abour
more
pr oduct i ve, nd cheapens t he f i xed components of c a p i t a l , t her eby t endi ng t o
r a i s e t he
rate
of sur pl us val ue
Thi s has
h d
d i r e c t l y
p o l i t i c a l
consequences,
especi al l y
si nce ther e
emer ges a systemc
a b i l i t y
t o
p y hi gher w ges
t o
or gani zed
l abour
w t hi n
t he ol i gopol y
sector Of f e
i s
correct such f orms of
58
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 59/124
THELEG YOFPOLIT L
ONOMY
s ta te cr i s i s - avoi dance
strategy
cannot
be di sm ssed as unpr oduct i ve
Toward a Cr i t i que of t he Cr i t i que of
Pol i t i cal Economy
Wth t h i s
ar gument , Offe s
r e a l
pr oj ect
i s br oached I nasmch
as
t radi t i onal
market
forces have been
di spl aced and
r e - p o l i t i c i z e d ,
andt he
s t a t e c i v i l i s e d or
drawn di r ect l y i nt o pr oduct i on,
di s t r i but i on and consumpt i on,
Offe
i s
adamant that
a
c r i t i c a l
t heor y of
l a t e capi t al i sm
canno l onger r e t r e a t
t o ,
and
hi de under , t he
aegi s of t he
c r i t i q u e
of
p o l i t i c a l
economy
i n i t s c l as s i c al
Marxi an
f or mul at i on
.
At t empt s
t o
r e t r e a t
t o
c l a s s i c a l
Marxi sm
i s k
becomng
i deol ogi cal ,
i nsof ar as
they
concept ual l y exor ci ze t he
si gni f i cance of t he
pa r t i a l
over com ng of
t he
l awof val ue w t h i nwhat
r emai ns
of
t he
economy
More
than t h a t , they
obf uscat e
t he
whol e
pr obl emat i que of
t he
or gani zat i on
of
p o l i t i c a l
power and aut hor i t y and i t s renewed
i mpor t ance i n t he
r epr oduct i on
of dom nat i on i n t he t went i et h
century 47
Hi st or i cal mat er i al i sm
has no choi ce but
t o
engage i n s e l f - c r i t i c i s m
t he
Mar xi st
cr i t i que of p o l i t i c a l
economy
must be
appl i ed
t o
i t s e l f
Offe
buttresses
t h i s
i conocl as t i c
argument by
poi nt i ng
t o t hr ee
i mmedi at e
consequences of t he
al t e rat i on
of
bot h moments of t he f or mer s t a t e - c i v i l
soc i et y dual i sm
t he w t her i ng
of cl ass st ruggl e, t he emer gence of
mar gi nal i zat i on, and t he expansi on of
t echnocrat i c
p o l i t i c s .
Accor di ng t o
Offe, t he
patterns
whi ch
marked
ml i t a n t
c l a s s st r uggl e u n t i l t he
md- 1930 s,
have s i nce been di s f i gur ed I n
part t h i s
can
be
at t r i but ed
t o new
f or ms
of
wage
det er m nat i on w t h i n t he arena of
t he r at i onal i zed,
t echnol ogi cal l y
i nnovat i ve,
pr i ce maki ng nat i onal
and
t r ans- nat i onal
cor por at i ons
I n
t h i s
s e c t o r ,
uni on- f i l t er ed
demands
f or a greater share of
sur pl us can
be granted
and
passed
on
i n
t he
form
of hi gher
pr oduct
pr i ces t o
an
ext ent
consonant
wi t h
t h e
degree
of
i n di v i dua l f i rms
mar ket
power
.
hat
i s
t he gener al l e ve l
of
adm ni s t er ed pr i ces
i n
money t er ms
i s
pr i mar i l y
adj ust ed
by t he
negot i at ed
l e ve l of money
wage
r a t e s ,
and
not by mar ket
forces
: The mar ket
r e l at i onshi p
has
become
vi r t ual
rather than r e a l
t o
t he owner of l abour
power
4 8
The pr i ce of
l abour i s negot i at ed p o l i t i c a l l y ;
t he
sys temof pol i t i cal
wages
as
Hi l f er di ng had f i r s t observed49 t ends
di r ect l y t o
promote c l a s s
negot i at i on and
pl anned compromse Structures of wage det er m nat i on
become
t he
net s i nt o
whi ch
or gani zed
l abour
i s
drawn
Resul t ant
pr obl ems
of
t he i nf l at i on
bar r i er
not w t hs t andi ng ( Of f e has
not hi ng
t o say
on t h i s , c l ass
c o n f l i c t t ends t o be ext er nal i zed,
t r ans f i gur ed
i n t o
company uni on
negot i at i ons
s
o
Thi s devel opment i s
r ei nf or ced
by t he fact
that
l e v e l s of di sposabl e i ncome
have come t o be
l e s s
d i r e c t l y
dependent
upont he
mar ket ,
and
more
a f unct i on
of a whol e gamut of
s t a t e
po l i c i e s s oc i a l
ser vi ce
payment s , t he
l e s s
than
59
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 60/124
JOHN
K N
adequat e pr ovi s i on of heal t h
and housi ng, adm ni str at i on of
mnimumwage
r a t e s and i ncomes
p o l i c i e s ,
etc . 5 1
I n
par ti cul ar ,
Of f e ar gues
that
t he
s t a t e
appar at us
di scr i m nates
s e l e c t i v e l y i n f avour of ( and
i s
i n t urn, t her ef or e
dependent upon)
those
gr oups
pr i nci pal l y, organi zed
l abour andol i gopol y
capi tal
whosemutual
compl i ance
i s cruci al f or t he
smoth
r epr oducti on
of
t he
system
Upon
these
gr oups ( and especi al l y
f r act i ons of capi tal ) are
conf er r ed
what
Of f e c a l l s st r uctur al l y
det er m ned
pr i vi l eges 52 Wth
t h i s
argumnt
Of f e
t r anscends the cl ass- power ver sus
s t a t e
power
probl em
expr essed so
wel l
by
Poul antzas
5 3 For
Of f e,
t he
l a t e
c a p i t a l i s t
s t a t e i s caught
between
i t s
r o le
as a
passi ve
i nst r ument of
cl ass
f or ces
and i t s other r o leas an
autonomus
s ubj ec t ,
rati onal l y
or gani zi ng
and
r e- or gani zi ng
a
mul t i pl i ci ty of
compet i ng
i nt e r e s t gr oups
54
These
r ol es have
been ar ti cul ated respecti vel y by
those whomOf f e
c a l l s i nf l uence
and
const r ai nt
t h eo r i s t s , and by t he
p l u r a l i s t s , soci al democr ats,
and others
hol di ng
an
i nt egr at i on
mdel
Because t he
success of the s t a t e s
al l ocati ve and pr oduct i ve
p o l i c i e s
and i t s
gener al budget ar y obl i gat i ons are
ul t i matel y
dependent
on
r evenues
gener at ed
w t h i n
t he econom
the
s t a t e must at t he same t i me bot h r eact
t o
t he i mper at i ve of
the pr i vate
accumul at i on process
( a capi tal i st
s t a t e )
and
i nt er vene
s e l e c t i v e l y
t her ei n
(a state
i n
c a p i t a l i s t
soci ety )
55
One i mpor t ant
consequence of t h i s gener al
pol i t i ci zat i on
of the
accumul at i on process
i s t he
( at
l eas t t emporar y) di ssol uti on
of
t he
obj ect i ve
gr ounds f or the t h es i s of
t he
two
great host i l e
camps s t i l l
empl oyedbysome
sect i ons
of t he p o l i t i c a l l y i nef f ecti ve
l e f t
Wt hi n l a t e capi tal i st
count r i es,
there
i s at endency f or ver t i cal l y- opposed
c o l l ec t i v i t i es i . e c l a s s es ) t obe r epl aced
by a hor i zont al
system
of
d i s p a r i t i e s between v i t a l areas . 56 Thi s
i s
Of f e s
per suasi ve argument
agai nst
those who woul d unt hi nki ngl y
u t i l i z e t he
anal yti c
categor i es
of Labour , Capi t al , and c l as s
st r uggl e ; these
f ormul at i ons si mpl y
and
fai thful l y
assume what
has not
emerged
f actual l y 5 1
He argues that t he best owal of
st r uctur al l y
det er m ned
pr i vi l eges
upon
organi zed l abour si gnal s the di ssol uti on
or bi f ur cati on of t he pr ol etar i at
qua prol etar i at
Many of
those bl ue
col l ar
pr oduct i on
and mai nt enance
worker s,
and t he
so- cal l ed
m ddl e
c l a s s of mal e, whi t e c o l l a r ,
adm ni str ati ve
and techni cal wor ker s
w t hi n the uni oni zed
ol i gopol y and
s t a t e sectors
become a
l abour e l i t e
w t h
r e l a t i v e l y pr i vi l eged
access
t o
l a t e
capi tal i sms
ever -
expandi ng pr oducti ve f or ces O
cour se,
t h i s i s one aspect
of
t he
basi s of
popul ar support
f or
reformst
soci al - democr at i c
l abour
par t i es
such
as
t he
Br i t i sh
Labour
Party,
the
Fr ench P. C
. F
and the
Federal
Republ i c
of
Germany s
S
. P
. D
I n
Marxi ant erms t he
rate
of expl oi t at i on
i e
t he
rate of
sur pl us
val ue,
or t he
rat i o
between
sur pl us
val ue and wages)
becoms
ext r emel y
uneven
As
many
empi r i cal
st udi es
of l a t e capi tal i sms hi ghl y
skewed di str i buti on of weal th and
i ncome suggest, there occur s atemporary
r e- di str i buti on of i ncomeand
other benef i ts to t he det r i ment of those
out si de
60
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 61/124
THE
LEG YOF
POLITI LE ONOMY
t he
st r uctur al l y pr i vi l eged
zones
I t
shoul d
be
not ed
that
Of f e
i s
not
here
pr oposi ng
a
var i at i on
on
t he theme
of mass soci et y
or
embour geoi s ement or those w t h i n t he
per i pher i es ,
w t h i n s t r a t e g i c a l l y l e s s
v i t a l areas ( e . g t he i nmat es of i n s t i t u t i o n s ,
those
on
wel f are and
pens i ons , abor i gi nal
and
i mmgr ant
peopl es,
economcal l y
depressed
rural
and
nat i onal r egi ons, s l um,
t he areas of
publ i c
t r anspor t ati on,
heal t h,
and
housi ng) ar e
r e l a t i v e l y
negl ect ed
i n
t h i s
scenar i o
Accor di ng
t o Of f e, t he further t he system
of
p o l i t i c a l economy
and
commodi f i cat i on
i s
cent r al i zed, t he
more
whol e
gr oups ar e expel l ed
from
t h i s system
t he pauper i smof t he ear l y c a p i t a l i s t
pr ol et ar i at
has
gi venway
t o
t he
modern
pauper i sm
of
depressed
areas
5
a t any poi nt
i n
t i me
t he
degr ee of
t h i s mar gi nal i zat i on
i s
d i r e c t l y cont i ngent
upon t he ext ent
t o
whi ch
t he s t a t e s
r esour ces ar e
r equi r ed f or more
urgent pr oj ect s some
adj ust ed
bal ance
bet ween t he need t o guarantee and
promote
pr i vate
i nvest ment wi t hout
pr i ce i n f l a t i o n ;
f u l l empl oyment
; t he
avoi dance of
maj or
ml i t a r y
c o n f l i c t s
; t he
r epr oduct i on of
i nt er nati onal
t rade ; andt he r epr ess i on
of
domest i c
unrest
Accor di ng t o Of f e, t he e l e c t o r a l ,
l e g i s l a t i v e , execut i ve,
admni s t r at i ve and
j u d i c i a l
br anches of
t he l a t e
c ap i t a l i s t s t a t e
can be
seen
therefore
as
f i l t e r s
or
sor t i ng
processes
wi t h
a
marked
degr ee of
s el ec t i v i t y
I ndependent l y
of t he pr of essed i nt ent i ons
and
promses
of
par t i cul ar p o l i t i c a l
p a r t i e s , c i v i l
servants andp o l i t i c i a n s ,
t he
very
l ocat i on
of
t he i nst i t ut i onal structures of
t he s t a t e v i s - a - v i s t he accumul at i on
process, pre-
determne these i n s t i t u t i o n s
def i ni t i on of
what i s taken
t o
bea
p o l i t i c a l
need
The s t a t e
systemat i cal l y
enf or ces
non- deci si ons
59
Thi s
al so
means ,
however ,
that t he potent i al conf l i ct s whi ch r emai n
i nher ent
i n t he pr i vate
mode
of
capi t al u t i l i z a t i on
ar e
at t he
same
t i me
t he l eas t
l i k e l y
t o erupt
Of f e s
poi nt i s that these pot ent i al c o n f l i c t s
t end
t o r ecede behi nd t he p o l i t i c a l l y -
determned
c o n f l i c t s wi t hi n t he
depressed zones, s t r i f e
whi ch no
l onger
di rect l y
as sumes
t he
form
of
c l ass
st r uggl e
The
exi st ence
of
t h i s
pr i vi l ege- gr ant i ng
s e l e c t i v i t y
Of f e s way of poi nt i ng
t o
t he
degr ee of
r epr essi ve
bi as of t he l a t e c a p i t a l i s t s t a t e ,
and i ndi cat es
al so
why
t h i s apparatus
nowadays
s t r i v e s
t o become
t echnocr at i c i n
i t s
mode of
oper at i on
s
Of f e
s a y s ,
the conf l i c t - r i dden, di scur s i ve
p o l i t i c s of t he l i b e r a l
c a p i t a l i s t
past must
today become t he
s t at i s t - admni s t r at i ve s i l enci ng
and
pr ocess i ng of
i t s
obj ect s
The wel f are s t a t e i s
devel opi ng st ep- by- st ep,
r el uctant l y
and
i nvol unt ar i l y
I t i s
not kept i n
moti onby
t he
` p u l l
of a
consc i ous
p o l i t i c a l w i l l , but rather by
t he `push
of
emer gent r i s k s , danger s , or
bot t l enecks, and newl y
created i n s e c u r i t i e s
or
pot ent i al
c o n f l i c t s
whi ch
demand
6
1
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 62/124
JOHN
KE NE
i mmedi at e
measures
that avoi d
t he
soci al l y
destabi l i zi ng
probl em
of
t he
moment
The l ogi c of t he
wel f are
s t a t e
i s
not
the real i zati on
of
some i n t r i n s i c a l l y val uabl e
human
goal
but rather t he
preventi on of
a
potenti al l y
di sast rous
s oc i a l probl em
Theref ore, wel f are s t a t e s
everywher e
demonst r at e that
the
t endency of bei ng
t r ansf ormed
i s
l e s s
a mat t er
of p o l i t i c s
than
a
mat t er
of
technocr at i c
cal cul us 6
o
Of f e
here
al l udes
to
what
can be
cal l ed the
unspoken,
yet contr adi ct or y
character
of admni stered
p o l i t i c s i n
our
t i me
t he
more
our
l i v e s
are
pol i ti ci zed through
s t a t e
ac t i ons ,
t he
more
we are
expect ed
to
de- pol i ti ci ze
oursel ves, t o
busy our
muted s e l v es
wi thi n a
cul ture
whi ch pr omot es publ i c
s i l e n c e
and
pr i vate
or i entat i on
t owards career, l e i s u r e
and
consumpti on
That
t he
possi bi l i ty
of
t r u l y part i ci patory deci si on- maki ng
i s at tenuated under
t he
condi t i ons of
l a t e
capi tal i sm
i s
not f or tui tous
Theat t empted mai nt enance
of
mass
l oyal ty
through de- pol i t i ci zati on
i s
f a t e d ,
because
one
whol e range
of
t he
s t a t e s
p r i o r i t i e s
those
concerni ng
the pri vate
appropr i at i on of
soci al i zed
pr oduct i on
must
be w thdrawn f rompubl i c di scussi on
Substant i ve
democrat i zat i on woul d
over l oad t h i s al r eady- burdened
apparat us
wi t h
demands
whi ch,
inturn, mght
bri ng
to popul ar consci ousness
t he
ant agoni sm
bet ween t he l ogi c
of
admni str at i vel y
soci al i zed
pr oduct i on
andt he conti nued
pri vate
appropr i at i on
and use
of surpl us
val ue
To
be
s u r e , a form
of
publ i c l i f e
i s
retai ned
Thi s
retenti on
has
i t s
systemc
rat i onal e, because the qual i tat i ve
and
quanti tat i ve
i ncrease of
s t a t e
a c t i v i t y
must be
l egi t i mated Publ i c i ty , theref ore,
i s
not si mpl y
a
sham
f or
i t
comes
to
have symbol i c use
f or those who
bureaucr at i cal l y
pl an
and
admni ster
Consci ous p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y
begi ns to
f a l l under
t he
s pel l of abstract
rati onal i zati on
s
Of f e
argues
( here
f ol l owi ng
Habermas) ,
the s t a t e and
publ i c
opi ni on makers
take
on t he
task of i deol ogy pl anni ng, of
cr eat i ng
webs
of
t hought
and speech whi ch
promote
an
undi f f erenti ated
f ol l ow
t he l eader
def erence among
t he
s t a t e s
c l i e n t s
6 2
Networks
of
publ i c meeti ngs ,
enqui r i es
and s e l ec t
i nvesti gat i ve commt tees,
the
sensati onal i zi ng
of p o l i t i c a l
personal i t i es, party c o n f l i c t ,
and t he
generati on of
spect acl es
f requent an
apparent l y
open
publ i c
l i f e
The
c r i t i c a l
content of
publ i c
l i f e
however,
t ends
to
be
removed there
i s
an
erosi on
of
t he genui nel y publ i c real m
Therewi t h,
l i b e r a l democracy s rosy
hopes f or
publ i c l i f e
succumb
to l a t e
bour geoi s
cyni c i sm at l eas t si nceWeber and
Schumpeter , t h i s
i s
expressed i n
t he movement
to re- def i ne
and
f ormal i ze
t he
concept
of
democr acy i n
accord
wi t h
al l eged
admni str at i ve i mperat i ves
Democracy
comes
to
s igni fy
a techni cal
means
of mai nt ai ni ng
system equi l i br i um
The s e l f -
6
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 63/124
THE
LEG YOFPOLIT L
E ONOMY
t r ansf ormat i ve, devel opment al
di mensi ons of
e a r l i e r model s
of
l i b e r a l
democracy
tend
t o
be
forgotten
or
di sm ssed
as unreal i st i c
6
TheReturn
of C r i s i s ?
Herewe can
r ecapi t ul at e Of f e s
ar gument
ommensuratew t h
i t s
r ol e as
a
c a p i t a l i s t
s t a t e ,
t he cent ral
i mper at i ve
of t he s t a t e s al l ocat i ve and
pr oduct i ve
p o l i c i e s
i s
t he stabi l i zat i on
and
uni versal i zat i on of t he commodi ty
form
Ther eby,
t h i s s t a t e
appar at us
i s
const r ai ned
t o
s a t i s f y
two
necessary
condi t i ons
of
t he accumul at i on
process namel y,
that
l abour
power i s
empl oyabl e
and
does
i ndeed
f i nd
empl oyment ont he
mar ket
and,
f u r t h e r ,
t hat i ndi vi dual uni ts
of
capi t al f i nd i t
prof i t abl e
t o empl oy
t h i s
l abour s we
have seen , t he real i sat i on of t h i s cr i s i s - avoi dance str at egy requi res t h a t , f or
t he sake of manoeuvr eabi l i t y i n
t he
execut i on of
i t s
str uct ur al l y- det erm ned
f unct i ons,
t he s t a t e
must create
r e q u i s i t e
vol umes
of mass
l oyal t y
Unl i ke
i t s
l i b e r a l
c a p i t a l i s t
counterpart
( whi ch
coul d
be
l egi t i mat ed
by
non- i nt er f er ence
wi t h t he wor ki ngs
of
t he i n v i s i b l e
hand of
pr i vat e
mar ket s) , t he
handof t he
l a t e c ap i t a l i s t s t at e
must
somehow
be
hi dden
behi nd
t he
backs
of
i t s
const i t uent s,
by
pr oc l ai m ng
i t s
neut r al i t y as
promoter
of
l awf ul order,
j u s t i c e ,
democr acy, progress and pr osper i t y f or al l Unl i ke t he s i l e n t
dom nat i on of
t he ol d
mar ket , t he o f f i c i a l power
embodi ed
i n p o l i t i c a l
i nst i tut i ons f i nds i t s e l f forced t o
decl ar e
and j u s t i f y
i t s e l f
as power 6 5 Thi s, f or
Offe,
i s t he structural pr obl em
of
t he l a t e c a p i t a l i s t s t a t e , namel y,
t hat
t he
State
must
at
t he
same t i me
p r a c t i s e
i t s c l a s s character andkeep
i t
conceal ed
El sewher e
t he
state can
onl y
f unct i on as a c a p i t a l i s t state by
appeal i ng
t o
symbol s
and
sources
of suppor t
t hat
conceal i t s
nature
as a
c ap i t a l i s t s t a t e
t he
e xi s t e nc e of a c ap i t a l i s t s t a t e
pr esupposes t he
syst emat i c d en i a l
of
i t s
nature as
a c a p i t a l i s t s t a t e
6 6
Thi s structural
probl embecomes t he
focus of Of f e s
r endi t i on
of
t he
a n a l y t i c , pol i t i cal l y- charged
cat egor i es
of
appear ance and
r e a l i t y ,
cont r adi c-
t i o n , c r i s i s
and
i nt er vent i on These
can
be
out l i ned
and
el abor at ed
I t i s
Of f e s
convi ct i on
t hat appear ances w t hi n
l a t e
capi t al i sm
are necessar i l y i n
t ensi on
w t h
t h i s s oc i e t y s i ns t i tu t i onal i zed s e t
of
r u l e s , cl ass
dom nat i on
i n p o l i t i c a l
formThi s
d i a l e c t i c
of
appear ance and
r e a l i t y has
t he
fo rce
of a
cont r adi c t i on
i t
i s
not
si mpl y
a di l emma
i n t hat t he s t a t e s al l ocat i ve
and
pr oduct i ve
at t empt s at uni versal i z i ng t he
commodi ty f o rm
tend
t o
underm ne i t s
own
s e l f -
pr ocl ai med appear ances
and,
t her ef or e,
those very condi t i ons of
de-
pol i t i c i zat i on onwhi ch i t s a c t i v i t i e s depend
so
desper atel y f or t h e i r cont i nued
r epr oduct i on
The
e s se nt i a l
l ogi c
of l a t e
c a p i t a l i s t accumul at i on
i n p o l i t i c a l
form s
si mul t aneousl y
t he l ogi c
of
i t s possi bl e
t r anscendence
The r e a l i t y
of
t h i s l ogi c
i s t hat
of
unreal i st i c
goal s a l l
advanced c a p i t a l i s t
s o c i e t i e s
c r e a t e
63
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 64/124
JOHN
K N
endemc
systemc probl ems
and
l arge- scal e
unmet
needs
6 7
These p o l i t i c a l
c r i s i s - t e n d e n c i e s
become
t he
obj ecti vel y
gi ven
s i t uat i on
of conf us i on
wi t hi n
whi cht hose engaged i n, or on t he mar gi ns o f , p o l i t i c a l di scussi onanda c t i v i t y
may
come
t o r e a l i z e t hat
t he
pattern of t hei r
actual
soci al rel at i ons
i s
cont radi ct ory and i rrati onal
Thi s i s Offe s
r emar kabl e
at t empt at
recover i ng
that i mmanent c r i t i q u e
of
t he
present
whi ch has
so
bedevi l l ed and
el uded
t went i et h
century Marxi sm
and
c r i t i c a l
t heor y
f romt he
t i me
of Lukacs
unsati sf act ory
desi gnati on of
t he
prol et ari at
as t he
i dent i cal subj ect - obj ect
The t heses
on
p o l i t i c a l c r i s i s can be
seen
as an e f f o r t at
art i cul at i ng t hose
pot ent i al
c o n f l i c t zones
wi t hi n
whi ch
i nheres
t he di al ecti cal t ensi on bet ween
t he abstract,
quant i t ati ve, i nst rument al
rat i onal i ty
of
t he past andpresent
and
t he
possi bl e
future
burst i ng
forth
of
a
qual i ta t i vel y
newrat i onal i ty
Note that
t h i s
f ormul at i on i s by nomeans synonymous wi t h
a cat ast rophe
t heor y
of
hi st ory ,
wi t h
a crude
t heory of aut omat i c,
bl i nd, l awf ul col l apse
For,
p o l i t i c a l c r i s i s si t uat i ons
ar e
the obj ect i ve
cont ext s
i n whi ch
s u bj e c t i v e
i n t e r v e n t i o n
( speaki ng
out , c o n t e s t a t i o n becomes p o s s i bl e , and i s most
l i k e l y t o
be
successf ul
The obj ect s
of
system
d i f f i c u l t i e s maybecomesubj ect s,
more
or l e s s sel f - consci ous
of t hat
paral ysi s
and,
t hus, act i ve i n i t s resol ut i on
Fi nal l y,
t h i s
i s
t he
poi nt
of Of f e s cr i t i que
of
l a t e
capi t al i sm
t
seeks
an
enr i ched expl anat i on of t hat whi ch
may
al ready be gl i mpsed or known
conf usedl y among
wi der segment s
of
t he popul at i on
Of fe
i nf uses
t hese
cat egori cal f orms
wi t h empi r i cal
cont ent
by
poi nt i ng t o
several d i f f i c u l t i e s
whi ch have begun
t o haunt
t he
l a t e
capi t al i st count r i es
F i r s t , Of f e appropr i at es
t he
e a r l i e r
aranand weezy t h e s i s
t o argue t hat
t he
s t a t e s
at t empt s
at adm ni st er i ng
t he accumul at i on
process
t end
t o become
more
and more costl y
6 8
I n ot her
words,
t he sel f - expansi on of
capi t al
( especi al l y
wi t hi n
t he morehi ghl y prof i t abl e
ol i ogopol y
sector) becomes
more
and
more cont i ngent upon
gi ant
i nvest ment proj ect s,
huge
capi t al
out l ays,
and growng
soci al
overhead costs Wthi n l a t e
capi t al i sm
there
a
permanent
under- ut i l i zat i on
of
capi t al and l ack
of
i nvest ment out l et s
To
t he
ext ent that t he s t a t e seeks t oovercome
pri vat e c a p i t a l s
l i q u id i t y pref erence
by
soci al i zi ng capi t al and soci al overhead c o s t s ,
t he l i kel i hood
of
f i s c a l
pr obl ems
t herefore grows
s
Of fe
demonst r at es
i n
a recent
study of
t he
West
erman
const ruct i on
i ndust ry, s t a t e
at t empt s
t o i ncrease t he l e ve l
of revenues
or co-
operat i on
from
corporat e sources
r un t he
r i s k of capi t al
di sempl oyi ng
i t s e l f
The
r e a l
source of
t he
f i s c a l
probl ems
l i e s
i n
t he
asymmetry
bet ween
t he
gr owi ng
soci al i zat i on
of capi t al
and
s o c i a l overhead costs
by
t he s t a t e ,
andt he
cont i nui ng pri vat e appropr i at i on of
p r o f i t s
6 9 Thus,
i n
l a t e capi t al i sm s t a t e
expendi t ures
( whose
cost - benef i t
account i ng
i s
not or i ousl y d i f f i c u l t
t end
t o
outrun state
revenues,
t o
t he poi nt where t he s t a t e must seek
t o
cut back ,
t o
rati onal i ze
i t s own
expendi t ure
patterns
The
si gni f i cance of t hese
f i s c a l
pr obl ems
i s
t hat at l e a s t several
of
t he measur es ai med
at thei r
amel i orat i on
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 65/124
THE
LEG YOFPOLIT LE ONOMY
( e . g managed r ecessi on,
t he i nt r oduct i on
of
wage and
pr i ce
cont r ol s ,
get t i ng
t he
nat i on
of f t he
government
payr ol l , et c
.
onl y
serve
t o
undermne
t he
basi s
of
mass
l oyal t y
and
de- pol i t i ci zat i on uponwhi ch t he
s t a t e depends
I n
addi t i on,
even
i f s t a t e
at t empt s
at
econom z i ng
andmai nt ai ni ng
t he
empl oyment
of
ol i gopol i s t i c capi t al
ar e successf ul ,
Of f e s t r e s s e s
t hat t h i s
can
onl y be achi eved
at
t he
r i s k of
gener at i ng
sur pl us l abour power
W t hi n t he
ol i gopol y
and
s t a t e ? ) sector there
i s
a constant t endency
f or t he
organi c
composi t i on
of
c api t a l t o i ncrease,
t hat
i s
f or capi tal - l abour r a t i o s
t o r i s e
cont i nual l y
The unempl oyment of
l abour
power
becomes
t he obverse
of
t he
s t a t e s
at t empt s
at
uni ver sal i z i ng
t he
commodi ty
form The
s t ra tum
of
unempl oyed
l abour i s
pr oduced
not by economc
r ecess i on
but by
pr osper ous
t i mes ,
and i s
i n
noway
a r eser ve army
of
t he unempl oyed
f or
other
sectors
of
t he p o l i t i c a l
economy More
andmor e,
t h i s
sur pl us
l abour-
whi ch may threaten f i s c a l auster i t y
programmes
or
as dur i ng t he
student
movement
condi t i ons of
de- pol i t i ci zat i on
s
housed w t h i n
t he
urban
and
rural
ghettos, on r e s e r v e s , w t h i n
m l i t a r y i n s t i t u t i o n s , and i n educat i onal
and
t r ai ni ng
programmes
whi ch ef f ec t i vel y
extend
t he
per i od of adol escence
and
unempl oyment
Thi r dl y ,
Of f e
poi nt s
t o
t he
i mposs i bi l i t y
of
t he
s t a t e
becomng an
i deal
col l ect i ve c a p i t a l i s t
Engel s) because
of s t r uctur al
l i m t s upon i t s
at t empt s
at
cent r al i zed, bur eaucr at i c,
m ddl e- r ange pl anni ng f or t he
r epr oduc t i on of
capi t al Thi s
can be
seen as
a
conf r ont at i on
w t h
t he
Weberi an
argument
that
t he deci si ve
reason
f or t he advance
of
i mper sonal
bur eaucr at i c
f orms
of
or gani zat i on i s t h e i r t echni cal
super i or i t y
compared w t h
other
means
of
s o c i a l
goal
at t ai nment
I ndeed, under
t he
condi t i ons
of l a t e
capi tal i sm
cent r al i zed- bur eaucr at i c
at t empt s
t o f i ne l y
tune
and
coor di nat e
t he
execut i on of
al l ocat i ve
and
pr oduct i ve
p o l i c i e s
ar e hi ghl y
i nef f ec t i ve
Thi s
i s
because
of
di scr epanci es bet ween r equi r ed
s t a t e f unct i ons- t he
achi evement of
s p e c i f i c concrete
r e s u l t s ) and t h i s s t a t e s i nt er nal modes
of oper at i on
accordi ng
t o t he l ogi c
of gener al adm ni s t r at i ve r ul es Thus,
patterns
of
pr i vat e owner s hi p and
contro l
w t h i n
t he ol i gopol y and competi t i ve
s e c t o r s ,
t he
c ont i nui ng compet i t i on bet ween
c a p i t a l i s t ent er pr i ses,
and
t he
compet i t i on
of
capi t al
w t h other gr oups
envi r onment al i st s, unr ul y l abour
uni ons, e t c . tend
t o
hi nder
or pr i vat i ze
t he
s t a t e s
gener al pl anni ng
a c t i v i t i e s
Envi r onment al
t ur bul ence
becomes
i nte rnal i z ed
w t h i n
t he
s t a t e
appar at us,
w t h
poss i bl e
i l l egi t i mat i ng
consequences
Thi s
i s
further
aggr avat ed by t he
f act t hat t he
l engt h
of
t he
pr oduct i on cycl es
of
t he s t a t e s
pr oduct i ve
a c t i v i t i e s
i s
unusual l y
gr eat
Over al l ,
these
factors
mark t he
s t a t e s a c t i v i t i e s
w t h
a v a c i l l a t i n g ,
acti ve-
r eact i ve
character,
descr i bed by
Of f e
i n t er ms
of t he p o l i t i c a l del i mma of
technocracy
theorem
Onmany
occasi ons,
t he l a t e
c api t a l i s t s t a t e c l umsi l y
muddl es a
md-cou r s e
through proposed
and
obj ec t i vel y
r equi r ed)
5
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 66/124
JOHNK N
i nt er vent i on
and forced
r enunci at i on of such pl ans
Thi s muddl i ng t hr ough
i s
a
consequence
of
what
Of f e
descr i bes
as
t he
systemc
i mper at i ve of
admni str at i ve
r ecommodi f i cat i on One s e t of
p r i o r i t i e s
( the
need
t o
r epr oduce
t he
pr i vat e appropr i at i on of
soci al i zed
pr oduct i on)
must
be
accomodated wi t hi n
t he
theory
and
pr acti ce
of
pol i cy
pl anni ng
and publ i c
admni str at i on
Here
Mar x s cr i t i que of Hegel i s
resurrected
Accor di ng t o
Of f e, t he
st ruct ural l y
pr i vi l eged access ( and possi bl e opposi t i on)
of
organi zed
l abour and
ol i gopol y
capi t al t o t he s t a t e s deci si on
maki ng
processes
unwi t t i ngl y subordi nat es
t hat admni str at i on t o par t i cul ar ,
pr i vat e
i n t e r e s t s
State
pl anners
i rr at i onal r el i ance upon t he f ormat i on
and
co-
oper at i on
of
t hese
organi zed
bl ocs seems fated
Thus, t he
s t a t e
i s
not si mpl y
( as i n l i b e r a l
capi t al i sm an
unconsci ous execut i ve
or gan Af t er a l l ,
t does
makedel i ber at e
at t empt s
t o
avoi d
economc
c r i s e s , t o
absorb
s o c i a l
expenses,
and
so
on, but by
vi r t ue
of
t he f a c t t hat i t
actual l y
vi ct i mzed by
asystem
of
accumul at i on whi ch
i t
seeks
t o r egul at e, t h i s s t a t e
nows u f f e r s
froma
ki nd of
second or der , more
d i f f u s e , unconsci ousness
71
These
s p e c i f i c d i f f i c u l t i e s
underempl oyment
of
l abour ,
budget ar y
i n f l a t i o n , muddl i ng t hr ough)
ar e seen by
Of f e
as symptomati c
of
a
more
deep-
seat ed
cont r adi ct i on
wi t hi n
t he
l a t e
c a p i t a l i s t p o l i t i c a l
economy
Thi s
i s
t he
cel ebr at ed
t heory of
decommodi f i cat i on
Easi l y the most novel and
l e a s t
compel l i ng
cf
Of f e s t h e s e s , t
shoul d
be
seen as a suppl ement t o t he
e a r l i e r -
ment i oned
t heor y of
t he
protest
pot ent i al
of
mar gi nal i zat i on
The t h e s i s
concerns t he
wel f ar e
s t a t e s
at t empt
t o
r epr oduce t he
commodi ty form
i e
t he
exchange
of
l abour
and
c a p i t a l t hr ough
non commodi f i ed
means,
and
can
be expr essed pr ovocat i vel y How
can t he publ i c sector
pr oduce and
di st r i but e use- val ues ( t r anspor t at i on,
post al syst ems,
educat i on,
heal t h,
t he
pr ovi s i on
of
secur i t y
agai nst
unempl oyment
f or
a
spher e
domnated by
exchange val ues wi t hout
cal l i ng i nt o
quest i on
t he i dea and
pr acti ce
of
t he
l a t t e r ? Howcan
concrete,
d i f f e r e n t i a t e d ,
i ncommensurabl e
l abour
l abour
di r ected
t owar ds t he pr oduct i on
of
use- val ues
cont i nue t o
be
l egi t i mat ed
and
mot i vat ed wi t h
r ef er ence
t o t he ol d
i deol ogy of
possessi ve
i ndi vi dual i sm
and
t he r eal mof abstract,
homogeni zed l abour ,
l abour
or i ent ed t owar ds t he
pr oduct i on
of val ue
f or exchange? I n what ways can
t he
mai nt enance
of
t he
commodi ty
form
accomodate t he expansi on
of
s t a t e
p o l i c i e s
whi ch
are
exempt fromt h i s
f or m?
As
Of f e
expl ai ns
The cont r adi ct i on
wi t hi n
st at e- or gani zed pr oduct i on of
goods and s e r v i c es i s
one
of
f ormand
cont ent
By t h e i r
or i gi n and f unct i onal
content,
such
or gani zat i ons
ar e
desi gned
t o
create
opt i ons of
exchange
f or both
l abour
and capi t al
By t h e i r f or mal
and admni str at i ve
mode
of
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 67/124
THELEG YOF
POLITI C L
E ONOMY
oper at i on
they
ar e
exempt f romcommodi ty
r el at i onshi ps
use- val ues
ar e
pr oduced
nd
di str i but ed
w t hout
bei ng
cont r ol l ed
nd
domnat ed
by
exchange val ues
7 z
ote that
obj ect i ons may
be
ra i sed agai nst
two
key ass umpt i ons i n t h i s
rgument
F i r s t , Of f e s
r esur r ect i on
of t he c l a s s i c a l Marxi an
contrast
of
exchange
nd use- val ues i s cert ai nl y surpr i s i ng i n
vi ewof
hi s e a r l i e r rgument
that t he overcomng of
l i b e r a l
capi t al i sms market - s t eer ed, cr i s i s - r i dden
accumul at i on
process
pr ovi des
n
i nt er nal cr i t i que of
those
cat egor i es
Secondl y, t he ass umpt i on that t he s t a t e s al l ocat i ve and
pr oduct i ve
a c t i v i t i e s
ar e cor r el at ed di rect l y w t h
soci al
needs begs
quest i ons
about
t he ver aci t y of
these use- val ues
re
not
t he
f orm nd
cont ent of
at l e as t some s t a t e -
pr ovi ded
u t i l i t i es
di st or t ed a
pr i or i
by
t h e i r obj ect ( c a pi t a l accumul at i on) ?
Not w t hst andi ng
these doubt s , Of f e s
concl usi ons
are cl ear
Decommodi f i
cat i on
w t h i n
t he l a t e c a p i t a l i s t publ i c sector es tabl i shes a soci al i zed form
of or gani zat i on
whi ch
at t he same t i me pr omot es and, because of
i t s
c l a s s
character,
t hwar t s
t he
p o s s i b i l i t y
of
a
s e t
of
s oc i a l
re l at i ons
f reed
from
t he
curse
of
t he rat i onal i zed
commodi ty
form7
Thi s
al i en l i berat ed base
of
decommodi f i ed
a c t i v i t y
i s
i n
no
way
r esi due
of pre-capi ta l i s t soci al
exi st ence
I t si gnal s new nd
v i t a l
need whi ch t h i s s oc i a l f or mat i on has
creat ed, upon
whi ch
i t depends, but
whi ch
i t cannot s a t i s f y
Of f e
emphasi zes
that t h i s
i s
t he
reason why al l st at e- pr ovi ded ser vi ces ( whi ch ar e s een t o be
i med at r eal i s i ngcommodi ty
exchange
andhuman needs) have a t hor oughl y
ambi guous , char act er
`Pr osper i t y
f or
a l l i s
t he s l ogan of
n economc pol i cy
whi ch
causes t he
di s t r i but i on
of
weal t h t o become
more
and more unequal
`Educat i on as
C i v i l Ri ght
i s
pr ocl ai med when bot t l enecks
ar e not i ced i n t he l abour
mar ket c api t a l s concer n
about
t he i nvest ment
of
t he
def ence
i ndust r y
l yi ng f a l l o w
corresponds
t o t he appeal t o
t he popul at i on s
f ear
of
Communi st
aggr ess i on
; t he
devel opment
of
means
of
dest r uct i on
i s
rat i onal i zed
as a
means
of devel opi ng
t he
f or ces of pr oduct i on;
t he
nur t ur i ng of concer n f or count r i es
of t he Thi r d Worl d
pr ovi des t he
l egi t i mat i on b ckground
f or
f ar - s i ght ed
t appi ng
of
capi t al
nd s e l l i n g
mar ket s
7
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 68/124
JOHNKE NE
O
equal l y pr essi ng i mpor t ance f or Of f e
i s t he
f a c t that
t he
spr ead of
decommodi f i cat i on
si gnal s
. t h e
underm ni ng
of
the
i nsti tuti onal
bases
of
cer tai n
key components
of
bourgeoi s
t hought
and
speech
The mor al f i ber of
a
c a p i t a l i s t commodi ty
soci et y
i s
shattered ; a l egi t i mat i on
vacuum
emer ges
s The
f ocus of t h i s
argument i s excl usi vel y on
thefate
of
the
i deol ogy
of
possessi ve
i ndi vi dual i sm
or
t he achi evement pr i nci pl e
From
t he
seventeenth century t h i s wor l d- vi ew l egi t i mated
t he spread
of non- pol i ti cal ,
i nst r ument al
exchange r el ati ons t hr oughout Europe 7
b The
t r i umph
of
possessi ve
i ndi vi dual i sm
by
the
ni net eent h
century
marked a
r evol ut i on
i n t he
under st andi ng of
ont ol ogy
t he
i ndi vi dual s
essence
was
seen
to
be
that
of
an
i nsati abl e desi r er andconsumer of u t i l i t i e s
Accor di ngl y,
t he f reedom
of t h i s
i ndi vi dual
coul d
onl y be
real i sed
t hr ough anensembl e
of
compet i t i ve mar ket
r el ati ons, i n whi ch i ndi vi dual s wereto
w e l d
thei r l abour
power and
property
i nst r umental l y,
that i s w t hout
regard
f or the substant i ve
goal s
of
other
compet i t or s
Pr i vatel y medi at ed exchange
w t h
outer nature
was seen to
be
t he
onl y way
to
accumul at e
s oc i a l weal t h and
happi ness
The
achi evi ng
soci ety
i s
based
on t he
gener al rul e that
t he s oc i a l
status of
an i ndi vi dual i s
supposed to depend upon h i s status
i n
t he
spher e of work
and
pr oduct i on,
whi l e
i n
turn
h i s
status
w t h i n
the
hi er ar chi cal
or gani zati ons
of
the
pr oduct i on
sphere
i s meant
t o depend
on
h i s
i ndi vi dual
per f ormance
Accor di ng to Of f e,
t he
basi s
of
these
not i ons
has been l i qui datedby
f our
key
devel opment s si nce
t he
heyday of
l i b e r a l capi tal i sm
Eachof
these processes
i s
associ ated
w t h
t he r enewed
i mpor t ance of
s t a t e
a c t i v i t y
F i r s t , t he
f oundat i ons
of
t he not i on
of
f r e e ,
mar ket- al l ocated l abour
as t he means
of
i ndi vi dual
achi evement
ar e
cast
asi de i nasmuch
as a )
both
p o l i t i c a l
and
economc power ar e i ncr easi ngl y monopol i zed by l a r g e ,
bur eaucr at i c
or gani zati ons
whi ch
begi n
to
e f f e c t
an end
of
the i ndi vi dual
;
78 and
( b) a
pl anned,
uni on-medi at ed,
i ncr easi ngl y automated
l abour process
r e l a t i v e l y
i mmune from
t he
compet i t i ve threat
of
a reserve army
has
emerged 7 9
Secondl y,
t he s t a t e s
pr ovi si on of tr ansf er
payments and
subsi di es f or those
who
are under- capi tal i zed , too young, ol d,
or psychosomat i cal l y
di sabl ed)
tends to
snap t he once- al l eged bonds bet ween
the
achi evement
pr i nci pl e of
market
a c t i v i t y
and r emuner at i on f or t hat
a c t i v i t y
I n
many
zones, work
and
pay
ar e
l e s s cl osel y i nter r el ated
as i ndi vi dual s f i n d
t hemsel ves
t empor ar i l y
or
permanent l y
outs i de the
sphere
of
t he
l abour
market The
f or mer dependence
on
t he
vi ci ssi tudes
of
the
market i s
r epl aced
by
gr owi ng
dependence
on t he
l ogi c of state a c t i v i t y
80
Most i mpor t ant l y,
per haps, i s that
w t h
t he
spr ead of
zones
of concrete
l abour ,
t he
r ati onal e
of
abstract
l abour i s undermned
Havi ng
expanded i t s
al l ocati ve and
pr oducti ve
p o l i c i e s , t he s t a t e makes i t s e l f t he
f ocus of p o l i t i c a l
conf l i ct
over
t he ways
i n
whi ch
s oc i a l
resources
shoul d be u t i l i z e d Soci al
l abour
w t h i n
these zones becomes
a
subj ect
of c r i t i c i sm
not
onl y i n
t er ms
of
i t s
8
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 69/124
THE
LEG YOF
POLITI L
E ONOMY
quant i t at i ve
r emunerat i on,
but
al so
accor di ng
t o
i t s qual i tat i vel y det erm ned
t e l o s
The i l l egi t i mat i ng
e f f e c t s
of
l e s s
that
f u l l
empl oyment
a f ford
no
better
exampl e
of
what
Of f e
means by t he
underm ni ng of
t he
basi s
of
possessi ve
i ndi vi dual i sm
Whereas
i n l i be r a l
capi t al i sm
unempl oyment was often
percei ved bl i ndl y as a
per i odi c event
i n t he economc cycl e
or
seen
t o be
t he
f a u l t of t he l azy
or
i ncompet ent i ndi vi dual , i n l at e capi t al i smadmni str at i ve
at t empt s at
i ncr easi ng
unempl oyment e . g
t hr ough
cut backs i n
t he s t a t e
sector) l ead di r ect l y t o t he
quest i oni ng
of
t he
mot i ves of
that
adm ni s t ra t i on
Unempl oyment
t ends
t o
be
r eveal ed as i nt ent i onal ,
as
p o l i t i c a l l y i nspi red
I t
becomes
quest i onabl e
Another
st r i ki ng
exampl e
of t hi s
subl at i on
of
t he
rat i onal e
of
possessi ve
i ndi vi dual i sm can
be
seen i n t he w despread
i nvol vement
of
f e de r a l
provi nci al and
l o c al gover nment s i n
t he
pl anni ng
and
regul at i on
of
urbanand r egi onal growth By t hei r act i ons, these gover nment s ,
reveal t he i r rat i onal i t y of t he pri vat e owner shi p and cont r ol of l and, as
var i ous
c i t i z e n s
act i on gr oups
have poi nt ed
out
These gover nment s become
account abl e
f or consci ousl y pl anned i nt er vent i ons i n a domai n t h a t
accordi ng t o t he
ol d
bourgeoi s
i deol ogy,
was
supposed
t o be
r egul at ed by
pri vat e
cal cul at i on and c r i t e r i a
of
p r o f i t a b i l i t y
The Legacy
of P o l i t i c a l
Economy : The Probl em
of
Symbol i c I nt eract i on
The
subl at i on
of
t he symbol i c and
pr oduct i ve
exchange
val ue form
hr ough
t he
spr ead of
zones of
pr oduct i on f or s o c i a l use i s t he pr i mary reasonwhy
Of f e
pr ef er s t he expr essi on l a t e
capi t al i sm To
speak of l a t e
c a p i t a l i s t s oc i a l
f ormat i ons not
onl y
i ndi cat es
t h a t i n
t he i r r epr oduct i on, resources
of
l egi t i mat i on are nowmost cruci al econom c
and
p o l i t i c a l
resources havi ng
al r eady
been
used
up
i n
war di ng
of f c r i s e s so t o speak) ,
but
al so that such
symbol i c
resources
are i n danger
of bei ng
exhaust ed
Mor eover , t he
exacer bat i on of
t he
s t a t e s structural
probl em
by
such
l egi t i mat i on
d e f i c i t s
becomes t he
obj ect i ve
cont ext
w t h i n whi ch emanci pat i on- i nspi r ed
i nt ervent i on
by
t he f or ces
of oppos i t i on
t o
t he
commodi f i cat i on
of
l a t e
c a p i t a l i s t
soci et y may
emerge Thi s,
Of f e cl ai ms,
i s t he
reason why
s t a t e
a c t i v i t i e s
ar e
becomng
more
and
more
aut hor i t ar i an
:
8
There
i s no
i dent i f i abl e di mensi on i n
whi ch
new
mechani sm f or t he sel f - per pet uat i on
of
t he c a p i t a l i s t
system
coul d
be
f oundand
appl i ed What r emai ns
i s
t he var i at i on and
r ef i nement of
t he t r i ad of
usual s e l f -
9
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 70/124
JOHNK N
adapt i ve
mechani sm ( the economc,
p o l i t i c a l ,
and
cul t ur al
subsyst ems
J CK
whi ch
at
l ea s t
t o
some
degr ee
have been
appl i ed i n al l
devel oped c a p i t a l i s t
syst ems and,
on t he
ot her
hand, namel y
i n
t he case of t hei r
i nsuf f i ci ency, ei ther
t he
hi stor i cal l y
unpr oduct i ve
or
t he
pr oduct i ve- r evol ut i onar y
breakdown
of
t he basi c f r ame-
work of capi tal i sm
8
Thi s deduct i on seems ext r emel y
hasty
I t i s
sympt omat i c
of
Of f e s
f r a i l
under st andi ng
of
advanced
capi t al i sms l egi t i mat i on pr ocess, whi ch i ncl udes
t he pr oduct i on and
r epr oduct i on
of t he symbol s
of
ever yday
l i f e
w t h i n t he
domai ns
of
sport, l e i s u r e ,
l abour and
consumpt i on,
sexual i t y
and
f am l y
l i f e
r e l i g i o n , a r t ,
f ormal
p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y ,
urban and
count r y l i f e
To
speak of t he
symbol i c i nt er act i on
of
t h i s ever yday l i f e
i s
t o i ndi cat e
those
communi cat i vel y- pr oduced t r adi t i ons
and
i nst i t ut i ons
w t h i n whi ch ext ant
structures
of
t he
p o l i t i c a l economy
ar e embedded and upon whi ch
such
pol i t i cal - economc structures may f eed,
t her eby
seemng r i g h t
or
l egi t i mat e
Through
t h i s
pr oduct i on
of
si gn
val ues,
hi stor i cal l y
ci r cumscr i bed
i ndi vi dual s
str uggl e
t o endowt hei r act i ons
w t h
meani ngand mot i vat i on
I t i s
t r ue that
such patterns
of
symbol i c i nt er act i on are
al ways
act i vel y and cont i nual l y
r epr oduced and negot i at ed by t hei r aut hor s ;
t he
r epr oduct i on of
these
pat t er ns ent ai l s more than t he mer el y passi ve
i nter nal i zati on of
val ues and
meani ngs
However under advanced
c a p i t a l i s t condi t i ons, i s al so cer t ai n
that
t he
aut hor s of t h i s
symbol i c i nt er act i on nei t her whol l y i nt end
i t s
conf i ni ng
consequences nor comprehend t he l ogi c
of
i t s pr oduct i on
Of f e s
censor i ng of
t h i s
di mensi on
of
symbol i c
i nt er act i on,
of
t he
human
capaci t y f or symbol - maki ng,
speech
and
i nt er - subj ect i ve
act i on,
i s
r eveal ed by
hi s
quasi - obj ect i vi st t heor y of
c r i s i s
I t i s as i f
t he l a t e
c a p i t a l i s t p o l i t i c a l
economy s
structural d i f f i c u l t i e s are
t r ansl at ed
automat i cal l y i nto w despr ead
consci ousness
of
that br eakup, i nt o a di si nt egr at i on
of
t he i dent i t y
of
t h i s
s oc i e t y s const i t uent s
Wdespread
s e l f - r e f l e c t i o n upon soci al
condi t i ons of
dependence
and domnati on
i s t her eby seen t o be a
mere f eedback of t he
d i a l e c t i c of concr ete and abst r act l abour
Wth
some
j u s t i f i c a t i o n , t hi s
automati sm
was
assumed
i n t he ol d
base-superstructure model
Char act er i sti c
of
t he
r ecent l y
r evi ved pol i t i cal
economy cr i t i que
of
advanced
capi t al i sm
4
t h i s automati smnow
succumbs
t o a doubl e t heor et i cal bl ackout I t
both
under est i mates t he
i nt egr at i ng
capaci t y
of new
f orms of symbol i c i nt er act i on
and
( c f
t he
homol ogi es between t he
l i b e r a l
capi tal i st syst ems
of
symbol i c
i nt er act i on and
l abour ) thei r r e l a t i v e i nvul ner abi l i ty t o di sr upt i ons
i n t he
p o l i t i c a l
economy These
bl ackout s cannot be
overcome
e a s i l y
by
a resort
t o
syncr et i sm
( Of cour se, p o l i t i c a l economy i s
concer ned
w t h ` c u l t u r a l
7
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 71/124
THE
LEG YOFPOLITIC LE ONOMY
quest i ons ) For
t hey
ar e
t he consequences
of
Of f e' s i npr i sonment wi t hi n t he
concept ual boundar i es of
t he ol d
p o l i t i c a l
economy
I n a
wor d,
t hey
are
a
necessary
outcome
of
hi s
r e t r e a t
t o
Marxi an
cat egori es
(concrete and
abst r act
l abour )
whi ch
ar e no l onger
f u l l y
subver si ve of
advanced
capi t al i sms modeof
symbol i cal l y-medi cat ed
c l a s s
dom nat i on Of f e' s posi t ed cont r ast
of
abst r act
and concrete l abour , of use
val ue
as the beyond
of
exchange val ue, r emai ns
marooned
wi t hi n
t he here and
now of
bour geoi s
moder ni t y' s f et i shi zed
vi ew
of
humans as
pr i mar i l y
o b j e c t i f i e r s
and
t r ansf ormer s of outer nature under
t he
s i gn
of
u t i l i t y and consumpti on 8
Thi s i s
not
t o
deny t he
ont ol ogi cal s t a t u s
of
l abour
as t hat
concept ual l y-
medi at ed
a c t i v i t y
whereby
bot h humans and
nature
ar e
f ashi oned
Nor
i s
i t
t o
deny t he r e a l
si gni f i cance
of
much
of
Of f e' s
c r i t i c a l
under st andi ng
of
t he
p o l i t i c a l
economy
of
advanced
capi t al i smf or
a more
gener al c r i t i c a l s o c i a l
theory
of
t he present
Not wi t hst andi ng
someimmanent d i f f i c u l t i e s
Of f e' s r e-
appr opr i at i on
of
t he
cat egori es
of
concret e and
abstract l abour has at l e a s t
rai sed i mpor t ant quest i ons
about t he unt hi nki ng equat i on of
l abour
wi t h
i nst r ument al
a c t i v i t y by
Habermas
and others 8 6 owever
here
t he
suggest i on i s
more f a r
r eachi ng,
namel y,
t hat under t he
condi t i ons
of
advanced
capi t al i sm
a
c r i t i c a l
s o c i a l
t heory wi t h
pr act i cal
i nt ent i ons
i s no
l onger
possi bl e
wi t hi n
t he
suf f ocat i ng, i deol ogi cal
form
of
p o l i t i c a l economy
The cr i t i que
of
advanced
capi t al i sms
mode
of
pr oduct i on ( cl ass- st eer ed
accumul at i on
i n p o l i t i c a l f o rm ceases t o
f u l l y
i l l umnat e
t h i s s o c i et y s
pri nci pl e
of
domnat i on,
8 whi ch
nowseems much
l e s s vul ner abl e t han
i t
was
i n l i b e r a l capi t al i sm
O f f e s announcement
of
t he
a r r i v a l
of l a t e
capi t al i sm
t hr ough t he
t heor y of
decommodi f i cat i on i s t horoughl y
pr emat ur e
Onl y
a
c r i t i c a l consi der at i on of t h i s s oc i et y s
mode of symbol i c i nt eract i on
and
i t s
t endency t o c a s t a mant l e
of
natural
f a t e
over
i t s
const i t uent s
coul d
subst ant i at e
t he cl ai m
t h a t
i n t he l a t e
t went i et h
cent ur y, the s t ructural
probl em
of
t he
c a p i t a l i s t
s t a t e i . e
t he
need
t o
l egi t i mat e
i t s c l a s s
charact er ,
cannot
be
repressed
s a t i s f a c t o r i l y
Agai nst t he backdr op
of
O f f e s
t h e s e s
these
cl ai ms
can
be
i l l u s t r a t e d very
b r i e f l y
wi t h
reference
t o
some
rather arbi t rar i l y chosen
components
of
cont empor ar y ever yday l i f e
These i ncl ude
t he
r i s e
of
conspi cuous
mass
consumpti onand t he decl i ne
of
t he
i ndi vi dual , r e l i g i o n p o l i t i c a l cul t ure
and
a r t
The
al l eged
er os i on
of
possessi ve
i ndi vi dual i sm
i s a
hi ghl y
compl ex
and
ambi guous
devel opment
On t he one hand, t he
decommodi f i cat i on process
i n
noway
d i r e c t l y
chal l enges
one key
promse
of
hi s
ol d
i deol ogy
t hat humani ty
i s
synonymous
wi t h
t he
i n f i n i t e
appr opr i at i on of
use val ues t hr ough t he act of
consumpti on
I ndeed,
t he
Marxi an
di st i nct i on bet ween
exchange and use-
val ues
per t ai ned
t o a
now
bygonem l i eu wi t hi n
whi chtherewered i f f i c u l t i e s
of
real i sat i on or
under - consumpt i on These
cat egor i es
sought t he de-
7
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 72/124
JOHNK N
myst i f i cat i on
of
an age whose st agger i ng
pr oduct i ve
pot ent i al
( f ounded
on
abstract l abour , l abour
sans phr ase )
coi nci ded
w t h
t he deni al of
human
needs , i ncl udi ng t he consumti on
of requi si te use- val ues and t he expanded
devel opment of s ubj ec t s
sl umber i ng
power s t hr ough concrete
l abour
To
t he ext ent
t hat
t he
l ogi c
of
t he hi gh- i nt ensi t y
market
s et t i ng ( W l l i a m
L ei s s
apt
phr ase) col oni zes ever yday
l i f e i n
advanced
capi t al i sm t h i s f or mul at i on i s
out w t t ed
I n t he
sam
way, Of f e s rel i ance upon
Bel l s
argument
that t h i s
soci et y
gener at es a
subver si ve, pl ayf ul
hedon sm
s
qui t e
unconvi nci ng
.
For,
t hr ough
symbol i c
adver t i si ng, suppl y nowadays creates
e f f e c t i v e demand
t o
an
ext ent unant i ci pat ed
by
Marx
or by t he
t heor y of
consumr
sover ei gnt y
Thi s
turn
of
event s
i s
cat al yzed
by
others
These
i ncl ude t he
s t a t e s
i mpl i cat i on
i n
pr oduct i vi t y
i ncr eaces,
t he systemc
a b i l i t y t o
pay
hi gher r e a l wages
t o
organi zed l abour , t he
ext ensi on
of
c r e d i t , and t he
emer gence
of
a
narc i ssi s t i c per sonal i t y
type
( whi ch, unl i ke
t he
ascet i c
t i c ket
t hi nki ng
of
t he
ol der
aut hor i t ar i an
per sonal i t y, emphas i zes
f un ,
f reedom
f rom
hassl es ,
bei ng
cool ,
et c . Over al l , t hese devel opment s
and t he
publ i ci t y gener at ed
t hr ough
monopol i st i c
compet i t i on hel p
s h i f t
pr obl ems
of
demand
f rom
headvanced
c api t a l i s t cent r es t o t he
i ncreasi ngl y margi nal i zed,
per i pher al ,
under devel oped
wor l d
The
t e r r o r i s t i c
codes of
i nst i t ut i onal
publ i c i t y
s t r i v e
t o monopol i ze
t he
r eal m
of
symbol i c
i nt eract i on,
creat i ng
desi r abl e
st andar ds
of
ment al and
bodi l y
heal t h,
foodstuffs,
l ove- maki ng,
chi l d- rai si ng, hom decorat i on,
d r e s s , t r ave l ,
sport,
enter t ai nment , and
patterns
of
speech
c r i t i c a l t heor y of
t h i s
rat i onal i zat i on process,
of
t he
degree
t o whi cha
permanent
consumpt i ve pul l
can
monopol i ze
t he
very
soul
of
i ndi vi dual s,
i s
r equi r ed
ur gent l y
I n
one
ot her
cruci al r espect , about
whi ch
Of fe
i s s i l e n t , s t a t e
i nt er vent i on
i s
a hi ghl y
ami guous devel opment
I t i s
true, as he ar gues, t hat t he
er osi on of
possessi ve
i ndi vi dual i sm
t hr ough
decommdi f i ed s t a t e
a c t i v i t y
hol ds
out
t he
pr om se
of
a soci et y emanci pat ed
f rom
t he
i r r a t i ona l i t y
of
t he
pr i vat e
owner shi p and
control
of
t he
accumul at i on process
et i t al so pr om ses t he
obedi ent f or get t i ng
of
t he
i mage and
subst ance of
t he
bour geoi s
i ndi vi dual
whose real i sat i on
i n
a
r i c h e r , mre concrete
form
Marxhad sought
w t hi n
an i ncreasi ngl y
r at i onal i zed,
al bei t decommodi f i ed,
r eal m y
dwel l i ng
on t he
s t a t e s subver si on
of
t he l ogi c
of
pr oduct i on f or
exchange,
O f fe
turns a
bl i nd
eye
t o
t he
f act ory- l i ke l ogi c of state
i n s t i t u t i o n s , w t hi n whi ch i ndi vi dual s
per sonal ambi t i ons
can
onl y
be
r eal i sed
t hr ough
t he
r enunci at i on of
concern
wi t h
those
very
structural
condi t i ons
whose
r econst r uct i on
i s i ndi spensi bl e
t o
true
i ndi vi dual i t y One of
t he
po l i t i c a l i mpl i cat i ons
of
Of f e s
t h es i s , t he
s t r a t e g i c pr i macy
of
mai nt ai ni ng and
ext endi ng
decommdi f i ed state
a c t i v i t i e s ,
must
t her ef or e be
treated
wi t h
caut i on
s
Cast or i adi s, abermas
and other s
have
poi nt ed
out , t he
f undament al
cont r adi c t i on
w t hi n
an
i ncreasi ngl y
rat i onal i zed
advanced
capi t al i sm
i s
i t s bur i al
of
t he
i ndi vi dual ,
i t s
72
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 73/124
THE
LEG YOF
POLITIC L
E ONOMY
i n a b i l i t y
t o a l l ow
peopl e s
soci al
i ndi vi duat i on t hr ough creat i ve
part i ci pa-
t i on
i n
t he
real ms of l abour
and
symbol i c i nt eract i on
2
contempory
t heory of
c r i s i s such
as t hat
suggest ed by Of f e
must al so
probe t he f a t e
of
pre- modern,
t radi t i on- bound
components
of
everyday l i f e
now
under t he
hei ght eni ng
pressures
of rat i onal i zat i on
Thi s process of
degenerat i on
was examned
byMarx
( a l l
t hat
i s
s o l i d
mel t s
i nt o
a i r ,
al l t hat
i s
hol y i s
prof aned ) ,
Weber ( who, rel yi ng
on
S c h i l l e r , spoke
of
t he
di senchantment
of
t he
modern worl d) , and
recogni zed b i t t e r l y
by
Rousseau I ndeed, t he
i ndus t r i al i zat i on
of
everyday
l i f e
began
w t h
t he
f ormat i on
of an
i ndus t r i al prol et ar i at t hr ough t he f or ci bl e el i mnat i on of
peasant
and
ar t i san cul t ure
Of
course,
t h i s
sacki ng
of
t radi t i on
was
by no
means i nst ant aneous
Tradi t i ons,
upon
whose r emai ns bourgeoi s soc i et y f ed
l i k e
a predat or,
wer e
al ways
a
suppl ement t o
t he
i deol ogy of
possessi ve
i ndi vi dual i sm I n
t he
l a t e
t went i et h
cent ury, t hese
pre- modern
r emai ns have
al l but decomposed
Themost
i mmedi at e
exampl e
of
t h i s i s t he bl ow hat
has
been
deal t t o
f a t a l i s t i c f or ms of
Chr i s t i ani t y by t he
t angi bl e
successes
of
s c i e n t i f i c - t e c h n i c a l growth As Weber i ndi cat ed, t h i s i r oni c i nasmuchas
t he
modern
nat ural sci ences
have
rel i gi ous
roots
Cal vi ni sms
depi c t i on
of God
as
r emot e
fromt he
eart hl y
wor l d
i mpl i ed
t he
suscept i bi l i t y
of
t hat
earth
t o
i nvest i gat i on, cal cul at i on and
t ransf ormat i on
Not
onl y
has t h i s come
t o
pass
but , nowadays,
t he f ormer pui ssance of rel i gi ous convi c t i on
has
been
neut ral i zed by
a
mass
at hei smmade credi bl e by t he
product i ve
wonders
of
t he sci ent i zed,
capi t al - deepened
acc umul at i on
process
c r i t i c a l account
of
t h i s di senchant ment
process
woul d need
t o
examne
i t s
uni nt ended
conse-
quences,
of whi ch
t here seemt o
be
at l e a s t two F i r s t
of a l l
among non-
bel i evers
t he
ut opi an i . e
a n t i - c a p i t a l i s t rat i onal i zat i on)
el ement s
of
Chr i s t i ani t y
st and i n danger
of bei ng
abandoned
Thi s i s
one di s t urbi ng
reason why
advanced
capi t al i sm
t ends
t o
devel op
t he
ment al i t y
of
t he
l i f e
i nsurance company
( Gunt er
Grass )
s c i e n t i f i c - t e c h n i c a l ,
moral
r e l a t i v i s t ,
f a c t
and ef f i c i ency
hungry, mat e r i a l i s t i c ,
de- i nt el l ectual i zed
Thi s
sc i ent i sm
t he
uncri t i cal b e l i e f i n t hat
whi ch
i s
s c i e n t i f i c
even
enters academa Wt hi n
t he
soci al
sci ences
t he t r i umph
of
f orms
of obj ect -
i v i s mi s
synonymous
w t h
t he
quest
f or r i gour and
predi ct abl e cert ai nt y,
and
t r i e s t o
brand
di scussi ons
of
epi st emol ogy and t he great
soc i al i ssues as
ol d
hat 9o D senchant ment processes al so have t hei r
d i a l e c t i c
w t hi n
t he
r emai ni ng bodi es of organi zed
Chr i s t i ani t y, t o
whi ch
t he
renewed
i n t e l l e c t u a l
i n t e r e s t i n
Chri s t i an
doct r i ne
a t t e s t s
W t hi n t hese besi eged c i r c l e s
( e . g
t he
char i smat i c movement ,
t here
are
at t empt s at reconst ruct i ng t he
meani ng
of
st ewardshi p
and sal vat i on
Somet i mes , t h i s reconst ruct i on f ol l ows t he pat h of
soc i o- pol i t i cal
ac t i vi sm P o l i t i c a l t heol ogy i nt ent on real i s i ng
i t s
promses
i n
t h i s wor l d
onl y
serves t o
work
agai nst agai nst
t he
de- pol i t i ci zat i on demanded
by t he s t a t e s
al l ocat i ve
and
product i ve
a c t i v i t i e s
73
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 74/124
JOHNK N
3
Al so
of cr uci al
i mpor t ance
i s
t he extent
of
t he
l i nger i ng str engths
of
advanced
capi tal i sms
c i v i c cul tur e
that e c l e c t i c mxtu re
of
pr e-moder n
def er ence
and
or i ent ati on t o act i ve p o l i t i c a l
i nvol vement whi ch,
by
pr ovi di ng
a r eser voi r of
di f f use
r egi me suppor t ,
def i ni tel y
r ei nf or ces
t he
de-pol i t i c i zat i on
of
contemporary
publ i c
l i f e
Especi al l y
i n t he Uni t ed States and
B r i t a i n as
Almond
and
Ver ba s
c l a s s i c
study r eveal ed,
b e l i e f s such
as Yes,
c i t i z e n s
must
have
r i g h t s they ought t o wat ch
out f or t hei r
i nter ests ar e t emper ed by
def er ence, obedi ence
and
humbl eness , Don t get
mxedup
w t h
p o l i t i c s . 9 1
Unt i l
r ecent l y, t h i s
c i v i c
cul ture
has beenr ei nf or cedby
w despr ead
at t ac hment
to
f am l y
and j ob
i . e
to t he chi l dr en ,
my husband , my career , etc
Of f e s
hi nt
that
t hi s c i v i c
cul tur e
i s
weakeni ng
needs
to
be examned
more
t hor oughl y
I t i s
c l ear
f or
exampl e, that
cer ta i n zones
of
ever yday
l i f e
once
consi der ed t o
be r egul ated pr oper l y by
f am l y
t r adi t i on have been subsumed
w t h i n t he commodi ty
form
I n
t he
case
of
househol d
ser vi ces , f or exampl e,
t he
pr i vat i sm
of
f a m l y l i f e i s now
bombarded by a pl et hor a
of
mar ket abl e
ser vi ces : i den t i c al ser vi ngs
of
f r i e d chi cken
and f r ozen
f oods ;
the pr ov i si on
of
school i ng
; car e f or the young, aged and
s i c k
;
dr y
cl eani ng
and
l aundr y
; the
st eady
hand of
t he hel pi ng pr of essi ons
Whi l e
t he
form
of
f am l y
l i f e
r emai ns,
i t s
cont ent
t ends
to
be
removed
Thi s
r e s ul t s
not onl y
i n
t he
f amly s
gr ow ng
dependence
on
var i ous
outsi de agenci es, but al so
i n some
quest i oni ng
of
monogamous
heter osexual i t y, a
temporary
r i s e i n
t he
l e ve l of i n t e r -
gener at i onal
c o n f l i c t
an
ever - earl i er
at t ai nment
of puber t y
and sexual
exper i ence, and
concer n
over
gr ow ng ol d Whether
t h i s
di si nt egr ati on
of
t he pr i vat i sm
of
t he c i v i c cul ture i s accel er ated
by
i ntr usi ve
s t a t e
pl anni ng
al so must
be
pr obed
For
i t
i s cl ear that
sexual
di scr i mnat i on, poor
qual i ty
or
dependency- i nduci ng
heal t h c a r e and t he qual i t y and
scope
of
educat i onno
l onger ,
can
be seen as
havi ng
natural o r i g i n s
whose consequences must
be
suf f er ed pr i vatel y
Through
thei r
p o l i t i c i z a t i o n i ncumbent
admni str at i ons
may
be
hel d account abl e
The
current assaul t
uponpatr i ar chal
f a m l y l i f e
and
natural
modes of chi l d-r ai si ng,
and f emni st
at t empt s
at
gener at i ng
a
new
i denti ty
ar e
i mpor t ant
symptomof
t h i s pr ocess
Not
onl y
do
such
movements
promote a w der awar eness
of
t he cont i ngency
of
t he contents of
tr adi t i ons
;
even t he
formof
t he
pr ocess of
symbol i c
i nter -acti on
i t s e l f
cancome
to
be seen
as
cont i ngent
and
al ter abl e
Pr esumabl y, the l a t t e r e n t a i l s w despr ead
publ i c
di scussi on whi ch,
as
Of f e
has
i ndi cated,
i s anathema
to t he
s i l e n c e upon
whi ch
t he
c l a s s - p o l i t i c a l
system
of
advanced
capi t al i sm
thri ves
Fi nal l y, t here i s
t he
quest i on of
t he
c r i t i c a l
de- l egi t i mati ng
potent i al of
ar t
I t i s
i mmedi at el y evi dent t h a t
hel d capti ve by i t s p o l i t i c a l
economy one
Mar xi st t r adi t i on ( f r om
Kautskyand Pl ekhanov
to
contemporary
f orms of
s o c i a l i s t r eal i sm
has deal t
w t h t h i s
quest i on through
a
spur i ous soci ol ogi cal
r educt i oni sm
The probl em
of
an
emanc i pat or y
aesthet i c
has been col l apsed
i nto
concer n w th t he
c l as s
or i gi ns
and propagandaval ue of
cer ta i n f orms
of
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 75/124
THE
LEG YOF
POLITICAL
E ONOMY
a r t
Thi s
has occl uded
t he
equal l y evi dent f a c t t hat much so- cal l ed
bour geoi s
a r t
has
been
char act er i zed
by
i ssui ng
i ndi ctment s
agai nst t he
wor l d as
t
i s
by
i t s st ruggl e
t o
bri ng
t he bour geoi s wor l d
t o
i t s
senses
Bohemani sm
s
t he c l a s s i c
ni net eent h
century
examl e
of
t h i s autonom
of
art
t r ansf i gured i n to protest agai nst
t he s a c r i f i c e s
of l i b e r a l
capi t al i sm The
second
gener at i on
boheme
Ri mbaud
Cor bi er e) f r equent ed
beer - hal l s,
separ at ed
t hemsel ves
fromt he r epr essi on
and
conspi cuous
consumpti on
of
bour geoi s l i f e and,
havi ng been
rai sed i n
t he
homs of t he
bourgeoi si e,
l a t e r
becam a c i r c l e
of
wander i ng,
anarchi c
vagabonds and out l aws
dedi cated
t o
t he
over t hr ow
of
t h e i r f a t h e r s
soci et y
Si m l ar l y, L ar t pour
f a r t
warned
t hat art i t s e l f
coul d be
i mpr i soned
w t hi n
t he commdi ty fo rm
consumd
by
t he
creepi ng rat i onal i zat i on
of
i ndustr i al
capi t al i sm
The
ext ent
of t h i s
prot est - pot ent i al i n t he l a t e
t went i et h
centur y needs t o be r e- exam ned Thi s
need
i s st r engt hened
by
t he col l apse
of
t he gap bet ween a r t
and
ever yday l i f e
under
t he
i mpact
of
mechani zat i on and
t echni cal
i nvent i on
(the
r adi o,
m cr ophone,
ci nema)
Whi l e f or
som
( e
. g Or t ega
y Gasset , T S
E l io t ) t h i s
her al ded
t he
dest r uct i on
of
al l art
by
mass
vul gar i t y,
f or
ot her s ( Benj amn, f or
exampl e) t he
resul t i ng l o s s of
t he aura
of art
was
t o be
t he
newbasi s
f or
a
t ru ly
r evol ut i onar y
and
col l ect i ve
product i on
and
r ecept i on
of a r t
Agai nst
t h i s ,
Adorno
spoke
of
t he
dangers
of
t he
rat i onal i zat i on
of
cul t ural l i f e vi a
an
emer gent cul t ure
i ndust r y,
whi ch s e i z es t he cr umbl i ng aura
of hi gh
a r t
onl y
t o r epr oduce t t hr ough manuf act ur ed stardom and programmd
sensat i onal i sm Thi s
di st ur bi ng
devel opment l ed Adorno t o prosel yt i ze
on
behal f
of negat i ve art
e . g
t he works of Samuel
Becket t
and
Ar nol d
Schoenber g) The rat i onal i zat i on
of
art
was
seen t o r e s ul t i n a c r i s i s
of
t hat
whi ch was
consi der ed t o be
beaut i f ul
z
Thi s
ki nd of
debat e i s i mpor t ant ,
i nasmuch
as
t
s p e l l s
out
bot h
t he
p o s s i b i l i t y ,
and
uni nt ended
consequences, of
autonomus a r t degener at i ng i n to mani pul at i ve,
publ i c propaganda or
t i s
cl ear t hat t he
admni str at i ve
product i on
of cul t ure
i s
nowadays a cont r adi c-
t ory process
anufactured
symbol s
t end t o
becom det ached
fromt he
ever yday
l i f e wor l d of
t h e i r
consumer s,
t hus
resul t i ng i n
anensembl e
of si gnal s
whi ch are d i f f i c u l t t o i nt er rogat e Wthi n t h i s
f i e l d
of s i g n a l s , t he passi ve
consumer s f i nd t d i f f i c u l t t o
r ecogni ze
t hemsel ves
and
to ar t i cul ate
and s a t i s f y
t hei r needs
Thi s
why
t he cul t ure i ndustr y preci pi t at es count er - cul t ur es
bent
on
re- establ i shi ng
mani ng
and
i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y
w t h i n
t he r eal m
of
symbol i c
i nt eract i on
P o l i t i c a l Economy
and
P o l i t i c a l L i f e
B
Macpherson has
suggest ed
r ecent l y t hat a t heor y
of
t he advanced
c a p i t a l i s t state
must
at
som
poi nt
r e- f ocus
t hose
quest i ons
about essent i al l y
75
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 76/124
JOHN
K N
human
purposes and
capaci t i es
whi chwer e
central
t o
t heor i es
of
t he s t a t e
i n
t he
grand
t radi t i on
9
The
above ment i oned
t hemes,
and
t he
mre
gener al
c a l l
f or
a
c r i t i c a l
under st andi ng
of
t he
l ogi c of
advanced
capi t al i sms
symbol i c
i nt erati on, poi nt i n t h i s di rect i on
They
l ead
d i r e c t l y t o
a
r econsi der at i on
of
t he c l as s i c al
mani ng
of p o l i t i c a l
l i
Thi s
surpr i si ng
turn
i n
our
argument
agai nst
Of f e
i s wel l
i l l u s t r a t e d
i n t he
Ari st ot el ean f ormul a
of
man
as zoon
pol i t i kon
For Ari st ot l e, manhas t he capaci t y f or convi vi al
associ at i on
w t h i n
t he
p o l i s
By
contrast
w t h
t he
ani mal - l i ke
nat ur al ness
of
t he
domai n
of
necessi t y
and
t o i l ( the
mere
l i f e of
mney maki ng
s l av er y , cr af t smanshi p
and
chi l d- beari ng) ,
c i t i z e n s can
be
reborn
w t h i n
and t hrough t he i nf ormed
i nt er- subj ect i vi t y
of bi os
p o l i t i k o s
Here t hemeani ngs
of symbol i c i nt eract i on
and
p o l i t i c s
converge
P o l i t i c a l l i f e
i s t he domai n i n
whi ch
t he
human
capaci t i es f or act i on and
speech
ar e
i nt erwoven c l o s el y , a real m
of
publ i c
a c t i v i t y i n
whi ch
speaki ng
and act i ng i ndi vi dual s can
be seen and heard
and
take one
anot her
seri ousl y I ndeed, speaki ng i s here under st ood as a form
of
praxi s man
i s
a l i vi ng
bei ng capabl e of
speech
Accordi ng t o Ari st ot l e,
t he
real m of
p o l i t i c s
i s therefore
t he domai n of pot ent i al
f reedom
Through
symbol i c i nt eract i on,
humans not
onl y
ar t i cul at e t h ei r i nt er dependency
( l anguage,
a f t e r
a l l i s
no
pr i v at e, s o l i t ar y
a f f a i r )
They
al so
come
t o
i ndi vi duat e t hemsel ves
i nsof ar as
they l earn t o
speak and act f or t hemel ves ;
p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y i s a
mode of
sel f - di scl osure
t hr ough t he
appropr i at i on of
communi cat i vel y- pr oduced
sense
I t
i s vi a
po l i t i c a l ac t i v i t y ,
t hen,
that
humans true i ndi vi dual i t y
can
f l ower w t hi n
t he s he l l
of
s o c i a l
responsi bi l i t y
Thi s
i s why t o
engage
i n art i cul at e
praxi s
mans t o choose
del i berat el y
bet ween compet i ng mans andends,
t o
take
t he
l ead
P o l i t i c s , accor di ng Co
Ari st ot l e, ushers i n t he possi bi l i t y
of
practi cal
wsdomand moral
vi rt ue
mor al
vi rt ue
i s
a
s t a t e
of
character
concerned
w t h
choi ce,
and
choi ce
i s
del i berate
desi re
. 94
To
seek
moral vi rt ue
i s
therefore t o admt
of
t he
possi bi l i t y
of
human
a f f a i r s
unconst r ai ned
by
bl i nd
necessi t y
Thi s
possi bi l i t y
i s capt ur ed
byAri st ot l e s descri pt i on of humans as
p o l i t i c a l
ani mal s
l i t e r a l l y ,
we
ar e caught bet ween t he ani mal s and t he gods
We have seen
above
that
t he emer gence and
mat ur at i on
of
bour geoi s
moderni t y was synonymus
w t h
t he
col l apseanddest ruct i on
of
t he
doct ri ne
of
p o l i t i c s
whi ch
concerned
a j ust
and convi vi al
l i f e
and
t he
associ at ed not i on
of
man
as
zoon
p o l i t i k o n ,
whose
uni que
capaci t i es
ar e real i sed vi a s e l f -
consci ous speech
and
act i on
9 5
From
t he
st and- poi nt
of
t he
anci ent s,
bour geoi s
t hi nkers
fromMachi avel l i t hr ough
t he
Engl i sh
u t i l i t a r i a n s can
be
seen t o
have
charted
a sel f - cont radi ct ory
course
t owar d a t ec hn i c a l
p o l i t i c s ,
whose ai mwas
t he
admni st rat i on of men i n accordance
w t h
t he l ogi c
of
Gal i l ean s c i e nc e s
at t empt ed subj ugat i on
of
nat ure
From
t s c l as s i c al concern
w t h
t he good
and exempl ary
l i f e
of speech
and
act i on, p o l i t i c s becam t he
l im t ed t echni que
of r epr oduci ng c i v i l soci et y
by
organi zi ng
and depl oyi ng
7
6
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 77/124
THE
LEG YOF
POLI TI C L
E ONOMY
cunni ng, appear ance,
money and
men
Wth
good reason, Marx
t her ef or e
spoke
of
pol i t i cs
as synonymous
wi t h
aut hori t ar i an
r u l e ,
ensl avement ,
r epr essi on
Pol i t i cal power , pr oper l y so- cal l ed ,
Marx
and
Engel s
r emar ked
i n
t he
Mani f est o,
i s merel y t he
organi zed
power
of
one
c l a s s f or
oppr ess i ng
anot her .
96
I t goes
wi t hout sayi ng t hat t h i s
di ssol ut i on of
t he
theory
and
pract i ce of the
anci ent
meani ng
of p o l i t i c s
was cont est ed
b i t t e r l y Wth
t he
post - Kant i an
concern w t h pract i cal reason, t he promse
of
p o l i t i c a l
l i f e of
a
c r i t i c a l
publ i c
dedi cat ed
t o t he
search
f or r at i onal uni ver sal s,
was
once
agai n
posi t ed agai nst
t he
bour geoi s
fe t i sh i sm
of l abour
and
r e i f i c a t i o n
of
p o l i t i c s
Labour
versus
p o l i t i c s , c i v i l soci et y versus t he s t a t e
t h e i r at t empt ed medi at i on was
i l l u s t r a t e d dramat i cal l y
i n Hegel s
di scussi on
of
t he mast er - sl ave
d i a l e c t i c The
sel f - f ormat i on
of
S p i r i t pr oceeds t hrough
symbol i cal l y- medi at ed l abour
and
t he st ruggl e f or mut ual r ecogni t i on
The
one- si ded,
consci ous r ecogni t i on
of
t he Lord
by t he
Bondsman
i s over t ur ned
by t he ondsman s
ascendancy over
nature,
a
consci ous
ascendance
acqui r ed one- si dedl y t hr ough l abour
9 7 I t
i s t h i s
scenar i o whi ch was i nheri t ed
by t he
Young Hegel i ans
and
t r ansf ormed
radi cal l y by
Marx 98 Through
an
expl anat i on of
sensuous l abour as t he
pr i me
mover
of
h i s t o r y ,
Marx
sought t o
draw
out t he
p o s s i b i l i t i e s
i nher i ng
w t h i n
t he
l i b e r a l c a p i t a l i s t cont radi ct i on bet ween t he
f or ces of pr oduct i on
( accumul at ed t hr ough s o ci a l
l abour )
and t he rel at i ons
of
pr oduct i on o r , t he
ensembl e
of
symbol i c i nt eract i on whi ch
had
l argel y t aken
on
an
economc
f o rm
Marx t her eby
demonst r at ed t hat t he
emer gent , sel f - consci ous st ruggl e
of
prol et ar i ans
t o
r e- appropr i at e t hei r congeal ed and l i v i n g power s
of l abour
f or eshadowed a
r evol ut i onar y
di ssol ut i on of
t he
anonymous
de- pol i t i ci zed
r e l a t i o n s of mar ket l i f e
The
spectre
of
p o l i t i c s
came t o
haunt
t he modern
worl d
Cl ass
agi t at i on,
educat i on,
organi zat i on, sel f - consci ous
speech
and
act i on
t hreatened
t he
l ogi c
accordi ng
t o
whi ch
bour geoi s
soci et y
was
organi zed
Def i ned by t h e i r obj ecti ve
condi t i ons
of
l abour ,
even
pr ol et ar i ans
came
t o seek
emanci pat i on
t hrough sel f - know edge, del i berat i on, speech
and
act i on
9 9
Of f e
has demonst r at ed
power f ul l y why t h i s
model
of t he conf l uence of
l abour
and symbol i c i nt eracti on, c l as s and p o l i t i c s
i s
now
obsol et e wi t hout
escapi ng i t s
l egacy
Wt h i n
t he ml i e u
of
advanced
capi t al i sm
and an ol d
p o l i t i c a l
economy subj ect
t o t he newd i f f i c u l t i e s
t o
whi ch
Of f e
has
poi nt ed,
c r i t i c a l
theory
must
now
move
agai nst
both
t o
i nt ernal i ze
t he
probl em
of
t he
pr oduct i on
and
r epr odut i on of symbol i c i nt eract i on Cer t ai nl y,
t he
ol d
Marxi an
f ormul a
a
cert ai n
mode
of
pr oduct i on
i s
al ways combi ned
wi t h a cer tai n mode of co- oper at i on or
s o ci a l
st age cont i nues t o
be
an
i n c i s i v e poi nt of
depar t ur e
Yet p o l i t i c a l economy s
r educt i on of
t h i s cert ai n
mode of co- oper at i on t o
market
rel at i ons of producti on
can no l onger be
j u s t i f i e d
Ther ecapt ur i ng
of
t he
d i a l e c t i c
of l abour
andsymbol i c
i nt eract i on at
77
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 78/124
OHNK N
t he c tegor i c l l e ve l c n
nowonl y pr oceed
on t he b s i s
of
n
enr i ched or
deepened
under s t ndi ng of l bour
rom
he
go l
of
unfettered
pr oduct i ve
forces t o t h t
of
unf et t er ed
l bour
andsymbol i c
i nt er ct i on
t h i s
wh t
now
men ces
po l i t i c l economy nd t he ut hor i t r i n s t t e
of
dv nced
c pi t l i sm
o l i t i c l
conomy
ni ver s i t y of oronto
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 79/124
For
t h e i r comments
onan
e a r l i e r draft
of
t h i s
essay,
I woul d l i k e t o
t hank
Phi l l i p Hans en,
Pat r i ck
Pa t t e r son and Davi d
Wol f e
For
exampl e, t he now
wel l - known
comments
on
t he s t a t e
economy and l i b e r a l i sm as
reported i n
The G obe
and
Mai l ,
Toronto
:
J anuar y
8 1976,
p
7
2
Capi t al ,
1
Moscow 1971,
p
264, not e 3
3 Spar ked i n i t i a l l y
by
t he s i mul t aneous publ i cat i on of
Ral ph
M l i band s
The
State i n
C a p i t a l i s t
Soci ety,
London
1969,
and
N cos
Poul ant zas
Pouvoi r
Pol i t i que
et
Cl asses
Soci al es, Par i s : 1968, Engl i sh edi t i on 1973,
t h i s debat e
unf ol ded
i n t he
col umns of New
Left
Revi ew See Poul ant zas,
The
Probl em
of
t he Capi t al i s t St at e , New Left Revi ew 58
November-December
1969
and
The
Capi ta l i s t State
A
Repl y
t o M l i band and
Lacl au
i b i d 95, J anuar y- Febr uar y, 1976,
and M l i band,
The
Capi ta l i s t State Repl y
t o
N cos
Poul ant zas , i b i d 59 J anuar y- Febr uar y, 1970
and
Poul ant zas
and
t he Capi ta l i s t
State ,
i b i d 82
November -December
1973 More general l y,
cf Poul ant zas,
Fasci sm and
Di ctat or shi p, London 1974, Cl asses i n
Contemporary
Capi t a l i sm London 1975, LaCr i s e
des Di ct atur es
:
Por t ugal , Gr ece,
Espagne,
Par i s :
1975,
and M l i band,
On t he
Mar xi st
Theory of
t he Sta te , Ar ena, 39
1975 and
Marxi smand P o l i t i c s Oxford 1977
4 For
exampl e,
Leni n s
State
and
Revol ut i on
;
some
l i m t e d
and
i n s u f f i c i e n t l y
coher ent
themes
i n
Gramci
;
Trotsky s theory
of
t he degener at e wor ker s s t a t e ; Sweezy s cr ude vi ew of
t he
s t a t e as
a mere
i ns t r ument of t he
rul i ng bour geoi s
c l a s s ; et c
5
THELEG YOF
POLI TI CAL
E ONOMY
Not es
For somedi scuss i on of
Mar x s pl ans see Mar t i n N col aus
Foreword
t o
Marx
Gr undr i sse
Harmondsworth : 1973,
p
54 Note
t hat as ear l y as hi s arr i val i n Br ussel s i n 1845, Marx
had
hoped
t o pur sue
t he t hemes of hi s Cr i t i que
of
Hel gel s Phi l osophy
of
Ri ght
andOn
t he
J e w s h
Quest i on vi a
a
more det ai l ed cr i t i que of t he l i be r a l s t at e s ee hi s
Poi nt s on t he
Modern State
and
C i v i l Soci et y i n
L
East onandKH Guddat
eds
Wi t i ngs of
t he
Young
Marx
on
Phi l osophy and Soci et y,
New
York : 1967,
pp
399-400
6
P o l i t i c a l
Power
and
Soci al
Cl asses,
op
c i t
especi al l y par t
i v
Sect i on
1
and The
Probl em
of t he Capi ta l i s t State , op c i t p
74 No
t ext ual
evi dence
i s
advanced
f o r t h i s
i nt er pr et at i on,
whi ch
i s
actual l y
f ounded on
Engel s comment
t o
Marx ( 13
Apr i l ,
1867) i n
Marx
and
Engel s,
Sel ect ed Cor r espondence,
Moscow 1965, p 177
7
M l i band,
Marx
and t he
State ,
The
S o c i a l i s t
Re gi s t e r New
York : 1965, pp 278-9,
Marxi smand P o l i t i c s
op
c i t
pp
1 - 1 5
and
Poul ant zas
and
t he Capi ta l i s t State ,
op
c i t
wher e
Marx and
Engel s as ser t i on that the
modern
State i s but
a comm t t ee
f or managi ng
t he common a f f a i r s of
t he
whol e bour geoi si e i s
t aken
t o mean t hat the
not i on of common
a f f a i r s
as sumes
t he exi st ence
of
par t i cul ar
ones
;
and
t he
not i on of
t he whol e
bour geoi si e
i mpl i es the exi s t ence
of separate el ement s
whi ch
make
up
t hat whol e
Thi s bei ng
t he case,
there
i s
an
obvi ous need
f or
an
i n s t i t u t i o n of
t he
ki nd t hey r e f e r t o namel y
t he
s t a t e
;
and
t he
s t a t e
cannot
meet t h i s need w t hout enj oy i ng a cer t ai n degr ee of autonomy
I n ot her wor ds,
t he
not i on
of autonomy i s embedded
i n
t he
def i ni t i on
i t s e l f
i s
an i n s t r i n s i c part of i t
.
8
E
Al t vater,
Some Probl em of
Sta t e I nt e rvent i oni sm,
i n
J ohn Hol l oway and Sol
Pi cci ot t o, eds
State and Capi t a l
: A
Mar xi st Debat e,
London
1978
9
Mauri ce
Mer l eau- Pont y,
I n
Pr a i s e
of Phi l osophy,
trans
J ohn
Wl d and J ames Edi e,
Evans t on
: 1963,
p 41
79
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 80/124
JOHN
K N
10
Here we can e l i d e
several
r el at ed,
but separ at e,
expl anat or y d i f f i c u l t i e s
over whi ch
t h i s
r e t rea t i sm
st umbl es
F i r s t ,
there i s t he
probl emof
t he
s t at e i n pre- capi t al i st s o c i e t i e s and, i n
par t i cul ar,
t he
emer gence
of
a
r e i f i e d
s e t
of
s t a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s
f rom
ki nshi p
syst ems
Engel s
vi ew ( i n The Or i gi n of
t he Fam l y, Pr i vat e Pr oper t y,
and t h e St at e) t hat t he
emer gence of
cl asses
out of
p r im t i v e
communi st soci al
f or mat i ons
cal l ed
f or
an i nt egr at i ng
state
appar at us
i s i ncor r ect . Cl ass
s o c i e t i e s onl y
ar ose
w t hi n t he
f ramework of a d is t inct ive
p o l i t i c a l
syst em
t hat
i s
w thi n
t he
bounds of a c o l l e c t i v e
i den t i t y no l onger
embodi ed
w t hi n
t he
f igure of a common ancest or
but , rather, i n t hat of a common r u l e r
See Mar shal l
Sahl i ns, Pol i t i cal Power and t he
Economy i n
P r im t i v e Soci et y ,
i n
G
E
Dol e and R L
Car nei r o,
eds
Essays i n
t he Sci ence
of Cul t ur e,
NewYork
1960
;
Lawence
Krader,
Formati on
of
t he
S t a t e , Engl ewood C l i f f s
:
1968 and E R Ser vi ce,
Or i gi ns
of
t he State and
C i v i l i z a t i o n , New
York
1975 Secondl y,
there r emai ns t he naggi ng
probl emof
St al i ni sm
whi ch
mus t be
under st ood
as a
process
of st at e- bui l di ng u t i l i z i n g terror and l egi t i mat ed by
t he
symbol s
of
Sovi et
Marxi sm
so
as
t o
br i ng
about
a
property
t r a n s f e r ,
t hat
i s
f rom
pr i vat e
property t o col l ect i vi zed property, where
t he
sur r ogat e of t h e c o l l e ct i ve group t o
whomt he property
i s
t ransferred
i s
t he s t a t e I n at t empt i ng an expl anat i on of t h i s s t a t i s t
dom nat i on, h i s t o r i c a l mat er i al i sm i n
i t s
r e t r e a t i s t f orms f unct i ons as an i deol ogy
i n
t he
strong
sense
of t hat t e rm
i t
i nvokes
f i c t i v e
e n t i t i e s and
pseudo- r at i onal ,
abst r act
constructs
( degener at e worker s s t a t e , cr i mes
agai nst
s oc i a l i s t l e ga l i t y , s tate capi t al i sm ,
S t a l i n i s t
devi at i oni sm , et c
.
whi ch, i nt ended or not , j u s t i f y and hi de a soci o- hi st or i cal
practi ce whose t r ue l ogi c i s ot her w se
11
P o l i t i c a l
Aut hor i t y
and
Cl ass St ruct ures
An Anal ys i s of Lat e
Capi t al i st
Soci eti es ,
I nt ernat i onal J ournal or Soci ol ogy, vol 2,
1 ( 1972) ,
p 79 ; cf i b i d
.
p 98and TheTheory of
t he
Capi t al i st
State
and
t he
Probl emof
Pol i cy
Format i on ,
i n
L
Li ndberg
et
a l
Stressand
Cont r adi ct i on i n Modern Capi t al i sm Lexi ngt on 1975,
p
125
Lament abl y, Of f e s work
i s
not known w del y
i n t he Engl i sh- speaki ng worl d
.
The
f ol l ow ng
i nt erpretat i on
of h i s
wr i t i ngs i s
an
at t empt at
over com ng
t he many i nadequaci es i n
t he commentari es by
S
Sar dei - Bi er mann et al Cl ass
Domnati on and
t he
P o l i t i c a l System A
Cri t i cal
I nt er pret at i on of Recent Cont r i buti ons
by
Cl aus Of f e , Kapi t al i st at e, 2, 1973
andDavi dA
Gol d
et al Recent
Devel opments
i n Mar xi st Theor i es of t he Capi t al i st State ,
Month y
Revi ew vol 27, 5- 6,
Oct ober - November ,
1975
12
.
Cf
Fr anz Neumann Economcs andPol i t i cs i n t he
Twent i et h
Cent ur y i n TheDemocr at i c
and
t he Aut hor i t ar i an State, Her bert Mar cuse, ed G encoe 1957, pp 257- 269 I n h i s The
Gr eat Tr ansf or mat i on,
Bost on
1957,
Kar l
Pol anyi has
argued
t hat ni net eent h
cent ury
c i v i l i s a t i o n
rested
on
f our inst i tut ions t he bal ance- of - power system of
i nt ernat i onal
r e l a t i o n s ,
whi ch f a c i l i t a t e d
a
cent ury of r e l a t i v e
i nt ernat i onal
or der
and
s t a b i l i t y ; t he
weak
l i be r al s t at e ; t he i nt ernat i onal gol d st andar d
;
and
( det er m ni ng t hese devel opment s) t he
t r i umphant r i s e of t he sel f - regul at i ng mar ket ; cf al so h i s comment i n
George
Dal t on, ed
.
P r imt i ve , Ar chai c andModern
Economes
:
Essays of
Kar l Pol anyi , Bost on 1971,
p
65
Man s
economy i s as a r ul e ,
submerged
i n h i s
soci al
r el at i ons
The change
f rom h i s t o
a
soci et y
whi ch
was ,
on t he
cont r ar y,
submerged
i n t he
economc systemwas
an
ent i re l y novel
devel opment
.
Accor di ng
t o Wol i n s P o l i t i c s and Vi si on,
Boston
1960, t he l i beral t r ad i t i on
was synonymous w t h
t he
shr i nki ng of
t he
sphere of
p o l i t i c s and t he gl or i f i cat i on
of
soci ety
;
Car ol e
Pateman has corrected some
of
t h e
l at t e r s
ambi gui t i es i n Subl i mat i on and
Rei f i cat i on Locke,
Wol i n
and
t he
Li beral
Democr at i c Concept i on
of
t he
Po l i t i c a l ,
Pol i t i cs
and
Soci et y,
1975
13
HereOf f e s account of
t he
i deol ogy of
t he
achi evi ng soci ety
i s
ext r emel y gener ous toward
Marx
cf I ndus t r y
and
I nequal i t y,
London 1976,
whi ch
i s
at r ans l at i on of
Lei st ungspri nzi p
and
i ndus t r i el l e
Ar bei t , Frankf urt
am
Mai n
1970
No doubt ,
t he
pot ency of ot her form of
symbol i c i nt eract i on (pat r i archy,
r el i g i o u s t r ad i t i on , nat i onal i sm s houl d not be
under est i mat ed
8
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 81/124
THELEG Y
OFPOLITC L
E ONOM
14 Immanuel Wal l er stei n argues that the s i xteenth century w t nessed t he
r i s e of a
c a p i t a l i s t
wor l d economy f ounded
on
bot h
an
i nternat i onal di vi s i on of
l abour
and
a
bur eaucr ati c
state
;
cf
The
Modern
Worl d
Syst em
New
York
1974
See
al so
t he
work
by
B
E
Suppl e,
Commerci al C r i s i s
andChange i n
Engl and
1600- 1642,
Cambri dge
1959, especi al l y chapt er
10, f or a di scussi on of
s t a t e - i n i t i a t e d
at t empt s t o overcome t he i n s t a b i l i t y of t he
emer gi ng
mar ket economy
dur i ng
t h i s
per i od
1 5
The
1832 Reform
B i l l was
especi al l y c r u c i a l ,
i nasmuch
as
i t can
be seen as t he
Magna
Carta
of t he Engl i sh mddl e c l a s s
marketeer s,
t he p o l i t i c a l r ef orms
whi ch crowned t he f i r s t
I ndustr i al Revol ut i on I t
was symptomati c
o f
that wave of i nt er nat i onal
l i b e r a l
r evol ut i oni sm
between 1829-34
whi ch
effected t he French J ul y Revol ut i on
of
1830,
t he
J acksoni an era i n Amer i ca, upri si ngs
i n Bel gi um
( 1830) ,
Pol and ( 1830-1) ,
and di st ur bances
i n
I t a l y ,
Germany Sw t zer l and, I rel and, Spai n
and
Por t ugal
;
c f
E
. J
Hobsbawn The
Age
of
Revol ut i on
1789- 1848,
New
York
and Toronto
1962, especi al l y
chs
3, 6
16
Pri nci pl es of t he C iv i l Code , part I
ch 2
i n J
Bentham The
Theor y
of
Legi sl at i on,
C
K
Ogden
ed London 1931,
p 96
17 I bi d part 1 ch 11 ,
p
119
J ames
Mi l l , a f t e r c r i t i c i z i ng t he cont ent i ons that t he end of
government
i s t he publ i c
good
( Locke) or the greatest happi ness of t he greatest number ,
r epeat ed an
argument
i de nt i c al w t h that of Bentham i t i s obvi ous that everymanwho
has not
al l t he
obj ect s
of hi s desi re has i nducement t o take
themf romany
ot her man
who
i s
weaker
than hi msel f
and
how s he t o be prevent ed? Onemode i s s u f f i c i e n t l y obvi ous,
and i t
does
not
appear that there i s
any
ot her t he uni on of
a
cert ai n number of
ment o pr ot ect
one
anot her
The
obj ect ,
i t i s
pl ai n,
can
best
be
at t ai ned when
a
great
number
of
men
combi ne
and del egate t o a
smal l number t he
power
necessary f or pr ot ecti ng themal l
Thi s
i s
gover nment
; An Essay
on
Gover nment ,
I
. V Shi el ds, ed I ndi anapol i s
1955,
pp 49- 50
18
Capi t al ,
I op
c i t
part
1
ch
I
secti on 2 ; Karl
Marx A Cont r i but i on
t o t he Cr i t i que
of
P o l i t i c a l Economy
Moscow 1970,
ch
I ;
and
Gr undri sse,
Harmondsworth
1973,
pp
881- 2
19
MEW
x x i i i , p 447
Quoted i n Rober t
C
Tucker , Marx as a Po l i t i c a l Theor i st , i n Ni chol as
Lobkowcz
ed
Marx
andt he West er n
Wor l d,
Not r e
Dame
1967,
pp
126
20
P o l i t i c a l Aut hor i t y , op c i t p 80
21 Pr ef ace t o a Cont r i but i on t o t he Cr i t i que of P o l i t i c a l
Economy i n Marx
and
Engel s,
Sel ect ed Wor ks, I Moscow 1969, pp 502- 506 Note that
t h i s
i s al most
exactl y
copi ed
f rom
t he much
e a r l i e r f or mul at i on of
The
German
I deol ogy (Easton
and
Guddat , op ci t p 469)
The t e rm ` c i v i l s o c i e t y emer ged i n t he ei ghteent h century when property rel at i ons
had
al r eady evol ved f rom he
communi ty
of ant i qui ty
and
medi eval t i mes C iv i l soci et y as such
onl y devel ops w t h
t he bour geoi s
The
soci al
or gani zati on, however ,
whi ch
evol ves di rect l y
f rompr oduct i on
and
commerce
and
i n al l ages f orms t he ba s i s of
t he
stateand t he
r e s t
of
t he
i d e a l i s t i c superstructure
has al ways
been desi gnat ed
by
t he same name.
22 Cr i t i que of Hegel s Phi l osophy of t he State ( 1843) , East on
and
Guddat ,
op
c i t pp
151- 202
23
I bi d
p
176
The
abst r acti on
of
t he state as such bel ongs onl y t omodernt i mes because t he
abst r acti on of pri vat e l i f e bel ongs onl y t o t hese t i mes Theabst r acti on of
t he
pol i t i cal s tate
i s
a
modern
product . Wth reference t o t he French
and
Ameri can Revol ut i ons
and
agai nst
Bauer ,
Marx repeats
t h i s theme
of t he depol i t i c i zat i on of rel at i ons of
exchange
i n
c i v i l
soci et y
The
ol d
c i v i l
soci et y
( f eudal i sm had a di rect l y
pol i t i cal character,
that
i s t he
el ement s of c i v i l
l i f e
such as
pr opert y, t he f aml y, t he mode
and manner of
work, f or
exampl e, were
rai sed
i n to el ement s of p o l i t i c a l
l i f e
i n
t he form
of l andl ordi sm e s t a t e s , and
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 82/124
26 East on
and Guddat, op
c i t
p 470
OHNKE NE
cor por at i ons
The
t hr ow ng of f o f the p o l i t i c a l yoke
was
a t
the samet i me the t hr ow ng of f
of t he bondt hat had fettered the egoi sti c s p i r i t of c i v i l
soci ety
P o l i t i c a l
emanci pat i on
was
at
the
same
t i me
the
emanci pat i on
of
c i v i l
soci ety
from
p o l i t i c s ,
from
the
appear ance
of
a
gener al content ; On t he J ew sh Quest i on , i b i d
pp
238- 9
24 I b i d p 185 ; cf Ont he J ew sh Quest i on , p 225, whereMarxnotes t hat t he bour geoi s
state
st ands
i n the sameopposi t i on t o
c i v i l
soci ety
and goes beyond i t i n the same
way
as re l i gi on
goes beyondthe
l i mtat i on
of the prof ane wor l d, t hat
i s
by
r ecogni zi ng, r e-establ i shi ng
and
necessar i l y al l ow ng i t s e l f t o
be domnated
by
i t
( emphasi s
mne)
25
Cri t i cal Notes on The Ki ngof
Prussi a
and Soci al Ref orm (1844) , i bi d p 349 ;
cf
Mar x s
pol emcal di scussi on of the French Revol ut i on i n The Hol y Fam l y, or Cr i t i que of Cri t i cal
C r i t i c i s m
Moscow
1975,
pp
142-3
27
Note
t h a t ,
under t h i s
f ormul at i on,
i t
i s qui te
concei vabl e
t hat those
who actual l y s t a f f the
state
i nsti tuti ons
may
not
be t he econom cal l y
and
cul tural l y
domnant
c l a s s Marx
ment i ons t h i s
p o s s i b i l i t y
w th r ef erence t o the Engl i sh
Whi gs
( the
ari stocrati c
r epr esentat i ve of t he
bour geoi s )
i n
The
El ecti ons i n Engl and
Tor i es and
Whi gs
i n
Marx
and Engel s,
Ar t i cl es
on
B r i t a i n , Moscow 1971,
p
112
28
Mani f est o
of t he
Communi st
Party , i n
Marx and
Engel s, Sel ected
Wor ks,
1 , op c i t . pp
110- 111 ; c f Capi tal ,
I
op
c i t
p
703,
where
Marxnot es that t he
power of
the State i s
t he
concent r at ed
and
or gani zed
f orce of
soci ety ,
and
Grundr i sse, op
c i t
p
72
p ol i t i c al
condi t i ons
are
onl y
the o f f i c i a l
expressi on
of c i v i l
soci ety Legi sl ati on,
whether
p o l i t i c a l or
c i v i l ,
never does
more
t han pr ocl ai m
express
i n
words, the
wi l l of economc
rel ati ons
.
29
The
German
I deol ogy ,
East on
and
Guddat op c i t p 470 The
perf ect
exampl e
of the
modern state i s
North
Ameri ca
The
modern Fr ench, Engl i sh,
and
Ameri can
wri ters
a l l
express t he opi ni on
t hat
the
s t a t e
e x i s t s onl y f or t he sake of
pr i vate
property
;
t h i s f ac t has
entered
i nto
the
consci ousness of t he or di nar y man
.
Compare the c r i t i c a l di scussi on of
Car ey,
Basti at
and
the
Uni t ed
States i n Grundr i sse, op c i t
. pp
884- 9
30 Grundr i sse, cp c i t pp 471- 9
; The
German I deol ogy i n East on and
Guddat ep
c i t
.
p
470
;
The
18th
Brumai reof
Loui s
Bonapar t e
i n
Marx
and
Engel s,
Sel ected
Wor ks,
I
op
c i t pp 394- 487 ; The
Ci vi l
War i n Fr ance , i b i d
p 219
Mar x s
di scussi on
of t he
Engl i sh
Factor y Acts i n
Capi t al ,
1
cp c i t
pp
222- 286)
i s
another exampl eof t h i s
except i onal i sm
31 Mani f est o of
the
Communi st Party ,
cp c i t
.
p
113
32
Economc and
Phi l osophi c Manuscr i pt s
(1844) , i n East on
and Guddat ,
op c i t p
299
33
Most r ecentl y
on
t h i s
poi nt ,
see J ur gen
Habermas,
Knowedge
and um n I n t e r e s t s ,
London 1972
and Zur
Rekonst r ukt i on
des
Hi stor i schen Mat eri al i smus,
Fr ankf ur t
am
Mai n 1976; J ean Baudr i l l ar d, The
Mr r o r
of Pr oduct i on, St
Loui s 1975
; Hannah
Arendt ,
The
um n
Condi t i on,
Chi cago
1974
;
Al f r ed
Schmdt,
The Concept of
Natur e
of Marx
London 1973 ;
and
Marshal l
Sahl i ns,
Cul tur e and Practi cal
Reason, Chi cago
1976
34 Thi s vul nerabl i ty of the
f ragi l e achi evement pr i nci pl e
t o
these
booms and busts
l ends
a
cert ai n
pl ausi bi l i ty t o
Mar x s
seemngl y
si mpl i sti c
comments
on
the probl emof the r ai si ng
of
pr ol etar i an
consci ousness
At
t i mes, Marx
was
ext r emel y vague ( The di ssol ut i on of
ol d i deas
keeps even pace w th
t he di ssol ut i on
of the ol d condi t i ons of exi stence ,
et c
.
;
most
of t en, he str essed that
practi cal
acti on
(both el ectoral and t r ade uni on) by
workers
i n thei r
r evol ut i onar y
movement
woul d
i t s e l f r e- shape andcl eanse t he
tr adi t i onal muck of thei r
i nternal i zed
t houghts and
habi t s
As
I
s h a l l argue bel ow, these
f ormul at i ons
i n
whi ch,
as the
82
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 83/124
THELEGACYOF
POLITCALE ONOMY
famous 1859
Pref ace
expressed t
consci ousness must be expl ai ned f romthe
contradi cti onof materi al l i f e , f romtheexi s t i ng
conf l i ct between
thesoci al producti ve f orces
and
the
re l at i ons
of
producti on )
become especi al l y
probl emati cal
under
the
condi t i ons of
advanced capi t a l i sm
35 Kri sendesKri senmanagement El emente
ei ner pol i t i schen
Kr i sent heori e , i n
J ani cke,
ed Herr schaf i and K r i s e , Opl aden
1973 ; Structural Probl em of the Capi t al i st State ,
German
P o l i t i c a l Studi es,
vol
1 , 1974,
pp 33- 4
36
Cf
the di scssi on of
r ecent
empi ri cal data on
these trends i n Bob
Rowthorn,
Late
Capi tal i sm , New Lef t Revi ew, 98,
J ul y-August, 1976, especi al l y pp 71- 3
37 For di scussi ons of
r i ght i st
corporati sm
duri ng
thi s peri od see Ral ph Bowen, German
Theor i es
of
t he
Corpor at i ve
State:
Wt h
Speci al Ref erence
t o
the Per i od
1870-1919,
New
York
1947,
andMatthewEl bow
French
Corporati ve
Theory 1789-1948, NewYork 1953 ;
f or i t s l e f t ver si on, Beer , AHi story of B r i t i s h
Soci al i sm London 1953 I have r el i ed
especi al l y on thesuperbovervi ews of thi s peri od provi ded
by
Charl es
S Maier,
Recasti ng
Bour geoi s Eur ope, Pri ncton 1975, and
Gabri el
Kol ko, Mai n
Currents i n ModernAmri can
Hi stor y, NewYork 1976
38
Bemerkungen
zur Wr tschat skr i se ,
Z e i t s c h r i f t
f ur Sozi al f orschung, vol 2, 1933, p 350,
quoted i nGMarramao,
Pol i t i cal
Economyand
Cr i t i cal Theory , Tel os,
24, Summer
1975,
p 65
Espec i al l y
i mportant i s F Pol l ock, St at e Capi tal i sm I t s Possi bi l i t i es and
Li mtati ons , Studi es i n Phi l osophy and Soci al
Sci ence,
vol i x ,
1941
Compare
al so Max
Horkhei mer, The
Authori tari an
St ate ,
Tel os,
15 ,
Spri ng,
1973
;
Karl
Korsch,
Capi tal i sm
and
Pl anni ng ,
Counci l
Cor r espondence, 4, J anuary, 1935
;
Herbert Marcuse,
Negat i ons,
Harmondsworth
1972,
pp
3- 42, andT
WMason, The Pri macy of
Pol i t i cs o l i t i c s and
Economcs i n Nati onal Soci al i st Germany ,
i n S
J
Wool f, ed The Natur e of Fasci sm
London
1968
39 Pol i t i cal Authori ty ,
op
c i t p 78 ;
cf
i b i d p
98,
The
Theory of theCapi t al i s t State , op
c i t p 1 25 ,
and
I ndust r y and I nequal i t y, op
c i t
pp
1 4,
16- 17
40
TheTheory of theCapi ta l i s t
State ,
op
ci t
pp
127- 134 ; cf Further Comments onMul l er
andNeususs, Tel os, 25,
Fal l ,
1975,
pp
1 0 1 , 105
Arudi mentary
versi on
of thi s di st i nct i on
appears i n
hi s di sser t at i on
( I ndustr y
and
I nequal i t y,
op
ci t
p
1 7 the f act ual
pol i t i ci z at i on
of
soc i et y
( the
growth i n the i nf l uence of state power i n the reproducti on
pr ocess)
has reduced materi al i ncent i ves as a control mechani smt o, at most,
part i al
f uncti onsw thi n a
system
of authori tari an
total
admni strati on I nvestmnt
poss ib i l i t i es
arecreatedandr egul at ed throughpol i t i cal deci si ons, and
i t
i s
these
that
producethe
l evel
of
economc act iv i ty
necessary
t o ensure conti nued soci al reproducti on, a
l evel
of
economc
act i vi ty whi chcoul d not be created
by
the
i ncent i ves
resul t i ng
mrel y f rompro f i t - or i ented
capi t al
accumul ati on
my
emphasi s)
41
I b i d
p
128
42
I amhere fol l owng Davi d Wol fe,
The Economc
Rol e of
t he State
i n
Advanced
Capi tal i st Soci ety,
(manuscri pt,
Department
of
Pol i t i cal
Econom,
Uni versi ty of
Toronto,
1975)
43
The Theory
of the
Capi ta l i s t St ate , op
ci t p
130
Producti ve pol i c ies
correspond
roughl y
to
OConnor s
d i scussi on
of the state s
soci al
i nvestmnt and soci al
consumpti on
expendi tures
( i nMarxi anterm, to
soci al
constant capi t al andsoci al var i abl e
capi tal )
; cf
J ames OConnor,
The Fi scal Cri si sof t he S t a t e , NewYork 1973 Note t hat Of fe
al so rel i es on Al tvater s contenti on t hat the growng
autonomzati on of state act iv i t ies i s
di rected primari l y
at
the creati on of the
general condi ti ons f or capi ta l i s t producti on ; cf E
83
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 84/124
OHNKE NE
Al t vat er, Zu
ei ni gen
Probl emen
des
St aat si nt ervent i oni smus ,
Probl eme des
Kl ass endampf s , 3 , May
1972
44
The Theory of
the Capi tal i s t State , op c i t
p
132 ;
cf Fur t her Comment s op
c i t
pp
104- 5
and
Pol i t i cal
Aut hor i t y , op
c i t
pp
78 ,
99f f
Of f e here
si dest eps t he
wel l - wor n, but
i mpor t ant
t r adi t i on
of
i nterpretati ve
cont r over si es
sur r oundi ng
t he
act ual
character
o f
l i b e r a l
capi tal i sms
c r i s i s t endenci es
On t h i s
tr adi t i on,
c f P
. M
Sweezy, The Theory of
Capi t al i st
Devel opment , New
York 1942,
chs
8- 11
;
Russel l
J ocoby, The Po l i t i c s of
t he
Cr i s i s Theory
Toward
t he Cr i t i que of Automati c Marxi sm
I , Tel os, 23 ,
Spr i ng,
1975 and
Pol i t i cal
Economyand Cl ass
Unconsc i ousness ,
Theory
and
Soci ety, 5, 1978 ; Marramao
Pol i t i cal
Economy and Cr i t i cal Theor y , op c i t
;
and Trent Schroyer, The Cr i t i que of
Domnat i on, Boston
1975
45
Cf
Davi d
Yaffe
The
Marxi an
Theory
of
C r i s i s ,
Capi t al
and
t he State ,
Economy
and
Soci et y,
Vol
2,
1973,
f or whom
t a t e expendi t ur e
i s
a
sel f - def eat i ng
strategy
s i nce
i t i s
unpr oduct i ve ,
thereby
cur ta i l i ng
t he quant i t y of
sur pl us
val ue avai l abl e
f or
pr i vat e capi t al
accumul at i on
Accordi ng
t o Yaffe, state expendi t ur e cer t ai nl y real i zes
surpl us val ue
; but
t he
pr oduct s
pur chased
by
t he
s t a t e ar e acqui r ed wi t h al r eady- pr oduced
sur pl us
val ue I n
suppor t
of
Of f e,
compareHenri
Lef ebvre s
theses
on
t he recent emergence of
l e mode de
pr oduct i on
et at i que
i n h i s t r e a t i s e ,
De
1 E t a t , especi al l y vol umes I L Etat dans l e
monde
moderne and 3 ,
Le mode
depr oduct i on
et at i que,
Par i s
1976- 77
46
Advanced Capi t a l i smand t he Wel f ar e
Stat e , Pol i t i cs andSoci et y, Summer 1972,
p 483
and I nt roduct i on t o Part
I I , i n L Li nber g
et
al ,
op
c i t p 253
More
gener al l y, cf
J ur gen
Habermas
Theory
and
Pr a c t i c e ,
Boston
1973,
pp
228- 9
and
Les l i e Skl ai r ,
Or gani zed
Knowl edge,
Bungay
1973, especi al l y
ch I
47
Pol i t i cal Aut hor i t y , op
c i t
p
81
At t he same
t i me, not e that Of f e i s
i mpat i ent
w t h
var i ous at t empt s at
c r i t i c i z i n g t he
pr esent v i a such
formal i st i c, l azy categor i es as
advanced
i ndustr i al
soci et y , t he t echnol ogi cal vei l , t he af f l uent
monst er
; rest i ng more
on epi gr ams,
such att empt s obscure, rather than i l l umnate
t he act ual
processes
of l a t e
c a p i t a l i s t
soci al
r epr oduct i on, as he stresses i n h i s ear l y cr i t i que
of Marcuse;
cf.
Techni k
and
Ei ndi mensi onal i f at ; ei ne Ver si on der
Technokr ati ethese? ,
i n
J
Habermas
ed
Antworten
auf
Her ber t
Mar cuse,
Frankfurt am
Mai n 1968
48
Pol i t i cal
Aut hor i t y , op
c i t
p
94
49
Rudol f
H l fer di ng,
Prot okol l des
SP Part ei i ages i n Ki e l , 1927, devel oped
t h i s
ar gument
t o i ndi cat e t he
s h i f t i n
or gani zed
capi ta l i sm
from
mark et- det erm ned
t o po l i t i c a l l y
condi t i oned wage structures
dependent
upon t he
str engt h of
trade
uni on
or gani zat i on
Thi s
al so became a key el ement i n
t he
argument of
MKal ecki , Sel ect edEssays on
t he
Dynamcs
of
the Capi tal i s t Economy
1933- 1970, Cambri dge
1971
I t
shoul d be not ed, as a passi ng
qual i f i cat i on
t o Of f e s
f ormul at i on,
that by
no
meansare the
returns
t o l abpur spr ead
evenl y
t hr oughout t he
or gani zed ol i gopol y
sector
women
i mm grant s
and other
raci al
mnor i t i es
t end t o be
l i t t l e bet ter of f
than t h e i r
counterparts
i n t he compet i t i ve sector
( c f
OConnor,
The
Fi scal
C r i s i s of
t he
State, op
c i t
p
16)
50 Per haps
t he
best exampl eof t h i s
ext ernal i zat i on
i s t he recent shar peni ng o f wage
di sput es
w t h i n t he s t a t e sector, a consequence
of
publ i c sector
uni ons
at t empt s t o
peg
thei r wage
rates and worki ng condi t i ons t o
corr espondi ng
rates
and
condi t i ons w t h i n
t he
ol i gopol y
sector On t he theory of
t he i n f l a t i o n
barr i er
t o
rai s i ng
corporate prof i ts, s ee
J oan Robi nson
and J ohn Eat wel l , n
I nt roduct i on t o
Modern
Econom cs ,
London
1973,
pp
190- 1
51 Pol i t i cal
Aut hor i t y ,
op
c i t
p
94
52
I bi d
I pp
99- 101
84
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 85/124
THE
LEG CYOF
POLTC L
ECONOM
53
P o l i t i c a l Power
and Soci al
Cl asses,
op ci t
pp
99- 119,
and hi s c r i t i que of t he P. C . F
s t amocap
t h e s i s
i n
Cl asses
i n Contemporary
Capi t al i sm
op
c i t
pp
156- 164
54
Thus,
Of f e
engages
i n
I deol ogi ekr i t i k by poi nt i ng
i n severa l pl aces
t o two
di amt r i cal l y-
opposed t heor i es
of
t he s tate
whi ch have emer ged
under
l a t e capi t a l i s t condi t i ons These
t heor i es can be sai d
t o
be
i deol ogi cal
i nsofar
as t hey
systemat i cal l y r eveal
as wel l as censor or
conceal t he
act ual
dynamcs of , and const r ai nt s upon, t h i s
s tat e appar at us ; c f S t ruc tu ra l
Pr obl em of
t he Capi t al i st
St at e ,
op
ci t
pp
3 1f f
Pol i t i cal
Aut hor i t y ,
op c i t
pp
7 3 f f ,
and
( w t h
Vol ker Ronge Theses
on
t he Theory of t he
St at e ,
New
German
Cr i t i que, 6,
F a l l ,
1975,
p
139
The
f i r s t vi ew ( the
i nf l uence
and const r ai nt
vi ewpoi nt s of Domhoff
McConnel l , and
t he stamocap t h es i s ) i ncl udes those
t heor i es
whi ch
concei ve of t he s tate as
a mere
i nst r ument
of a post ul at ed
r u l i ng c l a s s B r i e f l y , Of f e has t he f ol l ow ng
c r i t i c i s ms
( a) These t heor i es cannot
pr ove t he
s t r uc tu ra l l y- det er mned
cl ass- char act er of t he s t a t e
they
r e s t r i c t
t hemel ves
t o
i nvest i gat i ng
exter nal
det ermnant s
whi ch
make
t he
cont ent
of t he p o l i t i c a l pr ocesses
cl ass- bound ( St r uctu ra l Pr obl em ,
op
c i t
p
33) I n t h i s
sense,
t hey r emai n w t h i n t he
conf i nes of a
p l u r a l i s t
model t hey
do
not demons t r at e t hat
t he
pr eponder ant wei ght
of
cer t ai n
i nt er est gr oups i s ac tual l y a c l ass i n t e r e s t
wi t hout f a l s e-
consci ousness Moreover
(here
Of f e i s c l ose t o Poul ant zas
andagai nst
M l i band) ,
t hey
cannot
account f or t he f ac t t hat ,
on
many occasi ons, s tate pol i c i es
cannot
be
t raced back t o
some presumed ext er nal
r u l i ng c l as s i nf l uence,
but must
be
expl ai ned
t hr ough r e cour se t o
not i ons of i nf l uence
emanati ng f rom
w t h i n t he s t a t e
st ructu res
;
( b) These t heor i es al so
remai n bogged
w t h i n very
s i mpl i s t i c and
mechani st i c concept s of
power and
aut hor i t y
The pr obl emt o whi ch Of f e poi nt s i s t hat One
can
onl y
have
power over somet hi ngwhi ch
accor di ng
t o i t s own s t ruc ture
al l ows
power t o
be
exer c i sed
on i t and
r esponds
t o
i t whi ch
f or
i t s
p a r t ,
so
t o
speak,
author i zes,
t he
exer c i se
of
power
( i b i d
p
35)
Hence,
Of f e
poi nt s
t o
a
cruci al t heor et i cal pr obl em v i z t he need f or a c r i t i c a l
under st andi ng
of t he ways i n
whi ch
t he very i nt ernal st ructu res of t he
l a t e c a p i t a l i s t
s ta te
guar ant ee
t he obj ec t i ve
i n t e r e s t s
of t he
cont empor ar y accumul at i on
pr ocess I n summary Of f e pr ai ses
these
i nst r ument al
t heor i es
of
t he l a t e capi t a l i s t
s t a t e f or suggest i ng t he bi as of pl ur a l i sm, that i s t he
pr eponder ant i nf l uence of t he weal t hy
and power f ul
;
but
these t heor i es
can
i n
no
way
expl ai n
t he necessi t y
of
t h i s s ta te
of
a f f a i r s
On
t he
ot her hand,
t he
ker nel of
t r u t h
r eveal ed by
t he
i nt egr at i on model
i s
that i t poi nt s t o
t he r ecent
qual i t a t i ve expansi on
of s t a t e a c t i v i t y
( Po l i t i c al Author i t y , op
ci t
pp
77- 8)
However, t o
t he
extent t hat such
vi ews
post u l at e
a
spher e of
unconst r ai ned, neut r al
pol i t i c al i n s t i t u t i ons
w t h i n whi ch or gani zed i n t e r e s t s
st r uggl e t o l i c k
t he publ i c
s a l t
bl ock,
t hey
l apse
in t o ms t i f i c a t i o n Thereby , t hey f a l l v i c t i m
t o
t he
strong
pri ma
f a c i e
ar gument s
put
f or ward
by
t he i nf l uence and
const r ai nt
t heor i s t s
Through a di a l ec t i c al
overcomng of
these
two appar ent l y h o s t i l e
t h eo r i es ,
Of f e comes t o
deal w t h
t he c l ass power or s t a t e power
di spute
vi a anot her quest i on I nwhat
sense
can i t
be ar gued demonst r abl y t hat t he s t at e s al l ocat i ve andpr oduct i ve pol i c i es cont i nue t o
be
f or
c a p i t a l , and have not shi f t ed t he or gani zat i onal pr i nci pl e
of
our
s o c i a l f ormat i ons
from
c a p i t a l i s t t o, sa y ,
post - i ndust r i al
or wel f ar e ?
Expr ess ed
si mpl y, i n
what
r espect does
t h i s
s ta te apparat us r emai n a
c a p i t a l i s t
s t a t e ? Of
course, t h i s i mpor t ant f or mul at i on
makes a
mockery of Mul l er
and
Neussuss
c l a im
t hat
Of f e, t he
soci al
democr at ,
has
posi t ed
t he
absol ute separ at i on of t he
l a t e capi t a l i s t s tate f rom he domai nof
economc pr oduct i on,
W
Mul l er and
C
Neususs,
The
I l l u s i o n of State
Soc i al i sm
and
t he
Cont r adi c t i on
Between
Wage
Labour and
Capi t al , Tel o s, 25,
[ F a l l ,
1975Q,
pp
18-23)
55
Cf
The
Theory
of
t he Capi t al i s t St at e ,
op
ci t
p
126,
where
Of f e
poi nt s
out
that
t he
s t a t e s
power
r eal t i onshi ps, i t s very
deci si on- maki ngpower depends ( l i k e everyother soci al
r e l at i onshi p i n
c a p i t a l i s t
soc i et y)
upon t he
pr esence
and
cont i nui t y of
t he
accumul at i on
pr ocess I n t he absence of
accumul at i on, ever yt hi ng,
and
espec ia l l y t he
power of
t he
s t a t e ,
t ends t o di s i nt egr at e . Thus,
t he s t a t e s
or i ent at i on t o t he accumul at i on
pr ocess i s
condi t i oned s t r uc tura l l y , and not by t he f a c t s of per sonal t i es ,
conspi r aci es ,
or
common soci al or i gi ns of
actors
w t h i n
s ta te
and
i ndust r i al
c i r c l e s , et c Of f e i s here i n
accord w th Poul ant z as st i ngi ng c r i t i c i s m of
M l i band s f a i l u r e t o grasp t he s t at e as an
obj ect i ve sys tem
of
r egul ar
connect i ons
whose per sonnel ar e i n a r eal sense i t s agent s or
bearer s
.
85
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 86/124
JOHN
K N
56
P o l i t i c a l
Aut hori t y ,
op
c i t pp 95- 6, 101- 2 c f
TheAbol i t i on
of Market Cont r ol and t he
Probl em
of
Legi t i macy
I I ,
Kapi t al i st at e, 2 , 1973,
passim
57
These
f ormul at i ons are uncom ort abl y
common i n r ecent
Mar xi st debat es on t he
i nt ernat i onal
r ecessi on
from
a
p o l i t i c al
econom per spect i ve See, f or
exampl e, I an
Gough, State Expendi t ure i n Advanced
Capi t al i sm,
New
Left Revi ew
92 ,
1975,
p 66
The
basi c st ruggl e at bot h
t he economc and
pol i t i c a l l eve l
today
i s
of
cour se t hat bet ween
capi t al
and l abour
.
The
post - theoret i ci s t phase of
Al t husser i ani sm
al so di spl ays t h i s
f a i t h f u l f ormal i sm
as i n
Poul ant zas,
Cl ass es i n
Contemorary
Capi t al i sm op c i t
sect i on
3
and The
Capi tal i st
State ,
op
ci t
p
69
t he worki ng
c l a s s i s
nei t her i nt egrat ed
nor
di l uted i n
the system
I t
cont i nues
t o ex i s t as a di s t i n ct
c l a s s ,
whi ch
i s preci sel y
what
soci al
democracy demons t r at es
( per t i nent e f f e c t s ) , si nce i t
t oo
i s
aworki ng
c l a s s phenomnon ( as
Leni n knew
onl y
t oo wel l ) , w t h i t s ownspeci al
l i nks w t h t he
worki ng
c l a s s
So
t he
wor ki ng
c l a s s
cont i nues
t o
be
a
di st i nct
c l a s s ,
whi ch
al so
( and
c h i e f l y )
mans
we
can
r easonabl y hope
that
i t
w i l l
not
et ernal l y cont i nue
where
i t s t does t o be soci al -
democr at i c
and t hat
soci al i sm prospect s there fo re
remai n
i nt act i n
Europe
.
From
Canadi an
per specti ve, t h i s f ormal i sm
pr edomnat es
i n
Harol d
Chorney et al , The State
and P o l i t i c a l Econom , t h i s
J our nal , Vol
1 , No 3, F a l l , 1977, and
Leo
Pani t ch, ed
The
Canadi an
State
: P o l i t i c a l
Econom
and
P o l i t i c a l
Power ,
Toronto and
Buf f al o 1977
58
Pol i t i cal
Aut hor i t y , op ci t p
102
59
To
us e t he termof P Bachr ach and
Barat z,
Power
and
Poverty, New
York
1970
;
cf
Of f e s
i nt roduct i on t o t hei r work Ei nl ei t ung ,
P
Bachr ach and
Bar at z,
Macht
and
Armt
Ei ne
t heor ei i sch- empi r i sche
Unter s uchung,
Frankf ur t
am
Mai n
1977
;
and
Structural Pr obl em ,
op c i t pp 36
f f
where he
el abor at es t hree
form of s e l e c t i v i t y
operat i ng
at t he st ruct ur al ,
i deol ogi cal , process, and
repressi ve
l ev el s
. Note
that
Luhmnn s
syst emt heor et i cal
argument ( i n hi s Sozi ol ogi sche Auj kl ar ung,
i n
t he
debat e
w t h
Habermas and
el sewhere)
that al l soci o- pol i t i cal organi zat i ons
i nvol ve
a s e l e c t i v e
reduct i on of
soci al
compl exi t y ,
i . e
a necessary
protecti on agai nst
a
chaot i c
mul t i pl i ci ty of
poss i bl e
event s, i s seen
by
O f f e t o
be i ncapabl e of assess i ng t h e i r degr ee
of h i s t o r i c a l l y -
s p e c i f i c r epr essi veness
60
Advanced
Capi t al i sm,
op
c i t p
485
c f Pol i t i cal
Aut hor i t y ,
op c i t pp 103- 5, Ei n
bi edermei erl i cher
Wg
zum
Sozi al i smus? , Der Spi egel , 24, Febr uar y 2 4,
1975, where Of fe
s l ams
t he
Wst
Germn
S
. P.D
f or
i t s
habi t ual
r el i ance
on
s i l e n t
conf i dence
work
( ger auschl ose Ver t r auensar bei t ) i n i t s
pol i cy maki ng,
and
I ndust r y and
I nequal i t y, op
c i t
pp
12- 13
: The soci al
i mager y of t he
achi evi ng
soci et y i s
domnated
by t he abstract
not i on of e f f i c i e nc y
Thi s
i mpl i es
not onl y t he repress i on
of
t hose practi cal desi r es whi ch
cannot demons t r at e
any
f uncti onal
cont r i but i on t o
t he
overal l
sys temof achi evement ,
but
al so di scr i mnat i on
agai nst
any
at t empt
t o chal l enge
t he c r i t e r i a
of achi evement
and
ef f i ci ency
t hrough t he f ramwork of
concept s of
use
val ue
.
61 TheTheory of
t he
Capi t al i st State , op c i t pp 140, 143
Of f e s ent husi ast i c
ass umpt i on
t hat Par t i ci pat i on
and
unf i l tered
conf l i ct t ends t o
i n t e r f e r e
w t h
t he
i nst i tut i onal
const r ai nt s under
whi ch
state
agenci es have t o operat e, and, as coul d be
demons t r at ed i n
t he
cases
of par t i ci pat i on- based wel f ar e p o l i c i e s ,
urban
p o l i c i e s , andeducat i on
p o l i c i e s ,
l ead t o
a
hi ghl y
unst abl e
s i t uat i on
needs
t o
be
t emper ed
w t h t he more soberi ng pos si bi l i t y of
pseudo- par t i ci pat i on ,
whi ch
has often pr ovi ded useful t echni cal i nf ormat i on
and
l e v e l s of
cl i ent mot i vat i on f or
pl anner s
Ther eby, t he scope
and
f e a s i b i l i t y
of
t he
pl anni ng process i s
f a c i l i t a t e d
t he
squeaky wheel
has
r ecei ved i t s grease
62
Pol i t i cal
Aut hor i t y ,
op
ci t
pp
104- 5
I n
hi s
more r ecent
w r i t i n g s ,
Offe t ends t o
deny
t he
s t a t e s
capaci t y to
mnage t he product i on
of s ymbol s ,
as
i n
h i s cr i t i que of Edelmn
and
Mayntz i n I nt roduct i on
t o Part 1 1 ,
op c i t
pp
257- 9
I s h a l l
r e t u r n t o t h i s
poi nt
More
general l y,
see one of
t he f i n e s t works of
J i i r gen
Habermas St r ukur wandel der
86
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 87/124
THE
LEG Y
OF
POLITIC LE ONOMY
df f ent l i chkei i
Unt er suchungen zu
ei ner
Kat egori e der
burgerl i chen
Gesel l schaf t ,
Neuwed
and Ber l i n
1962,
where
t he
at t empt ed
t ransf i gurati on of a conf l i c t - r i dden p o l i t i c s i n t o
admni st rat i on
i s
traced
Here
Habermas
shows
how
t he
cont ent of an
i mport ant
heri t age
of
l i b e r a l mar ket soci et y
t he bourgeoi s publ i c sphere ( burgerl i cher Of f ent l i chkei t ) i s
downgraded by
t he p o l i t i c a l
managers of advanced
capi t al i sm
Rooted
or i gi nal l y i n t he
di st i nc t i on bet ween publ i c and
pri vat e i n anci ent Greece, publ i c
sphere ,
i n i t s
most
general
sense, r e f e r s t o that
space
whi ch medi at es t he s t a t e apparat us and
t he pr i vate
a f f a i r s
of
i ndi vi dual s
;
i n b r i e f , t o a r eal mof soci al
l i f e
i n whi ch somet hi ng
appr oachi ng publ i c opi ni on
can be f ormed formof t h i s
publ i c sphere not i on was resurr ect ed by t he European
bourgeoi s i n
i t s assaul t
upon
t he secret i ve
domni on of f eudal
soci et y ; i n
monarc hi c
f o rm
i t
can be
traced
t o
t he Physi ocrat s
not i on of
opi ni on
publ i que,
whi l e
i n l i b e r al form t i s
f or eshadowed
i n
a
r udi ment ary way i n
Locke and, l a t e r ,
among Scot t i sh
moral i st s,
and Benthamand J ames M l l
O course,
as
Habermas s t r e s s e s ,
t hese not i ons
of a publ i c
must
not
be
conf used
w t h
t he
pr i nc i pl e
o f
uni versal
democr acy, underst ood
as
t he equal ,
e f f e c t i v e f reedomof al l t o bot h
use
anddevel op t h e i r
capaci t i es
t f i r s t , and w t h onl y some
except i ons ( e . g Wnst anl ey,
Rousseau,
J ef f erson) , t he
publ i c
was taken t o
i nc l ude
onl y
mal e propert y owner s Yet at l e as t t he pr i nci pl e of t he publ i c sphere
presupposed t he
possi bi l i t y of a
reasoni ng, c r i t i c a l
publ i c i n search of rati onal
uni versal s
and t h e abol i t i on
of
t he t echni cal
r a t i o n a l i t y
of market
soci et y
I ntended as overseer of t he s t a t e apparat us, t h i s
sphere and i t s publ i c coi nc i ded w t h such c l ai ms as t he ri ght t o representat i on, f reedom
of
speech and assembl y, and publ i c
opi ni on I n t he t ransi t i on
from
t he pol i t i c a l c l a s s
dom nat i on of f eudal i sm t o t he bourgeoi s c l a s s dom nat i on
i n de- pol i t i c i z ed
form( whi ch
Of f e has
anal yzed) ,
t he emer gence of t h i s
l i b e r a l publ i c sphere not onl y si gnal l ed
a
new
mechani sm
of
l egi t i mat i ng
s t a t e i n s t i t ut i o ns ,
i t
al so poi nt ed, i n pr i nc i pl e at
l e a s t ,
t o
rest r i c t i ons
on
p o l i t i c a l
power
I n t he
f i r s t
modern
c onst i t ut i ons t he
cat al ogues of
f undament al
r i g h t s wer e a perf ect
i mage
of t he l i b e r a l
model
of
t he publ i c
sphere
they
guarant eed t he soci et y as a sphere of pri vat e autonomy
and
t he
r e s t r i c t i o n
of publ i c
aut hor i t y
t o
a f ew
f unct i ons
Between
t hese
two
spheres, t he const i tut i ons f ur ther i nsured
t he exi st ence
of a
r eal mof pri vat e i ndi vi dual s assembl ed i n t o a publ i c bodywhoas c i t i z e n s
transmt t he needs of
bourgeoi s
soci et y t o t he
s t a t e ,
i n order, i d e a l l y , t o
t ransf orm
p o l i t i c a l
i n t o rat i onal
aut hor i t y
w t h i n
t he
medi umof
t h i s
publ i c
sphere
The
general i n t e r e s t ,
whi ch
was t he measure
of such a
r a t i o n a l i t y , was
then guarant eed,
accordi ng
t o t he
presupposi t i ons
of a soci et y of f r e e
commodi ty
exchange, when t he
a c t i v i t i e s of
pri vat e
i ndi vi dual s i n t he market pl ace wer e
freed
fromsoci al compul si on and
from
p o l i t i c a l
pressure i n
t h e publ i c
sphere
.
Agai n,
Habermas i s
emphat i c that
t he
d u a l i s t i c s p l i t bet ween
bourgeoi s
( t h e
not i on
of
i ndi vi dual s as
but
sel f - regardi ng
manager s
of
thei r capac i t i es
and
propert y)
and
ot her- regardi ng,
egal i t ar i an
c i t oyen
i s not overcome i n al l t h i s
s
he
acknow edges
w t h
ref erence
t o
J ohn
St uart M l l and de Tocquevi l l e, t h i s bourgeoi s
model
of
t he
publ i c sphere vei l ed
t he
c l a ss
expl oi t at i on
whi ch
made
a
mockery
of
i t s supposed
aut hent i c i t y
Thi s readi l y became apparent w t h
t he
emer gence of
t he Engl i sh Chart i st
movement
and
t he
French February
revol ut i on
; t he
l i m t e d
publ i c sphere was nowstretched
beyond t he provi nces
of t he bourgeoi si e so as t o
i nc l ude
prol etar i an el ement s f or t he
f i r s t
t i me Ther ew t h, t he publ i c sphere became a
court
of appeal whi ch
was
much
l e s s
soc i al l y
excl usi ve
and racked by
vi ol ent
conf l i c t There
was
a f l ower i ng of p o l i t i c a l j ournal s,
di scussi on c i r c l e s , c l u bs ,
and
t he l ocal p o l i t i c a l
newspaper
emer ged as a
vehi c l e
f o r publ i c
communi cati on
Habermas i mport ant argument
i s t ha t , i n t he t ransi t i on t o advanced
capi t al i sm t h i s publ i c
sphere has
been
col oni sed f romabove
host
of
organi zed, power f ul
i n t e r e s t s
i nc l udi ng
t he
gi ant corporat i ons,
organi zed
l abour , t he
cart el i zed
p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s ,
i ncumbent
government s
and
t he
organi zed mass medi a i mposes
i t s e l f upon
i t
Thi s f i r s t
begi ns
around
t he 1830 s i n
Europeand
Nort h
Ameri ca and
i s
accordi ng t o Habermas,
t he
harbi nger of t he
l a t e r publ i c opi ni on
deal i ng, t he t ransf ormat i on f roma
j ournal i sm
of
convi c t i on t o one of commerce and,
t herew t h,
t he possi bi l i t y of
publ i c rel at i ons
work
(bf f ent l i chkei t sarbei t )
The promse of
t he
ni neteent h
cent ury publ i c
sphere
becomes
submerged i n
t he
commodi fxed
domai n
of organi zed
product i on
and
consumpti on When
t he
l aws of
t he
market
whi ch govern t he sphere of
commodi ty
exchangeandsoci al l abour
al so penet rat e t he sphere reserved f or
pri vat e
peopl e as
publ i c, c r i t i c a l
j udgment
87
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 88/124
(Rasonnement)
t r ansf orms i t s e l f
t endent i al l y i nto
consumpt i on,
and t he context of publ i c
communi cat i on breaks downi nto a c t s whi chare uni f orm y character i zed by i ndi vi dual i zed
r ecept i on ( p
194) .
For
further
examnat i ons
of
t h i s
pr oduct i on
of
l egi t i mat i on
see
M l i band,
The State
i n Capi tal i st
Soci ety, op
c i t chs 7- 8
and J ames Perry, TheNew
Po l i t i c s :
The Expand ng
Technol ogyof
P o l i t i c a l
Mani pul at i on, London
1968
; t he l a t t e r
i s
an
i mpor t ant hi story
of
t he emer gence
of
t he mer chandi zi ng
of
p o l i t i c a l
candi dat es from
t he
t i me
of
t he
f i r s t p o l i t i c a l
management
f i rmof
Whi t aker
and
Baxter i n Cal i f orni a
dur i ng
t he
1930 s
through
t o
t he more
recent
campai gns
of Reagan,
Rockefel l er,
Romney
and
Schapp
63
I ndust r y
and
I nequal i ty, op
c i t .
p
11
OHNK N
64
Cf
C. B
Macpht r son,
Democrati c
Theory
Essays
i n Retri eval , London 1973,
p 78
There i s no
doubt
about t he vi ol ence done
t o
t he
tr adi t i onal theory by
what
we
may
c al l
t he
Schumpet er /
Dahl
axi s
The
tr adi t i onal
theory
of
( J ohn
Stuart)
Mi l l ,
carr i ed
over
i nto
t he
t went i eth
century
by
such wri ters
as
S
Li ndsay
and
Ernest
Barker, gave
democracy
a
mor al di mensi on i t saw
democracy
as
devel opmental ,
as
a
mat t er
of
t he
i mprovement of
manki nd The
Schumpeter-Dahl
axi s,
on
t he contrary,
treats democracyas
a
mechani sm
t he essent i al
f unct i on of whi ch
i s
t o
mai nt ai n
an
equi l i br i um
65
Structural
Pr obl ems , op
c i t .
p 46
Thi s
i s
al so
Theodore
Low s
ar gument i n
The
End
of
Li beral i sm I deol ogy, Pol i cy,
and
t he
C r i s i s
of Publ i c
Aut hor i t y,
New
York 1969
66
I b i d
p 47 cf
The
Theory
of
t he
Capi tal i st State ,
op
c i t
. p 127
Actual l y,
t h i s
poi nt
requi res some
c l a r i f i c a t i o n , f or t he general
form
of t h i s structural probl empredates t he
per i od of
l a t e
capi tal i sm
I t
f i r s t
emer ges
w t h
the di s i ntegrati on
of
t he
ki nshi p
basi s
of
t r i b a l
s o c i e t i e s and t he emer gence of c l a s s domnated s oc i e t i e s ( e
. g
t he earl y c i v i l i s a t i o n s of
Mesopotama, Egypt, anci ent Chi na,
I ndi a
and t he Amer i cas, European f uedal i sm e t c
.
whi ch assume a
p o l i t i c a l form
t he
r epr oduct i on of whi chdepends on t he conversi on of
p o l i t i c a l power i nto p o l i t i c a l authori t y vi a the sacred canopy of l egi ti mati ng tr adi t i ons
Thi s
i nsi ght
was
capt ur ed
by
Weber s
own def i ni t i on
of
any
state
as a rel at i on of
men
dom nat i ng men
a rel at i on support ed by means of
l egi ti mate
(that
i s
consi dered t o be
l egi ti mat e)
vi ol ence
.
67
Advanced
Capi tal i sm,
op
c i t
.
p
480 Habermas compl ai nt ( Legi t i mat i on C r i s i s ,
Bost on
1975, pp 162- 3 note
i
t hat Offe s theory of the usual l y- l atent c l a s s bi as of t he state means
t hat
t h i s
bi as
i s
i naccessi bl e
t o
obj ect i vat i ng
knowedge
and,
therefore,
str i cken by
bl i nd,
acti oni sti c
concl usi ons, msses the si gni f i cance of t he
i mpor t ance
whi ch
Offe attaches t o
t he theory
of c r i s i s
.
After
a l l , cri si s- tendenci es are preci sel y
those
obj ect i ve si tuati ons
w t hi n
whi ch
the usual l y- l atent i ntent i ons
of
t he s t a t e
may becomemani f est ,
as
Offe i ndi cates
( I nt roduct i on of Par t
I I ,
op
c i t .
p 246)
A cont r adi cti on i s t he t endency
i nherent
t o a
speci f i c
mode
of
pr oduct i on t o
destroy
those very
precondi t i ons
on
whi ch i t s
survi val
depends
Cont r adi cti ons become
mani f est i n
si tuati ons
where
a c o l l i s i o n occur s
bet ween
t h e const i t uent
precondi t i ons
and t he r e s u l t s
of
a speci f i c
mode
of
pr oduct i on, or
wher e t he
necessary
becomes i mpossi bl e
and
t he i mpossi bl e becomes necessary
my
emphasi s)
Thi s
i s
el abor at ed i n
Kr i sen
des Kri senmanagement
op
c i t
I t
shoul d al so be r ecogni zed t hat
c r i s i s has nowadays becomeamani pul at i ve
word
f or househol d consumpti on- thereare
cri ses i n t he West , per sonal cri ses energy
c r i s i s ,
par l i ament ary/ consti t ut i onal c r i s e s ,
and so on I t s more c l a s s i c al mean nghas becomewornout
Offe s
useof t hetermmust be
di sti ngui shed
fromthese
recent vul gari zati ons, f o r hi s use of c r i s i s cl ear l yowesmuch t o i t s
ear l y medi cal
and
dr amatur gi cal o r i g i n s ,
upon
whi ch, i ndeed,
Marx s
theory of c r i s i s
had
been
constructed ;
cf
Habermas Legi t i mat i on C r i s i s ,
op
c i t
pp
1- 2
and
Theory and
Pr a c t i c e ,
op c i t .
pp
212- 235, and
t he
usef ul survey of
t he concept
by
Randol ph Starn,
Hi stori ans
and
`Cr i si s ,
Past
and Present,
Vol
52,
August , 1971
68
Paul
Baran and
Paul Sweezy, Monopol y
Capi tal ,
Harmondsworth
1969
8 8
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 89/124
THE
LEG Y
OF
POLIT L
E ONOM
69
Theses , op
c i t
; cf
The
Teory of
t he Capi ta l i s t
State , op c i t p 139,
and
Ei n
bi edermei er l i cher
Weg
op
c i t
More
gener al l y,
see
O Connor , The
Fi scal
C r i s i s of
t he
S t a t e , op
c i t
and, w t hi n
t he
Canadi an
cont ext, Ri ck Deat on, The
Fi scal
C r i s i s of
t he
State
i n Canada ,
i n D
I
Roussopoul os,
ed The P o l i t i c a l Economyof t he State, Mont r eal
1973
70 I nt r oduct i on t o Part
11 ,
op
c i t
pp
252- 3,
Fur t her Commnts
op
c i t pp 107- 8,
I ndust r y
and
I nequal i t y, op c i t p 19 , and Advanced
Capi t al i sm ,
op c i t pp 487- 8
These ar gument s
agai n
der i ve fromO Connor , The Fi scal C r i s i s of t he S t a t e , op c i t
71 St r ukt ur pr obl eme des
Kapi ta l i s t i schen
St at ues, Fr ankf ur t amMai n 1972: ch 4 ; c f
Theses op c i t
pp
144-5,
where
Of f e poi nt s t o t he r easons why t he t axi ng
away
of
corporate prof i ts
i s of t en
unpopul ar
among
sectors
of c a p i t a l ,
though
t hese r easons
coul d
eas i l y
be
ext ended
t o
cover
ot her
c onf l i c t s , f or
exampl e,
over
t he
oper at i ons
of
trans-
nat i onal
cor por at i ons,
decent r al i zat i on
s t r a t eg i e s
whi ch cont i nue t o have
a
r egi onal b i a s ,
et c
For
t he cr i t i que of
Weber ,
c f Rat i onal i tatskr i ter i en and
Funkt i onspr obl eme
pol i t i sche- adm ni st r at i ve Handel ns , Levi at han, 3, 1974,
and The Theory
of
t he
Capi ta l i s t State ,
op
c i t
pp 136- 7, 142
I n
Ber uf sbi l dungsref orm
Frankf ur t am
Mai n
1975, O f e has tested
t h i s po l i t i c a l di l emma of t echnocr acy
theorem
w t h r ef er ence t o
unsuccessf ul
S
P
. D Governmnt
at t empt s t o
ra t i onal i ze
t he provi s i on of vocat i onal
t r ai ni ng Poul ant zas r e f e r s t o t hese gener al pl anni ng di f f i c u l t i es i n hi s comments on t he
s t a t e s c r i s i s of r epr esent at i veness i n Cl asses i n
Contemporary
Capi t a l i sm
op
c i t pp
168- 174, as does
O fe s
col l aborat or ,
Vol ke
Ronge,
who speaks
of t he
pol i t i c i z at i on
of
adm ni s t r at i on under
advanced
c a p i t a l i s t condi t i ons,
The
P o l i t i c i z a t i o n of Adm ni s t r at i on
i n
Advanced
Capi ta l i st
Soc i e t i e s , Po l i t i c al
St udi es,
vol
22,
1
March,
1974
72
I nt roduc t i on t o Par t
I I , op
c i t
p
255 ; c f
Advanced
Capi t al i sm , op c i t
pp
481- 2
and
Theses ,
op
c i t
p
145 t he s t a t e s att empt s t o mai nt ai n
and
uni versal i ze t he
commodi ty
form
do
r equi r e
or gani zat i ons whi ch cease t o
be
subj ect
t ot he
commodi ty form
n t h ei r own
mode of
oper at i on
. Thi s t h e s i s
was f i r s t
worked
out
i n St r ukt ur pr obl eme, op c i t pp 27-
63 , abbrevi at ed t ransl at i ons of whi ch appeared i n Kapi ta l i s tate, 1
and
2 , ( 1973) The
theme
of abstract
and
concr ete
l abour
i s central i n
a
r ecent di scussi on
by J ames
O Connor,
Pr oduct i ve
and
Unpr oduct i ve Labor ,
Pol i t i c s
and
Soc i et y , vol
5, 3,
1975
73
I nt r oduct i on
t o
Part
I I ,
op
c i t
p 256 Thi s ar gument can be
under st ood
as
anal ogous t o
Mar x s
comments
on
t he
uni nt ended
and
i roni c
soc i a l i zat i on
of
t he
product i ve process
under
ear l y ni neteent h cent ur y i ndustr i al c api t al i sm
Accordi ng t o t hi s soci a l i zat i on
t hes i s ,
t he
or gani zat i on and l evel l i ng of
prol et ar i ans under
c a p i t a l i s t modes of
factory
or gani zat i on
was seen t o be an e ss en t i a l devel opment i n
t he
f or mat i on
of
a
t rul y uni versal ,
consc i ous human
communi ty
def i ned
by i t s
condi t i ons
of l abour
74 Structural Pr obl ems , op c i t p 49 cf I nt r oduc t i on to Par t
I I ,
op c i t p 256
75 Theses , op c i t pp 146-7 and I ndust r y and I nequal i t y, op c i t passim
76
Cf
C
. B
Macpherson, The
o l i t i c a l Theor y
of
Possessi ve I ndi v i dual i sm London 1962
and
Democr at i c
Theor y,
op
c i t
especi al l y
pp 25- 31
77 I ndust r y and I nequal i t y, op c i t
p 42 Agai nst t he power s
of
church
and s t a t e , and
echoi ng
Hobbes
cont ent i on that A
Fr ee- Man, i s
he , that i n t hose t hi ngs,
whi chby
hi s strength
and
w t he i s abl e t odo, i s
not hi nder ed
t o
dowhat hehas
a wi l l t o , Levi at han, part 2,
ch
2 l ,
CB
Macpherson, ed
Harmondsworth
1972,
p 262
Locke expressed
t he
tenets of
possessi ve
i ndi vi dual i sm i n
t h i s
way
every
man
i s ent i t l ed
t o
consi der what s u i t s hi s
ownconveni ence,
and f ol l owwhat ever course he j udges bes t , i n A
Letter on
Tol er at i on, Oxford:
1968,
J
.W
Gough ed p 89
89
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 90/124
78
I ndust r y
and i nequal i ty ,
op
c i t
pp
14- 15
;
c f
i b i d
p 134
I t canbetakenas a basi c soci al
f act i n al l
i ndus t r i al s oci et i es t hat
s t r a ta andcl asses,
economc
power and the i r r at i onal i t i es
of the
educati onal
system
are
domnant
elements
of
the
soci al structure ,
af f ect i ng and
r egul a t i ng the
const i t ut i on,
l et al one the
exerc i se,
of
i ndi vi dua l a b i l i t i e s
.
79
I b i d
pp
135- 7
OHN
K N
80 I b i d
pp
17- 20
and The Abol i ti onof Market
Control
andtheProbl emof Legitimacy I ,
Kapi ta l i s tate , 1
1973, pp 112- 113
Thi s i s
a
hi ghl y unstabl e devel opment, and not onl y
because
f i scal di f f i cul t i es curb the state s a b i l i t y to
f u l f i l l
i t s sel f - pro fessed
i nt ent i ons
;
el sewhere (
Kr i s en
des Kri senmanagement ,
op
c i t p 20 , Of fe
makes
the
addi t i ona l
suggest i on
that
competi ti onbetweenpol i t i cal par t i es tends to r ai s e the
el ect orat e s expecta-
ti ons ( I f
el ect ed,
we
w l l
thereby
i ncreasi ng the chances of voter f r us t r a t i on
about
f a l s e
promses
81
Offementi ons t hi s
examp e
i n Structural Probl em ,
op
c i t
pp
50- 1 ;
moregenera l l y , see
I ndust r y
and
I nequal i t y, op c i t
pp
15- 17, St r ukt urpr obl eme,
op
c i t pp 27- 63, and
OConnor s
di scuss i on
The
Fi scal C r i s i s
of
t he State,
op
c i t ch
9 ofmovements of sta te
workers
and cl i ent s
82
Advanced Capi tal i sm,
op
c i t pp 486- 7
and
Structural Probl em ,
op c i t
p 52
83
St r ukt ur pr obl eme,
op
c i t
p
24
The reference t o the t r i ad of usual
sel f - adapt i ve
mechani sm
i s sketched
more f ul l y i n
Kri sen
des Kri senmanagement , op c i t
pp 197
f f
84
Consider,
f or
examp e,
Ernest Mandel s r a t i onal i s t i c vi ew
of bourgeoi s
i deol ogy
as l i k e a
bl anket
coveri ng the s l eepi ng worki ng
cl ass
gi ant duri ng qui et per i ods , Late
Capi t a l i sm
London 1975,
p 494)
;
al so the
s i mpl i s t i c
(base-superstructure) l i n k
between
probl em of
accuml ati on and l egi t i m z at i on assumed
by
O Connor
The Fi scal Cr i si s of
t he
State,
op c i t
p 6
and
taken
up by
Pani tch,
The
Canadi an State, op
c i t
ch
I
85
Thi s
i s
thecentral themeof J eanBaudr i l l a r d ,
Pour une
cr i t i que
de
l econom e pol i t i que
du
Si gne, Pari s 1970
86
Cf
m
cr i t i que
of Habermas i n OnTurni ngTheory Against
I t sel f , Theor y
and
Soci et y,
Fal l ,
1977, pp
561- 572
87 Pol l ock
was one of the f i r s t
t o
menti on
t hi s
poi nt , but
wthout
fur ther
el aborati on of i t s
r adi cal
consequences for the ol d pol i t i cal economyc r i s i s theory
There i s consi derabl e
evi dence
that
i n t hi s admni stered capi t a l i smthe depressi onsw l l
be l onger, theboom
phases
shorter and stronger, and the cr i ses more dest r uct i ve than i n the
times of f r ee
competi t i on , but i t s aut omat i c
col l apse
i s not be be
expected
There i s no
pure l y economc
i r repressi bl e
compul si on
t o repl ace i t w t h anot her
economc
system,
D e gegenwarti ge
Lage
des
Kap tal i sms
and di e
Aussi chten ei ner pl anwi r t s chaf t - l i chen neuordnung ,
Z e i t s c h r i f t f ur
Soci al f or schung, vol 1, 1932,
p
1 6,
my
emphasi s, quoted i n Marramao,
Pol i t i cal
conomy
and
Cr i t i cal
Theory ,
op
c i t
p 66
88 The
Abol i ti on
of Market Control
andtheProbl emof Legitimacy11 ,
op
c i t
pp
74- 5 The
re fe rence i s t o
Dani el
Bel l , The Cul t ur a l Contradi cti ons of
Capi tal i sm,
Publ i c I n t e r e s t ,
F a l l ,
1970
89
On
these
mat t er s, c f Macpherson, Democr at i c Theor y, op c i t ch 2
Henri
Lefebvre,
Ever yday L i f e i n
t he Modern Wor l d, NewYork 1971 and The Survi val of Capi t a l i sm
90
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 91/124
THELEG YOFPOLIT L ONOMY
London
1976 ; Bart hes cr i t i cal - s emo l ogi cal anal ysi s,
whi ch seeks t o l i berate t he
s i gni f i cant
fromt he
natural ness of such what - goes- w t hout - sayi ng spect acl es as
wr est l i ng
mat ches ,
soap powders ,
new
Ci t r oens
and
steak
and
chi ps
Mythol ogi es
New
York
1972; W l l i a m L e i s s , The
Limts
to
Sat i s f a c t i on, Toronto and
Buf f al o 1976 ;
and
Chr i st opher Lasch,
The
Narci ssi st Soci et y , The
NewYork Revi ew
of Books
September
30, 1976 ;
and
The
Narc i ssi s t i c
Personal i t y of
Our
Ti me , Par t i s an Revi ew vol
x l i v ,
1,
1977
90
Cf Habermas
Towarda
Rati ona Soci ety
:
Student
Protest,
Sci ence
andPol i t i cs ,
London
1971, ch 6 ; al so, Her bert Mar cuse, OneDmensi ona Man
London 1968, and
M chael
Oakeshot t , Rati ona i sm n Pol i t i c s,
London
1962,
pp
I - 3 6
91 G
A mond
and S Ver ba, TheCi vi c
Cul t ur e , Pr i ncet on 1963
92
Cf
Wal t er Benj am n,
The Wrk of Ar t i n
t he Age
of
Mechani cal Repr oduct i on ,
i n
I l l um nat i ons , London
1973
;
Max
Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno The
Cul t ur e
I ndust r y
Enl i ght enment
as
Mass
Decept i on , i n Di al ec t i c of Enl i ghtenment
London
1973 ;
Theodor
Adorno Pri sm
London
1967 ; and Cul t ur e I ndust r y Reconsi der ed , New
German Cr i t i que, 6,
F a l l , 1975
More general l y,
compare Arnol d Hauser , The Soci al
H story
of
Art NewYork 1951, vol 4
93
C B
Macpher son, Wo Needs a Theory of
t he
State? , (paper prepared
f or t he
1977
Annual Meeti ng of
t he
Ameri can P o l i t i c a l
Sci ence Associ at i on,
Washi ngt on, DC
September
I - 4 ,
1977)
94
Ethi ca
Nchomachea 1139a, 22- 23,
i n
Ri char d
McKeon ed
The
Basi c
WrksofAri stode
New
York
1968
95
I n
addi t i on
t o those
works
c i ted
above,
cf
Haber mas , Theory
and
Prac t i ce, op ci t ch
1
;
Neumann The
Democrati cand
theAuthori tari anState, op ch ch l ;
J ohn
O Nei l l ,
Publ i c
and
Pr i vat e
Space ,
i n Soci o l ogy as a Ski n
Trade,
New
York
1972 and, of
course,
J ean
J acques
Rousseau, A
D scourse on
t he
Moral Effects of
t he
Arts and
Sci ences ,
i nGDH
Col e,
ed The Soci al Contract andD scourses NewYork 1963
96
Sel ectedWrks
I
op ci t p
127
97
G
W
F
Hegel , ThePhenomenol ogy
ofMnd J . B
B a i l l i e trans
NewYork
1967,
pp 228-
240
; cf al so
t he
e a r l i e r J ena c r i t i que of
Fi cht e s
sol i t ary
s e l f - r e f l e c t i n g I vi a
t he
argument
that
pr a c t i c al
sel f - consci ousness onl y unf ol ds on t he basi s of t he str uggl e f or mutual
r ec ogni t i on, t he exempl ar f o r Hegel bei ng t he e t hi c al re l at i onshi p est abl i shed bet ween l overs
on
t he pr i or
bas i s
of conf l i c t
98 Cf Karl Low t h, FromHegel to Ni etzsche, Garden Ci t y 1967
99 Thus, as ear l y as 1843
i n
a communi cati on w t h Ar no l d Ruge,
Marx compl ai ns
that
Feuerbach s
ant hr opol ogi cal
c r i t i que of t ranscendent al t hought ta l ks t oo much about
nature
and
t oo
l i t t l e about
p o l i t i c s
Thi s l a t t e r i s t heonl y means by whi ch
present
phi l osophy
can
become
a
r e a l i t y c i t e d i n
Davi d
McLel l an,
The YoungHegel i ans andKarl Marx
London 1969, p 113,
my emphasi s)
100
The
German
I deol ogy , i n East on
and
Guddat ,
op
ci t p
421
; cf Wage
Labour and
Capi t al ,
i n Marx
and
Engel s,
Sel ected
Wrks
I op ci t p 159
9
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 92/124
JOHNK N
10 1 Thi s i s a
grow ng
concern Consi der
Kosi k s
di scussi on
of
l abour
and praxi s ( Di al ect i cs
of
t he
Concret e,
Dordrecht and
Bost on
1976)
; Arendt s t heory
of act i on ( The Human
Condi t i on,
op c i t
.
;
Al t husser s
concern
w t h
t he
reproduct i on
of
t he
rel at i ons
of
product i on i n Leni n
and
Phi l osophy
and
Ot her
Essays, London
1971,
pp
123- 173 ;
Habermas
uni versal
pragmat i cs e . g
Legi t i mat i on C r i s i s , op c i t
.
part 3 ;
Baudri l l ard s
concern
( op
c i t
.
wi t h t he process
of si gni f i cat i on ;
Lef ebvre s
f ocus ( op c i t
.
on
l a
v i e
quot i di enne At t empt s a t
reconst ruct i ng
t he Marxi ancategory of l abour were al so a
f eat ure
of t he ear l i er
Frankf urt
c i r c l e , as
Mart i n J ay,
7he
Di al ect i cal I magi nat i on,
Boston and
Toronto
:
1973)
i ndi cat es Fi nal l y, not e t hat our concern wi t h
symbol i c
i nt eract i on
coi nci des w t h t he
resurgent
i n t er es t i n
act i on,
l anguage,
and
manng i n t he
post -
W t t genst ei n
phi l osophi cal
t radi t i on e . g
.
Wnch,
Apel ) , i n
t he
phi l osophy of
sci ence
e . g
Kuhn s t heor y
of paradi gms) ,
i n l i t e r a r y t heory
( Derr i da,
Bart hes, Kri st eva) ,
and
i n several
non- st ruct ural - f unct i onal i st
mvemnts
i n t he
soci al
sci ences e . g
.
phenomenol ogy,
symbol i c
i nt eract i oni sm
et hno- met hodol ogy)
See
t he
sket ch of t hese
l a t t e r
devel opment s
i n nthony
Gi ddens,
New
Rol es of Soci ol ogi cal Method London 1976
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 93/124
Canadi an
J ournal
of Pol i t i cal and
Soci al Theory Revue
canadi enne de
t hi or i e
pol i t i que
et
soci al e,
Vol
2 ,
No
F a l l /
Automne
1978)
M H VELLI
NDGUCCIARDN
N ENTS ND
MODERNS
J G
Pocock
Thi s
e s s a y s
ai m
s t o
examne t he
cont ent i on,
put
f orward
by
such di ver se
schol ar s
as
Fri edri ch Mei necke, Leo Strauss and
Fel i x Gi l ber t , t hat
Machi avel l i s
t hought
and t hat of
other
Fl or ent i nes such as Bernardo
Rucel l ai ,
. mar ked t he s t a r t of
t hi nki ng about modern p o l i t i c s
and
hi story
t
al so
at t empt s t o
consi der t he pai red t erms anci ent and mdern
what
t hey may
mean and have meant ,
andhowf ar t
has been
or
may
be
useful
t o
examne t he two
Fl or ent i nes
i n t he
cont ext
of t he rel at i on bet ween ant i qui t y
and moderni t y
Leo Strauss hel d t hat
wewere l i v i n g
i n t i mes when
moder ni t y had
i t s e l f
become
a
probl em
One m ght
say t hat the word has al ways been used t o
denot e
a consci ousl y probl emat i cal v i ew
of
t he
human
condi t i on
but
doubt l ess
t was
some
hi ghl y
sel f - conf i dent
brand
of progressi vi st or
di al ecti cal moderni smt hat St rauss had chi ef l y
i n mnd
At a
muchsi mpl er
l e v e l ,
we
can
agree
t hat
t he
concept
of
moder ni t y
al ways
presents
a
rat her
obvi ous
pr obl em t hat
of def i ni t i on
Must weal ways
mean
t he
same
t hi ng? t
woul d not
be
hard t o
show
that
t he
wordmodern i s what
wemake
of
t t s
meani ng
depends l a r g e l y uponwhat
we choose
t o pl ace bef or e
t
I f
we ask whet her there s a sense
i n whi ch Machi avel l i and Gui cci ardi ni
have been,
or
may be, sai d t o
mark
t he begi nni ngs
of
modern pol i t i cal
t hi nki ng, t he el ement ary t hought shoul d soon occur t o
us
t hat what pr eceded
themought t o
be
termed
not anci ent
but
medi eval The
di scussi on
as t o
whet her
t h e i r
t hi nki ng
was
i n
f a c t
modern
usual l y
becomes a
di scussi on
of
whet her t can
be
ef f ecti vel y
character i sed
as a
breakaway
frommodes
of
t hi nki ng whi ch
can
becharact er i sed as medi eval
Thi s
s
a
great
deal more
t han
a
di f f erence of t erm nol ogy Machi avel l i and Gui cci ar di ni l i ved i n a
cul t ure i n t e l l e c t u a l l y
domnated by t he i deas
of
t he Renai ssance
humani st s,
and al t hough these schol ars di d not use
such
words
as medi eval
t hey di dhave
a vi vi dl y general i sed
not i on of
a
per i od
i n
t i me
whi ch
separated
themfrom
9
3
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 94/124
J . G. A PO O
those
whomhey cal l ed t he anci ent s Thi s
per i od
seemed t o
them
one of
barbar i sm
and
schol ast i c i sm
and
they
ai med
t o
annul
i t and
escape
f rom
t
by
r et ur ni ng
t o
t he
anci ent s, r eadi ng t hei r
works and i m t at i ng t h e i r act i ons
The
humani st s were anc i ents , as t h i s t e rmwas
tobe
used l t e r on, i n t he
days of
t he
quarrel between
t he
anci ent s
and t he moder ns , when i t
denot ed those
who
t hought
di rect
i m t at i on
of
t he
Gr eeks
and
Romans
possi bl e and necessary
The
poi nt
i s that we have nowa
t hr ee- part
i nstead
of
a t wo- par t di vi si on
of
West er n
cul tural hi story,
and
anci ent
bei ng used as t he
n t i t h e s i s not
of
modern but
of
somet hi ng whi ch wi l l soon
be
known as medi eval The
Chr i s t i an
c i v i l i s t i o n
of
post Roman Lat i ni t y ( or t he
Lat i n
c i v i l i s t i o n
of
post Roman
Chri st i ani ty)
i s seen
as
occ upyi ng t he
i nt erval
between
t he
anci ent s and t he return t o t hem and t he nearest
t hi ng
t o
bei ng modern that
has
so
f ar appeared
i s
bei ng
an
anci ent i n
t he sense
of
one
who
woul d return
t o
t he
anci ent s
and
im t a t e
them Machi avel l i
and
Gui cci ardi ni
di f f er ed as t o
how f r t h i s
i m t at i on
was possi bl e i n p o l i t i c s and
we
s h l l
return
t o t hei r
debat e
but t hey
were
di scussi ng
t he
gover ni ng
assumpt i on
of t hei r
cul t ure,
namel y that t was
possi bl e
t i mpl i ci t i n l l t h i s that t he humani st s
under st ood
t he Chr i st i an
Lat i ni t y
whi ch
they
cal l ed
bar bar ous,
t he
medi eval ,
as
a
radi cal
deni al
of
anci ent
val ues,
and
so
t had been
But
equat i ng
t he
Chr i s t i an
w t h
t he barbarous was
a danger ous game not t o
be pl ayed
t o a
f i n i s h unt i l
t he
t i me of
t he
phi l osophes
and
gi ven that
w t h
some
except i ons f whomMachi avel l i
may have been one
t he humani st s di d not w sh
t o
break w t h Chr i st i an
val ues
and
b e l i e f s
there was
a f ormdabl e t ensi on between
r et ent i on
of
these
b e l i e f s
and
di rect
i m t at i on
of
t he pagan
aut hor s Al l t hat
t he humani st s were
br i ngi ng about
was a sharp
i ncr ease
i n t he r i sks
of
agame as ol d s t he
Fathers
of
t he
Chur ch,
and
even
t he
neo- pagans
among
them
wer e
anci ent s,
not
moderns
Strauss was cert ai nl y
not
i gnor ant
of
t he meani ng
of
t he
word
medi eval ,
and
he
knew
that
among i t s
many
meani ngs i t
denot ed a per i od
dur i ngwhi ch
t he
val ues of
anci ent
po l i t i c l
phi l osophy had
i n some
ways beendeni ed and
s et
asi de
i n
f avour
of
those
of
monot hei st rel i gi on He
r i ght l y hel d,
however ,
that i n so f ar
as
there had
cont i nued
t o
be
pol i t i c l phi l osophy, t hadbeen t he
phi l osophy
of Pl ato
and
Ari stot l e,
and
he hel d
w t h consi der abl e
j ust i f i cat i on that
t he
gul f between t h i s
and t he reveal ed
rel i gi ons had i n
many
ways
been
br i dged,
so
that
there
cont i nued
t o
be
a
grand
t r adi t i on
of
anci ent
phi l osophy t hroughout t he
medi eval
cent ur i es
He
poi nt ed
out
that
f or Pl at o and Ari stot l e, p o l i t i c l phi l osophy cul m nated i n t he knowedge of a
God and
he
bel i eved ( corr ect l y) that there
had al ways been mnds
at
work
i n
t he
monot hei st syst ems l abour i ng
t o reconc i l e t he God
of
revel at i on
w t h
t he
God
of
phi l osophy Hi s i nsi stence that
t h i s coul d onl y
bedone
w t h
t he
ai d
of
esot er i c t eachi ng mght
have got
hi m nt o t roubl e
i n
t he medi eval
Uni ver si t y of
9
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 95/124
M H VELLI N G
U I RDN
Par i s , wher e
such
pr obl em were not or i ousl y open
t o
publ i c
di sput at i on
but
i t was
i n
Chr i s t i an
P a r i s
more
than
i n
Musl i m
Spai n
whi ch
per haps
Strauss
bet t er under s t ood,
t hat t he j us t i f i cat i on
of
phi l os ophy
i n
a
monot hei s t s e t t i n g
became t he j us t i f i cat i on
of
Ar i s t ot el i an p o l i t i c a l
soci et y i n
t he
set t i ng
of
t he
monot hei s t uni ver se, that
t he
c i t y was pr esent ed as l eadi ng t o
t he
knowedge
of God HereStrauss hi ghl y
i ndi vi dual
i nt er pr et at i on
j oi ns
hands
w t hmany
f ar more
si mpl i st i c
account s of Machi avel l i as
modern
i n t he sense of
not
medi eval
t i s
w t h
t he Chr i st i ani sed Ar i s t ot el i ani s m
of
t he schoolmen t hat
t hese
account s al l begi n, andf romhi s
Ar i s t ot el i ani s m
t hat t hey see Machi avel l i as
depar t i ng
The t ext books
of
h i s t o r i c a l
p o l i t i c a l phi l os ophy al l
do
t h i s
w t h
or
w t hout an i nt er l ude on t he subj ect
of
Mar s i l i us
of
Padua and Strauss s
Thought s
on
Machi avel l i
i s
essent i al l y
an
i mmens el y
el abor at e
account
of
howMachi avel l i i nt ended t o br eak w t h anci ent p o l i t i c a l phi l os ophy,
and
i nt ended t o say
many
t hi ngs whi ch Strauss
cons i der ed
t he necessar y
consequences
of t h i s
br each
Now
onemaydoubt that
t h i s
i s a
cor r ect i nt er pr et at i on
of
Machi avel l i s
i nt ent i ons,
or
of t he i deas whi ch
he
communi cated
t o
ot her
peopl e
Thi s
does
not
mean
t hat
i f
you
compare
hi s
doct r i nes
w t h
t hose
of
t he
Ar i s t ot el i an
t r adi t i on, i mpor t ant i mpl i cat i ons wi l l not appear ; but onemaydoubt whet her
t was hi s
i nt ent i on
t o
expr es s t hese i mpl i cat i ons,
or
whet her
he
or
hi s r eader s
cons i der ed
assent or
di ss ent
from t he
Ar i s totel i an
t r adi t i on t he
most
i mpor t ant
quest i on
bef or e themOne mght say mer el y that
St r auss
and
ot her s
l i k e himar e hi st or i cal l y wrong
but
may be
phi l osophi cal l y
r i ght
t hat
thecontrast bet ween qui nasandMachi avel l i i s there even i t he l a t t e r di d not
mean
t o
expr ess
t
but
i n f a c t t he
probl em
does
not
stop
t her e
Strauss s v i ew
of
p o l i t i c a l
phi l os ophy does
ent ai l a
v i ew
of
i t s
hi st or y
a
movement
f rom
anci ent meani ng
Ar i st ot el i an)
t o modern meani ng t he
negat i on of
anci ent )
and
i f
you
r e j ec t t h i s as t he hi stor i cal
scheme
i n
whi ch
Machi avel l i
i s
t o be
l ocat ed, i t does f ol l ow that you
read
hi mas
expr ess i ng
ot her p o l i t i c a l
i not
phi l osophi cal , meani ngs
t han
t hose
r ead
i nt o him
by
Strauss
f
we l ocate
Machi avel l i
- and Gui cci ar di ni
among
t he
Fl or ent i ne
c i v i c
humani s t s ,
thecase f or
charact er i s i ng
them
as
di ss ent er s from he Ar i s t ot el i an
t r adi t i on
i s weakened
The
humani s t
l i n e of t hought ,
pr eval ent
f or over a
cent ur y,
was t hework
of wr i t er s who
had been
t r ai ned i n
humani s t st udi es and
i n
t he
Fl or ent i ne
chancel l er y
and
ot her
publ i c
o f f i c e s
not
i n
any
school
where
phi l os ophi cal
di sput ati onwas a pr i nci pal
means
of
communi cati on s
Hans
Baron
and hi s
c r i t i c s z poi nt
out ,
Fl or ent i ne
i n t e l l e c t u a l cul t ur e was
more
r het or i cal
than phi l osophi cal , and t he pr obl em
debat ed i n uni ver si t i es
wer e
not
necessar i l y t hose
whi ch gave
r i s e
t o t p o l i t i c a l i deas hi nker i n t he
t r adi t i on of Pl at oni c phi l os ophy may r epl y that
i t i s a
grave
error
t o di scuss
p o l i t i c s
r het or i cal l y r at her than phi l osophi cal l y, andmay
succeed
i n showng
9 5
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 96/124
J G PO O K
that
Fl or ent i ne
p o l i t i c a l t hought
has
char acteri st i cs
whi ch
are the r e s u l t
of
t h i s
error
To
do
s o
however ,
wi l l
be
phi l osophi cal
c r i t i c i sm
rather
than
an
hi stor i cal account
of
what those t hi nker s meant
t o
say
or
wereunder st ood
t o
say
by others
I n f a c t Machi avel l i
had
not hi ng
what ever
t o
say
about
t he
Ar i s tot el i an p o l i t i c a l
t radi t i on, but t i s not a necessary
consequence
as
Strauss and
many
after hi m
have at t empt ed t o i n f e r
that
he
meant by hi s
si l ence to convey
t he message
that
t
was
not worth
t hi nki ng
about
He may
si mpl y not have been
t hi nki ng
about t
Thi s
i s not
t o
say
there
ar e no
t r aces i n
Fl or ent i ne
t hought
of
t he
great
syntheses
of medi eval
Ar i s tot el i ani sm
I n t he
ser mons
of
G rol amo
Savonar ol a, some
of
whi ch
Machi avel l i
mayhave hear d, t he t eachi ngs
of
St
Thomas Aqui nas
ar e
unquest i onabl y pr esent ,
even thoughwhen
Savonar ol a
t hi nks
he
i s quot i ng qui nas
he
i s somet i mes quot i ng
Tol omeo
da
Lucca s
cont i nuat i on of t he De Regi mne Pr i nc i pum
Savonar ol a,
however , was
a
Domni can
f r i a r
and Domni cans
st udi ed
Aqui nas
f or
obvi ous r easons
we
have
t o bewar e of
const r uct i ng a
successi on of
maj or
phi l osopher s
and
supposi ng
that t h i s
necessar i l y
suppl i es us
w t h
t he
hi stori cal cont ext i n whi ch
men
di d
t hei r
t hi nki ng
The f i r s t c r i t i c so f ar
known
t o
have observed
that
Machi avel l i s
t hought
can
be
r el at ed
t o
t he
Ar i stot el i an t radi t i on
was
Tommaso
Campanel l a
anot her
Domni can
about
a
hundred
years l a t e r
and he wr ot e t hat t he st udy
of Ar i st ot l e coul d
l ead
d i r e c t l y t o
t he errors of
Machi avel l i
Thi s
makes
sense onl y
bysupposi ng
that
whenCampanel l a
sai d
Ar i stot l e
he
meant
Ar i st ot l e
as st udi ed at
Padua,
or
el sewher e
i n t he
l a t e
schol ast i c
scene
where synt heses such
as
St
Thomas s were
gener al l y
accept ed, and
secul ar phi l osophy and p o l i t i c s wer e
much more
l i k e l y
t o
ex i s t
i n def i ance of
t h e i r
conf orm t y w t h
t he
Chr i s t i an
f a i t h The
l a t e schol ast i c
scene
di si nt egrat es
as
we
l ook
at
t
t he
synt hesi s
of
rel i gi on and
phi l osophy
was
not
uni ver sal ,
and t was
possi bl e t o
construct schemes of
p o l i t i c a l
t hought w t hout reference t o
Ar i s totel i an
phi l osophy at a l l The
presumpt i on
that
Machi avel l i
must
be
vi ewed as
modern
because he depar t s
froma
medi eval
or
anci ent mai nst ream
or
great t radi t i on t he
l a s t phrase
wasa
f avour i t e
w t h
Strauss
not
h is to r i ca l l y sel f - evi dent
Hans
Barondemonst r at es that t he c i v i c humani st
modeof p o l i t i c a l t hought
had been autonomous f or rather more t han a
cent ur y
bef or e
Machi avel l i s
t i me and t he doct r i nes
agai nst
whi ch
t
cont ended
wer e not
those of Thomas
Aqui nas I t i s not cl ear t hat St rauss
mai nt ai ned
they
wer e,
but f or t h i s
very
reason
i t may
be
hel d
that
hi s account of
pr e- Machi avel l i an
t hought
i s
l e s s
than sat i sfactory
Wen
he appr oached
t he gr eat
quest i on of
t he rel at i on
bet ween p o l i t i c a l phi l osophy and r eveal ed r e l i g i o n hi s eye
was
very
often
upon
medi eval
J ew sh
rather
than
Chr i s t i an
t hought ,
and f or
t h i s reason
t
was f i xed
more
upon prophecy
than
upon
grace
The Chr i s t i an
chal l enge
t o
t he
pr i macy
of
p o l i t i c a l phi l osophy
was
expressed f or
a l l
t i me by St
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 97/124
M
CH VELLI
N GUCCI RDN
August i ne and
what
August i ne desi r ed
t o
say was that soul s wer e br ought
to
sal vat i on
by
t he
f r e e l y
oper ati ng
gr ace of
God and
that
t h i s
gr ace
oper at ed
t hr ough t he
sacr ament al
i nsti tuti ons
of
t he
Church
and not t hr ough
t he
p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s
of
secul ar j u s t i c e The c i v i t a s terrena was
very
sel dom
u s t ,
and
when
t was
i t s j u s t i c e
di d not
l ead to
sal vati on
Secul ar t i me i n whi ch t he
p o l i t i c a l c i t y had
i t s bei ng had very
l i t t l e
to dow t h t he pr ocesses
of
sal vati on
and
r edempt i on
and
the s p e c i f i c a l l y p o l i t i c a l
v i r t ues
gr ouped
by
August i ne
under
t he
Sal l usti an t i t l e
of l i bi do
domnandi
m ght
not
be vi r tues at
l l
Now t si mpl y
cannot
be
mai nt ai ned that t he
vi ndi cat i on
of
p o l i t i c s as a thi ng
natur al t o man
whi ch
schol asti c
t heol ogi ans
at t empt ed dur i ng and
a f t e r t he
thi r teenth
cent ur y
heal ed
up
t he
br each
bet ween c i v i t a s
terrena and c i v i t a s
ei
as
i f
t
had
never
been
The eve
of
that gr eat August i ni an r evol t whi ch we
c a l l t he
Pr ot est ant
Ref or mat i on was t he
era of Machi avel l i
andGui cci ar di ni
However
super b we
may
f ind t he gr eat
at t empts
to art i cul ate t t he medi eval
synthesi s was
not
even i n
r ui ns
t
had never been
achi eved
and one
of
t he
consequences i s that
Fl or ent i ne p o l i t i c a l
t hought s
not an
at t empt at a new
p o l i t i c a l phi l osophy but an at t empt to consti tute p o l i t i c a l
t hought on a new
basi s whi ch si nce
t
di d not
addr ess i t s e l f to the rel at i ons of
phi l osophy
and
gr ace
had
better
not
be
cal l ed
phi l osophy
at
al l
t was
r h e t o r i c ,
t he
at t empt
to
use
l anguage as a means
of
act i on
and
t he val ues
to
whi ch
t
appeal ed wer e
those
of
t he
v i t a
act i va
The Fl or ent i ne humani st s saw
t hemsel ves
as r hetor i ci ans
as t hi nker s i n
act i on ai m ng
t o
speak
and wr i t e
so as t o r econst i tute a wor l d of c i v i c
act i on
and i n
so
speaki ng
they
r ei ter ated one
of
t he car di nal
phr ases of
the Hel l eni c
and
European
tr adi t i on
that man i s by
nature
a p o l i t i c a l
ani mal
i ncompl et e
unl ess enacti ng
and decl ar i ng
hi msel f
w t h i n
a scheme of c i v i c r el at i onshi ps
Nowal t hough t h i s
s
one
of
t he f undament al
pr em ses of
p o l i t i c a l
phi l osophy
t
had been
i n s i s t e d
on by
Pl ato
and
i n hi s own
way
by
Ar i stotl e that p o l i t i c a l
exi stence
s
i mper f ect unl ess compl eted by phi l osophy
The
humani st
emphasi s
ont he
v i t a act i va
can
be
read as
a return
to
t he
wor l d
of
Per i cl es and
Al ci bi ades
to
act i on
as t
had been bef or e
t
was
quest i oned by
Socr ates
Tr ue
and very i mpor t ant but I such a return was radi cal l y anci ent
and not
modern
2
we
further m si nt er pr et
t he whol e probl em
of
ant i qui t y i f wedo
not r e a l i s e t hat the anci ents sought a f t e r by t he
humani st s wer e not pr e
Socrati c
Gr eeks but
m ddl e St oi c Romans 3 t he doctr i ne
that ci t i zenshi p
must
be compl eted
by
phi l osophy
had
been
drasti cal l y
al ter ed
by
August i ne
and
other Fathers who
had
created a uni ver se i n whi ch phi l osophy was
t r ansf or med i nto
gr ace
Strauss
saw
i n
hi stor y the unr em t t i ng st r uggl e of
t he
phi l osopher s
to
r econquer
gr ace
f or t hemsel ves
but
he
seems
to have
t hought
t hat t he
phi l osopher s
had usual l y
won
There woul d
not have been a
Protestant
Ref or mat i on i f
they had won and there m ght not have been a
humani st
r e vi v al i n
p o l i t i c s ei t her
97
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 98/124
J A PO O K
G ven
a wor l d i n
whi ch
grace
however
much
degraded and
corrupted
by
t he
Church
hel d
agai nst
t he
compet i t i on of
phi l osophy
t he
r o l e
of
compl et i ng
and perf ecti ng p o l i t i c a l nature there coul d
be onl y
two
but
over l appi ng
outcomes f or
t he humani s t
revi val
of
t he assert i on that man
was
by
nature p o l i t i c a l
and that
t he c i t y
per f ect ed
hi s
nature
Ei t her
ci t i zenshi p
must
be
seen as doi ng t he work
of grace
as
i s
pr ocl ai med
i n
t he sermons
of
Savonar ol a
or
must do
i t s ownwork i n
som
i ndi f f erence t o
t he work
of
grace as
s eems t o
bet he mes s age of
Machi avel l i
We
do not
understand
t he
si xteent h century
i f
we
suppose that anci ent
phi l osophy
hel d
t he
f i e l d
i n t a c t
agai nst
t he
onsl aught s of grace ;
and
totreat
t he
hi st ory
of
phi l osophy
by
i t s e l f
and
or gani ze
i t
i nt o anci ent
andmodern
may
wel l encourage
us t o
do
so
I f
we
l ook
at t he hi st ory
of
what some
c a l l c i v i c humani smand others
c l a s s i c a l
r epubl i cani smb we
may see
t he
f ol l ow ng Cer t ai n Fl or ent i ne
humani s t s
revi ved t he doct r i ne that t he
republ i c
or
pol i s
contai ned
al l that was
necessary
t o
t he compl et i on
of
human l i f e on
earth
; and
they
di d
so
i n a
Chr i s t i an
context
where
t he c i v i t a s
terrena of p o l i t i c s was s et over agai nst
t he
c i v i t a s Dei
of
grace For
reasons
connect ed w t h t he
sharpness of t h i s
anti thesi s they descr i bed t he republ i c
i n t er ms
of
t he
v i t a act i va i nst ead of the
vi t a
cont empl at i va
and
i t i s
correct
t o
poi nt
out
that
t h i s
was
l i k e l y
t o
e n t a i l
some
abandonmnt
of
t he
At heni an
post ul at e
that acti on
must
be
compl et ed
by phi l osophy
;
but
we
mstake
t he hi stori cal
context i f
we suppose
that
August i n i an
grace
had
been
re absorbed
by Thomst
or
Ari stotel i an
phi l osophy
These
Fl orent i nes
depi ct ed
thei r own republ i c as
an
i nheri t or
or
revi val
of
t he
anci ent
republ i c typi f i ed
by Rome
and i n
so doi ng
rei t erated t he
humani s t vi s i on
of
an
i nt erval
of
barbar i sm
whi chwas a l s o an i n t e r va l
of
Chr i s t i ani ty
separati ng
ant i qui ty and
t hemsel ves
an
i n t e r v a l i n t h i s case
of
Chr i s t i an empi r e and
papacy
Theyhad
now
rai sed
f or
t hemsel ves
a
t wo
si ded probl em
i n hi stori cal
underst andi ng such as
nei t her anci ent
phi l osopher s
nor anci ent
hi stori ans
had conf r ont ed
How
had
t h i s
i nt erl ude
of
empi r e
papacy
and
i f
they
t hought about i t f eudal i sm
come
t o
e x i s t ? I f t he
republ i c was
t he
normof p o l i t i c a l l i f e what expl ai ned i t s decl i ne and
r epl acement
by empi r e
i n
t he Roman c a s e i t s revi val and al l t oo
evi dent
i n s t a b i l i t y
i n
t he
Fl orent i ne
c a s e i t s
apparent
sereni t yandunal tezabi l i ty i n
t he
case
of Veni ce?
These wer e
hi stori cal
probl ems t o
whi ch
phi l osophy
suggest ed
some
ans wers
but
by
no
means a l l that m ght
be
put f or war d The
exper i ment
i n
r ecover i ng
ant i qui ty
produced a
great
gul f
i n
t he
humani s t
unders t andi ng
of
t i me
whi ch must
be
f i l l e d by adduci ng
sacred or
secul ar
i deas
about hi st ory ;
and
therewas
t he
f ur t her di f f i cul ty that
t he
republ i c had
sel dombeen depi ct ed
as
a sacred e n t i t y l i nked
w t h t he f ul f i l ment
of
t he
Chr i s t i an
r edempt i on
I t may next be argued
that
hi st ory
the
success i on of
events i n
secul ar
t i me
coul d
be depi ct ed ei t her as t he work
of
grace or
w t h
t he ai d of a
sharpl y
98
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 99/124
M H VELLI NGUI I RDN
l i m t ed secul ar vocabul ar y
The r epubl i c coul d
al t hough t r adi t i ons t o
t h i s
e f f e c t
wer e
somewhat
l ac ki ng
be
sai d t o
do
t he
work
of
grace
br i ngi ng
human l i f
nearer
t o
sal vat i on by
per f ect i ng i t s p o l i t i c l
f ormand
ear t hl y
j u s t i c e
Thi s i s
goi ng on
i n
t he s er mons of
Savonar ol a
who
f ound means of
expr essi ng
t h i s doctr i ne i n ways
not
i ncompat i bl e
w t h
t he l anguage
of
or t hodox
Thomsm
gr at i a non
t o l l i t
naturam sed
p e r f i c i t
he
r epubl i c
however
because of i t s
secul ar character and
i t s
hi st or i cal i n s t b i l i t y must
be
t hought of as exi st i ng at s p e c i f i c
and
separated moments
of
secul ar
t i me
;
and
t he
onl y way
t o
s ay t hat
perfected
human
l i f
or
restored
human
l i f e t o i t s
or i gi nal
nature
whi ch
must
be
t he work
of
grace
was
t o
say
t hat
t hese
were t he
moments t whi ch grace
oper at ed
i n secul ar
t i me
t o
do
i t s work
of
r edempt i on
Thi s
i n
t u r n
coul d
onl y
be
s ai d
by
recourse
t o
t he
pr ophet i c
and
apocal ypt i c
eschat ol ogi cal
and
m l l enar i an t er m nol ogi es of t he
Chr i s t i an
vocabul ar y
and
Savonar ol a
was
nei t her
t he
f i r s t
nor t he
l s t
t o f i n d that t o
be
a
r epubl i can
was a l s o t o beapr ophet
I n
pur sui t
of
t he l ogi c
of
t he
pr ophet i c
vocabul ar y he came t o
denounce t he
Pope s Ant i c hr i s t
and found
t hat t h i s
was t oo
much even
f or t he Fl or ent i nes
who
wer e
acc ust omed
t o t r e at i ng t he
Pope
w t h
di sr espect
but
never
f or got
t o
count
t he
p o l i t i c l costs
of
doi ng
so
Machi avel l i
and
Gui cci ar di ni
may
be
br ought
back
i n t o
t he
s t o ry
her e
hey
bot h f e l t
consi derabl e
r espect f or
Savonar ol a
bot h
f or
hi s r o l e
i n
r est or i ng popul ar
government and
f or t he ast oni shi ng e f f e c t
whi ch
hi s
pr opheci es
had upon t he Fl or ent i ne mnd but
t hey
di d not bel i eve
t hat hi s
pr opheci es
wer e
genui ne
and
t hey
had
not ed hi s ul t i mat e f ai l ur e- c onnec t ed
l i k e
hi s
r i s e
w t h t he
French
i nvasi on
of
1494 whi chhad
r ender ed r epubl i can
sur vi val more
pr ecar i ous t han ever
They
therefore
concl uded t hat t he
sur vi val of r epubl i cs
was a
secul ar
pr obl em
t o be under st ood i f
not mast er ed
by
mobi l i s i ng
t hat
shar pl y
l i m t e d
_
vocabul ar l y f or t he
unders t andi ng
of
secul ar
event s des cr i bed a
moment
ago
Thi s was or gani sed
around t he key
c onc ept s of
customand
fo rtune
I f a
secul ar p o l i t i c l st r u ct u r e coul d be
anchor ed
deepl y
enough
i n
remembered
exper i ence
and
custom m ght
acqui r e
a
s t bi l i t y
whi ch
fo rtune
t he symbol of i n s t bi l i t y
i n
secul ar
and
po l i t i c l f f i r s
woul d f i n d har d t o over t hr ow I f not however
every
po l i t i c l
act i on
was i t s e l f t he pr oduct of t h i s
same
fortune i t s appar ent success
i n
achi evi ng
s t b i l i t y
occur r i ng as
fortune s wheel swungupwar ds
i t s
ul t i mat e
f i l u r e and
downf al l
occur r i ng
as t he wheel swungdown
I n
so f ar as human
act i ons
wer e
not
r ewar ded
by
grace
t hey
wer e
l l
gover ned
by
t he
wheel
of
fortune
Ther e
wer e mor al q u l i t i e s and p o l i t i c l s k i l l s whi ch
i t
was
appr opr i at e
f or men
t o di spl ay i n t he
conf r ont at i on
w t h
fo rtune ;
there was
c i v i c and her oi c v i r t ue there was pr udence and
caut i on there was
under s t andi ng
of
howa pol i t y m ght
be bal anced
and
rendered j us t
and
st abl e
These
wer e not
non- mor al q u l i t i e s
but
i f
one
t hought
of them
as
exi s t i ng
apart
f rom
t he
oper at i on
of
gr ace
t hey
wer e
unl i kel y
t o
enj oy ul t i mat e
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 100/124
J . G. A
PO O
p o l i t i c l success
especi al l y on t he pr esumpt i on that
onl y
grace
coul d
save a
c i t y
nd
they
wer e
unl i kel y
t o
l ead
t o
t he
sal vat i on
of
soul s
Any
Chr i s t i an
mor al i st must
say
t hat t o save
soul s wasmore i mpor t ant t h a n
t o save
t he
c i t y ;
but
t he
repl y h d
al ways been possi bl e
that
t wasgood t o
save
t he c i t y
t h i s
end
must
be
sought
bymeans
ot her
t h a n
t hose
whi ch
l e d t o
t he sal vat i on
of
soul s
As ear l y
as 1420
nd i n t i me of
c o n f l i c t w t h
t he Papacy
no di
Neri
Capponi h d wri t t en t hat Fl or ence needed menwho cared more f or
t he
good
of
t he c i t y
t h a n
f or
t he good
of t hei r own
soul s
;
phrase
Machi avel l i
was
t o
repeat Savonar ol a h d seemed
t o
showthat
onl y
Fl or ence
wer e
hol y
c i t y governed i n
t he
f ul f i l ment
of
prophecy
were t hese
twoends
t he
s ame,
and
he
had not brought hol i ness nd Fl or ence
t oget her
I n
t he wake
of
hi s f ai l ur e and al so because
they
s w
that
republ i c
must
al ways be
s omet hi ng more t h a n a custom ry communi ty
Machi avel l i
nd
Gui cci ardi ni ,
t oget her w t h
ot her
Fl orent i ne wri t ers, set out tosee wh t
mght
be done
f or
c i t y
by
t hose v i r t ues def i ned
by
t he c ont ent i on w t h f or t une
rather t h a nbyt he expect at i on
of grace
Si nce
they
di d not expect t o
save
soul s
by
what
they
envi saged
doi ng, t hey
accept ed that t h e i r means
woul d be
i mperf ect l y mor l
;
they i med
t achi evi ng s t b i l i t y
and
success,
but
they
di d
not expect
f i n l
success
i n t he
cont ent i on w t h
f ort une
ei t her
They
mght
therefore have been orthodox
nd
pi ous August i ni ans, who
hel d
t hat t he f i r s t
pr i or i t y
was
t o save t he
c i v i t s t err ena
even
though ac t i on
i n
t h i s
f i e l d
coul d
never
be
ac t i on
i n
t he c i v i t s Dei
Theywere
not ,
however
expressi ons
of
Chr i s t i an
f i t h
ar e
l acki ng
i n
t h e i r wor ks , nd
Machi avel l i
s prepared t o
j udge
t he
f a i t h
severel y by
t he
st andar ds
of
t he c i v i t s t err ena Thep r dox s that l l
t h i s
h dcome bout
because
t he c i v i c
humani st s h d
r epeat ed
t he Ar i s t ot el i an
doctr i ne t hat man
s
by
nat ur e a
p o l i t i c l ani mal
i n t he August i ni an
cont ext of
sharp
separat i on
bet ween
t he
wor l d
of
p o l i t i c s
and
t he
wor l d
of
grace
Gi ven
t he
Chr i s t i an
convi ct i on that
t he
onl y i n t e l l i g i b l e hi st ory i s
t he
hi st ory of
grace, but that
grace
does not
need
hi st ory
i n
order t o
be e f f e c t i v e gi ven
al s o
t he brut al
exper i ence of
i ns t b i l i t y
that
beset
t he Fl orent i ne republ i c i n every
generat i on
t he
e f f e c t
h d
been
t o
make
t he republ i c s chi ef probl emthat
of
exi st ence
i n
hi st ory that nei t her grace
nor
phi l osophy coul d expl ai n There
was
republ i can
r het or i c t hat
coul d do
much
t owar ds
expl ai ni ng
;
but
si nce
onl y grace
and perhaps
phi l osophy)
coul d f urni sh f i n l expl anat i ons,
t he
t heor y
nd
pract i ce of
repubi c n exi st ence woul d
never bri ng
mor al ,
or
po l i t i c l
or
hi stori cal
compl et eness
To adhere t o nat ural
p o l i t i c s i n
n
August i ni an uni ver se must l ead t o ambi val ence nd
ul t i matel y
t o
hi s t or i ci sm
Wen
Gui cci ardi ni asks hi m el f why
republ i c
s
necessary f or
Fl or ence,
he
does not nswer i n t e r m
of
t he
nat ure of
p o l i t i c s nor t he
nat ur e of man
but
of
t he
nat ure of
t he
Fl orent i nes They
ar e
that way,
he
says ; t hei r
hi st ory
has
made themsuch
t hat t hey
wi l l
never be
cont ent w t hout
republ i c, but
they
ar e most unl i kel y ever t o
achi eve ones
The
onl y nat ur e her e
s
second nat ure,
100
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 101/124
MCH
VELLI
N GUCCI RDN
that whi ch s produced by hi st ory but t he
poi nt
s l e s s that Gui cci ardi ni has
abandoned
t he
phi l osophi cal
pri nci pl e
that
mn
ar e
by
nat ure
p o l i t i c a l
and
need
phi l osophy i n order t o perf ect
t h e i r
p o l i t i c s
than that
t o assert humn
p o l i t i c a l i t y i n
an
August i ni an uni verse was t o
l eave
t
ul t i mat el y
i n t e l l i g i b l e
onl y i n a hi st or y whi ch
must be
ei t her
sacred
or
secul ar August i ne
had
to ld
t he Fl orent i nes t h i s woul d happen but p o l i t i c a l ani mal s
t hey were,
and
t hey
went
ahead,
bet ween
1494
and
1530, t o f ace
t he
choi ces expressed i n
t he
wri t i ngs of Savonar ol a
and
Machi avel l i
Machi avel l i s
d r a s t i c
i nnovat i on
was t o i s o l a t e andappl y t heRomn
not i on
of v i r n t that
domnant
and rul i ng qual i t y
by
whi chmn
conf ront ed
f ort une
and
overcame
i nsof ar
as
was
ever
possi bl e t o
do
so
I n l
Pri nci pe
he
devel oped t h i s not i on i n connect i on
w t h
t he f i gure
of
t he newpri nce , who
unl i ke t he
born pri nce , who
was
so f a r l egi t i m sed
by
customhat he
had
l i t t l e
t o f ear fromf or t une and
l i t t l e
need
of v i r t i u
had
mdehi msel f
r u l e r by
mans that
di s t urbed t he
cust oms of hi s subj ect s and l e f t himexposed t o
f ort une and
needi ng
al l t he v i r t u
he
coul ddi spl ay
Thi s ki nd of
advent urer was
no l onger commn even i n t a l y and i n l a t e r cent ur i es
onl y
Napol eon
Bonapar t e
exempl i f i ed
t he
combi nat i on of condot t i ere
and l e g i s l a t o r
whi ch
Machi avel l i
sket ched
i n hi s por t r ai t
We
have
t o
remmer
how
caref ul l y t he
new
pr i ncewas
def i ned
by
t he abnormal i t y
of
hi s si t uat i on
bef ore
l eapi ng t o
t he
concl usi on
that
he
s
i nt ended t o be a t ype of p o l i t i c a l act or as such
t
s
true t hat vi r t u s
def i ned
as not
onl y
that whi ch
he
needs as a consequence of
hi s usurpat i on,
but
that
whi ch mved
him
o
per f orm
t he
usurpat i on i n
t he
f i r s t
pl ace
Thi s
s l i nked
w t h
a st udy
of
i nnovat i on as
dest royi ng
t he
condi t i ons
whi ch m ght
have
mde
t l egi t i mate but l Pri nci pe my be
i nt ended as
a
st udy
and t ypol ogy
of i nnovat i on
rat her than
of p o l i t i c a l
act i on
Onceagai n, whenMachi avel l i expl ai ns how he newpr i nce must andshoul d
behave
i mmor al l y
i n order t o mai nt ai n hi s posi t i on,
we
shoul d
not
l et
our
i ndi gnat i on at
t he
suggest i on
that any
p o l i t i c a l bei ng shoul d behave l i k e t h i s
l ead
us
i n t o
suppos i ng
that
we
are
bei ng
t ol d t hat a l l p o l i t i c a l
bei ngs
shoul d
he
new
pr i nce s l i v i n g
i n
a
wor l d of di sorder
whi ch s of t en
of hi s
own
creat i ng, and t
does
not seem hat
he
s goi ng t o f i n d a
way
out of Hecannot
change
t he
nat ure
of hi s subj ect s
by
t eachi ng themnew
cust oms,
and
he
cannot
a l t e r
hi s own
nat ure
as f act as hi s ci rcumst ances w i l l
a l t e r
t h i s
s
why
f ort une
w i l l
al ways have
power
over
him
He
s not
t he
aut hor
of
a new
p o l i t i c a l
order,
but
a
successf ul
r i der
on
t he
wheel
of
f ort une
i n a
p o l i t i c s
permanent l y
di sordered
by
hi s own
act
I n
consequence, though
he
s
const ant l y
adj ured t o
s t udy and
i m t a t e t he l essons of
ani t i qui t y, t h i s
does not
man that t here s any c l a s s i c a l t ype
cert ai nl y not
Cesare
Borgi a
on
whom
he
can
permanent l y
mdel
hi msel f
Thenewpr i nces
of
t he
p a s t
l i k e
t hose of
t he present , l i ved
i n
di sordered, not i n
pat t erned ci r cumst ances
none
of
t h e i r act i ons coul d
be
proof agai nst f ort une,
and
every
si t uat i on i n whi ch t he
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 102/124
J
G PO O K
pr i nce m ght f i n d hi msel f
had
t he uni queness of i r r a t i o n a l i t y
We
s ha l l
have
t o
ask
t he
questi on
t h i s
or
t h i s
not moderni t y?
I n hi s gr eat er work t he
Di scor s i Machi avel l i turned hi s
att enti on
f romt he
pr i nce t o t he
c i t i z e n
and
consi der ed
t he p o l i t i c a l
structure
of
r epubl i cs or
r easons
whi ch
need
not be
consi der ed
i n d e t a i l her e
he
r esol ved that
t he
most
i nter est i ng
r epubl i c
t o studywas
t he armed and
expansi ve c i t y l i k e r epubl i can
Rome whi ch al one woul d gi ve
arm
t o t non- nobl e
c i t i z e n s
and
i n
consequence
admt
themo p o l i t i c a l r i ghts
Ther e
was
an
i n t r i n s i c r el ati onshi p
bet ween expansi on
of
t he
c i t y and t he
ext ensi on of
ci ti zenshi p
or
bet ween
i mper i al i sm
and democracy
The
nobl es
gave t he peopl e arm
because
they
wer e needed
i n
t he
l egi ons
and
t he peopl e empl oyed
thei r
arms
i n c l ai m ng
t h e i r
p o l i t i c a l
r i g h t s
Ther e woul dal ways
be tensi on
bet ween t he two but t h i s
woul dmake
t he c i t y
more
war l i ke
and
more f r e e a bel i ef whi ch Gui cci ar di ni
f ound he
coul d
not
accept
si nce there
c oul d be nei t her
rul e nor l aww t hout
order
even i f
t h i s must
be
i mposed by
aut hor i t y
Leo Strauss Thought s on
Machi avel l i consi st s l ar gel y of a s er i es of
ar gument s
t o
t he e f f e c t
that t h i s
cr eat i ve t ensi on bet ween
nobl es
and
peopl e
a decept i on and t hat t he
Di scor si consi sts
of
a
s er i e s
of
cover t
i nstr ucti ons t o
t he
r u l e r s
on
how
t he
r ul ed
may
be
mani pul at ed
and
decei ved
he
ar gument s
ar e t or t ur ed
and
t he
concl usi ons
exagger at ed
The re l at i on bet ween
nobl es
and
peopl e
ambi guous
t assumed
that
t he
nobl es wi l l t r y t o decei ve as
t he
peopl e wi l l
t r y
not
t o be
decei ved and t hat
t he vi ct or y
of
e i t h e r may
be
occasi onal l y
desi r abl e j ust
as
t he
t ensi on
bet ween
t he
two wi l l
be
per manent l y val uabl e
Ever y r eader of
Machi avel l i s age and t he
next who consi der ed
t he mat t er
seemed t o see cl ear l y t hat
he
was a
popol ano
who advocat ed non- nobl e
par t i c i pat i on
i n gover nment and i n
gr oundi ng
t h i s i n
popul ar
possessi on of
ar ms ensur ed
i n
hi s
theory
t hat t he peopl e s
r o l e
woul d
be
more
t han
a
mer el y
def er enti al
one
central theme
that
possessi on of
arms and
possessi on
of
p o l i t i c a l capaci t y ar e one and t he
same
andt hat v i r t u r e s t s
upon
both
Unl i ke
t he v i r t t u
of
t henewpr i nce t hat
of
t he c i t i z e n e n t a i l s
l awand
l i b e r t y
obedi ence
and equal i t y
t has
a
compl ex
mor al
code
Because
t end t he
expansi veness
of
t he
c i t y w t hout
whi ch t cannot
e x i s t
t
not i d e n t i c al
w t h
Chr i st i an
mor al i t y and t he
hi stor i cal wor l d whi ch v i r t i i creates
i ncompat i bl e
w t h
t hat cr eat ed by Chr i st i an r edempt i on
c i t y s v i r t i t grows by
destr oyi ng
t he
v i r t z ~ of others
whenone
c i t y r ul e s
t he
whol e
wor l d
t
vi r t u wi l l c o r r o d e
and
degener at e
there
wi l l
be
a
col l apse
a
cat acl ysm
and
t he
process
wi l l
begi n
agai n O
Thi s
vi si on
of
hi stor y not modern t i s Romanand
pr e- Chr i sti an
though t f l our i shed f or a whi l e
i n ear l y
modern
hi stor y
Gui cci ar di ni l i ked t o consi der
hi msel f
a more caut i ous
t hi nker t han
Machi avel l i
and
was
more
cl osel y al i gned
w t h
t he
Fl or ent i ne p o l i t i c a l
ar i stocr acy
al t hough these were not nobi l i t y e hel d pr udence
r at her t han
vi r t u t o
be
t he
qual i ty
w t h
whi ch
men
sought
t o gui de
t hemsel ves
t hr ough
10
2
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 103/124
M H VELLI ND
GUCCI RDN
di sor der ed
p o l i t i c a l
nd mor l
si t uat i ons
al t hough t h i s q u a l i t y t oo w s
i mper f ect l y
mor al
The
di f f er ence
i s
t hat
t hr ough
v i r t t ~
one
can
hope
t o
i mpose
one s
own pattern
on
t hese
si t uat i ons wher eas t hr ough prudence
one ai ms
onl y t o di agnose si t uat i ons
whi ch one cannot
cont r ol
nd
gui de
onesel f
accor di ngl y
For t h i s
reason
Gui cci ar di ni hel d t hat
Machi avel l i
h d
over est i mat ed t he ext ent t o whi ch was possi bl e t o i m t a t e
t he
act i ons
of
ant i qui t y
;
not
onl y
di d t he
si t uat i ons
whi chh d
exi st ed i n t he
past not recur
i n
i de n t i c al form n t he present
Machi avel l i knew hi s wel l enough
but one
coul d not
so
t o
speak make
them ecur
by
t he
i mposi t i on
of v i r t i u
on
t he
present
I f
wel ook cl osel y at
Gui cci ardi ni s
cri t i ci sms
of Machi avel l i
one
f i nds
him
epeat edl y
say i ng
t hat
we
cannot
i m t a t e
t he act i ons
of
t he
ear l y Romans
unl ess wecommand
l egi ons of
armed
c i t i z e n s
t i s
car di nal
f a c t about hi s
own t i mes
t hat
Fl or ence
di d not
command
a
c i t i z en m l i t i a
al t hough
he
agrees
t hat
woul d
be
very
good
t h i n g
mor al l y
as wel l as p o l i t i c a l l y i f
t her e
wer e one
Ther e
i s need
of
t he
sagaci t y of a w se
nd
prudent
f ew
whoc n
gui de
t he c i t y s pol i cy i n si t uat i ons whi ch
arm
cannot command
So
f ar
t her e
i s l i t t l
di sa gr eement
w t h
Machi avel l i i n pr i nci pl e
or
t heor y
but
Gui ccci ardi ni does go on
t o express
doubt whet her
t her e ever
exi st ed
t he
i nt i mat e
rel at i onshi p
bet ween
rms
and ci t i zenshi p
whi ch
Machi avel l i
had
det ect ed
at
Rome The
pl ebi ans
wer e not good
c i t i z e n s because t hei r arm
made themso ;
m l i t a r y
di sci pl i newas n i ndependent vari abl e f oundedby t he
ki ngs
r at her t han
t he
consul s
whi ch
hel d Rome t oget her
whent he
di ssensi ons
of
nobl es
nd peopl e
i nher ent i n t he
r epubl i c s
p o l i t i c a l
structure woul d
ot her w se
have t or n t he c i t y apart z
What seems t o
be
happeni ng here i s t hat Gui cci ardi ni s rej ect i on
of
t he
v i r t t t
whi ch can cont r ol
t he
present
i s i ncreasi ng
hi s
scept i ci sm
as t o t he
ext ent
t o
whi ch we can gui de
our sel ves
by
knowng
t he
past
nd
consequent l y
hi s
awar eness
of
t he
i ncoher ence and
el usi veness
of
al l h i s t o r i c a l si t uat i ons past
nd
present I n addi t i on t o hi s
Consi der at i ons
on Machi avel l i s
Di scour ses
hi s Ri cor di
col l ect i on
of
p o l i t i c a l maxi m
devel oped a s e r i e s
of
war ni ngs
about
t he ext r eme d i f f i c u l t y
of appl y i ng
prudence
i t s e l f t o
t he
under st andi ng
of
hi story nd p o l i t i c s ndhow
easy
i s
t o
l et one s
s e n s i t i v i t y
t o
t he
compl exi t y of
t hi ngs
betray one
i n t o
bel i evi ng
t hat
one has
comprehended t hem wher eas i s t he
contrary
l esson
t hat
one
ought t o be
l earn i ng
I n
hi s l a s t
nd
gr eat est wor k t he Hi st or y
of I t a l y we seemt o see
him
n
r et i r ement
from
act i ve
p o l i t i c s
movi ng
t owar ds
t he
be l i e f
t hat
not hi ng
i s
l e f t
but
t o
wri t e t he
hi st ory
of
event s
seeki ng
l e s s t o under st and
t he f or ces
whi ch
made themh ppen
t han
t he
f or ces
whi ch
mademen
i ncl udi ng t he
aut hor
hi msel f
const ant l y
m sl ead t hemsel ves
as
t hey
t r i e d t o under st and
and
cont r ol them
Thi s
pes si m s m nd
hi st or i ci sm present
t he ext r eme
outcome
of
t he c i v i c humani st s
di scover y
t hat t he l i f
of po l i t i c a l s o c i e t i es
t ook pl ace
i n secul ar
t i me nd
t hat secul ar
t i me
w s
cont r ol l ed
by nei t her
10 3
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 104/124
J
G PO O K
phi l osophy
nor
grace
The
f ur t her
di scover y t hat
secul ar
act i on coul d
be
assured
of
nei t her
mor al i t y nor
success
was
common
t o
bot h
Machi avel l i
and
Gui cci ar di ni andhad
not hi ng
what ever
t hat wasnew
about
What was
new
or at l e s t un- medi eval
about
them
was t h e i r bel i ef t hat mnwer e
mor al l y
and
po l i t i c l l y
obl i ged
t o
under t ake acti on
whose
mor al i t y
coul d
not
be assured The pol i s
had i t s mor al i t y
whi ch
was not t he
mor al i t y of
t he
c i v i t s
Dei and consequent l y nei t her
mor al i t y
was compl et e Machi avel l i
expr essed t h i s i n
t he
i mage
of
t he cent aur hal f mn
and
hal f
beast and
t he
secul ar t i me
i n
whi ch t he
cent aur
had hi s
bei ng
can
be appr opr i at el y t er med
hi stor y
Ther e seems
asound
case
t hen
f or
t he vi ew
t hat
t he
Fl or ent i nes arr i ved at a
posi t i on
of hi st ori ci sm of i n s i s t i n g
t hat t he cruci al
char acteri sti c of
moral
and
p o l i t i c l
l i f i s
t hat i s l i v e d i n hi stor y Hi st or i ci sm
sounds
very
modern
i n
t he
sense t hat
i s
nei t her anci ent
nor
medi eval yet
t he
var i et y of
hi st or i ci smwe
have been
l ooki ng
at was comounded whol l y out
of
t he t ensi on bet ween
anci ent and
medi eval mat er i al s
The c i v i c
humani st s sought
t o i m t a t e
t he
act i ons of
ant i qui t y
and
t o asser t t he
pr i macy
of p o l i t i c l val ues whi ch
i s an
anci ent
i de l t hey di d
so
i n t he
cont ext of August i ne s
r adi cal
separ at i on
bet ween
t he val ues
of
ci t i zenshi p
and
t hose
of
r edempt i on
bet ween
t he
secul ar
hi stor y
whi ch
cont ai ned
t he f or mer and
t he sacr ed hi stor y whi ch l ed t o t he
l t t e r and
t hese at e post ul at es
of
medi eval t hought
Out
of
t h i s t ensi on
emerged t he
Fl or ent i ne
var i et y
of hi st or i ci sm but i s
t h i s
hi st or i ci sm t o
be
t er med modern t depends
what onemans
by
t he wor d and one needs
som
canons
f or
i t s use
have
chal l enged
t he i dea
of a
t ransi t i on
f romnci ent
t o modern ont he
grounds t hat t he
medi eval wor l d was pr of oundl y
di vi ded
bet ween
At heni an
Romn
and
Chr i st i an val ues
eo
St r auss vi si on
of
hi st or y
al t hough
he
mght not haveowned t o havi ng one
15
was
f ocussed
ont he
hi stor y
of
po l i t i c l
phi l osophy
and
on t he
assumpt i on t hat Ari st ot el i ans
had
br i dged
t he gap
bet ween
p o l i t i c l
phi l osophy and
r edempt i ve
grace
Ther e my
be
a case f or
cont i nui ng t o or gani se
t he
hi stor y of p o l i t i c l phi l osophy i n t o anci ent
and
modern but t he
August i ni an
posi t i on
i nvol ved a deni al t hat there coul d
be
such
a
t hi ng
as
p o l i t i c l phi l osophy at l l and I
have been advanci ng
t he
paradox
t hat t he Fl or ent i ne
pr edi cament had
more i n
common
w t h
t hat
Theywere t ryi ng t o act and
t o
i m t a t e
i n
a
worl dwhere
secul ar and
sacred
wer e
so
sharpl y di vi ded
t hat
i m t a t i o n
pr oved
dest r uct i ve
of
l l
except
hi stor y
Negat i ng
phi l osophy
was a
phi l osophi cal
c t f or St rauss and had
phi l osophi cal
consequences t h i s i s an
i n t e l l i g i b l e posi t i on
but he
t e l l s us
he f i r s t consi der ed
obbest he
f ounder
of
modern
p o l i t i c l phi l osophy
andl t e r
cam
t o
t hi nk
i t
was Machi avel l i Ther e i s an i mpor t ant crux
here
We
knowt hat obbes
aimd
t o s et
up
a modernp o l i t i c l
phi l osophy
because he t e l l s us so
hi msel f
he
says t hat f or two t housand
years
Western t hought has been domnated
by
104
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 105/124
MCH VELLI N GU CCI RDN
At heni an phi l osophy t he p o l i t i c a l nd phi l osophi cal consequences
have
been
di sast r ous
and
t hat
t her e
i s
need
f or
somet hi ng
e l s e
6
Hepr oceeds t o
set
up
what i s cer tai nl y
phi l osophy nd
c e r t a i n l y
p o l i t i c a l ; t h i s
i s
cer tai nl y modern
i n t he
sense
t hat t d i f f e r s r adi cal l y from
t he anci ent
nd
medi eval
Nowhe
t r oubl e about Machi avel l i and
Gui cci ar di ni
too i s
that they do not
say
anyt hi ng
about
phi l osophy
or phi l osopher s
at al l
or i f
somel i m t e d
t r ansi tor y
al l usi ons consi der p o l i t i c a l phi l osophy t hey
si gnal the aut hor s i nt ent i ons of
doi ng
somet hi ng
so d i f f e r e n t t hat
t
wi l l
not
be
a
d i f f e r e n t ki nd of phi l osophy
but somet hi ng
e l s e
al t oget her
Thi s
wh t
t hey
pr oceed t o
do t hey
expl or e
the i dea of
imtation
so
r adi cal l y that doi ng
so
ecomes n
expl or at i on
of
t he
i dea
of hi stor y
Thi s i s
open
to phi l osophi cal c r i t i c i s m
i t
has
consequences i n
the hi stor i cal wor l d
w t h
whi ch
t he
phi l osopher mayhave t o
r eckon
as he
t r i e s
t o expr ess
hi s
phi l osophy
as a deni zen of
t hat
wor l d
but
i t
not
phi l osophy
but somet hi ng
e l s e
Str auss
att empt s
t o
showt hat Machi avel l i was tr yi ng to
cr eat e
a
new
phi l osophy i n
t he s me
way t hat Thomas Hobbes
w s ar e
unbel i evabl y
compl i cat ed nd
i n d i r e c t
nd t hey
end w t h not hi ng moret han
the
cont ent i on
t hat
he
w s cover t l y pr eachi ng
pseudo- nor mat i ve
doctr i ne
of
amor al
i ndi vi dual i sm
whi ch
many have
f ound i n
hi s
wr i t i ngs
nd
equat ed
t
w t h
Hobbes
as
di d St r auss
Machi avel l i s
expl or at i ons
of t he
pro l em
of
h i s t o r y
on
whi ch
Gui cci ar di ni
commented ar e al t oget her
subor di nat ed
suggest
t he at t empt
w s
m sconcei ved Machi avel l i
w s not a p o l i t i c a l
phi l osopher
nd t he hi stor i cal
context
whi ch makes
hi m
n t e l l i g i b l e
not one
i n whi ch p o l i t i c a l phi l osophy
i s
t he domnant
pr esence
The i dea of basi ng acti on upon imtation
i s
i n a s e n s e
pr e- phi l osophcal
Socr at es and
Pl ato
s e t out t o
show
t hat t w s
not
enough
nd
t he l a t t e r m ght
wel l
have
sai d
that the humani st s
of
t he
Renai ss ance
wer e
maki ng t he
s me
mstake as
those
At heni ans who t r i e d t o
base
act i on
upon
imtation
of
t he
her oes
of epi c poet r y
TheFl or ent i nes devel oped
an
i ndependent
enqui r y i nto
t he mor l nd
p o l i t i c a l
i mper f ect i on
whi ch w s at t he same
t i me
mor l
nd
p o l i t i c a l necessi t y
of
i mtati ng
t he act i ons of anci ent hi stor y
The
nc ;
t s
di d not conduct
such an
enqui r y but di scover i ng
how
d i f f i c u l t t
i s
t o
i mtate the act i ons
of
ant i qui t y
i s
not enough t o
make
you a modern
i f
yougo
on tr yi ng
t o
do t
and
do not
di scover
ny
al t er nat i ve
pr i nci pl es on whi ch
act i on can
be
based The
di scover y whi ch Machi avel l i ndGui cci ar di ni
made
of
t he
enormous
d i f f i c u l t y nd i mper f ect i on
of
acti on
i n h i s t o r i c t i me based
on
the di scover y
that
secul ar
t i me
i s
not
cont r ol l ed
y
gr ace
or r ender ed
i n t e l l i g i b l e
b
y
phi l osophy
;
i t i s
not
based
on
t he
di scover y t hat secul ar
pr ocesses
i n hi stor y
ar e per petual l y pr oduci ng
obj ecti ve
condi t i ons whi ch
have not exi sted bef or e nd t h i s
i s
t he e s s e nt i a l condi t i on
of
anyt hi ng
wecan
c a l l
consci ousness of
moder ni t y
Hobbes may have i nt ended t o
pr oduce
phi l osophy unl i ke any that had exi st ed pr evi ousl y but
doubt
i f
t h i s means
he
h d ny
modern
sense
of
h i s t o r i c a l pr ocess
Hi s
hi stor i cal
scheme
r emai ns
10
5
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 106/124
J . G
. A
PO O
pr ophet i c andeschatol ogi cal
but
Machi avel l i
had no such i nt ent i on
When
he tal ks
of
t he need f or
newmodes
and
orders , hemeans that such
modes
and
orders
must be
securel y
f ounded
on
t he
practi ce
of
ant i qui t y
and
wi l l
be
newi n t he normal
pre modern sense that
t hey wi l l
be
r enewed, t he
worl d s
great age begi ns anew, t he gol den
years
return
. Si nce
a l l
such
im t a t i o n i s
carr i ed
out
i n a wor l d subj ect t o f or t une,
there
i s
a
probabi l i ty that
such a
r enovati o wi l l
turn out
tobe
ani nnovat i o, that sel f - destr ucti ve
mode
of act i on
whi ch removes t he
condi t i ons
on whi ch
i t
was f ounded The
Machi avel l i an
doctr i ne
of
acti on, t hen
i s
nei t her anci ent
nor
modern i n
any
si mpl e
sense
but
t he paradi gm
r emai ns
that
of
im t a t i n g
ant i qui t y
i n
t he
knowedge that
t h i s
i s
not al together possi bl e
Gui cci ardi ni ,
who
t hi nks t hat
Machi avel l i
over-
si mpl i f i es t he c a s e , does not d i f f e r from
him
as
t o
t heparadi gm
whi l e Hobbes
i s
a modern
who has not become a h i s t o r i c i s t
Towards t he end
of
Hobbes l i f e t i me
andmore
than
a century af ter the
end
of
Machi avel l i s and
Gui cci ardi ni s
there
raged t hat quar rel of t he
anci ent s and moderns f romwhi ch our usage
of
t he l a s t termi s l argel y
der i ved
n
anci ent
was
one
who s t i l l t hought
i t
of
paramount
i mpor t ance t o
im t a te
ant i qui t y
a
modern was one
who
di d not
;
but there wer e two
di st i ngui shabl e
i f
over l appi ng reasons
f or bei ng amodern
One
m ght bel i eve
that
one had succeeded
i n
somet hi ng whi ch t he
Gr eeks
and
Romans
had
at t empt ed but f a i l e d t o do
or
one m ght bel i eve that one had
di scover ed how
t o
do
somet hi ng whi ch
t hey
had
never
at t empted,
and
shown that
t hey
had
been on
t he
wrong track
or
that
t h e i r
enterpr i se
was
nowunnecessary
The
f r ame
of
mndwhi ch
hol ds
that
im ta t i on
of
ant i qui t y
i s hi ghl y
desi r abl e
but al most
i mpossi bl y
d i f f i c u l t wi l l
not suppl y moder ni t y
i n t he f ormer sense, and wi l l
suppl y
i t i n t he l a t t e r
onl y i f
as t he r e s ul t
of
t he tensi on between
theory
and
pr a c t i c e, modesand
orders
whi ch
ar e
i n f ac t newhave been
di scover ed
and
expl oi t ed
Had anythi ng of
t he
k i nd occurred
i n
t he
wake
of
Machi avel l i
and
Gui cci ar di ni ? I t seems unl i kel y There had been a wi despr ead i nvesti gat i on
of
rai son
d e t a t , whi chowedagreat
deal t o themboth
8
but
f or
t he
most part t h i s
was a f ur t her devel opment
of
t he c a s u i s t i c a l probl ems
1 9 whi ch arose
when
i t
was
adm t t ed that
t he
moral i t y of
s t a t e
act i on
di f f ered f romhe
moral i t y of
pr i vat e
acti on,
and t he
consequent at t empt t o i dent i f y
t he
i n t er e s t of s t a t e s ,
andshowhow
these
det erm ned act i on
of
t he f ormer
ki nd,
had not yet shown
that
t he modern
st at e di f f er ed i n
character
or
pur pose f rom
t he
anci ent
Fur t hermore,
whenwe
encount er
t he
quarrel
of
anci ent s
and
moderns
i n
a
s t r i c t l y p o l i t i c a l fo rm and
i t
i s
asked
f or
t he
f i r s t t i me
whet her t he modern
p o l i t i c a l
i ndi vi dual
i s
a di f f erent
s o r t
of
bei ng
fromt he
anci ent ,
we f i n d ,
regul arl y empl oyed t o def i ne t he anci ent and c r i t i c i s e t he modern
Machi avel l i s
equat i on between arms- bear er
and
c i t i z e n
He
i n s i s t s that
i t i s
t he
possess i on of
arms whi ch endows t he i ndi vi dual
w t h p o l i t i c a l autonomy
and t he
capaci t y
f or
vi rt ue i n ei ther
a
c l a s s i c a l
or
a
Machi avel l i an
sense
106
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 107/124
MCH VELLI
N GU CCI RDN
Strauss cont ended t hat Machi avel l i l i k e Hobbes was t he
aut hor
of
a r adi cal
i ndi vi dual i sm
whi ch
depi ct ed men
as
seeki ng
pr i vat e
good
f i r s t
and
publ i c
good second but what we f i n d t owar ds t he
year
1700 i s a per si st ent cont r ast
bet ween t he anci ent
or
medi eval war r i or
whosearms
permtted hi mo engage
i n hi s
own gover nment
and t he i ndi vi dual
of commer ci al
and
cul t i vat ed
soci et y who pr ef er r ed
t o
pur chase t he goods whi ch
commerce
made
possi bl e
whi l e
payi ng ot her s
t o def end hi m
gover n hi m
and
r epr esent
h i m ° Thel a t t e r
i s t he
ar chet ype of
moder ni t y and i s onl y ver y i ndi rect l y t he hei r
of
Hobbes
I f
t h i s
i s
s o Machi avel l i
and
even Gui ci ar di ni rank among
t he
anci ent s i n
t he
gr eat
quar r el
bot h
because t hey
knew
no
posi t i ve
al t er nat i ve
t o
i m t a t i o n
of
t he
anci ent s and
because
t hey t ended
Machi avel l i
l e s s
equi vocal l y
on
t he
whol e
t han
hi s f r i end
and
c r i t i c t o
depi ct
t he p o l i t i c a l
i ndi vi dual
i n
t he
shape
of
c l a s s i c a l c i t i z e n
I n
concl usi on t he Fl or ent i nes r ank as anci ent s
rather
than
moderns
and
i
i t
be
obj ect ed that an anci ent i n
t h i s
sense
s t i l l
a
modernphenomenon
bot h
because t o i m t at e ant i qui t y i s not t o
be
an ant i que man and
because
t he
i m t a t i o n
of
ant i qui t y
a
post - medi eval i d e a l
r epl y
that
moder ni t y
appear s
onl y
whenthere ar e
secul ar
means
of
knowng
onesel f t o be
adi f f er ent s o r t of
secul ar
bei ng
f roman
ant i que
man
The
st r uggl e
f or i m t at i on
and
r e v i v a l
produced an
acut e
awar eness
of hi stor y
and
a pr e- moder n speci es of
hi s tor i ci sm
but there i s a pr of ound di f f er ence bet ween an
hi s tor i ci sm
whi ch
pr esent s hi stor y
as
a
secul ar f l u x
r ul ed by
f or t une and
one
whi ch pr esent s t as
a
secul ar pr ocess
and
t r ansf or mat i on
t was t he advent
of commer ci al
soci et y
whi ch
convi nced
t h e o r i s t s a f t e r
1700
that
t he
wor l d
had changed and t he
c l a s s i c a l
i de al
of ci t i z ens hi p
ceased
t o be v i a bl e l
Thei r
hi s tor i ci sm
consi st ed
i n v i s u a l i s i n g
w t h
Rousseau t he hi st or i cal pr ocess whi ch had
r ender ed
man
c i v i l i s e d
as
oneand
t he
same
w t h
that
whi chhad
depr i ved
hi m
of
hi s po l i t i c a l
vi r t ue
From
her e
t he path
l ay
t owar ds
Kant Hegel and Marx t owar ds t he
at t empt t o i d e n t i f y consci ousness
of
s e l f
w t h
consci ousness
of
t he
cont r adi ct i ons of t he h i s t o r i c a l pr ocess
To al l
of t h i s
t he
Fl or ent i nes
cont r i but i on
seems t o have consi st ed
l e s s
i n
t he
ar chi t ect ur e
of
moder ni t y
than
i n t he neo- cl assi cal ant i t hesi s agai nst whi ch i t was
shaped They
wer e moderns
onl y
i n t he
sense
that
t hey
wer e anci ent s
H st or y
J ohns opki ns
Uni ver si t y
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 108/124
J A PO O K
Notes
Based upon
a l ecture
gi ven under t he
auspi ces of
t he Hi stor y
and P o l i t i c a l
Sci ence
Departments of Simon Fr aser Uni ver si ty, J u l y
17 ,
1978
2
Bar on, The C r i s i s of
t he
Ear l y I t a l i a n
Renai ssance,
Pr i ncet on Uni ver si ty Press, 1966
J er r ol d E
S e i g e l , Rhet or i c
and Phi l osophy i n
Renai ssance
Humani sm
Pr i ncet on
Uni ver si ty
Press, 1968 George Hol mes The Fl or enti ne Enl i ghtenment , 1400- 1450,
London
Wei denf el d
and
Ni col son, 1969
3 See Char l es T Davi s, Roman Patr i ot i smand Republ i can Propaganda Ptol emy of Lucca
and Pope Ni chol as 111 , Specul um L,
3, 1975,
pp 411- 33
4
Rodol fo De
Mat tei , Dal
Pr emachi avel l i smo al l Ant i machi avel l i smo, Fl or ence C
Sansoni , 1969, pp 159- 60
5 DonaldWei nstei n, Savonarol aandFl or ence: ProphecyandPatr i ot i smi n t he Renai ssance,
Pr i ncet on Uni ver si ty Press, 1970
6 I n t he next f ew par agr aphs I
summari se ar guments
t o
befound
i n my
The
Machi avel l i an
Moment : F l or ent i ne
P o l i t i c a l Thought
andt he At l ant i c Republ i can
Tradi ti on,
Pr i ncet on
Uni ver si ty Press,
1975
7
L
Mur at or i ,
Rerum
I t al i cor um Scr i ptores,
Ml an
1723- 51,
vol XVI I I , col 1149
Renzo
Ser eno,
The
Ri cor di
of
Gno
di
Ner i
Capponi ,
Ameri canPol i t i cal
Sci ence
Revi ew,
52,
4,
1958,
pp
1118- 22
8
Roberto
Pal mar occ hi ,
ed
Fr ancesco
Gui cci ar di ni : Di al ogo e
D scor si del Reggi mento
di
Fi r enze, Bar i Later za, 1932,
pp
94- 5, 223, 261- 62 Machi avel l i an Moment
pp 125-6,
142-
3, 250-1
9 I l Pr i nci pe,
ch
XXV
Machi avel l i an
Moment
pp
96- 7,
179- 80
10
D scors i , 11, 5 ; Machi avel l i an
Moment
pp
216- 8
1 1
Consi der at i ons
on
t he
Di scour ses
ofMachi avel l i ,
i n
Sel ect ed
Wi t i ngs,
ed and
trans
Ceci l
and
Mar gar et Gr ayson,
London
Oxford Uni ver si ty Press,
1965,
pp 69, 117 ; Ri cor di ,
trans
Mari oDomandi
Maxims and
Ref l ect i ons ofaRenai ssance St atesman, NewYork
Harper
Tor chbooks, 1965, p 69 Pal mar occ hi , D al ogo e D scors i , pp 68, 90- 93, 155 See
Her ber t
Butterf i el d, The
Statecr af t
of
Machi avel l i , London
G B e l l ,
1955,
Machi avel l i an
Moment
pp
239,
245- 48,
268- 70
12 Di al ogo e D scors i , pp 148- 58
13 Machi avel l i an
Moment
pp
267- 8
14
Mark
P h i l l i p s ,
Fr ancesco
Gui cci ar di ni
:
TheHi stor i an s Cr af t ,
Uni ver si ty of
Toronto
Press,
1977 Fel i x Gi l ber t , Machi avel l i and Gui cci ar di ni : Pol i t i cs and Hi stor y i n Si xteenth-
Centu r y
Fl or ence, Pr i ncet on
Uni ver si ty
Press,
1965
1 5
C J ohn
Gunnel l ,
The Myth of t he Tradi t i on , Ameri can Pol i t i cal
Sci ence Revi ew,
7 2,
1,
1978,
pp 122- 34
1 6
Levi at han, ch
46
1 8
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 109/124
MCH VELLI
N
G
U CCI RDN
17
Pocock,
Ti me,
Hi st or y
and Eschat ol ogy i n
t he
Thought of
Thomas
Hobbes , i n
P o l i t i c s
Language
and
Ti me,
New
York heneum
1971
8
Fri edri ch
Mei necke, Der I dee der
Staat sr nson,
Engl i sh t r ansl at i on, Machi avel l i sm
New
Haven Yal e Uni ver si t y Press, 1957 E
Thuau
Rai son d etat e i penseepol i t i que
d 1 epoque
de
Ri chel i eu, Pari s
Col i n, 1966
F
Chur ch, Ri chel i eu
and
Reason
of
State, Pr i ncet on
Uni ver si t y Press, 1972 l though
Machi avel l i an el ement s are
evi dent i n t hese wri t ers,
t he
ro le of
Gui cci ar di ni
has been
l i t t l e st udi ed ; see f or t hcomng
work
by
Li onel
McKenzi e
J ohns Hopki ns Uni ver si t y
9
SeeGeorge L
Mosse,
TheHol y
Pret ence
Studyi n
Chri sti ani ty and
Reasonof
St at ef r om
Wl l i am Perki ns t o J ohn
Wnt hr op, Oxford Basi l Bl ackwel l , 1957
20
Machi avel l i an
Moment
ch
13
2 J oseph
E
Cropsey, Pol i ty andEconomy
n
I nt erpret at i on
of
t he
Pr i nci pl es of
dam
Smth,
TheHague Ni j hof f , 1957 More
Str aussi ano, he l i nks t he pursui t of
weal t h
i n
Smth
di rectl y wi th t he f ear of vi ol ent death i n
Hobbes
For
di scussi on, see
Donal d
W nch,
dam
Smth s
P o l i t i c s
n
Essay i n Hi st or i ogr aphi c
Revi si on,
Cambri dge
Uni ver si t y Press,
1978
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 110/124
Subscri pt i on Rat es
Pol i t y s a
pr of essi onal
p o l i t i c a l
sci ence j our nal
publ i shed quar t er l y by
The
Nort heast er n P o l i t i c a l
Sci ence
Associ at i on
Pol i t y s open
t o a
wde
range
of
domest i c
and i nternat i onal topi cs
I ncl uded are A r t i c l e s BookRevi ew
Essays,
and
Resear ch
Not es offered
i n
a
caref ul l y desi gned
f ormat t hat f eat ures
an
a r t i s t i c cover
w t h
every
i s s ue
Throughout
i t s t en
years
of exi st ence,
P o l i t y
has
acti vel y t r i e d t o pr ovi de
l i v e l y l i t e r a t e
and
pr ovocat i ve
r eadi ng
A
sampl i ng
of subj ect s fromr ecent and f o r t h
comng
i s s ue s
The i dea of
women s
moral superi ori t y
E r i c
Voegel i n s cont r i but i ons t o p o l i t i c a l theory
Cr oss- nat i onal patterns
of
uni ver si t y government
Stabi l i t y
and change i n t he
Sovi et
Uni on
The nat i onal i zat i on of wel f ar e
Gr amsci s
pr i son
not ebooks
P o l i t i c a l t heory of
t echnol ogy
and ot her subj ect s of general
i nt er est t o p o l i t i c a l
s c i e n t i s t s
NPSAMembers
( r equi r ed
of
al l r esi dent s of
ew
Engl and, NewYork,
NewJ er sey, Pennsyl vani a,
and
Del awar e- i ncl udes
membershi p i n
both
t he
s t a t e andNortheastern
associ at i ons)
10. 00
Ot her
S
. A
9
. 0 0 For ei gn
9
. 50
St udent
S
. A
00
For ei gn
. 50
Mai l
( subscr i pt i on order) t o
POLI TY,
Thompson
H a l l
Uni versi t y of
Massachuset t s, Amher st ,
Massachuset t s 01003
Name
Addr ess
Payment
encl osed, sum
of
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 111/124
Canadi an
J ournal
of Pol i t i cal
and Soci al Theory Revue
canadi enne de
t heor i e
pol i t i gue
et
soci al e,
Vol
No
3 ( Fal l /
Automme
1978)
H G LON
POSS SSION
N
PROPERTY
R
r i s t i
I n hi s
Phi l osophy
of
R ght
( 1820)
Hegel di st i ngui shes
between
possess i on
nd pr oper t y
Thi s
di st i nct i on, f r equent
i n
modern p o l i t i c a l
phi l osophy, i s
usual l y
f ound i n connect i on w t h
t he
not i ons
of
t he
s t a t e
of nat ure
nd
t he
s t a t e of
r i g h t
Possessi on
r e f e r s t o t he
excl usi ve use
enj oyment
or
di sposal
of a
t hi ng,
unhampered
by ny
r e s t r i c t i o n s
The
concept ual
space assi gned f or t he
enact ment
of
t h i s
possess i ve
rel at i on
w t h
t he
worl d
i s
t he
s t a t e
of nat ure
Property
emer ges
subsequent l y
when t he
s t a t e of r i ght appear s, ndone
coul d
summ ri l y
def i ne i t as t he r i g h t f u l
possess i on
of
t hi ng
I n Hegel s t hought
t h i s
di s t i nct i on s u f f e r s subst ant i al
al t erat i ons
Possessi on
l o s e s
i t s l o gi c al
nd
t empor al pr i or i ty over
pr oper t y Thi s
coi nci des
w t h
Hegel s
t a c i t
di smssal of
t he
not i on of t he
s t a t e
of nat ure The
s t a t e
of
r i g h t does
not
appear as
r e s u l t
but
as n i deal
f i r s t
as begi nni ng,
pr oper t y
at t ai ns
n
absol ut e charact er I t
becomes
t he
express i on of
t he
f r eedom
of
t he autonomous i ndi vi dual , who
can
now
appr opr i ate
external
t hi ngs
w t hout
ny
ki nd of medi at i on
The
r i g h t
of propert y
i s concei ved consequent l y as
n absol ut e
f i r s t
and a
begi nni ng
I n t h i s
essay
I w i l l
f i r s t
ex mne
Hegel s di st i nct i on
between
possess i on
nd
proper t y, l im t i n g my scope
t o t he
Phi l osophy
of
R ght
Secondl y, I w i l l
expl or e
t he
f a t e
of
t h i s di s t i nct i on i n
some
of
Hegel s
predecessors
Rousseau,
F i cht e nd
nt
Thei r vi ews
pr ovi de
f or
t he
under st andi ng
of Hegel s
st andpoi nt
The di s t i nct i on
between
possess i on
nd
pr oper t y i s made
e x p l i c i t
i n
par agr aph 45
of
t he
Phi l ospohy of R ght z
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 112/124
R ST
That may have ext er nal power
over
somet hi ng
consti t ut es
possessi on
The
par t i cul ar
i n t e r e s t
of
possessi on
s t hat
make somet hi ngmy
own
as a r e s u l t
of
my nat ural needs,
i mpul ses
and
ar bi t r ar y wi l l ( W l l k i i r )
ut
t hat
as a f r e e
wi l l make
mysel f
obj ect i ve i n
possessi on
and
t her eby
f or t he f i r s t
t i me
become
an
act ual
wi l l consti t ut es
t he
t rue
and
r i ght f ul ( recht l i che)
factor
i n
possessi on, t he
det ermnat i on of
property
Possessi on
s
t hus def i ned as
an
ext er nal power
over
somet hi ng
t
s
present ed
as
a
mere
mani f est at i on
of
power ,
and not
as a r i ght
t
cannot const i t ut e a
r i ght because
r e s u l t s
from
expr essi ng
our nat ural ar bi t r ar y
wi l l
Fur t her mor e, t h i s power over a
t hi ng
s char act er i zed as
bei ng
ext er nal t s
our
nat ural wi l l t hat r emai ns ext er nal t o
t he
t hi ng The t hi ng
t hen
ret ai ns a
cer t ai n
measur e
of sel f - subsi st ence
and i ndependence, and t r e s i s t s
bei ng
t o t a l l y
absor bed by t hat wi l l
Property,
on
t he
contrary,
i nvol ves
a
r i g h t f u l
or
l awf ul
r el at i on of
t he
wi l l t o t he
t hi ng
Thi s
new
r el at i onshi p
i mpl i es a
suspensi on
of
ext er nal i t y
Free
wi l l
s
now
abl e
t o
act ual i ze
i t s e l f
by
f u l l y
penet r at i ng and
sat ur at i ng t he
t hi ng
The
t hi ng
s
el i mnat ed
as a
t hi ng
i n
i t s e l f
t becoms an
obj ec t or
what amunts
t o
t he
same
t he
wi l l
becomes
obj ect i ve i n t he
t hi ng
i t s e l f Ther e appear s t o beno r esi st ance t o t he
i nvadi ng
r i ght s
of
t he
wi l l The bar r i ers of
ot her ness
ar e
el i mnat ed
and
f r e e wi l l i n
becomng t s
own
obj ect , at t ai ns
i n f i n i t y
The
t hi ng
whi ch
f ormer l y
conf r ont ed t he
wi l l
andwhi chnowhas become t s property, can keep not hi ng
f or
i t s e l f
s pr oper t y, t
cannot reserveanyt hi ng
pr oper
f or
i t s e l f
wher eas i n
possessi on,
as
an
ext er nal
r e l a t i o n
there
r emai ned a r esi dual
ext er nal i t y
( 52)
Wth
property
we
f i n d
our sel ves
beyond
mer e
nat ural or
ar bi t r ar y
wi l l
and
wi t hi n
t he spher e
of
r i g h t
I n
modern p o l i t i c a l phi l osophy t h i s distinction bet ween
possessi on
and
property was
not
present ed abstr act l y t s t erms
di d not
r emai n conf r ont ed t o
one anot her , nor di d
t hey
ret ai n t hei r
l ogi c al
i ndependence
t had r at her t he
char act er
of
a
t r ansi t i on
f romoneterm
o
t he ot her , f rom
possessi on
t owar ds
property
P o l i t i c a l phi l osopher s
were gener al l y i nterested i n
l egi t i mat i ng
property
and
t hey
t hought
t hey
coul d
do
t h i s
by
br i ngi ng
t he
process
of
appr opr i at i on
i nt o t he
open
I n
my
vi ew,
s
c l ear t hat
Hegel
accepts t he
dist inct ion
as moderns do, but hi s under st andi ng
of
t s such t hat
obscur es
and
makes t
pract i cal l y i mpossi bl e t o concei ve a t r ansi t i on f rompossessi on t o
property
I n
hi s
hands,
t he
di st i nct i on
col l apses, andt he r eason f or t h i s s qui te
si mpl e
One
of
t he
t erms
of
t he di st i ncti on, possessi on,
whi chshoul d
ser ve
as
t he
poi nt
of
departure
f or t he
appr opr i at i ng
process, does not retai n a
l ogi c al
space
of
t s
own i n Hegel ' s phi l osophi cal el abor at i on
For
Hegel ,
possessi on
s
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 113/124
HEGEL
ONPOSS SS ON
N PROPERTY
const i t ut ed
by t he
mani f est at i on
of nat ur al
w i l l as opposed t o f r e e w i l l
t s not
c l ea r ,
however ,
why
f ree
w i l l
can,
whi l e
arbi t rary
w i l l
cannot ,
break
t he
t hi ng' s
resi st ance
What
s t he
nat ur e of
t he barr i er t hat protects t he
t hi ng
f rombei ng
saturated by
natural wi l l ,
nd whi ch,
at t he
s me t i me,
seems t o di ssol ve
compl et el y
i n
t he presence
of
f ree wi l l ?
Si nce
t s i nconcei vabl e t o
t hi nk
t hat
t he
t hi ng
can control nd r egul at e t he r esi st ance
t
pr esent s, why s
pr oper t y
not const i t ut ed
i mmedi at el y, w t hout
n
i nt ermedi at e
possessi ve stage?
I n t he
absence of
obj ect i ve l i mtat i ons,
what
pr event s nat ur al w i l l from f u l l y
appr opr i at i ng
t he
t hi ng? These d i f f i c u l t i e s i ndi cat e t hat
possessi on
cannot
be
concei ved
as
bei ng
l o g i c a l l y
pr i or
t o
pr oper t y
The
cont i nuat i on
of Hegel ' s rgument i n t h i s sect i on
of
t he Phi l osophy of
Ri ght
shows
t hat possessi on cannot
be
t hought of bei ng t empor al l y
pr i or
t o
pr oper t y
Appr opr i at i on s
now
i mmedi at e, nd t he possi bi l i t y
of
t r ans i t i on
from
possessi on
t o
pr oper t y
s
cancel l ed
Cons i der what Hegel says i n
par agr aph 50
That
a
t hi ng bel ongs t o
t he one
who
h ppens
t o
be
t he
f i r s t
t o
t ake
possessi on
of t
s both
under st andabl e
nd
a
superf i ci al
det erm nat i on
a
second
person
cannot
t ake
i n t o
possessi on
wh t
s
al r eady
b e r e i t s t he pr oper t y
of
anot her
On
t he one
hand
t s
cl ear f rom h i s t ext t hat t he f i r s t possessor w i l l f i n d
no
obj ect i ve l i m tat i ons i n
t he t hi ng i t s e l f ,
l i m tat i ons
whi chwoul d force hi m her
t o
mai nt ai n
hi msel f /
her s e l f ,
f or
n
unspeci f i ed
per i od
of
t i me,
i n
stage
of
mere
possessi on
When
second
person
appear s, t h i s person
di scover s
that
t he
f i r s t
possessor
s al r eady
pr opr i et or When di d
t h i s
l a t t e r event t ake
pl ace? Whendi d t he
merepossessor of
t hi ng
become
t s
pr opr i et or ?
I n
vi ew
of
t hat absence of obj ect i ve l i mtat i ons , t he t i me l yi ng bet ween t he possessi ve
appr ehensi on
of
t he
f i r s t
possessor nd t he
cl ai mrai sed
by t he second pers on
may
be appr oxi mat ed
d i nf i ni t um
Thi s
ul t i mat el y means t hat t he
f i r s t
possessor
s
si mul t aneousl y
t he f i r s t propr i et or , and t hat
therefore
appr opr i at i on s
i mmedi at e
Ther e
s no room
f or pur el y possessi ve st age
pr i or t o
appr opr i at i on
On
t he
ot her
hand,
Hegel
does
not
al l ow
t hat t he
second
person, who
s
pr esent i ng
a cl ai m
on
t hat samet hi ng, mayacqui r e
at
ny
moment
a possessi ve rel at i onw t h
t whi l e
t he
t hi ng
s s t l l t he
pr oper t y of
t he
f i r s t
possessor
The
t hi ng
can
onl y
serve
as t he t e rm
of
one
r el at i onshi p,
t he
pr oper t y re l at i onshi p
etweennon- pr oper t y nd
pr oper t y
there c n
be
no
i nt ermedi at e
stage
Possessi on
s not abl e t o asser t a concept ual
space or t i me
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 114/124
R R ST
of
i t s own The
di s t i nct i on
bet ween
possess i on
and
pr oper t y
col l apses
i n
f avour of proper t y
ne coul d
s t i l l
i nt erpret
t he
t ext quot ed
above
as
sayi ng
t hat
pr oper t y i s
const i t ut ed
onl y
when a second per son
appear s
on t he
scene
Bef ore
t h i s
second person chal l enges t he
possess i on
hel d by t he
f i r s t
person, weare i n t he
pr esence
of a
purel y possess i ve
rel at i onshi p
I t i s not aquest i on,
t heref ore,
of
l ogi cal
or mere
t empor al
p r i o r i t y
Ther e
i s an addi t i onal
el ement
const i t ut ed
by t he
conf r ont at i on
bet ween two persons, and i t
i s preci sel y
t h i s
that
consol i dat es t he
possessi on of
t he
f i r s t
person andmakes
i t hi s/ her
pr oper t y
Pr oper t y
must
be
def i ned
as
t he
soci al
af f i rmat i on
of
possess i on
I n
possess i on
we f i nd a pur el y i n d i v i d u l i s t i c monadi c rel at i onshi p betweenaperson anda
t hi ng,
whi l e
pr oper t y
presupposes
s oc i l
r ecogni t i on
The paragraph
that
i mmedi at el y
f ol l ows
paragraph 50
seems t o c onf i rmt h i s vi ew
orthere
tobe
pr oper t y,
as Dasei n
of
per sonal i t y, i t i s not
suf f i c i ent that my
i nt ernal r epresent at i on
and
wi l l
det ermne t hat s omet hi ng
shoul d be
mne
t o secure that
end
poss ess i ve
appr ehensi on
Besi t zergrei f ung)
i s
r equi r ed Thedetermnate bei ng acqui r ed
hereby by that
wi l l i ncl udes t he cogni zabi l i t y
Er kennbar kei t )
i n
i t s e l f
by ot her s That t he
t hi ng
whi ch I
t ake i nt o
possess i on
shoul d
be w t hout
a mas t er i s
a sel f - evi dent negat i ve
condi t i on or
r at her rel ated to
an
ant i c i pat ed
ref erence
t o
anot her
51)
Thi s t ext seems t o say that t he cogni t i on
of
ot her s i s anessent i al
r equi r ement
f or
t he
const i t ut i on of
pr oper t y
Wenanot her
person
i s
abl e t o
know
t hat a
t hi ng i s mypr oper t y,
onl y
t hen can
that t hi ng r i ght f ul l ybecome
mne Pr i or
t o
t h a t myrel at i on t o t he t hi ng woul d have t o
be
merel y possess i ve
cl oser
consi der at i on
of
t he
text i ndi cat es,
however ,
that
possess i ve appr ehensi on i s
not pri or, but act ual l y f ol l ows , t he const i t ut i on of
pr oper t y
Pr oper t y i s
grounded
s o l e l y
on t he
i nt ernal wi l l
of
a per son and
i t
i s
as
Dasei n
of
personal i t y t hat
i t
requi r es ext er nal
compl et i on,
e
t he actual possess i ve
appr ehens i on
of t he
al r eady
appr opr i at ed
t hi ng
Possess i on
serves
merel y
as
an
i ndi cat i on, as
anoutward
s i gn at t ached t o propert y t o
warn ot her
part i es
who may desi r e t o
i nvade
t hat previ ous l y const i t ut ed ri ght
Poss ess i on
appear s now
t o be
addi ng a s oc i l
di mens i on
t o
pr oper t y, whi ch
i n turn
becomes a
pur el y pri vat e
rel at i on of
my i nt er nal wi l l
and r epresent at i on
t o a
t hi ng
The
pr esence of ot her
part i es does not
represent
a pos i t i ve condi t i on
f or
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 115/124
HEGEL
ONPOSS SSION
N
PROPERTY
property Ot her persons
ar e
actual l y
al ways
present ,
but t
i s
pur el y negati ve
presence,
t he
pr esence of
a
non- pr esence
I t i s
a
condi t i on
f or
consti t ut i ng
a
property
rel ati onshi p t o
t hi ng
that
no
other
party actual l y
be
i n a
s i m l a r
r el ati onshi p
w t h
t
I n order
t o
assure
t he
presence
of
t he
non- pr esence
of
another
party
Hegel i ncl udes a
condi t i on,
a posi t i ve
condi t i on
t h i s
t i me
i
e
possessi ve
appr ehensi on)
whereby
my property
becomes
congni zabl e
t o
others
I t shoul d be noted t h a t at t h i s stage, Hegel
onl y
requi r i ng cogni t i on nd
not recogni t i on ( Aner kennung) Recogni t i on i mpl i es the exi st ence
of
other
per sons
a c t i ve l y i nvol ved i n t he consti t ut i on
of
my
property
r el ati onshi ps
he
r i gh t
of
property
l oses i t s
i mmedi cy
i nsof ar as
my r i g h t s over
a t hi ng ar e
medi at ed
by
t he w i l l
of
another person Recogni t i on
i s
t he bas i s on whi ch
stands
the responsi bi l i ty
of
others
t o acknow edge
nd
respect myproperty
Hegel ,
however , has been
careful
t o poi nt out
i n
paragraph 51 t hat t
i s
mere
cogni t i on
by others that
i s assured
by
possessi ve
appr ehensi on
I t i s
al so cl ear
that
t h i s
cogni t i on arr i ves
l a t e
that i s
whent he
abstract property rel ati onshi p
bet ween
mysel f
nd
t hi ng
i s al r eady
const i t ut ed
Hegel s concept i on of property i s
not
al t ered
when he f i n a l l y i nt r oduces
r ecogni t i on
Thi s he does
i n
t he
paragraph
that
marks
t he
t r ansi t i on
from
t he
sphere
of
property
t o that
of
contract
Dasei n,
as
det erm nate
bei ng,
i s
essent i al l y
bei ng
f or
another
Property,
i nsof ar as
t
i s
Dasei n
as external
t hi ng,
i s
f or other external i t i es nd t connect ed w th
necessi t y andcont i ngency
But, as Dasei n
of
t he wi l l t i s
onl y
f or
t he
w i l l
of
anot her
person
Thi s
rel at i on
of
w i l l
t o
w i l l i s
t he proper
nd true ground i nwhi ch f reedomhas
Dasei n
Thi s
medi at i on
consti t ut es t he
sphere of
contract,
n mel y t he f a c t that
hol d pr oper t y
not merel y bymeans
of a
t hi ng nd
mysubj ecti ve wi l l
but by
means
of
another
per son s
w i l l
as wel l nd so by means of a common
w i l l
( 71)
Property
const i tutes the
Dasei n
of
f reedom
reedom
must
t her ef or e
be
charact er i zed
as bei ng
essent i al l y f or
another
Weh ve
al r eady
seen t hat
i nsof ar as
t hi ng becomes t he
property
of
a per son,
i t
l oses
i t s
sel f - subsi stence
nd i ndependence, t hus becomng
e s s e n t i a l l y
f or another I n thi s case
t he
r ef erence
i s
person Yet, Hegel
per cei ves
two
other
possi bl e r ef erences On
t he one hand, there
a pur el y natural r ef erence, accor di ng t o
whi ch
a
t hi ng,
as
t he
proper t y of
a per son,
ret ai ns
i t s
materi al i t y, nd t her ef or e
i t s
natural
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 116/124
RISTI
connecti ons of necessi t y
and
cont i ngency wi t h other
ext er nal t hi ngs
On
t he
other
hand, there a r ef er ence t hat does not consi der so much t he thi ngthat
has become
y
property,
but
y
property
over
that
t hi ng
Thi s
i s
property
as
Dasei nof
t he wi l l I can
become
a propr i et or ,
. e my
wi l l
can att ai n
excl usi ve r i ght t o use, enj oy
or di spose
of
a t hi ng, when am
r ecogni zed
as
such
by
anot her
party
Thus,
I
a
pr opr i et or
f or
t he
wi l l
of
anot her
person I hol d pr oper t y not
as
an abstract
w l l any
mor e,
but my
wi l l
i s
medi at ed by t he r ecogni t i on
of
anot her
party
Hegel
has
nowmoved t o
t he
spher e of
contract Sur el y,
do not have
t o wai t
f or t he
r ecogni t i on of anot her
person ( or per sons) t o become t he
pr opr i et or
of
a
t hi ng
here i s a pre-
contractual
stage
wi t hi n
whi ch
property
i s
s o l e l y
const i t ut ed
by
t he
rel at i on
of
ysubj ecti ve wi l l t o a t hi ng
When t he
tr ansi t i on made t o contractual
property, r ecogni t i on becomes essent i al , f or contract pr esupposes that
t he
par t i es
i nvol ved r ecogni ze
t hemsel ves
as
per sons
and pr opr i et or s ( 71)
The di sti nct i on
between
possessi on
and
property
sur f aces agai n
i n t he
spher e of
contract
I t i s
present ed
i n exact l y t he
same
t erms
as
t appear ed i n
paragraph 51
Possessi on
nowconst i t ut es
a pure
sti pul at i on,
a
cer emoni al
compl et i on
f or t he
contractual
rel at i on
The
di sti ncti on
bet ween property and
possessi on
becomes
i n
t he sphere of
contract
t he
di sti nct i on
bet ween
t he common
wi l l as
covenant and i t s act ual i zat i on
as
per f ormance
( Lei st ung) ( 78)
Possessi on shoul d not
be
taken as an
i nt ermedi ate
stati on bet ween non
property andproperty Property,
accor di ng
t o
Hegel , i s ani mmedi ate
rel at i on
bet ween a
person
anda
t hi ng
Ther e no
pl ace
f or a
possessi ve
r el at i onshi p
est abl i shed
pri or
t o property
I n
modern
p o l i t i c a l phi l osophy t he
not i on
of possessi on
t i e d i n t he l a s t
anal ysi s,
t o
that
of
t he
s t a t e
of nat ur e
I n
t he
Phi l osophy
of
Ri ght
Hegel ,
at
l ea s t i n i t i a l l y admts such aconnect i onbyassoci at i ng
possessi on
wi t h natural
wi l l Even
thoughhe f i nds a pl ace
f or
natural
wi l l i n hi s p o l i t i c a l
theory, he
f or sakes t he not i on
of
t he s t a t e
of nat ure
I n
modern t hought t h i s not i on
servedas
a
basi s on
whi ch
t o stand p o l i t i c a l soci et y
I t gener al l y
represented
an
or i gi nal
pre- pol i t i cal state
of
a f f a i r s character i zed by t he exi st ence of equal
i ndi vi dual s wi t h a capaci t y
t o
express
t hei r own
part i cul ar
desi r es and wi l l s
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 117/124
H G L
ONPOSS SSION
N
ROP RTY
w t hout
hi ndr ances
Thepart i cul ar i ty
of
t he i r wi l l s was
not
hampered
by
any
form
of
uni ver sal i t y
havi ng
r egul at or y
power
over
them
Thi s
s t a t e
of nat ur e
meant , i n g en er a l , a s o r t of v e r i t a b l e anarchy, q u a l i f i e d and measured d i v e r s e l y
accor di ng t o
di f f erent
aut hors Hegel s
endeavour i s ai med at
maki ng t h i s
not i on
perf ect l y di spensabl e The col l apse
of
t he di sti ncti on bet ween
possessi on
and
property
and t he
di m ni shed status assi gned t o possessi on
must
be
seen
as
a
mani f est at i on
of
t hat
same
endeavour
Now
turn
t o
a summary
di scussi on
of
t he
fate
of
t he
di sti nct i on
bet ween
possessi on
and
property i n
Rousseau, Fi cht e and
ant 4
The di sti ncti on bet ween
possessi on
and
property
and t he ascri pt i on
of
possessi on
t o
t he
s t a t e
of
nature are
v i s i b l e
f eat ures
of
Rousseau s
p o l i t i c a l
phi l osophy I n The Soci al
Contract
(1762),
ousseaudi st i ngui shes bet ween
possessi on
and propert y, assi gni ng the f ormer t o t he s t a t e
of
nature, where
human bei ngs
enj oy nat ur al f r eedom
and t he l a t t e r
t o c i v i l s o c i e t y ,
t he
real m
of c i v i l l i b e r t y Possessi on r e s u l t s
fromt he e f f e c t
of
force and the ri ght of t he
f i r s t occupi er
.
I t i s
a s o l i t a r y rel at i onshi p between
a
person
and
a
t hi ngw t h
no
mani f est at i on of
acommon
wi l l
Property, on t he contrary,
pr esupposes a
common wi l l and
as
such i t can
onl y be
f ounded on a posi t i ve t i t l e
6
ousseau
consi der s
property
as
t he
most
sacred
of a l l
ri ght s
of
ci t i zenshi p
.
Yet , f or
al l i t s
s a n c t i t y , t does
not
const i t ut e
anatural r i g h t
umanbei ngs
do
not have t hi s r i ght i n t he s t a t e
of nature
where
t hey
can
onl y
att ai n mere
possessi on
of
external
t hi ngs
Rousseau,
f ur t hermore,
per cei ves
t hat
behi nd
t h i s
sacred r i ght there
l i e s cl ever usur pat i on
. 8
Thi s i nduces
hi m
t o
set
l i mt at i ons
t o t h i s r i ght The sover ei gnt y
of
t he
general wi l l , whi ch
st ands
above t
can
cert ai nl y
anni hi l at e
t
9
The
r i g h t
of property
ceases
t o be
an
absol ut e r i ght
of
t he i ndi vi dual I t i s
nowcondi t i oned
by t he r equi r ement t hat
no
c i t i z e n
s ha l l
ever be weal t hy enough t o
buy
another,
and
none
poor
enough
t o be
f or ced t o
s e l l hi msel f .
°
Fol l owi ng
ousseau
very
c l o s e l y , Fi cht e, i nhi s Gr undl age des Naturrechts
( 1796/ 7) ,
al so di st i ngui shes
bet ween possessi on and
property. I n
t he
background one can c l e a r l y di scern the
not i on of
t he s t a t e
of nat ur e
Accordi ng t o Fi chte,
w t hi n t he
state
of nature
human
bei ngs can
onl y be
consi der ed
as persons, not
as
i ndi vi dual s
person s
rel at i on
t o t heworl d
i n
t he
s t a t e
of nature
i s
a
pur el y
possessi ve
one I t i s
onl y
when
i ndi vi dual s
emerge i nto a s t a t e
of contractual
r i ght t hat
t hey
can
att ai n property Thus,
property
i s
not
a
natural
r i g h t ,
and
t
can onl y be
groundedon
t he
r eci procal
r ecogni t i on of
i ndi vi dual s
Wen
man
i s posi t ed
i n rel at i on to others, hi s possessi on
becomes
r i g h t f u l
( r e c h t l i c h e ) onl y
i nsof ar
as
he i s
r ecogni zed
by others
I n t h i s
manner , he
at t ai ns f or t he
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 118/124
RST
f i r s t t i me
external common
l egi t i mat i on,
commont o him
and t he
par t i es t hat
r ecogni ze
him
Thus
possessi on
becomes property f or t he
f i r s t
t i me, i e s omet hi ng
i ndi vi dual
2
Ther e i s no space f or pre- cont r act ual property Pr oper t y cannot
be
concei ved
of
as
an
absol ut e r i ght
I t
i s grounded on
a s oci al contract
whi ch
i mpos es
l imta t i ons
on that r i ght
Thi s
mans that I can
hol d
a cer t ai n amount
of
property
on condi t i on that a l l c i t i z e n s
can mke
a l i v i n g
on
t hei r own Ci vi l
property
i s
cancel l ed
when
c i t i z e n s
cannot
l i v e
on
t hei r
own
i t
becoms
t hei r
property
Obvi ousl y,
t h i s
mst be
determned by t he power
of
the s tate
13
Thi s
i s
a cl ear
expr ess i on of
J acobi ni sm
ont he
part
of Fi chte
Hi s
l i b e r a l
vi ews
of e a r l i e r year s
have now
t aken a
sharp turn toward
r adi cal
democracy
14 I t
i s
i n
these
concl usi ons that we can per cei ve t he r evol ut i onar y p o s s i b i l i t i e s
of
t he
di s t i nct i on bet ween possessi on
and
property
Kant ,
i n
hi s
Metaphysi k der Si tt en
(1797),
was
per haps t he
f i r s t
t o
per cei ve
phi l os ophi cal l y t he
J acobi n consequences i mpl i ci t i n
t he
di s t i nct i on between
possessi on
and
property
i n
modern
p o l i t i c a l
phi l osophy
Kant
sees
no
poi nt
i n
r ej ecti ng t he
di s t i nct i on
bet ween a s t a t e of
nature
anda s t a t e
of
r i ght
or
c i v i l
state
Agai n,
f ol l owi ng
Rousseau,
heassoci at es
owner shi p
i
. e
property,
wi t h
t he s t a t e of
r i ght
To have s omethi ng
external a s
one s
own
(das Sei ne) i s
poss i bl e
onl y
i n a s t a t e
of
r i g h t , under a publ i c l e g i s l a t i v e power , i e i n ac i v i l
s t a t e .
S
Thi s
t hes i s , however , i s
i mmedi at el y
f ol l owed
by onewhi ch
extends
property t o t he state
of nature
Kant
s t a t e s
I n t he s t a t e
of nature
therecan
be
a r e a l , i f
onl y
pr ovi si onal external owner shi p Mei n and Dei n)
I
6
Kant s
demonst r at i on
of t h i s l a t t e r
t hes i s i s
ext r emel y i nt er est i ng because
i t
pre-
f i gur es Hegel s
st andpoi nt i n
t he Phi l osophy
of
Ri ght
I f
Hegel s aimn t h i s
work can
be
sai d t o c ons i s t , i n
t he
l a s t anal ysi s, i n
aref utat i on
of
Rousseau s
and
Fi chte s radi cal democr at i c
posture,
then Kant
i s sur el y i t s i mmedi at e
ant ecedent
Nat ur al r i ght i n
t he
s t a t e
of
a
c i v i l const i tut i on cannot
suffer attacks
f rom
tatutory
l aws
Thus,
t he
f ol l owi ng
l ega l
pr i nci pl e
mai nt ai ns
i t s
v a l i d i t y
Whoever
f ol l ows
t he
mxim
accor di ng
t o
whi ch i t i s
i mpossi bl e f or
m
t o
ownt he obj ect
of
my
arbi t r ary
wi l l
W l l k r i i r ) ,
does i nj ury
t o
m or
t he
c i v i l const i t ut i on
i s
onl y
t he
state
of
r i g h t ,
through
whi ch owner shi p (das Sei ne) i s
merel y secured
ges i c her t ) , but not,
pr oper l y speaki ng,
const i t ut ed and
determned
7
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 119/124
HEGEL
ONPOSSESSION N
PROPERTY
Ownershi p whi ch i s
secured
by
r i g h t i n other wor ds,
property, i s not
const i t ut ed
and
det erm ned
onl y
when
one
moves
t owards
t he
spher e of
r i ght
On t he
contrary,
i t i s const i t ut ed and det erm ned
w t h
pr i or i t y i n t he s t a t e
of
nat ur e
The
s t a t e
of r i ght poses onl y a guar ant ee t hat
one s
property wi l l be
r espect ed guar ant ee , says Kant ,
pr esupposes
one s owner shi p
.
F i rm y
anchor ed
w t h i n
t he s t a t e
of
nat ur e,
property
cannot suffer attacks
from
posi t i ve
l e g i s l a t i o n
Movi ng
away
f romRousseau and
Fi cht e, Kant
has
r ehabi l i t at ed
property
as a nat ural r i ght
Theref or e,
pr i or
t o
t he
c i v i l
const i t ut i on,
owner shi p
must
be regarded as possi bl e
i ght
t o
compel
ever yone w t h
whom
we
coul d
engage
i n
any sor t of trade t o ent er
w t h
us
i n
a
consti t ut i on wher e owner shi p
i s
secured,
must
al so
be
regarded
as
possi bl e
On
t h i s
basi s
Kant
i s abl e t o di st i ngui sh bet ween a
provi si onal l y- r i ght f ul
possessi on
and a per empt or y
possessi on
The
f i r s t
one
occurs
i n
the state
of
nat ur e, whi ch
t her ef or e,
by def i ni t i on, presupposes t he possi bi l i ty
of astate of
r i ght Provi s i onal l y- r i ght f ul possessi on i s
an
ant i ci pat i on
of
and pr epar at i on
f or
per empt or y possessi on
and
i t
can
onl y be
concei ved
of
under a c i v i l
consti t ut i on
Per empt or y
possessi on ( whi ch coi nci des w t h Hegel s
not i on
of
property
as r i g h t f u l
possessi on) , f ol l ows
upon
provi si onal l y- r i ght f ul
possessi on, per f ecti ng
i t
Yet , i n a cer tai n respect ,
t he l a t t e r
pr esupposes
t he
f or mer
ant r ecogni zes t hat t he t ransi t i on to the state
of
r i ght i s pr ef i gur ed
i n
t he s t a t e
of
nat ur e
The
s t a t e
of nat ur e
i s pot ent i al l y
a
s t a t e
of
r i ght
I n
t he
f or mer st and
as amere
person
def i ned onl y
by
myp a r t i c u l a r i t y
but
bef or e
I
become
i nvol ved
i n
any
sort
of
c i v i l i nt er cour se w t h
other
persons, t he
possi bi l i ty
of such a si t uat i on precedes
i t s actual i zat i on
Thi s const i t ut es
my
r i ght t o compel others who ar e al so w l l i ng
t o
ent er
i nt o a c i v i l si t uat i on i nto
whi ch wi l l al so
be dr awn,
t o
r ecogni ze
t h e i r
own
c i v i l wi l l vi z
t he
wi l l t o
r ecogni zemeas asubj ect
of
r i g h t s
Wen
t h i s
t akes pl ace one can
be sur e
t hat a
s t a t e
of
r i ght
has emerged w t hi n t he
s t a t e of
nature
Kant
i s caref ul
t o
mai nt ai n t he
di st i nct i on
bet ween t he state of nat ur e and
t he
s t a t e
of r i ght at
al l
costs
He
prevent s
t h ei r
col l apse i nt o
one
anot her
by
hi s
use
of
t he
not i on pr ovi si onal , so t hat
t he
state of
nat ur e
must be t hought of
as
onl y
pr ovi s i onal l y bei ng a s t a t e
of
r i ght
I n
order
t o strengthen t h i s
di st i nct i on
ant
subsequent l y
br i ngs
f or t h a concept i on
of
t he
s t a t e
of
r i ght as
i deal l y
present
i n
t he s t a t e
of nat ur e
Thi s
becomes
mani f est
when
he
expl ai ns
t he r eason
why
there can
be
acqui si t i on
of pr oper t y w thi n
t he
s t a t e of
nat ur e
I f
t he s t a t e
of
nat ur e i s
def i ned as a pr i vat i on, i e
t he pr i vat i on
of r i g h t
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 120/124
RISTI
evi dent l y no pr opert y qua
r i g h t f u l
possessi on
can a r i s e wi t hi n t
Yet , t he s t a t e
of nat ure
cont ai ns
t he
i dea
of a
c i v i l
s t a t e
so
t hat
propert y i ndeed can be
acqui r ed
provi si onal l y
wi t hi n t
Thestate of
a
uni ver sal , r e a l uni f i ed wi l l t o l e g i s l a t e
i s t he
c i v i l
s t a t e
nd
t i s
onl y i n
conformty
wi t h
t he
i dea
of
a
c i v i l
s t a t e . e
i n
vi ew of
i t
and
i t s
real i zat i on,
but pr i or
t o
i t s
r e a l i t y
t hat somet hi ng ext ernal can be acqui r ed
o r i g i n a l l y even i f
onl y
provi si onal l y
eremptory
acqui s i t i on
t akes
pl ace i n
t he
c i v i l
s t a t e excl usi vel y
2
Kant
has been
abl e t o
trace t he
c i v i l s t a t e
and therefore
t he
r i ght of
pr opert y,
back t o t he s t a t e of
nat ur e
Thi s
i s a
much
f i rmer
ground t han t he
pur el y
convent i onal
one
admtted
by Rousseauand Fi cht e
S t i l l t he f act t hat
ant
i s ready
t o
def i ne pr opert y
as
merel y provi si onal
i n such
a s t a t e detracts
from
t s sanct i t y andweakens i t
wi t h
respect
t o
possi bl e
attacks
ar i s i ng from
t he
c i v i l
s t a t e
t hrough
i t s
posi t i ve
l egi s l at i on
The
door opened
up
by
Rousseauand Fi cht e t o
st at e- i mposed l i mtat i ons of
t he r i ght
of propert y
and
expropr i at i on,
has been
l e f t
now
onl y
sem- cl osed
by
Kant 2
Twent y- t hr ee
years l a t e r
when
Pr ussi a
was mvi ng
away from
t s re form
e r a
and
very
rapi dl y s o especi al l y i f one consi ders t he
r eact i onar y nat ur e
of
t he Car l sbad
decrees 1819) , Hegel s t r i v e s t o cl ose t h i s
door
compl et el y,
el i mnat i ng any
condi t i ons
t hat may weaken t he r i g h t of
pr oper t y
2 2
I n hi s
system
t h i s r i ght
i s
nowdef ended as
an
absol ut e r i ght
of
per sonal i t y c f 44)
I t i s
t h i s
assert i on
t hat
pr oduces
t he col l apse
of
t he
di st i nct i on
bet ween
possessi on
and
pr opert y t hat was
present ed
i n t he f i r s t part
of
t h i s
essay
Hegel
has
t hus def i ni tel y
mved away from
Rousseau and
Fi cht e, f or whom
possessi on
rel at ed
t o
i sol at ed persons, whi l e pr oper t y
was ul t i mat el y
s o c i a l l y
condi t i oned
Pr opert y, as
t he
absol ut e r i ght
of
personal i t y,
precedes
al l
cont r act ual rel at i onshi ps
Kant i n i t i a t e d
an
appr oxi mat i on t owar ds
pre-
cont r act ual pr opert y
Movi ng
t owar ds Locke, andaway fromHobbes, ant
argues
t hat
a
s t a t e
of nat ur e
not opposed
t o a soci al st at e
23 I t i s
onl y
opposed
t o a c i v i l s t a t e
so
t hat t he s t a t e of
nat ur e
now
def i ned by a mere
absence
of
di st r i but i ve
j u s t i c e
2 4
s
a soci al state
i t
presupposes
t he
exi st ence
wi t hi n
t
of
commutati ve
j u s t i c e S t i l l by ret ai ni ng
t he
opposi t i on
bet ween a
s t a t e
of nat ure
anda
s t a t e
of
r i g h t
ant
l eaves
undet erm ned t he
quest i on
of
t he
degr ee
of autonom
al l owed t o
pri vat e pr oper t y
wi t hi n
t he
prej ur i di cal
sphere
Thus,
a
pur el y
nat ural andsoci al s t a t e as
opposed
t o
a
j u r i d i c a l one,
does not const i t ut e a s u f f i c i e n t
saf eguard agai ns t poss i bl e i nt erf erences
120
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 121/124
HEGELONPOSS SS ON N PROPERTY
emanat i ng
f rom
t he
gener al wi l l , and i n par ti cul ar , agai nst
t he
menace
of
s oc i al i sm
I t i s f or
these
r easons
that Hegel chooses to di scar d
thenoti on
of
thestate
of
natur e,
or
what amounts
t o the
same,
t o di ssol ve
t he
r i g i d
separ at i on
that
had
been
gener al l y establ i shed between t h i s
noti on
and
that
of
a
s t a t e of r i ght ,
whereby
each of
them
was under st ood as
t hemat i cal l y
i ndependent
and
autonomous
si ml ar si t uat i on
i s v i s i b l e
i n
Locke' s
p o l i t i c a l phi l osophy
Locke ascr i bes
t o
i ndi vi dual s l i v i n g wth i n the s t a t e
of nature
an absol ute
and
unl i mt ed property r i ght
Onl y
t he
d i f f i c u l t i e s of
enf or ci ng such a
r i ght
wth i n
the
s t a t e
of nature
f orces i ndi vi dual s
to
move
t owar ds
c i v i l
s oc i e t y ,
wher e
no
newr i ghts
ar e
created
6
Locke' s concept i on
of
t he
s t a t e
of nature
i s
thus
i nternal l y rel ated to that of a
s t a t e
of r i ght
The f u s i on
of
these two
not i ons i s
concr etel y r epr esented i n Hegel ' s thought by hi s
not i on of
c i v i l soci ety
7
Hegel pr esents
i t
f rom
he
s t a r t as
pr esupposi ng t he
abstract r i ghts
of
per sons
and
as domnat ed,
consequent l y,
by
t he pr i nc i pl e of par t i cul ar i t y
orm
of
uni ver sal i ty
devel ops
w t h i n
c i v i l soci ety i ntegr at i ng the par ti cul ar
ai m and
centr i f ugal i n t e r es t s of
a l l i ndi vi dual s
Thi s devel opment cul mnates
predi ct abl y i n an
admni st r at i on
of j u s t i c e through whi ch r i ght becomes l aw
( 217) ,
so
that
when
Hegel
l eaves
c i v i l
soci ety
behi nd
and
ascends
t o
hi s
S t a t e ,
no
new
r i ghts are cr eated
Hegel ' s vers i on of
t he
s t a t e
of
natur e, vi z
hi s
noti on
of
c i v i l s oc i e t y , i s
al r eady a
s t a t e
of r i g h t , i nsof ar as
i t
pr esupposes
t he
abstract r i ght of
i ndi vi dual s or Hegel , the basi c r i ght
of
i ndi vi dual s i s t he r i ght
of pr oper ty
I t
i s a pr e- cont r act ual
r i ght
and
he
takes
i t
as
t he
absol ute poi nt
of
departure i n
hi s exposi t i on
Property i s r i ght f ul l y grounded on t he
absol ute w i l l of
t he
i ndi vi dual
person
8
n
absol utel y f r e e w i l l abstracts fromal l rel at i ons t o
other
par t i es
a l l
i t s
possi bl e
rel at i ons to
other
wi l l s
si mpl y
col l apse
t
t h i s
stage
we have
onl y
t he f r eedom
of
anabstract
wi l l ,
that i s t he f reedomof an
i ndi vi dual
( ei nzel nen)
person whi ch i s
r el ated
onl y
to hi mel f '
( 40)
The
f i r s t
exter nal i zat i on
of
such a
w i l l
i s not
d i r e c t l y
t owar ds
other person(s),
but
t owar ds exter nal thi ngs Property thus becomes t he f i r s t Dasei n
of
f r eedom
( 45) , anda s t a t e
of r i ght
can spr i ng out
wi t hout medi at i ons f romhi s noti on
of
absol ute f ree w i l l Hegel def i nes r i ght
si mpl y
as Dasei n
of
f r ee wi l l
( 29)
Si nce Hegel
i s
consi der i ng
t he
unmedi ated, absol ute
f reedom
of the
i ndi vi dual
as
t he
pr i mordi al determnat i on of
r i ght , the
determnat i on of pr oper ty
becomes
a
purel y
subj ecti ve
and
non- soc i al
rel at i on of
t he
i ndi vi dual
t o
the
exter nal
wor l d Hegel ' s
theoryof precontractual property
i n
hi s
Phi l osophy
of
Ri ght
shoul d t her ef ore
be consi der ed as
one
of
themost r adi cal
f ormul at i ons
of
possessi ve i ndi v i dual i sm
i n modern p o l i t i c a l phi l osophy
Phi l osophy
Uni ver si dad de Chi l e
Uni ver si t y
of
Toronto
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 122/124
RCRI STI
Notes
l Shl omo
Avi ner i
i nt erpret s Hegel s
vi ews i n
t he
Real phi l osophi e ( 1805/ 6) as suppor t i ng a
concept i on of proper t y
as t rans- subj ect i ve and non- i ndi vi dual He states proper t y
per t ai ns
t o t he person as r ecogni zed by ot her s, i t can never be an i n t r i n s i c
qual i t y
of
t he
i ndi vi dual
pi or t o
hi s recogni t i on by ot her s Whi l e poss ess i on r el a t es t o t he i ndi vi dual ,
property
rel at es t o
soci et y
; si nce possessi on becomes property t hrough t he
ot her s
recogni t i on of i t
as
such,
property
i s
a soci al at t r i but e
.
Fromt h i s basi cal l y
correct
i nt erpret at i on
of t he youngHegel Avi neri wr ongl y concl udes : Thus not an i ndi vi dual i s t i c
but a soci al
premse
i s at t he root of
Hegel s
concept of proper t y, andproper t y
w i l l
never be
abl e t o achi eve an i ndependent stature i n hi s system Pr oper t y al ways r emai ns premssed
on soci al
consensus,
on
consci ousness ,
not
on
t hemeref a c t of possessi on
my emphasi s )
Hegel s
Theory of
t he Modern State,
Cambri dge
Uni versi t y
Press, 1972, pp 88- 9
Thi s
essay
i s
i nt ended
t o
showt hat
i t i s
an
i ndi vi dual i s t i c
premse
t hat
i s
at
t he
root
of
Hegel s
concept of proper t y i n t he Phi l osophy
of
Ri ght
and
t hat Avi ner i i s
not j u s t i f i e d
i n
ext endi ng
t he
themes
and
sol ut i ons
of
t he
young
Hegel t o hi s
mature
work I ndeed, Hegel s
not i on of
possessi on and proper t y i n t he
Real phi l osophi e
I I and f or t hat
mat t er
i n t he
Phi l osophi sche
Propadeut i k ( 1809/ 11) , ed
Gl ockner ,
vol
I I I p
60 does d i f f e r
f undament al l y
from
t hat proposed i n t he Phi l osophy
of
Ri ght ( 1820)
2
Al l numberedpar agraphs cor r espond t o
t he
Phi l osophy
of
Ri ght
I n t he t r ans l at i on
of
these
t ex t s I
have consul t ed
ext ensi vel y t he
works
of Si r Mal colm
Knox and
J uanLui s
Vermal
Cf
Hegel s Phi l osophy
of
Ri ght , t ransl at ed w t h not es
by
TM
Knox, Oxford
Cl ar endon,
1967
; and
W
F
Hegel , Pr i nci pi os de l a Fi l osof t a
del Der echo,
t ransl at ed
byJ L
Vermal ,
Buenos
Ai r es
Sudamer i cana,
1975
3
Knox
and Vermal
t ransl at e Erkennbarkei t
usi ng respecti vel y
t he
t e rm
recogni zabi l i t y
and r econoci bl e These
t ransl at i ons
obscure
t he
di s t i nct i on bet ween mere
cogni t i on and
r ecogni t i on
4
HB Act on, not i ci ng t hat Fi chte s Gr undl age des Nat ur r echt s
appeared bef ore Kant s
Metaphysi k der Si t t en, wr i t es t hat t he convent i onal
way
of
wri t i ng
t he
hi s tory
of
phi l osophy, i n whi ch t he vi ews
of each famous phi l osopher
are
present ed as a
cont i nuous
whol eandeach phi l osopher
i s
di scuss ed a f t e r hi s predecessors andbef or e
hi s
successors ,
canbe seri ousl ym sl eadi ng
.
F Nat ural Law
I nt r oduct i on
by
H
B Act on, Uni vers i t y
of
Pennsyl vani a
Press,
1975,
p 28
5
The
Soci al
Cont r act , i n
The
Soci al Cont r act and D scour ses,
trans
by
G
D. H
Col e,
London
Dent , 1975, p 178
6
I b i d
p
178
7
A
Di scour se
on P o l i t i c a l
Economy, i n i b i d
p
138
8 A
Di scour se
on t he Ori gi n of
I nequal i t y,
i n
i b i d
p 89
9
Cf
Eml e, i n i b i d p
303
10
The Soci al Cont r act , i n i b i d p 204
11 Fi cht e
approxi mat es Rousseau t o Locke
He
i n t e r p r e t s
Rousseau as mai nt ai ni ng a
nat ural
ri ght of proper t y,
t hat i s a ri ght of pr opert y bef or e t he soci al cont r act Grundl agedes
Nat ur r echt s, i n
Samml i che Wer ke,
Berl i n Ver l age
von
Vei t
and
Comp vol
I I I
p 204,
not e Fi cht e i s
not consi der i ng
Rousseau s cl ear
di s t i nct i on bet ween poss ess i on
and
proper t y
i n
The
Soci al Cont r act
122
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 123/124
12
I b i d p 130
13
I b i d
p
213
14 Cf Manfred Buhr, Revol ut i on and Phi l osophi e Di e Ur sprungl i che Phi l osophi e J ohann
Gott l i eb
Fi cht es and
di e
Fr anzosi sche
Revol ut i on, Ber l i n Deutscher
Ver l ag
der
W ssenschaf t en,
1965,
pp
63- 71
15
Di e Metaphysi k
der Si tt en, i n
Wer ke,
edi t ed
by E
Cassi r er Ber l i n
B
Cassi rer, 1916, vol
VI I ,
p
58
16 I b i d p 59
17
I b i d
p
59
18 I b i d p 59
19
I b i d
p
59
20
I b i d
p 68
21
V i l l e y ,
f or i nst ance,
bel i eves t hat Kant ' s theory of propert y i s i n
t he
l a s t
anal ysi s,
conduci ve
t o
soci al i sm On s' i magi ne
t i r e r de Kant unedoctr i ne t r 8 s af f i rmati ve de l a
propr i et 6 pr i vee
Kant
d6cr i vant ,
approuvant fordre de son t emps, a pr i s soi n de marquer f or t ement
I ' a n t 6 r i o r i t 6
a
Htat
de
1' appropr i at i on
pr i vee,
mai s
aussi t ot
i l
r econnai t
que
cette
pr opri et e
de
droi t
pri v6 , de
droi t naturel ,
nest que
pr ovi soi r e
Quand l e
droi t devi endra
p6r emptoi r e,
aHtat sera r econnu
un droi t
em nent
sur
t ous l es
bi ens des ci t oyens,
et ce
pri nci pe peut nous condui r e t out
aussi
bi en au
soci al i sme .
M chel V i l l e y , Kant dans
I ' Hi st oi re
du
Droi t ,
i n
La
Phi l osophi e
Pol i t i que
de
Kant
( Annal es de Phi l osophi e
Pol i ti que) ,
Pari s
Presses Uni versi tai res
de Fr ance,
1962,
p
60 ,
not e
I
Ad i f f e r e n t
vi ew i s
expressed by Saage
Cf
Ri chard
Saage,
Ei gent um
Staat and
Gesel l schaf t
bei I mmanuel
Kant , Stuttgart Kohl hammer , 1973, p 39
22
The
ant i democrat i c
nature of
Hegel ' s Phi l osophy of
Ri ght has been reserved by I l t i n g
Cf
K
-H I l t i n g , The
Structure
of
Hegel ' s
Phi l osophy
ofRi ght ,
i n Z A
Pel czynski ,
ed
Hegel ' s
P o l i t i c a l
Phi l osophy,
Cambri dge
Uni ver si t y
Press,
1971,
pp
90- 110, t o
hi s
concept i on
of
a
sel f - perpetuat i ng
monarch,
concei ved as t he
apexand
begi nni ng
of
t he
whol e
I t shoul d be
str essed that
Hegel ' s
noti on of property i s al so ant i democrat i c
i nsof ar
as
he w i l l
not al l ow i t
t o be r egul at ed
by
t he pri nci pl e
of
equal i t y cf 49)
Not
much shoul d be made of hi s
asser t i on i n
par agr aph 46
t hat thedet erm nat i ons concer ni ng property may
have
t o be
subor di nated t o hi gher spheres of r i g h t ,
a
soci ety
or
t he
state . Thi s
has
not hi ng t o
do
w t h
t he l i m t ed redi stri buti ve f uncti on r ecogni zed l a t e r
by
Hegel when deal i ng w th
t he s t a t e as
Pol i zei
Fur t hermore,
these hi gher spheres
of r i g h t
can
ru le
onl y
when common
ownershi p
has
been
i nsti tuted
But
common
ownershi p per
s e
cannot bel ong
t o t he sphere of abstract
r i g h t , whi ch i s pur el y
i ndi vi dual ri ght I t i s because
of
t h i s
t hat
Hegel
presents
common
owner shi p as purel y
except i onal i nsof ar
as i t i s
a
communi ty that i s
i nherent l y
di ssol ubl e ,
so that
the pr i vate
property
of
each
i ndi vi dual ' s
shar e can
al ways
be r ecover ed
23
Kant , op
c i t
p
112- 113
24 I b i d
p
113
HEGELONPOSSESSI ON
N
PROPERTY
25
The
not i on of
a s t at e of nature
( Nai ur zust and) i s barel y
ment i oned i n
t he Phi l osophy
of
Ri ght Andwhen i t
i s
ment i oned i t i s onl y a mar gi nal use , not det erm ned by the str ucture of
hi s t hought I t i s i nt erest i ng t o note t hat i n t he Enzykl opadi e ( 1817) 1415 and ( 1830)
502,
12
3
8/21/2019 VOL02_NO3_1
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/vol02no31 124/124
RST
and i n t he
pr eface
t o hi s
Vor l esung
1818/ 9 ( accordi ng t o thenotes of Car l GustavHomeyer ,
Hegel
s t assi gns
t o t he Nat ur zust and
a clear ly
def i nedand i ndependent
concept ual
pl ace
I t
i s
al so
si gni f i cant
t hat
i n
t he
Vor l esung
1818/ 9 Hegel
does
not
s t r e s s
t he
autonomy
of
pre-
cont r act ual property
Hr
1 1 3 7 ) , as he does
i n
t he
Phi l osophy
of Ri ght
Thi s
l ends further
conf i r mati on t o t he uni que
charact er of t he
Phi l osophy
of
Ri ght,
as has been
di scer ned
by
I l t i n g G.WF Hegel ,
Vor l esungen
f i ber
Recht sphi l osophi e 1818- 1831
Edi t i on
and
commentary byK- H I l t i n g ,
Bad
Canst at t Fromann-Hol zboog 1973
26 Cf B
Macpherson,
The Pol i t i cal Theor y
of Possessi ve I ndi vi dual i sm London
Oxford
Uni ver si t y Pr ess,
1964, pp
210 and 218
27
Hegel s
def i ni t i on of c i v i l
soci et y i n paragr aph
1289 ( c i v i l
soci et y i s
t he
b a t t l e f i e l d of t he
i ndi vi dual
pri vate
i nt erest of al l
agai nst
al l )
f ol l ows
Hobbes descr i pt i on of t he state
of
nat ur e
al most
word
f or
word
28
Cf
Pet er
Landau,
Hegel s
Begrundung
des
Vertragsrechts ,
i n Mat er i al i en
zu Hegel s
Recht sphi l osophi e, e d i t
b
y
Manf red
Ri edel ,
Fr ankf ur t
Suhrkamp
1973,
p 180 Bi s zur
Begrundungdes Pr i vat ei gent ums
gel angt
Hegel a l l e i n auf gr und der Anal yse des Recht s der
ei nzel nen Per son ; ohne Ber ucksi cht i gung
der
Anerkennung durch ander e Per sonen
Cf
t oo
Ri chard
Tei chgr aeber , Hegel on
Property
and
Pover t y, J our nal of t he Hi story of
I deas, vol 3 8,
Jn . -M
1977, p
54