Volume 2, No.1 APA Division 52 Newsletter March 1998

• CROSS-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES • PRESIDENT'S NOTE •

National News

Officer Nominations for Division 52

Ernst Beier, PhD, ABPPPresident

Ido hope that we shall have an ac­tive chat room via our Web pagewhich will help to bring psycholo­gists from the world into a per-

sonal information exchange.Here is the address for the Web page:

http://multimedia.tamu­commerce.edulp0004Masten/home2.htmI Ifyou need more information on how touse a chat room send an email to Bill Mas­ten William_Masten@tamu-commerce.eduwho is the managing editor of the Webpage. We are also trying to start an Internetjournal, but we have to go through a num­ber of steps with the APA before we canmanage that one. At any rate, do send youremail address to our board secretary Sheila(who speaks both English and Spanish) atdrsjoshi@ccnet.com as this would providefor fast contact. If anyone of our membershas some thought about how to make ourdivision more vital and want to suggest dif­ferent projects, please do communicate withme.

News from APA

Psycho-Political Perspectives111111111111111111111111111111111111l1li1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111

1nternational Psychology Reporteris the publication ofDivision 52 ofthe

American Psychological Association

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day, there are more then 30 institutions ­the majority of them public and mainlycalled "Faculties of Psychology" - and theapproximate total number of psychologystudents in the whole country is 50,000.There are more then 8,000 students who

(Continued on page 18)

Psychology in Spain

Angel Rodriguez, PhDMurcia University, Spain

The historical development takenby psychology in Spain has beensimilar to that of the rest of Eu­rope. Psychology remained a

philosophical discipline from the MiddleAges until the last three decades of the 19thcentury, when it began to establish itself as amodern science based on an empirical ap­proach. Apart from a few native theorists,this scientific shift was mainly instigated byformer students of some of the Central­European founders from the end of the lastand the beginning of the present century.

By the 1930's, scientific psychol­ogy had taken a strong hold. Several insti­tutes for applied psychology were founded; .an outstanding amount of markedly originalpublications were printed, and Spanish psy­chology acquired international prestige.However, as a result of the Spanish CivilWar (1936-1939) and the subsequent dicta­torship (1939-1975), a medieval-scholasticapproach to academic psychology was im­posed, and psychology was course taughtonly within humanities faculties. Profession­ally, apart from a few rare exceptions, itspresence in Spanish society was drasticallyreduced for almost 25 years.

The efforts of a handful ofenthusi­asts resulted in the continuity ofa very tenu­ous link in the areas of research, teaching,and professional practice. Their efforts, how­ever, can hardly be regarded as sufficient toconsider present Spanish psychology as theheir and follower of Spanish psychology be­fore the war.

Two institutes of psychology werefounded in Madrid and in Barcelona in themid 1950's. There were psychology degreesuntil the mid 1960's. But, by the beginningof the 1980's, about twenty universitiesawarded fIrst and doctoral degrees. For along period of time, the approximate averagenumber of students registering for a psychol­ogy degree was 500 per annum, per univer­sity. Later, the number decreased to approxi­mately 400 students, swiftly followed by asubsequent process of slow expansion. To-

International Psychology Reporter, March 1998 +)

My name is Amy Shaitelman and I amundergraduate student with a major inpsychology. After graduation this May, I intendto go with an international association to EasternEurope for community outreach. I am looking tofind a graduate program, APA certified,anywhere in Europe that offers a Masters or PhDprogram in psychology (clinical, counseling, orneuropsychology). If anyone knows of such aschool anywhere in Europe, I can be reached at:Amylou316@aol.com

Ivan Kos, PhDEditor

Weare already in the third issue of thenewsletter. Until now, we publishednecessary divisional announcementsbylaws, and other pertinent divisional

undertakings. The newsletter is improving in itscontent as well as in its shape and fonn. In thisissue, we are continuing to publish differentnational and international aspects and interestsrelated to the field of psychology. In the last issue(due to the space restraint) we published only onestudent column. In this issue, we have providedadditional space for the expression of students'interest.

I would also like to take this opportunityto thank the few distinguished individuals whowere involved from the inception of theInternational Psychology Reporter and who madethis undertaking possible. When we started as anew division without organized funds and/orbudget, it was possible (financially) for the firstissue to come out thanks to Dr. Raymond D.Fowler, Chief Executive Officer of APA. APAOffice of the Divisional Services was available toall newsletter staff at all times. We are thankful toSarah Jordan, Director of Division ServicesOffice, for her patience, support, and ''technical''guidance on many aspects during this process.James Mc Hugh's, APA General Council,contribution regarding the workability of legalaspects for the Division 52 bylaws was invaluableand much appreciated. Thanks to Steve WilsonPrint Manager of the APA Printing Services, andhis staff, all of our printing and other technicalproblems became more manageable after just aphone conversation.

On the divisional level, I would like tothank our president, Dr. Ernst Beier, for hiscountless hours of support and encouragementduring the creation of the newsletter andafterward. Together with him, thanks to all boardmembers and committee chairs of the Division 52for believing in this publication and contributingtheir knowledge, thus bringing divisionalcommunication and all of us closer together.

Albert R. GilsenZorica JosicZvonimir KnezovicLoretta LorenziniSharone L. MaitalMarie L. MoralesElizabeth NairSlater E. NewmanJames M. O'NeilMassimo ProntiPatsy K. RandallStefano Serafini

Student AffiliatesFlora CasallasBetsy GanatraKristin LangAnthi Loutsiou-LaddNadine ReckerStar SohKim R. Tousignant

WELCOME TO DIVISION 52!

MembersLeonore L. AdlerThomas BlassDavid L. BlusteinKenneth 1. GergenGiselle A. HassGerard A. JacobsAviKayDan G. KehoeFrederick LeongGiovanni LositoToshiaki SasaoMark L. SavickasEric C. TheinerRoman Tratch

List of New Members and AffiliatesAs of 1/16/98

AffiliatesHenkDekkerGioia GabellieriDaniel B. GennanGeroge E. Gonnan

EDITORIAL

Announcement

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•

.:. International Psychology Reporter, March 1998

NEWS FROM THE DIVISION 52•CONGRATULATIONS

DIVISION 52

Frances M. Culbertson, PhD, ABPPLiason/Observer to APA Council

The "Wild Card" vote was successfuland Division 52 now has one seat onthe APA Council of Representatives.All of you who voted for the "Wild

Card" need to be congratulated and thanked.On to a wonderful 1998 for Division 52 and itsmembers.•

THE 1998 CONVENTIONPROGRAM

Harold Takooshian, PhDProgram Committee Chair

Those responsible for forming the APAInternational Division can well beproud, judging by the world-wideresponse to the call-for-papers for our

inaugural APA program this August. Startingwith our first submission from Australia inSeptember, our program committee's first 10submissions came from researchers in 8 nations-- Australia, Japan (2), Korea, Saudi Arabia,Germany, USA, South Africa, and Russia. Onesubmitter wrote down what several submittersexpressed: "I am very pleased to see theinternational division. I have often broughtinternational papers to APA with no home forthem. Good work!" (Louise H. Jackson).

Submissions now total 57, comingfrom every continent, and the most varied ofnations -- from Malta to Tanzania, Belize toIsrael, and some 24 multi-national proposals.These proposals far exceed our division'slimited hours this first year, so some carefulsqueezing is needed this January to decline few,and rechannel many into our internationalposter session -- "World-wide psychology:Research, teaching, practice."

Our program committee has followedthe mandate from the August 1997 boardmeeting, to use 1998 to set the tone for future"52" programs. In September, using a list fromJoan Buchanan of APA, Joy Rice and I e­mailed our call-for-papers to the heads of some20 international behavioral science groups,which many of them kindly forwarded to theirmembers. Predictably, overseas mail was achallenge, with proposals postmarked by theNovember 21 deadline continuing to trickle in

•as late as December 16. To avoid battling holidayand global mails, our program committee formedtwo local review teams in New York andMadison, which quickly reviewed and rated all 57submissions and, in many cases, actually providedwritten feedback to individual submitters (manyof whom seemed new to APA meetings). Theprogram will be finalized and submitted to APAby early February, and appear in the nextReporter. We are also arranging specialreceptions for international visitors in the suites ofa few other APA divisions, including (so far)Teaching and Psi Chi. Friday, August 14, is a dayof overlap between the IAAP and APA meetings,so we are working to avoid schedule conflicts onthat day.

The program committee thanks Mark E.Mattson and Arianna Lendino for technicalsupport, and the review teams in New York andMadison for their able and timely work: FrancesCulbertson, Florence L. Denmark, Leonore L.Adler, K. Robert Bridges, Robert C. Clark, UweP. Gielen, Kay C. Greene, John D. Hogan, Anie S.Kalayjian, Ivan Kos, and Margot B. Nadien.

Reporter readers can do two things tobenefit the 1998 and future programs: (I) Whenyou register for the APA meetings this Spring, list52 as your primary division, to help increase 52'sallocation above 24 hours for future programs.(2) Do you know of any special garden cafe,excursion, or other treat in lovely San Francisco?If so, please tell us, so we might suggest a specialgroup outing for our program participants one ortwo evenings this August.

The 1998 Program Committee, HaroldTakooshian, Chair (212-636-6393), Joy K. Rice,Co-chair (jkrice@facstaff.wisc.edu). •

NEW DIVISION 52 WEB SITE

William G. Masten, PhDWeb Site Chair

The division has a web site! As of January1998 our official web site is:

http://www.TAMU­Commerce.edu/orgs/div52

Check it out. It has names, addresses and someemail addresses of officers and committee chairs.Included is a membership application that can beprinted, notices on upcoming Division meetings,an explanation of the purpose of the Division,and a message from the President. •

+ 4 International Psychology Reporter, March 1998 +

• OFFICER NOMINATIONS FOR DIVISION 52,DIVISION OF INTERNATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Florence L. Denmark,PhDPresident-Elect

•

As president-elect ofDivision 52, Ihave served as the Chair of ourNominations Committee. The fol­lowing individuals were nomi­

nated for the various positions that Division52 members will elect when you receive yourballots from APA in the spring. The nomi­nees are all highly qualified to hold office soin a real sense the division "can't lose." Abrief biography of each candidate is pre­sented alphabetically by position to assist inthe selection process.

President-elect (1999):

Frank Farley

Dr. Frank Farley is currently the Laura Car­nell Distinguished Professor at Temple Uni­versity in Philadelphia. He received his BAand MA degrees from the University ofSaskatchewan and his PhD from the Instituteof Psychiatry, University of London. HisAPA service has included the following:President of APA; President of Divisions Iand 15; Member, APA Board of Directors,Council of Representatives, Board of Con­vention Affairs. Frank's international contri­butions and activities include: Member,Board ofDirectors ofthe International Coun­cil of Psychologists, Interamerican Societyof Psychology, and International Society forthe Study of Individual Differences; Mem­ber, National Academy of Sciences Commit­tee for the International Union of Psycholog­ical Sciences; Charter member, APA Divi­sion 52. Chartered psychologist and Fellowof the British Psychological Society and Fel­low of the Canadian Psychological Associa­tion. In addition, Dr. Farley has extensivetravel and research experience in LatinAmerica, Canada, Europe, Eastern Europe,Russia, Baltic States, China, Japan, and Aus­tralia.

Ivan Kos

Dr. Ivan Kos is president of InternationalPsychotherapy Associates in New York City.He has a PhD in clinical psychology and iscurrently in private practice. As a leacturer,consultant, speaker, and visiting professorDr. Kos has been involved internationalysince 1975. He has published articles andpresented scientific papers on international

conferences in US, Germany, France, formerYugoslavia, Brazil, Canada, Spain, Italy,Poland, Korea, and Belgium. His interna­tional lecturing and teaching experiences in­clude University of Amsterdam, Universityof Laiden, and University of Granada. Dr.Kos is a member ofthe American Psycholog­ical Association, International Society of Po­litical Psychology, and International PoliticalScience Association's Research Committeeon Political Socialization and Education. Heis also a member of the Executive Board ofthe Research Committee on Psycho-Politicsof the International Political Science Associ­ation. Dr. Kos is on the Board of EditorialConsultants for the Journals of PsicologiaSociale and Politics, Group and the Individ­ual. Recently, he was elected as a BoardMember of APA's Division 52 and he is theeditor of the International Psychology Re­porter, APA Division 52 Newsletter.

Secretary (1999-2001):

Sheila Joshi

Dr. Sheila Joshi is a psychologist in privatepractice in the San Francisco Bay Area. Shehas a special interest in working with bothforeign-born and American-born clients whoare negotiating the challenges of interna­tional migration, and integrating significantinfluences from two or more cultures into arich and stable sense of identity. Dr. Joshihas lived and studied in Latin America andprovides psychotherapy in Spanish as well asEnglish. She has a mixed American andAsian Indian heritage herself and a lifelongexposure to many different cultures. Dr.Joshi has been Secretary pro-tem to theBoard of the American Psychological Asso­ciation's Division of International Psychol­ogy (52) since the inception of that divisionin 1997.

Richard Velayo

Dr. Richard Velayo, a native of the Philip­pines, obtained his Ph.D. in Psychology andEducation from the University of Michiganin Ann Arbor. He is known for his researchon multimedia technology as pedagogicaltools in classroom teaching. Dr. Velayo hastaught at Montana State University beforecoming to Pace University as an Assistant

Professor of Psychology. He is also an activereviewer of a number ofjournals including as­sociate editor of the Journal of Research onComputing in Education and editorial boardmember of the International Journal of In­structional Media. He was recently awardedthe Virginia Staudt Sexton Award for EarlyCareer Contributions to Academic Psychologyby the New York State Psychological Associ­ation.

Treasurer (1999-2000):

Leonore Loeb Adler

Dr. Leonore Loeb Adler is currently ProfessorEmerita in the Department of Psychology andDirector ofthe Institute for Cross-Cultural andCross-Ethnic studies at Molloy College inRockville Center, New York. She has pub­lished many books and articles and presentedscientific papers on women and gender rolesin cross-cultural and international perspec­tives. Dr. Adler was the Associate Editor ofthe International Journal ofGroup Tensions.She is a Fellow ofthe American PsychologicalAssociation and the New York Academy ofSciences as well as a former member ofCIRP(the Committee on International Rela­tions in Psychology). She has received manyhonors from the New York State Psychologi­cal Association (NYSPA) including the AllenV. Williams Memorial Award, the NYSPAService Award, the Wilhelm Wundt Awardfrom the Academic Division and the KurtLewin Award from the Social Psychology Di­vision. She has also received the Distin­guished Contribution of the Decade Awardfrom the International Organization for theStudy of Group Tensions. Dr. Adler was aFounding Member of Division 52 and hasserved as Treasurer of the International Coun­cil of Psychologists from 1983-1985 and hasbeen treasurer of APA's Division 52 from1997 to the present.

Lenore Walker

Dr. Lenore Walker has been involved in APAgovernance and international psychology formany years culminating in her election toCommittee on International Relations in Psy­chology (CIRP) and as its chair in 1995. Shehas presented workshops dealing with domes­tic violence around the world at the invitation

+ International Psychology Reporter, Muda 1998 5+

of governments, NATO, universities,United Nations ILANUD program, theWHO's Paho program in Latin America aswell as international psychology associa­tions. During her tenure on CIRP, she andseveral other members began the first sec­tion on international psychology in theAmericall Psychologist. Dr. Walker holdsan AB degree from Hunter College, MS de­gree from City College of CUNY and EdDfrom Rutgers. She is executive director ofthe Domestic Violence Institute headquar­tered in Denver, Colorado with affiliate cen­ters around the world and also maintains anindependent practice ofclinical and forensicpsychology. She has been treasurer ofAPADivision 46, Psychology and the Media andthe National Academies of Practice in Psy­chology. A former representative to theCouncil of Representatives, she was a char­ter member and supporter ofDivision 52.

Member-at-large (1999-2001):

Paul Lloyd

Dr. Paul Lloyd is president of Lloyd & As­sociates, a psychological consulting group,and professor in the Department ofPsychoI­ogy at Southeast Missouri State University.He has extensive administrative/managerialexperience as director of the Center forHealth Professions, chairperson of the De­partment of Psychology, and director of theMissouri London Program at the Universityof London's Imperial College. Dr. Lloyd istreasurer of the International Council ofPsychologists and serves as a member of itsexecutive committee and Board of Direc­tors. He is APA Council Representative andpast-president of the APA Division of Con­suiting Psychology (Division 13). He ischair of an international consortium of psy­chological associations designed to facilitateprofessional contacts for psychologists trav­eling internationally (SHARE - SharingHomes and Around the World Experiences).He has participated in international psychol­ogy conventions in Tokyo, Amsterdanl, SanFrancisco, Banff, Kyoto and Brussels. In ad­dition, he has served three terms as nationalpresident ofPsi Chi, twice chaired the APACommittee on Undergraduate Education,served as a member of the APA Board ofEducational Affairs for three years and waseditor of the Consulting Psychology Bul­letill for eight years.

Robert Morgan

Dr. Robert Morgan is a licensed psycholo­gist and consultant. He has chaired depart-

ments of psychology at USC, MSU, andWLU in addition to serving as the campusdean at CSPP-SF for many years. Dr. Mor­gan has published over 70 articles, chaptersand books on psychological areas rangingfrom applied gerontology and cognition topsychopathology and statistics. He is a Fel­low ofthe American Psychological Associa­tion, Divisions 12 and 29. His professionalconsultation over the last three decades hasincluded government agencies from thePeace Corps to the US Office of Education,community organizational change groupssuch as Dr. ML. King's SCLC, evaluationand appraisal services, and communicationmedia including Science Digest and theLondon Sunday Times. Dr. Morgan contin­ues to sit on the International Council ofPsychologists, the Michigan Academy ofScience, the American Association for theAdvancement of Science, national and re­gional psychological and academic associa­tions. He is founding president of the Divi­sion of Gerontological Psychology, interna­tional Association of Applied Psychologyand currently sits on the Scientific ProgramCommittee of the American PsychologicalAssociation for the 1998 World Congress ofPsychology in San Francisco.

Harold Takooshian

Dr. Harold Takooshian received his PhD insocial psychology from the Graduate Schoolof City University of New York and hasserved on the psychology faculty of Ford­ham University since 1975. He was a Ful­bright Scholar to the Soviet Union and inLatin America. Dr. Takooshian has pub­lished over 40 publications, including cross­national research on applied topics, withcolleagues in Armenia, Chile, Italy, Japan,Kuwait, Russia. and Taiwan. His profes­sional activities include serving as vice pres­ident and president ofPsi Chi, sitting on theBoard ofDirectors at the EaStern Psycholog­ical Association, and service on three com­mittees of the International Cotmcil of Psy­chologists. He is also an APA Fellow andformer program chair ofthe APA division ofGeneral psychology. Dr. Takooshian served

as the 1998 progrant chair of InternationalPsychology, a program which includes thecontributions of many foreign colleagues inpsychology.

Council Representative (1999-2001):

Frances Culbertson

Dr. Frances Culbertson, currently liaison­observer to Council of Representatives forDivision 52, has been active in internationalaffairs since her graduate years. Dr. Culbert­son was one of the founding parents of theDivision 52, International Psychology. Shewas honored by APA for her outstanding in­ternational activities and work, receiving theCIRP 1994 Award for outstanding interna­tional psychologist. She has been Secretaryand President of the International Council ofPsychologists; Chair of the InternationalSchool Psychology Committee, APA, Divi­sion 16; elected Honorary President of thellrazilian Clinical Psychology Association;served as liaison to CIRP for many APA divi­sions; founder ofproject SHARE, the sharingof home and work experiences for psycholo­gists around the world, and involved in re­search and publishing in the internationalarena. She is currently President of the Divi­sion of Applied Gerontology, IAAP, and onthe 11th Executive Board oflAAP.

E. Thomas Dowd

Dr. E. Thomas Dowd is a professor of psy­chology at Kent State University. He is a fel­low of APA and hold two Diplomates fromthe American Board ofProfessional Psychol­ogy. He is president-elect of the InternationalAssociation of Cognitive Psychotherapy andis on the editorial/advisory boards of threeEuropean journals. He has served on the Or­ganizing/Advisory Committees for threeWorld Congresses of Cognitive Therapy. Hehas lectured and presented in Canada, theU.K., Sweden, Estonia, Italy, Argentina, Ger­many, Portugal, Denmark, Israel, andTurkey. •

International Psychology Reporter, March 1998 .)

NEWS FROM APA • • NATIONAL NEWS •Voila - Membership in APA

Frances M. Culbertson, PhD, ABPPChair, APA Membership Committee

International Activities of the American Psychological Association

Raymond D. Fowler, PhD, ABPPExecutive Vice President and Chief Executive Officer of APA

I f you are not a member of APA,I would like to suggest that youbecome one so that you may havethe opportunity to engage in the

work, plans, and dreams of Division 52.As a member ofAPA, you have the

opportunities to vote for (and yes, even runfor) offices of APA, to serve on APA Boardsand Committees, and to engage in APA Divi­sion 52 elections by running for president,secretaI)', treasurer, board member, or Coun­cil representative.

Ifyou have been a member ofAPAfor a year, you may then apply for Fellow sta­tus. Fellows are individuals who have ac­tively engaged "in the advancement of psy­chology in any of its aspects", and can pro­vide "evidence of unusual and outstandingcontributions or performance in the field ofpsychology." (See Manual for NominatingFellows ofAPA).

For further information, especiallyfor foreign affiliates who may be interestedin APA membership, or who already aremembers and are interested in the require­ments for application to Fellow status, writeto Deborah C. Hankins, Mt<mbership Com­mittee Assistant; c/o APA MembershipCommittee, American Psychological Associ­ation, 750 First St., NE, Washington, DC20002-4242. To learn more about APA andits opportunities for you, explore the Website of APA, the address for which isWeb:www.apa.org

We look forward to welcoming you as anew member and to helping you become ac­tive in Division 52 and APA. •

I t is very appropriate that, in the 50thyear of APA divisions, the Divisionof International Psychology wasestablished as APA's 50th division,

because, from the beginning, APA has beeninternationally oriented. Most of APA'sfounders were young men trained inGermany who moved comfortably ininternational circles, and who spokeEuropean languages fluently. When Freudvisited Clark University in 1909, his speechwas heard by most of the prominentpsychologists in the Northeast. He gave alecture in German each day for five days andno one, as far as we know, requested atranslator.

The first international Congress ofPsychology was held in Paris, 1889. TwoAmerican psychologists attended: WilliamJames and Joseph Jastrow. The Congressgave a sense of solidarity for those who wereidentified with the new scientificpsychology, and may have sewn seeds for thenew American Psychological Association,which was established three years later.

APA was the first nationalpsychological association established andhas always been the largest and mostinfluential. In the post World War II years,the dramatic growth in APA so eclipsedpsychology in the rest of the world thatpsychology began to seem like anexclusively American profession. Until fairlyrecently, the great majority of the world'spsychologists lived in the United States; inrecent years, however, psychology has begunto grow rapidly around the world, especiallyin Europe and Asia.

In the first decades following theestablishment of APA, many Europeanscame to the United States to establish theircareers, giving APA a strongly internationalflavor. This accelerated in the 1930s as aresult of refugees fleeing the Nazioppression.

In many ways, APA is aninternational as well as a nationalpsychological association. Manypsychologists around the world haveaffiliated with APA. There are currentlyover 3,500 international affiliatesrepresenting an astonishing 121 countries,and approximately 1,000 regular memberswho live and work in other countries. APA'smembership has always included Canadians,

with whom there is a special arrangement forreciprocal dues reduction. Currently, 1750Canadians are full APA members, and 5Canadian provinces are APA affiliates withrepresentation in our Council ofRepresentatives.

APA members were prominentlyrepresented at the international psychologymeetings that began in the late 1800s, butrelatively few international meetings havebeen held in the United States. The NinthInternational Congress, the first held inAmerica, took place at Yale University,September 1-7, 1929 in conjunction with theannual APA convention. At that time, therewere only 1,100 members of the APA, ofwhom 722, nearly three quarters of all APAmembers, came to the congress. In addition,104 eminent psychologists from 21 countriesattended. In 1998, the InternationalCongress of Applied Psychology will beheld in San Francisco in conjunction withthe APA convention the following week. Ifthree quarters ofAPA members attended thatconvention, the attendance would be over100,0001

APA's International Activities

The Committee on InternationalRelations in Psychology (CIRP) and theAPA Office of International Affairs are theprincipal catalysts of APA's internationalactivities. CIRP is one of APA's oldestcommittees. It was established in 1944 withthe initial mission of advising on therehabilitation of European labs and librariesdestroyed during World War II; gradually, itexpanded to advise the association on a widevariety of international activities. CIRP wasstaffed as a general central office functionuntil 1974 when a full time Office ofInternational Affairs was established with itsown staff. The Office of InternationalAffairs coordinates a number of internationalprograms, including those described below.

Book and Journal DonationsProgram This program is co-sponsored byAPA and the International Council ofPsychologists. Thousands of books havebeen donated by APA and APA members tobe sent to libraries and other educational orresearch facilities in countries not able toafford them. As more American

• International Psychology Reporter, Marcl11998

lohn OTley. MDProgramme on Mental Health

World Health Organization (WHO)Geneva, Switzerland

W HO's mission is to provide guidanceand advice upon request (includingnormative practices and data) to the

governments of its Member States, and tofurther develop these guidelines as far aspossible by international consensus. WHO alsoprovides technical assistance to countries andfosters technical cooperation between them;this is offered particularly to those countrieswith few resources in the hope that it win helpin the prevention and treatment ofdiseases, andthe promotion of the general health of thepeople who live there.

The WHO Programme on MentalHealth forms one of the programmes in theDivision of Mental Health and Prevention ofSubstance Abuse (the other programmes beingthe Programme on Substance Abuse and anAction Programme, Nations for MentalHealth). In addition, each of WHO's sixRegional offices has an adviser dedicated toMental Health.

The Programme on Mental Health isthus organized to provide guidance on theprevention and treatment of mental disorders,and to develop classifications and assessmenttools which relate to such disorders, or thepsychological components of disease andhealth as a whole. The Action Programme(Nations for Mental Health) provides technicalassistance to countries with limited resourcesin order to help them set up modeldemonstration projects in the field of mentalhealth.

The Programme on Mental Healthhas produced clinical descriptions, diagnosticguidelines and diagnostic criteria for researchfor the Mental and Behavioral Disorderschapter ofthe 10th revision ofthe InternationalClassification of Diseases (lCD.IO). Thisclassification, and the descriptions anddiagnostic guidelines, has been published inmore than 30 languages. The Programme hasalso produced a number of assessment toolsdedicated to this classification, namely theCIDl (for non-psychiatric careers or layinterviewers), the SCAN and the IPDE(personality disorder) (the latter two for use bypsychiatric professionals), with training centersin many parts ofthe world There is also an

(Continued on page 8)

psychologists are approaching retirementage, the books and journal donationsprogram has increased its operations. Manypsychologists have offered their libraries,and funds are actively sought for shippingand handling.

In addition, the donations servicehas expanded to include a program thatannually offers up to 30 three-yearsubscriptions of APA journals, as well asgrants for one-year psycLIT subscriptions incountries that do not have current psycLITleases. These programs, which arecoordinated by a CIRP subcommittee andadministered by the APA Office ofInternational Affairs, are available toinstitutions in the developing world andtransitioning economies.

Travel Grant Program ManyAPA members, especially those early in theiracademic careers, would like to attendinternational meetings, but cannot afford thetravel cost. For approximately 15 years,APA has applied for, and received fundsfrom, the National Science Foundation forU.S. participants to attend selectedinternational congresses.

International Human RightsIssues When psychologists are beingharassed, intimidated, or even incarceratedfor their positions and views, APA workswith our State Department to obtain relief.For example, we have been monitoring thecase of Washington State Psychologist, DonHastings, who has been held hostage byKashmiri Rebels for the past 18 months.

Psyeb910gy Intemational Inearly 1990, the Office of InternationalAffairs established the quarterly newsletter,Psychology International, which currentlyhas a subscription base of 10,000psychologists worldwide.

American Psychologist SpecialSection One ofthe pleasures of being CEOof APA is the privilege of editing TheAmerican Psychologist. Several years ago,in cooperation with the Committee onInternational Relations in Psychology, Ideveloped a new international specialsection in The American Psychologist. Thefirst section appeared in May of last year andseveral others are currently in development.

Visitors Program The VisitorsProgram is an exciting new activity forrepresentatives of recently establishednational psychological societies. Withsupport from the APA Board of Directors,the Committee on International Relations inPsychology, and the Office of InternationalAffairs, we are inviting representatives ofnew psychological societies to visit the APAcentral office and receive intensive exposure

to our activities. To date we have hostedrepresentatives from new associations inAlbania, Namibia, and South Africa. I'vealso visited psychological society offices inseveral countries and consulted with variousexecutive officers by E-mail and regularmail.

Networking We're perhaps theonly national psychological association thatmaintains active relationships with most ofthe other psychological associations in theworld. At the present time, our network .hasexpanded to include 75 nationalpsychological organizations, and over 70multi-national international organizationswith which we have regular contact by E­mail, fax, regular mail, and mutual visits.APA participated actively in thedevelopment of the European Federation ofProfessional Psychological Associationsand we have been working to establish theNorth American Federation of PsychologyOrganizations (NAFPO) to serve a similarfunction in this hemisphere. We anticipatethat the 1998 International Congress ofApplied Psychology will represent the firstopportunity. for the major internationalorganizations to interact with each other.We are working to convene as many ofthem as possible at a world forum ofpsychology scheduled to hold its firstmeeting in conjunction with the SanFrancisco congress.

Conclnsion The globalization ofpsychology continues apace. Many of ustrained in the decades following World Warn were told that psychology is an Americandiscipline and there was little to learn fromthe developing nations ofthe world or fromthe war-tom nations ofEurope and Asia. Ifthat admonition had some validity in thepast, it certainly has none today. Excitingdevelopments are taking place in scientificand applied psychology allover the world.The explosive growth of psychology theUnited States experienced 50 years ago istaking place in many countries now, andmore will follow. To limit one'sinformation to developments in the UnitedStates now makes no more sense forpsychologists than it does for economists orpolitical scientists, or anyone elseinterested in keeping up with what is goingon in the world.

I welcome the establishment ofour 50th division, the Division ofInternational Psychology, and applaud thishistoric development in the furtherglobalization of the AmericanPsychological Association. •

• INTERNATIONALNEWS

The WHO Mental HealthProgramme

• 8 International Psychology Reporter, MardI 1998 •

(WHO condnuedfrom poge 7) • STUDENTS' PAGE •abbreviated classification for use in Primaryand General Health Care Settings, which isprimarily for use with Educational Packagesfor Primary Care Physicians or othersworking at first contact with patients.

A 5-year WHO-NllI Joint Projecton assessment and classification ofdisablements is currently in progress.Assessment instruments to measuredisablement are being developed toexamine constructs such as burden ofdisease and resource utilization, and todevelop an epidemiology of disablement.The Division is also charged with therevision of the International Classificationof Impairments, Disabilities andHandicaps, which is a member ofthe WHOfamily of international healthclassifications. The revision process willoperationalize the constructs and move froma medical to a more biopsychosocialorientation, and address issues of paritybetween psychological and physicaldisorders. As the classification addressesfunctioning independent of a diagnosis(physical or psychological disorder), it willhave wide application. Field testing of thenew classification is taking place in some 15countries.

Other assessment tools that havebeen developed over recent years are oneson the assessment of quality of life in healthcare settings (the WHOQOL). This wasdeveloped simultaneously by centers in 14countries worldwide and now exists in over20 languages. A scale for assessingsatisfaction with psychiatric services hasalso been developed and tested in eightcountries. Other work involves qualityassurance procedures for mental health careWId guidwIce on developing national mentalhealth policies and programmes. TheProgramme always tries to take into accountconsunlers' views, and the issue of humanrights, including the legislation that protectsthese, is given high priority.

In recent years, with support fromthe Office of the United Nations HighCommissioner for Refugees, theProgramme has developed an activity on theMental Health of Refugees and othersaffected by wars and disasters, currentlyconcentrating on the Great Lakes Region ofAfrica (Rwanda and Burundi), the Caucasus(Chechenya) and the Former Yugoslavia.

Apart from dealing with mentaldisorders and mental health problems, theProgramme also concerns itselfwith mentalhealth promotion, encouraging activities incountries aimed at fostering the mental

(Continued on poge 9)

Student Ideas

Kristian Lang, MAChicago, USA

Dear Students,

My name is Kristin Lang. I am afourth year clinical psychology student atLoyola University in Chicago. I am a Division52 student co-chair along with ShannonMcCatbalin. Presently, we are in the processof setting up a Web Site for students to tradeideas about research and pmctice ininternational psychology across the internet.Come check out our site athttp://ww.usd.edu/-smccaslil.

In order to make strides in ourpsychological theorizing, we must realize thatapplying a particular theory outside of thecontext within which it was designed mightentirely change the findings. Studyingpsychology in international settings poses achallenge to psychologists to question howclosely their theories are linked to the contextin which they were created. It also affordsthem the opportunity to look at theories andpractices cross-culturally to detennine whataspects of theory and practice are universal,and which are context-specific. With thisawareness, psychologists can then betterexplicate when an application is intended fora specific or global setting.

For students of internationalpsychology, several avenues can be exploredto build the cross-cultural web ofpsychological understanding; this can beaccomplished by comparing culturallyspecific theory to discover aspects thattranscend culture, and those that do not. Inbeginning this process, psychology maybenefit from turning to other disciplines thathave already compiled a wealth ofinformation from which a base ofpsychological knowledge can be built.Marketing research, in aiming to understandconsumer behavior, applies infonnation abouthow people think, feel and behave in themarket world. Findings in marketingresearch, although based on competitivemarket assumptions, can be used bypsychologists to enhance understanding oftheories that are culturally specific and global.Sue Jung, a student seeking a Masters Degreein management at Northwestern University'sKellogg School of Management, presents (l)ways that marketing gains infonnation fromthe field of psychology, and (2) examples ofwhat marketers observe cross-culturally.These ideas are presented to motivate studentsto think creatively about applying psychologyconcepts internationally. •

A Psychological Foundation forUnderstanding Global Brands

SueJung,MANorthwestern University, USA

Levi's. Kleenex. Nilre. Estee Lauder. McDonald's.Harley-Davidson. Nestle. Oreo. Coca-Cola.Sony.

All of these international brandnames can trigger a host of consumerassociations. They denote more than just themarketplace products they represent; theyconnote experiences that dwell within layersof memory and drive preference structures.For marketers, the advantage to creating awell-known brand that inspires consumerpreference is plain to see. Not only willconsumers choose the preferred brand moreoften than competitors', but loyal customerswho hold a brand close to their hearts willalso choose the preferred brand in the face ofprice promotions, coupons, competitive newproduct entry, and most of all, uncertainty.This brand dominance has some obviousadvantages: Manufacturers of preferredbrands are insulated from cutting price tocapture consumers and can reap healthiermargins. But perhaps more important, asproduct proliferation continues to swell thearray of options and as time-famishedconsumers face more imposing timeconstraints, the brand that is near and dear tocustomers' hearts simplifies choice.

What is not so clear is how thisbrand preference develops over time andacross cultures. Certainly advertising is keyin establishing a bmnd's identity. The mostskillful advertising can resuscitate amoribund product languishing in brandlimbo. But much of what marketers tellconsumers about their products getsswallowed up as noise, or worse, ismisconstrued and backfires. In fact, it is notuncommon for advertisements to inspireloathing for a product. Such a result can betragic for the marketing manager who hasapproved millions of dollars in advertisingexpenditures for a particular campaign. AsJolm Wanamaker, the Philadelphiadepartment store magnate, once said: "Halfthe money I spend on advertising is wasted.The problem is I don't know which half."

Much of the current behavioralmarketing research focuses on informationprocessing to understand how advertisingaffects brand choice WId preferenceformation. The parent discipline, cognitivepsychology, provides the theoreticalunderpinnings of consumer behaviorresearch.

Marketing researchers draw

• International Psychology Reporter, March 1998

heavily on psychology when discussingcreative strategy in advertising. One of themost active debates focuses on how to creatememorable advertising, that is how tomotivate consumers to process the stimuli inshort-term memory to long-term memorythrough elaboration. Since elaboration iseffort intensive, tactical devices and thenonverbal content of a message can enhanceelaboration of the appeal, and consequently,its persuasive impact. Devices such as humor,threat, sexual innuendo, mood enhancement,color and other motivational tools tostimulate message elaboration are oftenstudied.

Evidence, based on informationprocessing, shows that some repetition ofadvertising enhances consumers' responses.This happens because repetition enhancescognitive elaboration and recency, the twofactors that stimulate informationaccessibility. Too much exposure, however,may result in wearout - when consumers'attitudes toward a product become lessfavorable as repetitions increase. Theoristsbelieve wearout occurs because once theinformation of an ad has been communicated,additional ad exposures serve as anopportunity to scrutinize the messageassertions and rehearse negative thoughts orrefutations. What appears to happen is thatconsumers process the message informationin response to the first few exposures.Thereafter, they activate their own repertoireof product-related associations. Becausemessages are designed to be persuasive, theprocessing ofmessage information is likely tolead to a more favorable attitude toward theproduct than the activation of an individual'sown repertoire of associations.

Many multinational firms,including Procter & Gamble, Unilever andNestle, have tried to expand the strength ofitsbrands to the global marketplace. How wellthese companies understand the localconsumer usually dictates success. This canbe problematic in some cases. For instance,Procter & Gamble's Pringle's potato chipsfared poorly in Japan until shrimp flavor wasintroduced, a taste more palatable to theJapanese snacker. For eastern Europeans,paprika and chicken flavor was popular whilethe British preferred salt and vinegar.

Certain attributes, however, cantranscend international boundaries if they are

linked to benefits that seem to be moreuniversal in nature. Coca-Cola, nothing morethan eminently imitable sweet, caramel­colored soda water, is popular the world overbecause of what it stands for: life, fun,freedom and American style. Volvorepresents safety for upscale familiesthroughout Europe and the United States.McDonald's utilizes the universality of fumilyvalues and reflects them in more than 70countries. Pantene Pro-V shampoo becamean enormous success when advertisingshowed an understanding of what womenwant from a shampoo. Women, in Asia, theUnited States and Europe, see healthy, shinyhair as a seductive and sensuous ideal.

Notions offeminine beauty, such assmooth skin and youthful appearance, inaddition to the attribute of lustrous hair, haveproven to be globally consistent. Other P&Gattempts to globalize beauty products thathave promised to promote these attributeshave generally shown success, such as P&GOil of Olay products. Understanding whatpart of the brand concept is universal andwhat part is culturally specific is the challengefor firms trying to establish a global brand.

Marketers have found that onegroup of consumers that behaves consistentlyacross cultures is teenagers. Preferences formusic, sports, clothing, food, films, videogames and role models are remarkablyuniversal. Teens everywhere seem to identifywith the same trends and bear similarattitudes. They want to express themselves,to fit in with their friends and to be different.from their parents. They hate to be patronizedor addressed with condescension. Thisinsight potentially serves to help marketersunify a campaign to target this growing andinfluential segment. For example, Nike,Procter & Gamble and Levi's, among others,are trying to leverage their understanding ofthe teen profile. Since athletic shoes, acneremedies and blue jeans have become staplesof teen culture everywhere, these companiesare able to employ a single strategy to addressyouths in many cultures.

Teenagers are known to be typicallyrebellious. In developed countries in theWest, this characteristic is a prominent threadofteen culture. This is not so, however, in lessdeveloped nations. With the increase ofavailable information, even youths informerly restrictive China have adoptedindependent attitudes. Researchers note thatthe rise ofMfV and commercial television inChina has spawned a consumerist cultureamong the young. An exploration of howinformation and Western images cognitivelyimpact a society embarking on capitalismcould prove to be an important field of studyfor psychology and marketing scholars. •

Training Issues in MulticulturalCounseling: Looking Toward the

Future

Brett W. Tumer, MA and Mary A Charbonneau, MSFlorida Institute ofTechnology, USA

A s more international students pursuetheir education and universities inthe United States, colleaguecounseling centers have experienced

an increase in the need for culturally sensitivepsychological services. Historically, trainingthat prepares the student therapists for clientswith culturally diverse backgrounds hasoccupied a relatively minor role in thecurriculum, and has varied widely from schoolto school. With today's' increasinglymulticultural society, there is a need for moretraining in techniques relevant to multiculturalcounseling and increased awareness ofculturalissues that influenced personality, family, andinterpersonal relationships. It is especially

(Continued on page 10)

(WHO contimudfrom page 8)

well-being and development of populationsrather than focusing on preventing mentaldisorders and problems. One such activity isaimed at improving the psychosocial andemotional development of children, focusingon the years 0-3. This is being supported inseveral southern African countries, as well asthe Programme providing advice to thedevelopment of projects in other countries.This aims to complement WHO's activities toimprove physical development in those years(breast feeding, immunization, nutrition etc.).For older children, the focus is on Life SkillsEducation curricula in schools and thepromotion of 9 steps to help ensure that theschool environment is a child-friendly one(Child-Friendly Schools). This latter has beentaken up in Estonia, with interest being shownin its application in several other countries.

The Programme has also broughtout a set of behavioral sciences learningmodules for use in training health workers(primarily clinical workers). They explainbehavioral approaches to clinical problems(preparing patients for surgery,communicating bad news, insomnia, etc.).They are being used in a broad range ofcountries worldwide and many have beentranslated into Spanish. New modules arebeing developed.

Further details of WHO's work canbe obtained by writing to the Programme onMental Health, World Health Organization,1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland, or by visitingour Web Site at: wttp://www.who.chl/. •

• 10International Psychology Reporter, Marth 1998 •

(Multicultural Counseling cont. from page 9)

important that therapists in counselingcenters are aware of problems inacculturation that may contribute topsychological distress or coexist withpsychological dysfunction.

In addition, cultural issues inpsychological assessment are ofconsiderableimportance. The authors are graduatestudents in an American PsychologicalAssociation accredited PsyD clinicalpsychology program, and serve as therapistsat the university counseling center. It hasbeen our experience that a workingknowledge of the culturaUy specific normsthat are available for many tests can becrucial in test interpretation. Even whenculturally specific normative data isavailable, student therapists may havedifficulty deciding whether it is appropriateto use these normative data, use universalnonns, or even avoid using a test. The choiceof assessment techniques and norms willhave a significant impact on how assessmentdata is interpreted and integrated.

These issues are of particularimportance when working with internationalclients. Knowing the cultural specificity ofan assessment tool is important, as is havinga good command of cultural themesconsistent with major ethnic groups.Therapists should also be aware of thedifficulties in the generaiizability ofdiagnostic categories across differentcultures. Although the beginning therapistsis unlikely to be aware of all the culturalvariables that may impact a case, each clientprovides the student therapist and supervisorwith an excellent opportunity to workcollaboratively with new and challengingsituations. With proper supervision, thelearning opportunities are endless.

Lopes et al. (1989; ProfessionalPsychology: Research and Practice.~ §.,369-376) presented a developmental schemefor competency in multicutural counseling.In stage one, therapist awareness of culturalissues provides the basic foundation uponwhich to built. For many situations this maysimply include considering the possibility ofcultural influences on each case, and culturalinfluences may go unnoticed unless thetherapist is sensitized to the need to be alertfor such issues. As therapists begin todiscover cultural influences in their casesthey move into a stage two. Therapists in thisstage realize how wide and varied culturaldifferences can be from group to group andbegin to be aware of culture - specificissues. This is the point at which therapistsare ready for additional training in cultural

perspective. Stage three brings with it a newfeeling ofresponsibility to integrate this newknowledge into each case, thereby increasingthe number of clinical variables that must beconsidered. As therapists work withmulticultural clients they become moreconfonnable integrating this information.Finally, in stage four therapists begin toentertain several perspectives simultaneouslyand to test hypothesis. With proper trainingand supervision, therapists will movethrough these developmental stages andbecome more competent and culturallysensitive clinicians.

Training in cultural psychologymust take into account essential differencesin philosophies ofcounseling across differentcultures. In the United States and someEuropean countries, counselors attempt toempower the client to become anindependent and self-actualized person incontrol ofhis or her own life. However, in

many cultures this orientation may bepsychonoxious. Many cultures do notencourage individuality, as the needs of thefamily often supersedes those of theindividual. Families may solve problemscollectively rather than individually.Because respect is closely tied to familyhonor in many cultures, it may be difficultfor the individual seeking therapy to discussproblems that exist in his or her family.Discussing family problems may be furthercomplicated by cultural traditions thatconsider a diagnosis of mental illness to be adisgrace to the family. Our North Americanvalues may be out of place in many othercontexts as well. For example, in the UnitedStates we may consider a thirty-year-oldadult who is still living at home with hisparents to be in a developmentallyinappropriate situations. However, in manycultures it is expected that children willremain at home with their parents until they

are married regardless of age.Midgette and Meggert (1991;

Joumal of Counseling & Development. 1Q.136-141) discussed specific barriers tomulticultural counseling. One potentialbarrier involves holding the belief that theUnited States is a melting pot, becauseindividuals often retain much of their cultureand resist giving up their customs and values.It may also be detrimental to overemphasizeverbal self-disclosure, abstractions, and long­range goals in multicultural counseling. Thisapproach will be narrow, ambiguous, andwould not address the client's presentconcerns. In addition, other pitfalls includehaving a monolingual orientation andvaluing one language over another, beingunaware of one's own racism, and denyingthe significance of others' cultural identities.Finally, Midgette and Meggert noted thatlacking and understanding of the client as awhole person, not understanding the client'ssocial context, and lacking an appreciationfor non verbal communication also serve aspitfalls.

Additionally, training inmulticultural sensitivity should address theissues faced by other group. For instance, thegay and lesbian populations have issues thatare specific to their lifestyle. Certainreligious groups have issues that are specificto their religious orientation. One can easilysee that training in multicultural counselingis not a small undertaking. However, thistraining is necessary, especially given theethical implications of overlooking trainingofthis kind.

Speight et al. (1995; ProfessionalPsychology: Research and Practice. ~ 1.401-406) operationalized what attributeswere important for doctoral programs andinternships to be deemed multicultural.Although, the list is to lengthy to includehere, the most important attribute was amulticultural curriculum. Other importantattributes were a diverse student and facultypopulation, the incorporation of a broadrange of cultures and lifestyles under theumbrella ofmulticultural groups, and studentinvolvement in research and field placementsthat offer experience in multicultural issues.

Training in multicultural issues isimportant now more than ever. The USDepartment of Commerce predicts thatLatino individuals will constitute the largestethnic group in the nation by the year 2050,and all ethnic groups are growing relative tothe population as a whole. Increased trainingin culturally sensitive counseling andassessment will prepare future clinicians forthe culturally diverse client population oftheUnited States. •

• International Psychology Reporter, MardI 1998 11+

Tena Kowhiria

CROSS-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES

Owen Sanders,PhD and Stephen A. Rollin, PhDChair, DAR.E., New Zealand and The Florida State University, USA

language schools have been established andother schools have become bilingual; that is,they offer classes using Maori as well asclasses using English. This is the context inwhich Tetra Kowhiria, the Maori languageversion ofDare to Make a Choice, was de­veloped.

Early advice from the Maori sug­gested that DARE. should not try to pro­duce a "national" Maori version. Instead,one iwi should be asked to write it, thenother iwi could decide how to adapt it fortheir own needs. The Tainui Iwi accepted thechallenge and the text of Tena Kowhiria(literally, "that's the choice'') began develop­ment at Rakaumanga Kura Kaupapa school,under the guidance of Maori languageteacher Wiha Malcolm. In developing theMaori text, Wiha consulted widely, includ­ing with Waahi Marae, the home marae ofthe Maori Queen, Dame Te Atairangikaahu,with the staff of Rakaumanga School andwith the Maori Studies Department andSchool of Education of The University ofWaikato. Language matters were referred tothe Maori Language Commission, which hasbeen given statutory responsibility in New

(Continued on page 12)

•

Development of the First D.A.R.E. NewZealand Program, Dare to make a

Choice:The Problem of Dired Transplants

In 1987, New Zealand health edu­cators were cautious about any proposal totransplant the American DA,R.E. curricu­lum. They considered it to be inconsistentwith the then recently introduced NationalHealth Curriculum for New ZealandSchools: Health Education in Primary andSecondary Schools (1985). Approval for thiscurriculum had been a long political battleinvolving aggressive tactics by the "moralright" who saw the health curriculum asopening the way for sex education inschools. Health educators had been trying toget teachers to acknowledge that teachinghealth was their responsibility, in that itshould not be given by default to some groupoutside the school, who might compromiseteaching quality. There was also a strongmovement in New Zealand education tomake the curriculum culturally appropriate,as from a Maori perspective. An Americancurriculum was unlikely to meet that bicul­tural requirement. As a result of the stronginterest in developing a pluralistic curricu­lum, the New Zealand Police established aconsultative group to see if a New Zealandversion of DA.R.E. could be developed.Maori members were included in this group,which was begun in 1988.

New Zealand's indigenous people,the Maori, were present throughout NewZealand when Europeans began to arrive.They are a Pacific Island people with closelinks to other Polynesian groups, includingthe indigenous people of Hawaii. Althoughthe Maori have a common language, thereare significant dialectic and cultural differ­ences among the various Maori iwi (tribes).The Maori signed the Treaty of Waitangiwith the British Crown in 1840. Because theguarantees this treaty gave have not beenwell kept, contemporary New Zealand soci­ety is looking at how past injustices can nowbe addressed Part of this involves a greaterrecognition for their language in schools.During the last decade, a number of Maori-

D. A. R. E. New Zealand:A Case Study of a National Drug Education Initiative

•

Drug Abuse Resistance Education(DARE) began in New Zealand in1987 when three police members(two non-sworn educators and one

sworn officer) traveled to Los Angeles tocomplete DAR.E. training. An invitation toattend a training course had been obtainedfrom the Los Angeles Police Department af­ter a New Zealand Rotarian, Barry Smith,brought a video about DAR.E. back from aRotary convention in the United States.Barry persuaded his club to seek sponsorshipfrom Rotary International to make possiblethe visit to Los Angeles. The group returnedto New Zealand and began the movementthat has become D,A.R.E. New Zealand.

The visit to Los Angeles was verytimely. The New Zealand Police were al­ready investigating what approach theymight take to assist the many schools whowere requesting help with drug and alcoholeducation. A number of approaches were ex­amined, but rejected as either not likely to beeffective or as having no useful role for NewZealand's team of sworn police education of­ficers. The police were looking for a perspec­tive that would be effective and have a rolefor their team of sworn police education offi­cers.

The New Zealand Police alreadyhad a law-related education program inschools and traffic education, dating from the1930's, taught by uniformed officers. Inwhat is now known as the Youth EducationService, sworn police constables are trainedto plan with teachers and implement law­related studies in the classroom, to preventviolence, sexual abuse, drug abuse, andcrime; and to promote school road safety ed­ucation. The Youth Education Service is for­malized in curriculum statements developedjointly by police and education. These cur­riculum principles were first published in1980 and have been twice revised, in 1987and 1996.

Consequently, in 1987 the NewZealand Police were ready to adapt theAmerican D.A.R.E. experience. The NewZealand officers were experienced workingin classrooms with teachers, implementing awide range of education programs. It wouldbe relatively easy to introduce DA.R.E. intoNew Zealand, and adapt current training pro­grams to the DAR.E. model.

• 12International Psychology Reporter, Marth 1998 •

(DARE contifUled/rom page 11)

Zealand for promoting Maori as a livinglanguage.

The resulting Maori text is not aexact translation ofDare to Make a Choice,but reflects Maori tikanga (traditions). Forexample, the Maori have quite differentideas from Europeans about individualism.Concepts such as self-esteem and assertive­ness need to be assessed differently, to re­flect the much greater emphasis the Maoriplace on whanau (family) responsibilities.

In February 1995, at a hui(meeting) hosted by Tainui, the draft text ofTena Kowhiria was handed to D,A.R.E.along with a wero (challenge) to return it toTainui, completed for launching the follow­ing year. Publication was completed earlyin 1996 and six resource video scenariosmade. At the second national DA.R.E.Conference, held March 30 to April 2,1996, the first published copy was handedback to Wiha Malcolm. The wero had beenaccepted and responded to. For the firsttime, a comprehensive drug education pro­gram was available to Maori youngsters intheir own language. Also, at the confer­ence, a carving was unveiled as a taonga(symbolic treasure) representing TenaKowhiria. It depicts the fIrst Europeansmeeting with the Maori. Maori youngsters,who will benefit directly from TenaKowhiria, are prominent on the carving.

The process of taking TenaKowhiria to other iwi has now begun. A huiis arranged with the kaumatua (elders) ofthe iwi. the carving is displayed, and korero(talk) takes place about whether or not toadopt the program. A Tena Kowhiriakarakia (prayer) and waiata (song) havebeen composed and adopted by theD.A.R.E. Foundation of New Zealand.Both are used when the program is intro­duced. So far, Tena Kowhiria has met witha very positive response wherever it hasbeen taken.

A Tena Kowhiria "T' shirt hasbeen developed to parallel the DA.R.E.shirt given to participants of Dare to Makea Choice. It features a traditional patternbased on a mango-pare (ham-merheadshark) design. All students, whether Maorior not, have the choice of a D.A.R.E. or aTena Kowhiria shirt.

Tena Kowhiria presents the NewZealand Police with a further challenge. Al­though there has been an affirmative actionpolicy to recruit Maori officers in the Po­lice, these officers have not necessarily beenMaori language speakers. The Maori havemade it clear that they want the partnershipbetween Police and teachers to continue inTena Kowhiria, but the Police struggle to

find enough officers fluent in Maori.Who owns Tena Kowhiria? The Tainui

Iwi wrote the text and then gave it to theDAR.E. Foundation to publish. The Policeown the officers who participate in it, and theschools own the teachers and youngsters whouse and adopt it. The ownership of TenaKowhiria is representative of the partner­ships that are part of D.A.R.E. in NewZealand •

Psychology Joins Medicine toHelp Prevent and Treat

Cervical Cancer inDeveloping Countries

Geoffiy D. White. PhDLos Angeles. CA, USA

Last summer, members ofMedicinefor Humanity, an interdisciplinaryorganization, spent two weeks inMalawi (southern Africa) to

conduct a site visit for a project aimed at theprevention and treatment of cervical cancer.This disease kills more women indeveloping countries than any other cancer.Apparently, poor women don't get papsmears, and, even if they do, there's often nomedical treatment available if the cancer isdetected. This is tragic, since it isunnecessary for any woman to die of thishorrible disease in this day and age.Medicine for Humanity (M4H) is anindependen~intemationalnon~rofitooalth

education organization that has itsheadquarters in Southern California. Themost prominent member and co-founder ofthe group is Leo Lagasse, MD, director ofthe women's cancer program at Cedars-SinaiMedical Center in Los Angeles. A LosAngeles psychologist, Dr. Geoffiy White, isvice president of the organization andDirector of psychosocial programs. M4H is"psychology friendly" and is making mentalhealth a key component of its programs.

An overriding global goal is tomake a significant reduction in the death rateof cervical cancer throughout the world,especially in the third world where medicalcare is often unavailable. Innovations indetection and early treatment of cervicalcancer make the program viable and cost­effective. Good health care is essential forthe dignity of every human being, and theability to abate the spread of cervical canceris now possible. With these objectives inmind, M4H is involved with many countriesthroughout the world, including Mexico,Malawi, Mongolia, Nepal, Philippines,South Africa and several Balkan nations.

In Malawi,a collaboration with

Project Hope has been created to helpimplement the program. Project Hope is oneof the world's largest medical humanitarianorganizations. Its staff is involved in over 30countries worldwide. They have been inMalawi for many years and have developedrelationships with the local residents. ProjectHope has included M4H in a recent grantwhich was established to provide AIDSeducation. Since cervical cancer is a sexuallytransmitted disease, the mission of M4Hintegrates will with that ofProject Hope.

Part of the role of psychology inM4H is to form alliances with establishedhumanitarian organizations throughout theworld. M4H can collaborate with otherorganizations to create an efficient approachto implementing healthcare programs. Inaddition to Project Hope, M4H has obtainedassistance from the Catholic Medical MissionBoard (New York). Recent contacts havebeen made with the Red Cross and Save theChildren, both of which are interested infonning alliances. Psychosocial programs areextremely important. They help supportcervical cancer patients, and their familiesand communities, at each level ofintervention, induding programmatic,curative, preventive or educational. Culturaland gender sensitivity are crucial factors inboth tailoring realistic programs of

intervention and in insuring their long termsuccess. The lack of such sensitivity has beenat the root of the failure of many well­intentioned attempts on the part ofinternational organizations to improve healthcare in non-Western nations.

In addition, continued psychosocialsupport of the caregivers is indispensable toprevent burnout and compassion fatigue(secondary traumatic stress to the caregiver).Charles Figley, PhD, one of the originalresearchers and writers in the area ofcompassion fatigue, (Florida StateUniversity) acts as a consultant to theorganization. In Malawi, M4H worked withnurses from St.Elizabeth's hospital inBlantyre. Figley's compassion fatigueinventory was modified to fit their languageand culture. A pilot study ofthis instrument isin progress. For more information: GeoffiyD. White, Ph.D., 2566 Overland Av., Ste 780;Los Angeles, CA 90064; (310) 2027445;(310)2027615 fax; or e-mail:Careerpatbs@Pacificnet.net •

• International Psychology Reporter, Marcla 1998 13+

Psychology in Greece:An Overview

Dimitrios K. Geroukalis, MD, PhDKos, Greece

Greece, a country inhabited by tenmillion people, embraces a culturethat is highly sophisticated in thefields ofphilosophy and medicine.

This well-established tradition has its rootsin ancient times, and has been historicallynurtured with the development of well­structured universities that give high priorityto research and education in these areas.

In contrast, the field of psychologyin Greece is not as well-developed or orga­nized. Its earliest academic origins occurredin the 1920's when students of philosophy atAthens University began to learn the funda­mentals of psychology. However, at thetime, and for close to halfof this century, theprinciples of medicine and psychiatry gov­erned the science and teaching of psychol­ogy. It was approximately sixty years laterthat the first school of psychology was cre­ated at the University ofCrete, a large islandin the south of Greece. Then, some yearsafterwards, schools ofpsychology were addi­tionally founded in the universities ofAthens, Thessaloniki, and Pantios.

Prior to the inception of theseschools ofpsychology, individuals interestedin pursuing an education in the field wereforced to enroll in private, unauthorized col­leges that could not academically competewith the caliber of study provided by thepublic system. Until recently, the initiationand operation of these private universitieswas prohibited; as a result, the diplomas andcertificates earned by their graduates did notequate with the title of "psychologist" andforced individuals who completed the re­quired course of study to work solely in theprivate sector. Additionally, due to a lack ofappropriate control and supervision in theseprivate colleges, the curriculum offered pro­duced psychology candidates who are lack­ing the literacy and scientific skills crucial tolater success in practice and research.

In order to address this issue, somestudents have chosen to transfer to a foreignaffiliate of these private universities, inFrance for example, to complete the lastyears of study. A majority of psychologystudents then go on to earn a Master's Degreewhich, back in Greece, must be accompaniedby the attainment of a passing grade on anexamination given by DIKATSA, an inde­pendent scientific association. Only withthis accomplishment can their diploma anddegree be officially recognized.

Currently, a transition period is oc-

curring in the European Union during whicha change in standards and requirements is be­ing wi1nessed. In recent years, the ultimaterecognition of a certificate in psychology isgiven by the Central Committee of HealthMinistry. Also, accredited psychologistswho have been educated in first-class univer­sities, both in Greece and abroad, havefounded the Association of Greek Psycholo­gists, which is constitutionally responsiblefor the supervision of the field in Greece.Though this is certainly a step in the right di­rection, the association should continue towork toward the establishment of higherstandards in the profession of psychology,including the encouragement of further post­graduate education and greater numbers ofpsychologists who achieve the doctoral de­gree.

The presence of well-trained, highlyqualified psychologists is much needed inthe country of Greece, as it surely is interna­tionally. With the current status of the pro­fession in Greece, however, psychologistsare evident primarily in the universities andin their private offices. Moreover, the vastmajority of these psychologists adherestrictly to the psychoanalytical view of thefield, and lack knowledge of the profession'sstate-of-the-art research and practice tech­niques. While the work of these psycholo­gists does address the needs of a componentof the Greek society, psychology can alsogreatly enhance social research, the labor en­vironment, as well as the health and commu­nity services offered in Greece. In order toreach this ideal, the field must ultimately beviewed as a separate and distinct health pro­fession in which students and accomplishedprofessionals are given the opportunity tolearn about the newest in scientific direc­tions, and are concurrently held to the high­est of professional standards and require­ments. If this is achieved, psychology inGreece, like all sciences, will continue toevolve according to the demands of the peo­ple it serves in this rapidly changing world.•

Citizens Under Stress:An Explanation for

Xenophobia

K. Peter Fritzsche, PhDOtto-Von-Guericke University.

Magdeburg, Gennany

T he aim of this article is to applythe theory of social stress to thesituation in post-socialistsocieties, especially in the united

Germany, with respect to the conditions

leading to the creation and the developmentofprejudices, xenophobia and intolerance. Itis my thesis that the post-socialist societiesare undergoing an extreme phase of politicaland social change, which is proving stressfulfor its citizens. Xenophobia will probably beone of the most obvious reactions resultingfrom their new problems and a new sense ofinsecurity.

What are the reasons for today' sxenophobia? Why are people afraid of for­eigners and why do they adopt xenophobicattitudes towards them? Why do many citi­zens feel threatened by foreigners? Does thereason lie in migration, in the increasingnumber of foreigners who come to live for ashort or longer time in a host society? Or canxenophobia be explained by the personalityof xenophobic citizens? Is it a consequenceof the so-called authoritarian character? Ordo economy, politics and society itself puttoo much strain on the citizens? These andsimilar questions are currently being dis­cussed by scientists, political psychologists,politicians and pedagogues.

The demonstrations of manifestxenophobia in post-socialist societies arenew. They are to be interpreted as the prod­uct of cumulative pressure and insufficientmechanisms to cope with this stress: stress isno longer experienced as a challenge to beovercome, but as an impossibly excessivestrain. It would be a simplification if onewanted to interpret this merely as a conse­quence of those who had always been au­thoritarian. I argue that the particular suscep­tibility to xenophobia in post-socialist soci­eties is a result of the specific stress situationfaced there.

Citizens under stress - an innovativeapproach

A new explanation for xenopho­bia, which overcomes some of the one·sidedness of previous approaches, is givenby the stress-theory. It is social stress thatmakes citizens susceptible to xenophobia,intolerance and authoritarian reactions. Thepresent relevance of the stress-theory lies inthe fact that we are currently facing variousprocesses of transformation worldwide,which present particularly strong stress con­stellations to the people concerned(BaduralPfaff 1989, 1992).

If strain caused by the structure ofsociety, social changes and/or by nationaltradition meets limited or lacking capacitiesto cope with it, and if objective pressurecaused by problems meets lacking compe­tence to handle it, then people perceive thisconstellation as stress. The feeling ofbeing

(ContilUled on page 14)

.. 14 International Psychology Reporter, Marcb 1998 ..

(Xenophobia continuedfrOnl page 13)

challenged is replaced by the feeling of beingovertaxed. Probable consequences will be re-­actions of defense and escape(FritzschelKnepper 1993).

The innovative aspect of the inter­active stress conception lies in its assumptionthat there is no absolute strain causing stress.Instead, stress always depends on the per­sonal assessment of the situation. Stress isneither solely a result of objective stressorsnor oflacking competence. It rather developsout ofa process ofassessing the demands andone's own capacities to react successfully.

Stress develops at different levels.We have to differentiate between micro­social and macro-social stress. Micro-socialstress is in the immediate environment, Le. inthe family, at school or at work, while macro­social occurs due to political, economic, cul­tural or ecological constellations. As formacro-social strain the question is in how farcitizens recognize and perceive it as signifi­cant strain and how the real stressors can beidentified correctly.

Stress and xenophobia

Applying the considerations of thestress theory to xenophobia, we come to thefollowing conclusions:

• Feelings of being overtaxed: Only thecoincidence of too much strain and notenough competence will cause stress. Itcannot be generally determined, how­ever, in how far xenophobic or authoritar­ian reactions are a result of the citizen' spersonality and his lacking competence,or in how far they are a consequence ofthe strain put on him by a particular situ­ation. Only a concrete analysis of the re-­speetive discrepancy between strain andcompetence will reveal the individualstress constellation.

* Tolerance threshold: Consequently, noabsolute figures or proportions of thenumber ofmigrants tolerated within soci­ety can be given. The number, rather, de-­pends on the ability and willingness ofthe citizens to accept foreigners in theirsociety. Tolerance thresholds can thus beconsidered stress thresholds, which donot provide any information about abso­lute strain, but about the personal assess­ment of strain as well as about the feel­ings aroused by these assessments.

• Strategies of prejudice: Prejudice plays acrucial role for the subjective approach tohandle stress. People who feel overtaxedare likely to react to stress with prejudiceand foul images with their inherent sim­plifications, their debasement of foreign-

ers and glorification of oneself, and withtheir regulation of fears. Prejudice leads toa distorted perception of reality, includingthe stress situation itself. Migrants or for­eigners can be regarded as stressors, eventhough they may not be responsible for thestrain. In this way, the principle social, eco­nomic, political and cultural stressors, e.g.uncertainty about processes of moderniza­tion and transformation, become less im­portant. The personal advantage of inter­changing the stressors is the feeling that itis possible to reduce stress, since the chal­lenge represented by foreigners seems to beeasier to cope with than the processes ofmodernization and transformation.

* "Artificial" stress: Stress and the exchangeof stressors can also be artificially pro­duced by the discourse of the politicalclass. The fear of being threatened can bearoused and increased by politicians taLk­ing about the "full boat" of the receivingsocieties. Especially those people who havehad only little experience with migrants,are inclined to take the image of the "fullboat" ofthe receiving society as an orienta­tion for their own ideas and attitudes. Theindividual stress of the citizen develops asa consequence to the supposed "stress ofsociety" and the public finances. The dis­course about the "full boat" suggests lack­ing resources in order to cope with the chal­lenge of migration.

* Violent reactions: Violence can also be astrategy to reduce or cope with stress. How­ever, it is to be taken into account why andin which context violence is exerted. Oneof the functions of violence is to tum thefeeling of helplessness into success andpower, to turn confusion into clearness, ne-­glect into attention. Stress underlying vio­lence is not only - if at all - a result of in­creasing social pressure, but also a conse­quence of subjective incompetence to meeteveryday challenges. There are no suffi­cient values and norms for the interactionwith others; as a consequence conventionalscruples preventing people from exertingviolence and forming a condition for sociallife are loosening.

Stress in post-socialist societies

The stress theory seems to be particu­larly apt to explain the development of xeno­phobia in post-socialist societies. The currentstress constellation in these societies is basedon two dimensions: one dimension of cumu­lating strain (potential stressors) and anotherdimension ofnon-developed, or lacking, com­petence to handle the diverse stressors.

Table I: Xenopbobia in East- and West-GennanyN: 1709 (West), 1692 (East)

Source: HeilDleyer, W.: Gewalt. Schattenseiten der Indiviodu­a1isenmg bei Jugendlichen aus unterschiedJichen MiJieus,Weinheim un<! MOnchen J995, pp. 138

I. Cumulative strain comes from the confronta­tion with three unknown factors:- confrontation with economic competition- confrontation with political and ideological un-certainties- confrontation with multicultural diversity2. During the process of socialization there wasno possibility to be prepared for political andeconomic competition and for intercultural dia­logue.3. Finally, a very important aspect is the fact thatthose social forces which could foster social inte-­gration and reduce stress no longer fulfill theirroles. Social resources - parents, working placeand school - do not give sufficient support topeople, but confront them with new uncertain­ties.

The new freedom of democracy istherefore often experienced to be dangerous andmore confusing than profitable. Democracy doesnot only bring about the realization of freedomand hope for prosperity, it equally brings about anew "fear of freedom", a fear of the new free-­dams. Due to the application ofthe stress theory,we can reject other approaches interpreting thedevelopment of xenophobia in post-socialist so­cieties as a consequence of the socialist"heritage". But also analyses seeing the origin ofxenophobia solely in a particular situation exert­ing too much pressure do not comprise all as­pects (Oesterreich 1993). The significance of thecoincidence of new demands on the one hand,and lacking competence on the other hand, hasbecome apparent. Citizens in the post-socialistsocieties are more susceptible to xenophobic andintolerant reactions, because the processes oftransformation and modernization produce spe--

• International Psychology Reporter, Marth 1998 I 15 •

PSYCHO-POLITICAL PERSPECTIVEScial stress constellations for them.However, xenophobia and even

racism have escalated in many establishedEuropean democracies as well (Hainsworth1992). Stress constellations can be identifiedin these societies, too.

Resources against stress

The following resources of peopleconcerned have proved to be successful in re­ducing or coping with stress:a. Education: Which knowledge do I have to

analyze the situation adequately? Have Ilearned to learn?

b. Assessment of one' s own capacities:What are my capacities? What do I thinkI am capable of doing? A strong, self­confident person might regard certainstrain as pressure, but not as stress.

c. Cultural traditions, values and moralawareness: What am I allowed to do?What is expected of me? Rootedness incultural traditions, the acceptance of so­cial values and moral awareness facilitatethe orientation and help inter alia buildbarriers to violent reactions.

d. Supporting factors of social integrationand social networks: Who can help me?Confidence in or knowledge of supportfrom other people reduces the feeling ofhelplessness.

The higher the number of such re­sources, the easier it win be for the peopleconcerned to develop "stress-competence".The lower the number ofresources, the higherthe probability that people will feel overtaxed.

How can social stress be reduced or con­trolled? Pedagogy - including political andhistorical education - will certainly soon dis­cover its own limitations here, since one can­not "educate away" the burdens which havegrown out of the transformation process! Butone can help people at the subjective level topromote anti-stress resources lind to copemore easily with stress. Only then will the ob­jective challenges no longer appear merely asimpossible burdens. And only then will it bepossible for our risk society to be perceivedas more than just a society under stress. Whatwe need is the competence to deal with thepossibilities of modem societies. Here educa­tion has °a genuine area of responsibilities.The skills could achieve an awareness that,what we consider to be a burden today, mightbe regarded as a challenge tomorrow. Whenthe "fear of freedom" gives way to a percep­tion ofthe chances lying in the modem world,then one of the strol;lgest roots of the fear ofeverything that is not familiar will be gone. Inthis sense, the preparation for the risky free­doms of modem society is certainly a strongprevention against xenophobia. •

•Reflections of preventive

deployment: Macedonian case

Lidija Georgieva. PhDSt. Cyril and Methodius University

Skopje, Republic ofMacedonia

T he post-Cold War period haspromoted many new issues on theinternational agenda, one ofwhich is the issue of security of

individuals, states, and the internationalcommunity. One ofthe attributes that couldreflect the position of security is"prismatic." In fact, this description of thelocation of security in contemporaryinternational relations is a consequence ofits perception: it is distributed as areflection of the impact and a spill-over ofcertain negative or positive factors which,by "overrun", are influencing the states aswell as the broader internationalcommunity. This vision is especiallytypical for the Balkans; here, in spite of theclassical epithet "powder keg", it currentlycould be stated that, through the "prismaticview", seriouS reflections that have causedinstability in different spheres of socialexistence could be diagnosed Insecuritieswhich resulted from the process oftransformation of the former socialistregimes. political changes, and deepeconomic and social problems werespilling over into and reflecting thetempestuous Balkan space. Therefore,analyses that fit into the "prismatic state ofsecurity" on the Balkan space, are quite"rich" but also represent a seriouschallenge. As the conflictbecomes the term that security analysts usemost often. and conflict becomes the topicrelated to the concept of security, it isunavoidable to consider the essence andrelation between these two concepts. Oneconcludes very often that the concept ofsecurity is "ambiguous." The sameconclusion can be derived from the conceptof conflict. Beside all differences, we canaccept that "when speaking of any conflictor dispute, fundamental distinction will bedrawn between the three inter-relatedcomponents of: a conflict situation:conflict behavior and conflict attitudes andperceptions."

This three-dimensional format,adapted from Galtung, emphasizes thatthree structural components may beanalyzed separately, but:. in any real worldconflict, they are intimately connected witheach other in a complex manner.Complexity of the contemporary conflict

•strongly influences the stability ofthe states,as well as the international community.

Related to the previous definitionofconflict as a triadic form, the term conflictmanagement is used to refer to the wholerange of techniques which are defined asconflict avoidance, conflict prevention, andconflict settlement or conflict resolution.

Conflict prevention is related tothe stage of latent conflict when goalincompatibility has been recognized. Themain objective of the process of conflictprevention is to prevent destructive conflictbehavior ( by suppression, regulation, orinstitutionalization). Conflict settlement. orconflict resolution, is related to the manifeststage of the conflict when conflict involvesincompatible goals, hostile attitudes, anddisruptive behavior. From the viewpoint ofpeace research. peacekeeping is embeddedin the theory and practice of conflictsettlement and its activities are, therefore,limited. This conclusion is very interestingin the sense that preventive deployment ischaracterized as a form or model ofpreventive peacekeeping.

Characteristics of the preventivedeployment model applied. in the Republic

of Macedonia

The preventive miSSIon inMacedonia can be seen as an approach forconflict settlement as it will contribute to theadvancement ofthe peacemaking process.

This applied model was alsoinfluenced by certain elements whichcontributed to the creation of a positiveclimate in the State for preventive activity ofthe international community. First, in thecontext of the global activities of theinternational community in preventing aspill-over from the former conflict inYugoslavia towards the broader Balkanregion, it is a crucial fact that the estimationof the stability of Macedonia is aprerequisite. If this conclusion is set in theposition of the "security prism" ofMacedonia, and/or "security prism" of theBalkans, the relation of interdependence ofthe internal and external stability ofMacedonia, and widening of the conflicttowards the broader Balkan region opens.Additionally impacted is the relation throughwhich stabilization effects concentrated inthe Macedonian region will have a positiveimpact on the peace-keeping efforts of theUN in the former Yugoslavia.

Secondly, the peaceful dissolution

(Conl;lfIled onpage 16)

• 16International Psychology Reporter,Mareb 1998 •

(Macedonia case continuedfrom page 15)

of the former Yugoslav Federation was abeginning of the process of enlargement ofthe autonomous political subjectivity ofMacedonia, and the establishment of itsindependence. During that process. thereoccurred a coincidence of the national goals.and those of the international community, forstrengthening the process as a basicprerequisite for spill-over of the conflictprocess. Thirdly, the whole constellation ofcircumstances and relations on political,economic. social. interethnic, military andother plans, constituted a positive basis in theState. Such a basis, expressed throughpluralistic political ambient and marketeconomy, stabilization of security-defensepositions as well as the positive relationtowards the issue of minorities. was aprerequisite for successful peace-keepingactivity. Fourth. with the withdrawing of theYugoslav Army by agreement. there were nocircumstances for breaking out ofa type of aninternal conflict as in Croatia, Bosnia andHerzegovina. The eventual threat for itsstability and territorial integrity would befollowed by classical aggression or thewidening of the conflict from the formerYugoslavia. Therefore, it can be concludedthat the stated elements have created a veryspecific condition for engaging the third partyand maintaining the stability and security ofthe State.

One of the most commonassessments with respect to the establishmentand function of a preventive mission in theRepublic of Macedonia is that it irrefutablyrepresents a successful one. Therefore. thecharacteristics which significantlycontributed to this positive assessment are ofgreat importance. First of all, the formalbearer ofthe initiative is the host country and.accordingly, its security and stability could bedisturbed due to an overflow of hostilitiesfrom the conflict in the former Yugoslavia.As a result, the country asked for preventivedeployment ofpeace-keeping forces.

In terms of the consent. a certainprinciple mised a number ofquestions since itis one of the basic principles and, in peace­keeping, confirmed itself through theapproval of the involved parties. In theMacedonian case, in the absence ofhostilities,as well as a reduced capability of the State(Le., military) to keep a distance from theinstability produced by the conflict in theformer Yugoslavia, the approval is specific. Itis expressed through the positive attitude ofthe ruling authorities of the State towards thepresence ofthe peace-keeping forces. Besidesthat, it is also supported by the positiveattitude of the political parties of the

nationalities in Macedonia (first of all theAlbanian nationality). From the other side.no approval has been asked from theneighboring countries, but they (Albaniaand Federative Republic of Yugoslavia)have been informed about the deploymentofthe peace-keeping forces.

In terms of the function. themission is established as a deterrence aimedat preventing the spread of conflict fromthe fonner Yugoslavia towards Macedonia.This adverting function is expressed moreas a determination of the internationalcommunity and the host country tomaintain the stability and security of theState. The mandate, constitution and powerof the forces are not aimed at keeping theintegrity and stability of the State by usingforce.

In terms ofthe mission's mandate,which is clearly outlined as preventive andshould be carried out by the monitoring andreporting on all elements which mightdestabilize the security and stability of theState. However, on the basis of the insightof internal stability of the State, and thestatement that it is a promoter of thestability in the whole region, the mandate ofthe preventive mission is beingsupplemented with confidence-buildingmeasures, early warning. monitoring andreporting, as well as some social anddevelopment projects.

In terms of the mission'sstructure, it is constituted as an operationfor peace-keeping. including military andcivil personnel. military observers of theUN. and civilian police of the UN.Therefore it is commonly described aspreventive peace-keeping.

The stated characteristics of themission surely represent elements which,composed to manage the preventive role.within the Macedonian model have shownpositive effects. In that sense. certainfactors which positively influenced themission's success can be distinguished. Infact, bearing in mind the global security andstability ofthe State and its limited militarycapabilities, the quick force deployment,that is. the shortening of the time from themandate formulation until forcedeployment, represented an extremelyimportant factor. Besides that, it was shownthat Ita relatively small and lightly equippedmilitary component" could give asubstantial contribution to maintainingsecurity and stability of the State within aregion stricken by conflict.

However. in this case the fact thatthe force deployment was made during theabsence of hostilities in the host countrymust be taken into account.

Condusion

The concept of preventivedeployment. located in a broader category ofpreventive action, is directed at disputes andconflicts which by their essence andcharacteristics might pose a threat tointernational peace and security. In thiscontext. it may be concluded that thecharacteristics of the preventivedeployment. or the preventive peace­keeping, determine its function as a conflictcontrol which will provide a space fordiplomatic conflict resolution. From thatpoint it can be stated that if the activity islimited only to its initial function(monitoring and reporting), the result will bean approach with a limited possibility fordevelopment of activities that will providestability and long term peace.

The role and tasks of thepreventive deployment in the circumstancesimposed by the situation in the Balkansperformed a function of deterrence.However, relying only on the monitoringand reporting mandate for performing thefunction ofdeterrence would not be enough,unless it is realized that the integral stabilityofthe State is basic ground for the advertingfunction. Therefore, the preventive action, inthe form of preventive diplomacy andpreventive deployment, and undertakenwhen the State is vulnerable to war threatsand danger of conflict spread, can be a realapproach even in the sense that it willupgrade the stability of the State. Thisoccurs only when there is no desire from theState for involvement in a military conflict.

However. here arises the questionof whether such a type of engagement,especially in the post-communist countrieswhich are facing internal problems such asin the socia-political, economic, ormultiethnic sphere, is sufficient; in otherwords, is this the only approach?Additionally. not all Balkan post-communistcountries are characterized by a lack ofmilitary capability was the case inMacedonia; on the contrary, they are facingthe serious aspects of civil-militaryrelations. International activity should bedirected as complementary to thedemocratic processes within the State, inorder to ease the process oftransition and toreduce instabilities that arise from it. As amatter of fact, the very presence of thepeacekeeping forces is not a quadrant ofstability.•

• International Psychology Reporter, MardI 1998 17 •

Political Affect and JapaneseVoting Behavior

Hiroshi Hirano, PhDMeijigakuin University, Tokyo, Japan

Over the past fifteen years or so,research in the field of politicalpsychology has flXlused on thestructure and functions of affect

(Abelson, Kinder, Peters, and Fiske, 1982;Marcus, 1988; Marcus & MacKuen, 1993).The following conclusions have been drawnfrom theses researches: (1) The structure ofaffect is not one-, but two-dimensional,consisting of both positive and negativeaspects, and (2) Positive and negative affectare independent of each other and have theirown unique functions. Positive affect is self­regarding and lXlCur when one's task at handis going well. Negative affect, on the otherhand, is environment-regarding and occurwhen one perceives the signs of evidentdanger. This article examines thesedimensional and functional differencesbetween positive affect and negative affect inthe voting behavior of the Japaneseelectorate.

Data

The data used in the followinganalysis were obtained through a mail surveyconducted during the House of Councilors(Upper House) election in 1995.Respondents were selected at random fromall eligible voters living in Tokyo. Out of thetotal sample of 1,200 persons, we obtained485 valid answers.

Respondents were asked theirfeelings toward three major political parties:the Liberal DemlXlfatic Party (LDP), the NewFrontier Party (NFP), and the SocialDemocratic Party of Japan (SDP!). Thesethree parties have complex relationships thatare both confrontational and cooperative.Since the LDP was in power from 1955 to1993, rivalry existed primarily between theLDP and the opposition parties led by theSDPJ. But, when the research was conductedin July of 1995, the LOP and the SDPJ hadformed a coalition government (the primeminister was the leader of the SDP!),opposed by the NFP, the largest non­government party. From an ideological pointof view, the LDP and the NFP are basicallyconservative, whereas the SDPJ is positionedtowards the left.

We presented a list of feelingsincluding sympathy and hope as positiveaffect, anger and anxiety as negative affects.Each feeling was measured by 4-point (from"Not at all" to "Very much") scales.

Thesttu~eof~~

First, to show that measuredpositive and negative affect are independent,we compared the correlation between the twopositive feelings, between the two negativefeelings, and between the positive andnegative feelings. The average correlationbetween the two positive feelings for allthree parties combined was .72, between thenegative feelings was .59, and between thepositive and negative feelings was a low -.26.These results suggest that positive andnegative affect are independent of each other.

We then conducted a factoranalysis for all twelve variables (3 parties x4 feelings) to get an idea of the overallstructure of affective responses toward threemajor parties. We decided to adopt a fourfactor solution according to the change in theeigenvalues. Table 1 presents the factorloading of the first factor before rotation andthe four factors after varimax rotation.

Tablet

The content of the first factorbefore rotation shows that the mostfundamental dimension of the feelingstoward the political parties is the voters'general likes and dislikes for the three partiesas a whole, as opposed to the morecustomary ways in which voters' opinions arebased on lines drawn between the LDP andnon-LDP, between the party in power andthe oppositions, or conservative versusliberal. The factor structure after varimaxrotation discloses an interesting feature:Negative feelings toward the three parties allload in the same direction on the first factor.There is no differentiation between thepolitical parties. Voters angry or anxiousabout one party tend to be similarly affectedby the other parties. On the other hand,positive feelings for each political party areindependent. The second factor concernswhether a voter is made hopeful orsympathetic by the NFP. The third and thefourth factors, respectively, do the same forthe SDPJ and the LDP. Negative feelingsproduce one factor that can be interpreted asgeneral dislike for political parties,regardless of political or ideologicalconfrontation between parties. Positivefeelings, on the other hand, are directed at aparticular party. This finding indicates thatfuvoringacertainpartydoesnoth~eadirect

bearing on feelings toward other parties.Confrontations between parties have littlebearing here again. These results regardingpositive affect is basically the same as thosefound in Weisberg (1980), which analyzedthe structure of affect of the American votersusing the feeling thermometer and

demonstrated that voters' feelings toward theDemocratic Party, the Republican Party andthe Independents are independent of eachother. Thus, the results of our research alsosuggest that a feeling thermometer measurespositive affect, but not negative affect,coinciding with reports from Abelson et al.(1982).

Voting Behavior and Affect

Now, we discuss how affecttowards each political party influences partysupport and voting behavior. First, weconducted multiple regression analyses, inwhich positive affect and negative affecttoward each of the three parties areindependent variables, and the support to theparties are dependent variables. We alsoconducted multiple regression analyses forthese three variables as independentvariables, with voting behavior as dependentvariables. We added the responses to thehope-scale and the sympathy-scale to makethe score of positive affect. We alsocalculated the negative affect score using theanger-scale and the anxiety-scale. For partysupport and voting, we counted 1 whenvoters claimed to support or vote for a partyand 0 for other cases. The results are given inTable 2.

Table 2

For the influence ofaffect on partysupport, we found that positive affect isgreater than negative affect for all threeparties. For all parties, positive affect'sinfluence is in the right direction andstatistically significant. Thus, positive affectstrengthens support for the party. Theinfluence of negative affect is small andmore obscure. Only for the NFP do we seesignificant influence in the right direction(negative affect weakening party support).For the SDPJ, the influence is in the rightdirection but insignificant, and for the LDPit is in the wrong direction. The influence ofpositive affect is also greater in votingbehavior. Negative affect does not directlyinfluence voting behavior for any ofthe threeparties, while positive affect has a direct andsignificant effect on voting for the SDPJ andthe NFP. For the LDP, however, votingseems to be only indirectly influenced viaparty support. In aU cases, we confirmed thatthe influence ofpositive affect is greater bothfor party support and voting behavior, whichcoincides with prior researches.

A similar relation can be foundbetween the voters' past party support andtheir present affect. In this survey, we asked

(Continued on page 20)

.. 18 International Psychology Reporter, Marth 1998 ..

(Psychology In Spain contJnuedfrompage 1)

gain psychology degrees from Spanish uni­versities each year enabling them to com­mence their professional practice. Bearingin mind that the Spanish population is lessthan 40 million, these statistics illustrate thatSpain has the greatest ratio of psychologistsin the world.

Approximately, half the numberofcourses taught in a psychology degree areconsidered to be "core" subjects, and aretherefore compulsory in every university;the other half is left at the discretion of indi­vidual universities. Among the lattercourses, approximately 50 percent are"optional" subjects; that is, the students canchoose up to a certain number ofcredits (onecredit equal 10 contact hours) from them.The total number of credits, including com­pulsory and optional courses, must be 305.Teaching is organized into specific areas:General Psychology, Social Psychology,Personality and Clinical Psychology, Devel­opmental and Educational Psychology, Psy­chobiology, and Methodology.

From the outset, a feature of psy­chology in Spanish universities has been theweight given to the teaching of quantitativeapproaches of a mathematical-statistical na­ture. Despite this quantitative approach,generally speaking, psychology has main­tained a theoretical, non-practical nature, re­garding both content and methodology.

Only in the case of clinical psy­chology is it po~sible to obtain a specializedofficial qualification: the Spanish PublicHealth Service offers some ten posts eachyear in order to train clinical psychologistsin hospitals and similar institutions (Spanishgraduates must sit for a competitive selec­tion examination to secure one of theseposts). In addition to the courses availableon the five-year first degrees and two-yeardoctoral degrees syllabuses, most facultiesoffer the possibility of reading for a mastersdegree to make up for the lack ofspecializedpractical training. In some universities, theSociology Faculties do offer degrees withsocial psychology as the main specialistarea.

Against the opinion of most psy­chologists and their professional bodies thepresent Government has recently devised amixed Psychology-Pedagogy degree:Psycho-Pedagogy. Graduates in this new de­gree, specialized in the area of education.According to some, this signals the develop­ment of a new field of expertise, althoughothers regard it as a case of the pedagoguesinterfering with what has traditionally beingEducational Psychology. Given that this is a

very new degree, and therefore has not pro­duced any graduates yet, it is impossible toassess its impact on psychology as a whole.

The apparent lack of well­established schools of thought or theoreticalapproaches could be explained by the factthat psychology in Spain is a relativelyyoung science. Generally speaking, a strongtheoretical training is present among lectur­ers and researchers, as well as an up-to-dateknowledge of the different developments inpsychology, especially in America. More­over, Spanish researchers are not lacking inoriginal ideas, or in scientific capacities, butthey may not possess the necessary confi­dence in their own ideas and theoretical pro­posals, together with a lack of public recog­nition ofthe value of their work by their col­leagues. In the theoretical field, one has theimpression that their work is hardly morethan a reflection of, and a reaction to, thework published by mainstream Americanpsychologists.

A factor that has undoubtedly con­tributed to curtail personal initiatives is thesystem used to employ and promote Univer­sity lecturing staff. University lecturers arecivil servants, and must pass a competitiveselection examination to obtain their initiallecturing post, or to move to a higher post. Ina process lasting from one to three days, apanel of five university lecturers assesses thecandidates' curriculum vitae and theoreticalknowledge, culminating in a vote to decidewhich candidate best meets the requisitesneeded for the post. Under these circum­stances, it may be more sensible for the can­didates not to favor "tffiorthodox" theories, orcriticize established assumptions. This maybe the reason why, for instance, the few sup­porters of psychodynamic approaches haveturned to other schools ofthought, to the ex­tent in which psychoanalysis has practicallydisappeared from the psychology teaching.

A similar procedure has recentlybeen adopted in a research assessment exer­cises: a panel appointed by the Ministry forEducation appraises the scientific value ofthe research published by each lecturer. De­pending on the results obtained by each re­searcher, their salary may increase approxi­mately 5 percent every six years. Once more,the holding of unorthodox or "politically" in­correct theories may have an influence on thecandidates' success. In so far as the system iseffective, it will guarantee a minimum levelofresearch; but in reducing innovative initia­tives, it may also give rise to mediocrity. Infact, a typical publication may contain a greatdeal of academic references and technical in­formation, but will often lack personal view­points, unless these have been backed by

well-known researchers. There is a bias to­wards eclectical positions with a cognitivistapproach, and a disposition to assimilateeventual theoretical developments, espe­cially those coming from America. There isstill a lack of tradition or sufficient theoreti­cal output to form the basis for a national au­tonomy that may act as a reference frame.This is not to say that there are not a numberof acknowledged researchers who regularlypublish outstanding papers in national andinternational journals.

No less than fifty psychology jour­nals are published in Spain, including re­search papers in various subjects. The num­ber of papers devoted to basic research issmall, especially general publications aimedat theoretical developments; papers are usu­ally devoted to a specialized practical sub­ject. There is no other prevailing theory,apart form the dominant cognitivist frame­work. Perhaps there is a dividing line be­tween a minority who defend strict experi­ments at all costs, and a majority rangingfrom less extreme empirical standpoints topositions closer to a qualitative approach.

Psychology has permeated Spanishsociety very effectively in a short period oftime. Today, psychologists are not only val­ued participants in the selection, training andmanagement ofhuman resources, and as pro­fessional workers themselves, in hospitals, inthe education system, in prisons, in the caseof catastrophes, etc., but are also people ingeneral seek the help ofpsychologists both interms ofclinical problems and in tenns ofad­vice for their individual, family or social life(dependencies, conflicts, education, etc.).

Both at individual and institutionallevels (research, departments, faculties),Spanish psychologists maintain close con­tacts with colleagues in other countries: over­seas lecturers visit Spain frequently, andSpanish researchers participate in, and occa­sionally organize, international conferences.

Professional psychologists havecreated an effective instrument for the coor­dination, management and promotion oftheirinterests: Colegio Oficial de Psicologos. ThisSpanish correlate of the American Psycho­logical Association is the second organiza­tion of its kind world-wide, both in terms ofmembership and in terms oforganized activi­ties.

As with many other disciplines, there isin Spain today a clear misuse ofpotential hu­man resources provided by psychology, bothin professional practice, and in research andtheoretical developments. This situation maybe the most immediate and urgent challengefacing psychology today. •

.:. International Psychology Reporter, March 1998 19 (+

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Table 1 Factor Structure ofAffect

voter interest in elections. When we predictthe extent of this interest using the averagevalues ofpositive and negative affect towardall three parties, we see that both raiseinterest significantly, yet the influence ofnegative affect is slightly stronger. Thestronger the negative affect for all threeparties, the more interested voters will be inthe elections. This result demonstratesnegative affect's function as prior researchesdescribed: namely, people fallout ofcustomary behavior and begin seeking newinformation. If positive affect is anaccelerator that is applied continuously,negative affect is the brake that is applied inshifting circumstances.

Table 2 Regression of party Support andVote on Affects

Note. Entries are standardized OLS regressioncoefficients.

Some control variables are omitted from thetable.

* p<.OS. ** p<.Ol. •

.26** .11 *-.10* .02

.34**

NFPSupport-Vote

.31** .23*-.05 .05- .32**

SDPJsupport- Vote

LDPSupport- Vote

SOPJ sympathy -.29 -.02 -.08 .89 .06SOPJ hope -.42 -.11 .02 .89 .12SOPJ anger .67 .67 .05 -.35 -.02SOPJ anxiety .70 .74 .06 -.36 .03NFP sympathy -.21 .08 .90 -.01 .10NFPhope -.23 .07 .91 -.00 .08NFP anger .56 .59 -.55 .11 .15NFPanxiety .57 .59 -.49 .09 .09

%TV 26.6 22.7 18.4 15.7 15.0

PA .35** -.01NA .09* -.03fu!Iwort - .50**

after varimax rotationI II III IV

-.08 .03 .09 .88-.11 .09 .09 .88.74 .06 .10 -.22.67 .05 .03 -.38

before rotationI

-.42-.46.65.67

LOP sympathyLOP hopeLOP angerLOP anxiety

Conclusion

The above analysis shows thatpositive and negative affect are independentof each other. The former exerts strong andpersistent influence on party support andvoting behavior. But what about negativeaffect? The results of further analysis suggestthat negative affect primarily influences

(Political Affect continuedfrom page 17)

voters which party they had supported in theprevious year. We conducted multipleregression analyses to predict currentpositive and negative affect by severalindependent variables including past partysupport. For positive affect, the influence ofthe past party support was significant for allthree parties (LDP: jA=.23, p<.OI; SDPJ:tA=.14, p<.OI; NFP: jA=.lO, p<.Ol). Butfor negative affect, we found only one,significant influence in the wrong directionfor the SDPJ ( j A =.09, p<.05).

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