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VOLUME 1
VOLUME 1
Welding MetallurgyCarbon and Alloy Steels
Volume IFundamentals
George E. LinnertGML Publications
Hilton Head Island, South Carolina, USA
Fourth Edition
Published by the American Welding SocietyMiami, Florida, USA
Contents
Contents
Chapter One:Background to Welding Metallurgy 1
MILESTONES IN WELDING HISTORY 1
THE FUTURE OF WELDING 4
WHAT IS WELDING METALLURGY? 6
PUTTING WELDING METALLURGY TO USE 12
WELDING TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES 12
SUGGESTED READING 15
Chapter Two:The Structure of Metals 18
ATOMS 18Elementary Particles 20
Electrons 22Positrons 26
Atomic Nuclei 26Protons 27Neutrons 28
Atom Construction 32Isotopes of Elements 33Isobars 34Atomic Weight 34Atomic Mass 34Atom Valency 35lonization 36Radioactivity 37Atom Size or Diameter 38
THE ELEMENTS 39
AGGREGATES OF ATOMS 41The Solid State 45
The Crystalline Solids 45Amorphous Solids 47
The Liquid State 48The Gaseous State 49
FUNDAMENTALS OF CRYSTALS 50Identification of Planes and Directions in Crystals 56Basic Types of Crystals 56
vi Welding Metallurgy
Inert Gas Crystals 58Ionic Crystals 58Covalent Crystals 59Metallic Crystals 59
THE CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE OF METALS 61How Does a Crystal Grow from the Melt? 64The Formation of Dendrites 66The Formation of Grains 68
The Shape of Grains 71The Size of Grains 72
Undercooling 72
THE IMPORTANCE OF A CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE 74Allotropic Transformation 75Solubility in the Solid State 76Plasticity in Metallic Crystals 77
Slip in Crystalline Structures 77Slip and Lattice Orientation 78Slip in Polycrystalline Metals 79Observing Slip 80Twinning in Crystalline Structures 81
Lattice Imperfections: Dislocations 84Point Defects 85Edge Dislocations 86Screw Dislocations 88Stacking Faults 88Other Lattice Imperfections 88
Cold-Working Metals 88
EXAMINATION OF METAL STRUCTURES 91Fracture Appearance Assessment 92Metallography 92
Metallography Using Optical Microscopy 92Quantitative Metallography 105Metallography Using the Electron Microscope 106Metallography Using Ion Microscopy 115Tunnel-Effect Microscopy 116Chemical Analysis of Microstructural Constituents 116
Newer Techniques in Metallurgy 121
FRACTOGRAPHY 123
SUGGESTED READING 131
Chapter Three:The Properties of Metals 133
STRUCTURE SENSITIVITY OF PROPERTIES 133
DIRECTIONALITY IN PROPERTIES 135
Contents vii
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES 136Elastic Behavior of Metals 137
Young's Modulus of Elasticity 139Poisson's Ratio 139Limits of Elasticity and Proportionality 141
Plastic Yielding in Metals 142Yield Strength 143
Breaking Strength of Metals 143Tensile Strength 144True Stress and True Strain 144Notched Tensile Strength 147
Ductility 147Elongation 148Reduction of Area 149Ductility Indications from Special Tests 149
Hardness 149Static Indentation Hardness Testing 150Microhardness Testing 151Dynamic Hardness Testing 152Scratch Hardness Testing 153Conversion of Hardness Numbers 153
Toughness 154Introduction of Impact Testing 155
FRACTURE IN METALS 156Ductile Fracture 158Brittle Fracture 159Intergranular Fracture 162Conditions Affecting Fracture Toughness 164
Effect of Temperature 164Effect of Stress Axiality 166Stress Gradient 169Stress Multiaxiality 170Effect of Rate of Strain 171
Effect of Cyclic Stress (Fatigue) 174Fatigue Crack Initiation 176Fatigue Crack Propagation 176Fatigue Crack Failure 176Cyclic Stress Limits to Avoid Fatigue Failure 181Cyclic Stress Conditions 183Variable Loading and Cumulative Fatigue Damage 185
FRACTURE MECHANICS: ASSESSMENT OF FRACTURETOUGHNESS 188
Brittle Fracture Test Parameters 190Section Dimensions 192Plotting Coordinates 192Crack Surface Displacement Mode 193Plane-Strain 195
Viii Welding Metallurgy
Plane-Stress 195Stress Distribution 196
Procedures for Evaluating Propensity for Brittle Fracture 197Use of Linear-Elastic Fracture Mechanics 198
Development of Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics 201Crack Tip Opening Displacement Testing 205The J-lntegral Test Method 211
Fatigue Cracking Assessment by Fracture Mechanics 215Mechanical Properties at Low Temperature 218
Strength at Low Temperature 219Impact Toughness at Low Temperature 220Test Methods for Toughness Evaluation 226Correlation of Results from Fracture Toughness Tests 236
Improved Mechanical Properties for Low-Temperature Service 238Mechanical Properties at Elevated and High Temperatures 238
Short-Time Elevated Temperature Testing 241Long-Time Elevated Temperature Testing 242
Mechanical Properties After Plastic Work 247Hot Work 248Cold Work 248Peening 248Irradiation 249
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 258Density 258Thermal Properties 259
Specific Heat 260Thermal Conductivity 261Melting Point or Melting Range 264Heat of Fusion 264Viscosity and Surface Tension of Molten Metals 264Boiling Point and Heat of Vaporization 266Thermal Expansion and Contraction 266Thermionic Work Function 268
Electrical Properties 268Magnetic Properties 270
Evaluation of Magnetization 272Summary of Magnetic Behavior 273Involvement of Magnetization in Welding 274
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES 274Corrosion of Metals 275
Corrosion in Aqueous Solutions 276Corrosion in Hot Gases 282Corrosion in Molten Metals 282Corrosion in Molten Salt 283
Forms of Corrosion Pertinent to Weldments 283Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) 284
SUGGESTED READING 293
Contents ix
Chapter Four:Effects of Alloying Elements 295
ALLOYING 295Alloys in the Liquid State 296Phase Diagrams 299
Binary Phase Diagrams 304Ternary Phase Diagrams 307Phase Diagrams for Multi-Element Alloys 308
Alloys in the Solid State 310Factors Influencing Solid Solubility 310Formation of Intermediate Phases and Compounds 316
Mechanisms and General Effects of Alloying 316Role of Crystalline Structure 317Role of Microstructure 319Mechanisms for Altering Mechanical Properties 319
ALLOYING ELEMENTS IN IRON 326Carbon 329
Analysis of the Iron-Iron Carbide Diagram 331Manganese 337Phosphorus 338Sulfur and Selenium 340Silicon 342Copper 343Chromium 345Nickel 346Molybdenum 346Niobium (Columbium) 347Vanadium 348Aluminum 348Nitrogen 349Titanium 352Boron 354Cobalt 355Tungsten 355Lead 355Other Alloying Elements 356
BENEFIT OF REVERSING THE ALLOYING TREND 357Residual Elements 358
SUGGESTED READING 359
Chapter Five:Types of Steel and Their Manufacture 361
GENERAL CATEGORIES OF IRON AND STEEL 361
IRON PRODUCTION BY ORE REDUCTION 362Blast Furnace 362
Welding Metallurgy
Direct Reduction Processes 365
CAST IRON 366
WROUGHT IRON 367
POWDER METALLURGY 367
STEELMAKING PROCESSES 368Significance of Acid and Basic Steelmaking 368Bessemer Converter 369Open Hearth Furnace 370
Rimmed Steel 372Capped Steel 373Killed Steel 373Semikilled Steel 379Vacuum Deoxidized Steel 379
Oxygen Steelmaking 380Basic Oxygen Steelmaking 380
L-D Process 381Kaldo Process 383Off-Gas BOF 383Q-BOP Process 383Lance-Bubbling-Equilibrium 385
Ladle Refining 385Slag Removal 385Mixing Capability 386Alloying Additions 386Vacuum Treatment 386Temperature Adjustment 387Desulfurization 388
Electric-Arc Furnace 389Electric-Induction Furnace 389Electroslag Remelting 391
SPECIAL MELTING PROCESSES 392Vacuum Induction Melting 392Vacuum Consumable-Electrode Remelting 393Electron-Beam Melting 395Argon-Oxygen Decarburization (AOD) 396
FOUNDRY AND STEEL MILL OPERATIONS 397Ingot Steelmaking Practice 398Continuous Casting of Steel 400
HOT WORKING OPERATIONS 404Thermo-Mechanical Control Process (T-MCP) 406
COLD FINISHING 407
HEAT TREATMENT 408
CONTINUOUS COATING OF STRIP STEEL IN COILS 409
TYPES OF STEEL 410Carbon Steels 410
Contents xi
Alloy Steels 411Construction 412Automotive, Aircraft, and Machinery 412Low-Temperature Service 413Elevated Temperature Service 413
High-Alloy Steels 413Austenitic Manganese Steel 413Stainless Steels 414Heat-Resisting Steels 415
Tool Steels 415
STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS FOR STEELS 416Unified Numbering System 416AISI-SAE System of Standard Carbon and Alloy Steels 418ASTM Standards 420API Specifications 424Aerospace Material Specifications 426ASME Material Specifications 426AWS Specifications, Codes and Rules 429
CARBON AND ALLOY STEEL USED IN WELDED CONSTRUCTION 430Qualities of Steel Important to Welding 431Factors Affecting the Weldability of Steel 432
Chemical Composition 432Mechanical Properties 434Metallurgical Structure 435Internal Soundness 435Cleanliness 436
THE FUTURE OF STEELS AND THEIR WELDABILITY 437New Steels and Product Forms 437Dissimilar-Metal Welding 437Repair Welding — The Ultimate Challenge 439
SUGGESTED READING 439
Chapter Six:Welding Methods and Processes 444
SOLID-STATE WELDING (SSW) 444
FUSION WELDING 445
BRAZING AND SOLDERING 445HEAT SOURCES FOR WELDING AND CUTTING 448
Electrical Heat Generation 448Electric Arc 448Electron Beam 459
Electric Resistance 461Electromagnetic Radiation 461
Laser Beams 463
xii Welding Metallurgy
Chemical Heat Generation 465Mechanical Heat Generation 466
THE WELDING AND CUTTING PROCESSES 467Arc Welding Process 467
Power Sources for Arc Welding 467Auxiliary Equipment for Arc Welding 470Basic Forms of Arc Welding 471Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) 472Stud Arc Welding (SW) 477Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) 478Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) 489Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) 501Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) 505Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) 511Percussion Welding (PEW) 514Magnetically Impelled Arc Welding 515Welding Arc Technology 517
Resistance Welding Processes 520Resistance Spot Welding (RSW) 522Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW) 531Projection Welding (PW) 532Upset Welding (UW) 533Flash Welding (FW) 537Electrical Metal-Explosion Welding Process 541Induction Welding (IW) 542Electroslag Welding (ESW) 542
Electron Beam Welding (EBW) 548Welding in a High Vacuum (EBW-HV) 550Welding in a Medium Vacuum (EBW-MV) 565Nonvacuum Electron Beam Welding (EBW-NV) 565Tracking Joints During Electron Beam Welding 565
Laser Beam Welding (LBW) 568Nature of Laser Beams and Plasma Generation 569Basic Techniques in Laser Welding 571Attributes of Laser Welding 571Laser Welding Difficulties and Defects 572Shielding Gas Effects in Laser Welding 575Filler Wire Feeding in Laser Welding 576
Oxyfuel Welding (OFW) 582Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW) 582
Thermite Welding (TW) 585
SOLID-STATE WELDING PROCESSES 587Hot Pressure Welding (HPW) 589Induction Welding (IW) 592Friction Welding (FRW) 593
Inertia-Drive Friction Welding 594Direct-Drive Friction Welding 595
Contents xiii
Materials Suited for Friction Welding 595Mechanical Properties of Friction Welds 598Other Forms of Friction Welding 600
Explosion Welding (EXW) 607Diffusion Welding (DFW) 612Ultrasonic Welding (USW) 613Cold Welding (CW) 616Electrostatic Bonding 617Electrodeposition Welding 619
BRAZING AND SOLDERING PROCESSES 620Brazing Processes (B) 620Soldering (S) 624
SURFACING BY WELDING AND THERMAL SPRAY 628Buildup 628Buttering 628Hardfacing 629Overlaying and Cladding 632
THERMAL CUTTING PROCESSES 633Metallurgical Effects of Thermal Cutting 633Oxygen Cutting Processes (OC) 634
Oxyfuel Gas Cutting (OFC) 635Chemical Flux Cutting (FOC) 636Metal Powder Cutting (POC) 636
Electric Arc Cutting Processes (AC) 637Air Carbon Arc Cutting (CAC-A) 639Plasma Arc Cutting (PAC) 640
Electron Beam Cutting (EBC) 643Laser Beam Cutting (LBC) 647
SUGGESTED READING 651
Chapter Seven:Temperature Changes in Welding 653
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS 653Heat 653Temperature 654Thermal Flow 654Conduction, Convection, and Radiation 655Enthalpy and Entropy 656
TEMPERATURE AND TIME IN WELDING 656Heat Flow Equations 657Heat Source Characterization 658Rate of Heating 659Heating Potential of Energy Sources 661
OAW Heating Potential 662AW Heating Potential 662
xiv Welding Metallurgy
FRW Heating Potential 662EBW Heating Potential 663LBW Heating Potential 663Electrical Resistance Heating Potential 663
Peak Temperatures 664Defining the Weld Zone 665Numerical Modeling of Temperatures 666
Temperature Distributions 668Effects of Temperature Distribution on Cooling Rate 670Special Considerations Regarding Temperature Distribution 672
Time at Temperature 674Furnace Heating for Welding Simulation 675Temper Color as an Indicant 675Resistance Heating for Welding Simulation 676
Cooling Rate of Heated Zones 677Correlation with Heat Input 677Workpiece Pre-Weld Temperature 681Instantaneous Cooling Rate 683
Influence of Travel Speed on Weld Zone Size 686Hardness/Microstructure/CoolingRate Relationship 693
Cooling End Points 696
CONTROL OF TEMPERATURE IN FUSION WELDING 698Predictive Diagrams for Fusion Welding Parameters 699Mathematical Modeling of Fusion Welding 699Sensory Systems for Adaptive Control of Fusion Welding 701Adaptive Control of Solid-State Welding Processes 703
SUGGESTED READING 705
Chapter Eight:Fluxes, Slags, and Gases for Shielding 708
OXIDATION OF IRON 708
OXIDATION OF STEEL 710Carbon/Oxygen Reaction in Molten Steel 710Oxidation of Solid Steel 713
PREVENTING OXIDATION DURING WELDING 714Shielding Slags 714Fluxes 716Controlled Atmospheres 717Vacuum 718Technique 720Deoxidizers 721Protective Surface Alloys 721Liquid Blankets 722
SHIELDING THE JOINING PROCESSES FROM AIR 722Carbon Arc Welding 722
Contents xv
Metal Arc Welding 723Covered Electrodes 724Generic Electrode Coverings and Typical Formulas 731Flux Cored Electrodes 738
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) 744Types of SAW Fluxes and Their Classification 744Methods of Manufacturing SAW Fluxes 748Physical Chemistry of Fluxes in SAW Process 750Transfer of Elements Between SAW Flux/Slag and Weld Metal 758
Electroslag Welding 765Gas Shielded Arc Welding 766
Argon 768Helium 768Carbon Dioxide 769Propane 770Nitrogen 770Hydrogen 770Miscellaneous Gas Additives 771
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding 771Gas Metal Arc Welding 772
Globular Transfer in GMAW 775Repelled Transfer in GMAW 775Projected Transfer in GMAW 776Streaming or Axial-Spray Transfer in GMAW 776Pulsed Spray Transfer in GMAW-P 777Rotating Droplet (Kinking) Transfer in GMAW 778Explosive Drop Transfer in GMAW 778Short Circuiting Transfer in GMAW-S 778
Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) 779Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) 780Electrogas Welding (EGW) 780Other Welding Processes Using Gas Shielding 781
Laser Beam Welding (LBW) 781Non-Vacuum Electron Beam Welding (EBW-NV) 781
Protecting Brazing Processes From Air 782Soldering — Ways to Achieve Bonding 784
Fluxes for Soldering 784Mechanical Means to Accomplish Solder Bonding 784
SUGGESTED READING 785
Chapter Nine:Simple Welds in Iron and Steel 787
FUSION WELDS 787Solidification of Weld Metal 788
Modes of Primary Solidification Structure 793The Weld Zone 797
xvi Welding Metallurgy
The Unmixed Zone 799The Partially Melted Zone 800The Heat-Affected Zone 801Unaffected Base Metal 802
SOLID-STATE WELDS 802MICROSTRUCTURAL TRANSFORMATIONS IN SOLIDIRON AND STEEL 802
Phase Changes in Steel 803Ferrite 804Austenite 804Cementite 806Pearlite 807Widmanstatten Pattern 809
Microstructural Changes in Steel During Heating 810Microstructures Formed in Steel During Cooling 816
Martensitic Microstructures 818Isothermal Transformation of Austenite 824
Pearlite Formation Isothermally 826Bainite Formation Isothermally 828Martensite Formation 828
Reappraisal of Microstructures Formed in Steel 831Upper Bainite 832Lower Bainite 833
Importance of Critical Cooling Rate 834Importance of Delay-Time Before AusteniteTransformation 836Martensite: Implications in Welding 836
Temperature Range for Martensite Formation 837Quantitative Prediction of Martensite Formation 839Martensite Hardness Rationale 841Martensite Formation Monitoring by AE Signals 842
IT Diagrams: Summation of Usefulness 843Transformation of Austenite During Continuous Cooling 848
PREDICTION OF MICROSTRUCTURES IN THE HEAT-AFFECTEDZONES OF WELDS 851
Jominy Method of Predicting HAZ Microstructure 852Mathematical Approach to Prejudging HAZ Suitability 856
TRANSFORMATIONS IN WELD METAL 857Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams for Weld Metal 867
Importance of Weld Metal Composition 870Role of Grain Size in Weld Metal 872Influence of Nonmetallic Inclusions in Weld Metal 872
STUDY OF A TYPICAL FUSION WELD IN STEEL 876Making Welds with Good Toughness 883The Challenge of Optimizing Welding Procedures 888
Base Metal 889Weld Metal 890Welding Process and Procedure 890
Contents xvii
Weldment Property Testing 890Nondestructive Examination 890
SUGGESTED READING 891
Appendixes 893
I. ACRONYMS FOR ORGANIZATIONS 893
II. STANDARD TERMINOLOGY REFERENCES 895
III. SYMBOLS USED IN TEXT AND TABLES 896
IV. ALPHABETS USED IN SCIENTIFIC NOTATION 896
V. ABBREVIATIONS & ALPHABETICAL DESIGNATIONS 897
VI. SI BASE UNITS 901
VII. STRESS CONVERSION: MPa «=> ksi 902
VIII. TEMPERATURE CONVERSION: CELSIUS <=> FAHRENHEIT 905
IX. THE ELEMENTS: SYMBOLS & PROPERTIES 907
X. THE ELEMENTS: ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS 913
XI. ELECTRONIC DATABASES & COMPUTER PROGRAMS 919
Index 923
NOTE: To assist the reader In finding specific Information on a particular subject, thecontents of each chapter has been demarcated In a separate listing located on the firstverso page preceding that chapter. In addition, the contents of each chapter, Includ-ing the Technical Briefs and the tables In the Appendixes, have been extensivelycross-catalogued In the Index located on pages 923 to 940.
xviii Welding Metallurgy
Technical BriefsBrief Page
No. Title No.
1. Transition Joints Between Different Steels 42. What is an Angstrom? 183. Thermonuclear Fusion 324. Hydrogen - The Building Block of the Elements 355. Miller Indices 576. Burgers Vectors 907. Laser Scanning Microscopy 968. Specimen Preparation for TEM 1099. Dislocation Movement in Body-Centered-Cubic Metals 162
10. Crack Arrest 16411. Flow Strength Versus Cohesive Strength 17412. Griffith's Theory of Fracture Mechanics 18913. Fracture Mechanics Testing of Ductile Metals 20214. Developing an Analytic Procedure for Elastic-Plastic 206
Fracture Mechanics15. Improving the Value of the Charpy Impact Test 22716. The Larson-Miller Parameter 24717. Quantifying the Severity of Exposure to Neutron Irradiation 25218. Thermoelectric Effects as Related to Metallurgy 27119. Lead as an Immiscible Alloy in Iron and Steel 29720. Application of the Lever Law to Solidification of Metals 30221. The Gibbs Phase Rule 31022. Hume-Rothery's Classification of Elements 31323. Correlation Between Electron Configuration and Crystal Structure 31724. Coherency of Atoms in Precipitation Hardening 32425. Rationale for Letter Designations in the Iron-Iron Carbide 332
Phase Diagram26. Effects of Manganese Sulfide Inclusions in Steel 34327. Nitrogen Retention in Steel 35128. Manufacture of Fine-Grain Steel Using an Aluminum Additive 37729. Continuous Casting of Thin Steel Strip 40430. The AISI System for Generic Designation of Sheet Steels 42331. lonization 45232. Initiating a Welding Arc 45533. Effects of Weld Pool Circulation on Penetration Depth in GTAW 48634. Hot Cracking Susceptibility in Submerged Arc Welds 50735. Problems in Spot Welding Zinc-Coated Steel 529
Technical Briefs xix
Brief Page
No. Title No.
36. Preventing Arcing in Electron Beam Welding 55737. Friction Welding in Undersea Applications 59938. Effects of Alloying Elements in Steel on Oxygen Cutting 63739. Controlling HAZ Cooling Rate via Arc Energy Output 67840. Development of the SMAW Electrode 72741. Safeguards for Handling Low-Hydrogen SMAW Electrodes 73642. The Wall Neutrality Number 74743. Assessing Basicity of SAW Fluxes 75344. Solidification Structures in Steel Fusion Welds 79245. The Solidification Mechanics of Weld Surface Patterns 79746. Austenite: The Mother of Microstructures 80647. Pearlitic Microstructures 81748. Martensitic Microstructures 84049. Bainitic Microstructures 84550. Acicular Ferrite in Weld Microstructures 885
XX Welding Metallurgy
TablesTable PageNo. Title No.
2.1 Elementary Particles 202.2 lonization Potential of Gases and Vapors 372.3 Diameters of Atoms 392.4 The Elements 422.5 Features of the Seven Crystal Systems 562.6 Densities of Some Pure Metals and Their Change 662.7 Crystal Structures of Some Pure Metals 752.8 Crystal Structures of Some Pure Metals Capable of 76
Allotropic Transformation2.9 Relationships Between ASTM Grain Size Numbers 992.10 Comparison of Methods for Localized Analysis of Surfaces 1223.1 The Properties of Metals 1343.2 Typical Elastic Constants for Various Materials at Room Temperature 1403.3 Influence of Crystallographic Orientation on Elastic Modulus 141
at Room Temperature3.4 Strain Rates Common to Various Exposures, Services, 173
and Mechanical Tests3.5 Temperature Conversion Scales and Fixed Points of Interest 2183.6 Notched - Bar Impact Values for Metals Tested at Low Temperatures 2213.7 Effect of Cold Work on Mechanical Properties of 249
Low-Carbon Steel Sheet3.8 Thermal Neutron Cross Section for Iron and Other Elements 251
Found in Steel3.9 Density and Strength-Weight Ratio of Metals, Alloys and Nonmetals 2593.10 Specific Heat of Some Metals and Nonmetals 2603.11 Thermal Conductivity of Metals, Alloys, and Nonmetals 2623.12 Melting Points or Ranges of Metals, Alloys, and Nonmetals 2633.13 Melting Point, Latent Heat of Fusion, Boiling Point and Heat of
Vaporization of Metals 2653.14 Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion for Some Metals, 267
Alloys, and Nonmetals3.15 Electron Thermionic Work Functions of Metals and Nonmetals 2683.16 Electrical Properties of Metals, Alloys and Nonmetals 2703.17 Forms of Corrosion and Instigative Conditions 2753.18 Galvanic Series, and Electromotive Force Values for Metals 2783.19 Commonly Used Materials and Environments in Which Failure by Stress-
Corrosion Cracking Has Been Experienced in Industry or in Tests 2874.1 Elements Used for Alloying Irons and Steels, and Their Influence on
Crystalline Structure of the Alloy 319
Tables xxi
Table PageNo. Title No.
4.2 Changes in Pure Iron During Cooling and Temperatures of Occurrence...3214.3 Interstitial-Free I-F Steel 3585.1 Comparison of Rimmed, Capped, Semikilled and Killed Steels 3795.2 Gas Content of Alloy Steel Ingots 3805.3 Typical Gas Contents of Alloy Steel Ingots Melted by Four Electric
Furnace Processes 3945.4 Common Terms for Hot-Rolled Mill Products 4055.5 Classification and Usage of Carbon Steels 4115.6 SAE-ASTM Unified Numbering System 4175.7 AISI-SAE System for Designation of Carbon and Alloy Steels 4195.8 AISI-SAE System for Characterization of Carbon and Alloy Steels 4205.9 AISI and SAE Systems for Classification of High-Strength Carbon
and Low Alloy Steel Sheet 4215.10 ASTM Annual Book of Standards -1993 Edition 4225.11 API Specifications Governing Materials 4255.12 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code 4275.13 ASME B31; Code for Pressure Piping 4285.14 AWS Codes, Specifications and Standards 4296.1 Characteristics of Argon and Helium Gases When Shielding
theGTAW Process 4836.2 Typical Chemical Compositions of Weld Metal Deposited by
Flux Cored Arc Welding Electrodes 5046.3 Thickness and Weight of Zinc Coatings on Steel 5287.1 Temper Colors Formed on Iron and Carbon Steel 6768.1 Degree of Vacuum Used to Protect Metal During Various Processes 7198.2 Materials Used in Coverings on Steel Electrodes for SMAW
Arc Welding Process 7268.3 Recovery of Elements From Coverings of Electrodes Deposited
by SMAW Process 7298.4 Typical Covering Formulas for Steel SMAW Electrodes 7328.5 Typical Flux Core Formulas for Steel FCAW Electrodes 7408.6 IIW Classification of Fluxes for Submerged Arc Welding of Steel 7548.7 Typical Flux Compositions for Submerged Arc Welding of Steel 7558.8 Typical Flux for Electroslag Welding of Steel 7668.9 Gases Used in Shielding Welding Arcs 7678.10 Controlled Atmospheres Used in Furnace Brazing Carbon and
Low-Alloy Steels '. 7829.1 Influence of Alloying Elements in Steel on Martensite Formation 8379.2 Microstructures Found in Steel Weld Metal 8589.3 Microstructures Found in Cast and Wrought Steels; Including their
Weld Heat-Affected Zones 877
